Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
BY
ANDREW OFOEDU
SEPTEMBER 2013
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report describes the detailed design of a plant to produce 400000 tonnes of
nitric acid per year by Ostwald Process. The single pressure process was selected
as the most advantageous, having considered several factors one of which is
efficient energy management. The process begins with the vaporization of
ammonia at 1000 kPa and 35°C using process heat. Steam is then used to
superheat the ammonia up to about 80°C. Filtered air is compressed in an axial
compressor to a discharge pressure of about 740kPa and temperature of 155°C.
Part of the air is diverted for acid stripping. This preheated air and the ammonia
vapour are then mixed and passed through the platinum/rhodium catalyst gauze
in a converter for oxidation. The reaction gas flows through a series of heat
exchangers for recovery of energy as either high-pressure superheated steam, or
as shaft horsepower from the expansion of hot tail gas in the turbine. Considering
the proximity to market, sea port and source of raw materials, it was decided to
site the plant in Eleme, Rivers State. The plant’s estimated capital investment is
₦5.41 billion. The rate of return on investment is 26.25% and the payback period
is estimated to be 3 years and 7 months. Thus, the project is both technically and
economically feasible.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i
Executive Summary---------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
Table of content-------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.3 Design justification-------------------------------------------------------------------3
1.4 Design Objectives---------------------------------------------------------------------4
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature review------------------------------------------------------------------------5
2.1 History of Nitric acid production-------------------------------------------------------5
2.2 Ammonia oxidation chemistry----------------------------------------------------------8
2.3 Emission and Control-----------------------------------------------------------------------14
2.4 Structure and bonding---------------------------------------------------------------------15
2.5 Reactions-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
2.6 Uses---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
2.7 Safety-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
2.8 Pinch technology in modern plant------------------------------------------------------22
2.9 Plant Location ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24
2.9.5 Plant layout ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----29
2.9.6 Process routes for the production of nitric acid ------------------------------ -----33
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Material balance ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
3.1 Conservation of mass ---------------------------------------------------------------- 42
3.2 Methods of material balancing --------------------------------------------------- 43
3.3 Materials balance assumptions ---------------------------------------------------- 44
3.4 Summary of material balance calculations-------------------------------------- 44
3.5 Material balance for each unit ----------------------------------------------------- 44
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Energy balance ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 53
4.1 Conservation of energy -------------------------------------------------------------- 54
4.2 Energy balance assumptions ------------------------------------------------------ 56
4.3 Summary for energy balances ----------------------------------------------------- 56
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Chemical Engineering design--------------------------------------------------------61
5.1 Process units of Nitric acid Production--------------------------------------------61
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 Equipment design and specification --------------------------------------------- 66
6.1 Problem specification ---------------------------------------------------------------- 67
6.2 Analyzing the problem solution---------------------------------------------------- 68
6.3 Preliminary design-----------------------------------------------------------------------68
6.4 Material Selection-----------------------------------------------------------------------69
6.5 Design optimization---------------------------------------------------------------------69
6.6 Summary of design and equipment specification calculation---------------70
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 Process control and instrumentation -------------------------------------------- 73
7.1 Objective-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
7.2 Plant control instrumentation ----------------------------------------------------- 74
7.3 Alarms and safety trips -------------------------------------------------------------- 77
7.4 Lining, piping, valves and pumps ------------------------------------------------- 78
7.5 Pipe support ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 81
CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 Safety and environmental considerations---------------------------------------82
8.1 Safety------------------------------------------------------------------------------------82
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CHAPTER TEN
10.0 Start up and shut down procedure ---------------------------------------------- 113
10.1 Emergency shut down and emergency depressurization ------------------ 114
10.2 Notification --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 114
10.3 Record keeping ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 115
10.4 Startup operation ------------------------------------------------------------------- 116
CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.0 Conclusion/ Recommendation----------------------------------------------------118
11.1 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------118
11.2 Recommendation -------------------------------------------------------------------119
APPENDIX I
Tables and Charts--------------------------------------------------------------------------------123
APPENDIX II
Material Balance Calculation------------------------------------------------------------------126
APPENDIX III
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Nitric acid is a strong acid and a powerful oxidizing agent with enormous
possibilities for applications in the chemical processing industry. It has
commercial uses as a nitrating agent, oxidizing agent, solvent, activating agent,
catalyst and hydrolyzing agent. In relation to world production, approximately
65% of all nitric acid produced is used for the production of ammonium nitrate
(specifically for fertilizer manufacture).
Nitric acid is now produced commercially using the stepwise, catalytic oxidation
of ammonia with air, to obtain nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. These
nitrogen oxides are subsequently absorbed in water to yield between 50% and
68% strength nitric acid by weight. For applications requiring higher strengths,
several methods of concentrating the acid are used.
The chemistry of ammonia oxidation is remarkably simple with only six main
reactions that need to be considered.
8
Nitric acid is an oxidizing mineral acid with physical and chemical properties that
make it one of the most useful inorganic minerals. It is a colorless liquid at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure. It is soluble in water in all proportions
and there is a release of heat of solution upon dilution. Its high solubility in water
is the basis for the process methods used for commercial nitric acid manufacture.
It is a strong acid that almost completely ionizes when in dilute solution. It is also
a powerful oxidizing agent with the ability to passivate some metals such as iron
and aluminum. A compilation of many of the physical and chemical properties of
nitric acid are presented in the Appendix. Arguably the most important physical
property of nitric acid is its azeotropic point, this influences the techniques
associated with strong acid production. The constant-boiling mixture occurs at
121.9°C, for a concentration of 68.4%(wt) acid at atmospheric pressure.
Nitric acid has enormously diverse applications in the chemical industry. It has
commercial uses as a nitrating agent, oxidizing agent, solvent, activating agent,
catalyst and hydrolyzing agent. The most important use is undoubtedly in the
production of ammonium nitrate for the fertilizer and explosives industries, which
accounts for approximately 65% of the world production of nitric acid.
Nitric acid has a number of other industrial applications. It is used for pickling
stainless steels, steel refining, and in the manufacture of dyes, plastics and
synthetic fibers. Most of the methods used for the recovery of uranium, such as
ion exchange and solvent extraction, use nitric acid.
An important point is that for most uses concerned with chemical production, the
acid must be concentrated above its azeotropic point to greater than 95%(wt).
9
There is a potential health hazard when handling, and operating with, nitric acid.
Nitric acid is a corrosive liquid that penetrates and destroys the skin and internal
tissues. Contact can cause severe burns. The acid is a potential hazard, the various
nitrogen oxides present as product intermediates in the process are also toxic. An
assessment of the health risk must be fundamental to the design of any process.
Further consideration and recommendations for the operating health risk and
environmental impact of the plant are presented in the Appendix.
At present, there is no Nitric acid plant in Nigeria. The little Nitric acid produced
mainly by fertilizer plants in the country is used up immediately by them to make
their fertilizer. This means that most of the all Nitric acid used in the country is
imported.
A Nitric acid plant sited in the country producing Nitric acid made available to the
Nigerian market will not only reduce importation of the acid but also encourage
fertilizer production, create job opportunities as well as develop the area in which
it is sited.
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To design a plant that will deliver 400000 metric tonnes of 60%(wt) Nitric
Acid per annum.
To determine the technical and economic feasibility of the plant.
11
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Until the beginning of the 20th century, Nitric acid (HNO3), also known as aqua
fortis and spirit of niter was prepared commercially by reacting sulphuric acid
with either potassium nitrate (saltpetre) or with sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre or
nitre). Up to four tonnes of the two ingredients were placed into large retorts and
heated over a furnace (Kirk 1996). The volatile product vapourized and was
collected for distillation. An acid of 93-95 %( wt) was produced (Gregory 1999).
Gregory (1999, p.40) argues that ‘Although the process benefitted from an
inexhaustible supply of free feed material (air), the power consumption for the
arc furnace was cost prohibitive’
By 1908 the first commercial facility for production of nitric acid, using this new
catalytic oxidation process, was commissioned near Bochum in Germany (Ray et
al 1989). The Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis process came into operation in
1913, leading to the continued development and assured future of the ammonia
oxidation process for the production of nitric acid. (Ray et al 1989)
During World War 1, the intense demand for explosives and synthetic dyestuffs
created an expansion of the nitric acid industry.
Many new plants were constructed, all of which employed the ammonia
oxidation process. This increased demand served as the impetus for several
breakthroughs in process technology.
These included:
(a) The development of chrome-steel alloys for tower construction, replacing the
heavy stoneware and acid-proof bricks. This enabled process pressures above
atmospheric levels to be used.
(b) The improved design of feed preheaters enabled higher process temperatures
to be attained. Higher temperatures improved the yields and capacities, and also
reduced equipment requirements (Ohrue et al 1999).
All of these factors helped to improve the process efficiency. The increasing
availability of ammonia reduced processing costs still further.
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Gold/palladium gauze filter pads have been added on the exit side of the catalyst
bed, inside the reactor/converter units. These filters have reportedly ensured a
platinum recovery of 80% (Anon 1979). Another trend has been for the use of
additional filters in the downstream units. These filters are of alumino-silicate
construction.
Perhaps the greatest progress in nitric acid production technology has been in the
manufacture of strong nitric acid (>90% by weight). Advances in the areas of
super-azeotropic distillation and in high pressure absorption are most significant.
(Ohkubo et al 1999)
14
For the production of stronger nitric acid, tail gases are now being treated by
selective or non-selective catalytic combustion systems. These innovative units
have reduced the nitrogen oxide emissions to below 400 ppm (Ray et al 1989).
Notably, all commercial nitric acid production methods used today are centered
on the oxidation of ammonia. It is therefore appropriate to investigate the
chemistry of this process, in the knowledge that it is directly applicable to any of
the production processes available. (Chilton 1960)
3. 2𝑁𝑂(𝑔) + 𝑂2 → 2𝑁𝑂2(𝑔)
4. 2𝑁𝑂2(𝑔) ⇌ 𝑁2 𝑂4
15
Reaction 1 is the overall reaction for the process. This net result is achieved from
three separate, and distinct, chemical steps. The first is the oxidation of ammonia
to nitrogen monoxide (Reaction 2). The second is the further oxidation of nitrogen
monoxide to nitrogen dioxide (Reaction 3), then nitrogen dioxide to nitrogen
tetroxide (Reaction 4). The third and final stage involves the absorption of these
nitrogen-based oxides into water to form the nitric acid product (Reactions 5 and
6). In most commercial processes, each of these three stages is conducted in
separate process units. (Chilton 1960)
The first step in the process is the heterogeneous, highly exothermic, gas-phase
catalytic reaction of ammonia with oxygen (Reaction 2). The primary oxidation of
ammonia to nitric acid (over a catalyst gauze of 9:l platinum/rhodium alloy)
proceeds rapidly at process temperatures between 900-970°C. (Kent 1983)
The second step in the process involves two reactions (Reactions 3 and 4). These
are the oxidations of nitrogen monoxide to the dioxide and tetroxide forms. The
equilibrium mixture is loosely referred to as nitrogen peroxide. Both reactions are
homogenous, moderately exothermic, gas-phase catalytic reactions. All reactions
shown are highly exothermic. (Chilton 1960)
The third step in the process involves cooling the reaction gases below their dew
point, so that a liquid phase of weak nitric acid is formed. This step effectively
promotes the state of oxidation and dimerization (Reactions 3 and 4), and
16
removes water from the gas phase. This in turn increases the partial pressure of
the nitrogen peroxide component. (Chilton 1960)
Finally, nitric acid is formed by the reaction of dissolved nitrogen peroxide with
water (Reactions 5 and 6).
3. ABSORPTION
The final step introduces the nitrogen dioxide/dimmer mixture into an absorption
process after being cooled. The mixture is pumped into the bottom of the
absorption tower, while liquid dinitrogen tetra-oxide is added at a higher point.
De-ionized process water enters the top of the column. Both liquids flow
countercurrent to the nitrogen dioxide/dimmer gas mixture. Oxidation takes
place in the free space between the trays, while absorption occurs on the trays.
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The absorption trays are usually sieve or bubble cap trays. The exothermic
reaction occurs as follows:
3𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑂
A secondary air stream is introduced into the column to re-oxidize the NO that is
formed in Reaction 3. This secondary air also removes NO2 from the product acid.
An aqueous solution of 55 to 65 percent (typically) nitric acid is withdrawn from
the bottom of the tower. The acid concentration can vary from 30 to 70 percent
nitric acid. The acid concentration depends upon the temperature, pressure,
number of absorption stages, and concentration of nitrogen oxides entering the
absorber.
There are 2 basic types of systems used to produce weak nitric acid: single-stage
pressure process and dual-stage pressure process (Harvin et al 1979). In the past,
nitric acid plants have been operated at a single pressure, ranging from
atmospheric pressure to 14.7 to 203 psia. However, since Reaction 1 is favored by
low pressures and Reactions 2 and 3 are favored by higher pressures, newer
plants tend to operate a dual stage pressure system, incorporating a compressor
between the ammonia oxidizer and the condenser. The oxidation reaction is
carried out at pressures from slightly negative to about 58 psia, and the
absorption reactions are carried out at 116 to 203 psia. (Harvn et al 1979)
In the dual-stage pressure system, the nitric acid formed in the absorber
(bottoms) is usually sent to an external bleacher where air is used to remove
(bleach) any dissolved oxides of nitrogen. The bleacher gases are then
compressed and passed through the absorber. The absorber tail gas (distillate) is
sent to an entrainment separator for acid mist removal. Next, the tail gas is
reheated in the ammonia oxidation heat exchanger to approximately 3920F. The
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final step expands the gas in the power-recovery turbine. The thermal energy
produced in this turbine can be used to drive the compressor.
2.2.2 HIGH STRENGTH NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION
A high-strength nitric acid (98 to 99 percent concentration) can be obtained by
concentrating the weak nitric acid (30 to 70 percent concentration) using
extractive distillation. (Imai et al 1999) The weak nitric acid cannot be
concentrated by simple fractional distillation. The distillation must be carried out
in the presence of a dehydrating agent. Concentrated sulfuric acid (typically 60
percent sulfuric acid) is most commonly used for this purpose. The nitric acid
concentration process consists of feeding strong sulfuric acid and 55 to 65 percent
nitric acid to the top of a packed dehydrating column at approximately
atmospheric pressure. The acid mixture flow downward, countercurrent to
ascending vapors. Concentrated nitric acid leaves the top of the column as 99
percent vapor, containing a small amount of NO2 and oxygen (O2) resulting from
dissociation of nitric acid. The concentrated acid vapor leaves the column and
goes to a bleacher and a countercurrent condenser system to effect the
condensation of strong nitric acid and the separation of oxygen and oxides of
nitrogen (NO2) byproducts. (Ohkubo et al 1999) These byproducts then flow to an
absorption column where the nitric oxide mixes with auxiliary air to form NO2,
which is recovered as weak nitric acid. Inert and un-reacted gases are vented to
the atmosphere from the top of the absorption column. Emissions from this
process are relatively minor. A small absorber can be used to recover NO2. (Kirk et
al 1981)
20
The molecule is planar. Two of the N-O bonds are equivalent and relatively short
(this can be explained by theories of resonance. The canonical forms show double
bond character in these two bonds, causing them to be shorter than typical N-O
bonds.), and the third N-O bond is elongated because the O is also attached to a
proton.
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2.5 REACTIONS
Nitric acid can act as a base with respect to an acid such as sulfuric acid.
The nitronium ion, NO2+, is the active reagent in aromatic nitration reactions.
Since nitric acid has both acidic and basic properties it can undergo an
autoprotolysis reaction, similar to the self-ionization of water
Nitric acid reacts with most metals but the details depend on the concentration of
the acid and the nature of the metal. Dilute nitric acid behaves as a typical acid in
its reaction with most metals. Magnesium, manganese and zinc liberate H2.
Others give the nitrogen oxides. (Ababio 2007)
Nitric acid can oxidize non-active metals such as copper and silver. With these
non-active or less electropositive metals the products depend on temperature
and the acid concentration. For example, copper reacts with dilute nitric acid at
23
ambient temperatures with a 3:8 stoichiometry to produce nitric oxide which may
react with atmospheric oxygen to give nitrogen dioxide.
Upon reaction with nitric acid, most metals give the corresponding nitrates. Some
metalloids and metals give the oxides, for instance, Sn, As, Sb, Ti are oxidized into
SnO2, As2O5, Sb2O5 and TiO2 respectively.
Some precious metals, such as pure gold and platinum group metals do not react
with nitric acid, though pure gold does react with aqua regia, a mixture of
concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. However, some less noble metals
(Ag, Cu, ...) present in some gold alloys relatively poor in gold such as colored gold
can be easily oxidized and dissolved by nitric acid, leading to color changes of the
gold-alloy surface. Nitric acid is used as a cheap means in jewelry shops to quickly
spot low-gold alloys (< 14 carats) and to rapidly assess the gold purity.
Being a powerful oxidizing agent, nitric acid reacts violently with many non-
metallic compounds and the reactions may be explosive. Reaction takes place
with all metals except the noble metals series and certain alloys. As a general rule,
oxidizing reactions occur primarily with the concentrated acid, favoring the
formation of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). (Ababio 2007) However, the powerful
oxidizing properties of nitric acid are thermodynamic in nature, but sometimes its
24
Although chromium (Cr), iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) readily dissolve in dilute
nitric acid, the concentrated acid forms a metal oxide layer that protects the bulk
of the metal from further oxidation. The formation of this protective layer is
called passivation. Typical passivation concentrations range from 20–50% by
volume (ASTM A967-05 2000). Metals which are passivated by concentrated nitric
acid are Iron, Cobalt, Chromium, Nickel, and Aluminum.
Being a powerful oxidizing acid, nitric acid reacts violently with many organic
materials and the reactions may be explosive. (Kent 1983)
Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes I2, P4 and S8 into HIO3, H3PO4 and H2SO4
respectively.
25
Nitric acid reacts with proteins to form yellow nitrated products. This reaction is
known as the xanthoproteic reaction (Gregory 1999). This test is carried out by
adding concentrated nitric acid to the substance being tested, and then heating
the mixture. If proteins that contain amino acids with aromatic rings are present,
the mixture turns yellow. Upon adding a strong base such as liquid ammonia, the
color turns orange. These color changes are caused by nitrated aromatic rings in
the protein. Xanthoproteic acid is formed when the acid contacts epithelial cells
and is indicative of inadequate safety precautions when handling nitric acid
2.6 USES
compounds such as benzene. (Gregory 1999) Many explosives, e.g. TNT, are
prepared in this way.
Nitric acid has been used in various forms as the oxidizer in liquid-fueled rockets.
These forms include red fuming nitric acid, white fuming nitric acid, mixtures with
sulfuric acid, and these forms with HF inhibitor. IRFNA (inhibited red fuming nitric
acid) was one of 3 liquid fuel components for the BOMARC missile. (Gregory
1999)
In elemental analysis dilute nitric acid (0.5 to 5.0%) is used as a matrix compound
for determining metal traces in solutions. Ultrapure trace metal grade acid is
required for such determination, because small amounts of metal ions could
affect the result of the analysis. (Kirk 1981)
It is also typically used in the digestion process of turbid water samples, sludge
samples, solid samples as well as other types of unique samples which require
elemental analysis via flame atomic absorption spectroscopy. Typically these
digestions use a 50% solution of the purchased HNO3 mixed with deionized water.
2.6.5 WOODWORKING
The corrosive effects of nitric acid are exploited for a number of specialty
applications, such as pickling stainless steel. A solution of nitric acid, water and
alcohol, Nital, is used for etching of metals to reveal the microstructure (Gregory
1999). Commercially available aqueous blends of 5–30% nitric acid and 15–40%
phosphoric acid are commonly used for cleaning food and dairy equipment
primarily to remove precipitated calcium and magnesium compounds (either
deposited from the process stream or resulting from the use of hard water during
production and cleaning). The phosphoric acid content helps to passivate ferrous
alloys against corrosion by the dilute nitric acid.(Anon 1979) Nitric acid can be
used as a spot test for alkaloids, giving a variety of colors depending on the
alkaloid.
2.7 SAFETY
Nitric acid is a strong acid and a powerful oxidizing agent. The major hazard posed
by it is chemical burns as it carries out acid hydrolysis with proteins (amide) and
fats (ester) which consequently decomposes living tissue (e.g. skin and flesh).
Concentrated nitric acid stains human skin yellow due to its reaction with the
28
keratin. These yellow stains turn orange when neutralized. Systemic effects are
unlikely, however, and the substance is not considered a carcinogen or mutagen.
The standard first aid treatment for acid spills on the skin is, as for other corrosive
agents, irrigation with large quantities of water. Washing is continued for at least
ten to fifteen minutes to cool the tissue surrounding the acid burn and to prevent
secondary damage. Contaminated clothing is removed immediately and the
underlying skin washed thoroughly. (Othmer et al 1981)
Being a strong oxidizing agent, reactions of nitric acid with compounds such as
cyanides, carbides, metallic powders can be explosive and those with many
organic compounds, such as turpentine, are violent and hypergolic (i.e. self-
igniting). Hence, it should be stored away from bases and organics.
The major difference between this new technology and the previous engineering
approaches was the formalized methodology involving the rigorous application of
thermodynamic principles. Pinch technology was initially adopted by major
chemical companies and petrochemical energy. Beet sugar was quite quick to
adopt it because of the industry’s energy profile and it is now being adopted by
the cane industry too. It has also been shown that the pinch represents a distinct
thermodynamic break in the system and that, for minimum energy requirements,
heat should not be transferred across the pinch, (Linnhoff et al 1983)
2.8.1 APPLICATIONS
The technology strength are its overall approach to process integration (rather
than optimizing a single station) and its blend of thermodynamics with
commercial requirements. It also takes into account the operational requirements
of the site and does reduce flexibility or availability.
30
Plant location refers to the choice of a region or the selection of a particular site
for settling up the business or a factory. However, the choice is made only after
considering alternative sites. It is a strategic decision that cannot be changed once
it is taken. Therefore, careful care must be taken before a decision is made on the
location of the plant site (Ray et al 1989).
An ideal plant location is one where the cost of the production is minimal, with a
large market availability, least risk involved and maximum gain obtainable. It is a
place of maximum net advantage or with lowest unit cost of production and
distribution. For achieving this objective, small and large scale entrepreneur can
make use of local analysis.
c. Competitive analysis: it helps to judge the nature, location, size and quality
of competition in a given trade area.
d. Traffic analysis: this is done to have a rough idea about the number of
potential customers passing by the proposed site during the working hours
of the industry. The traffic analysis aims at judging the alternative sites in
terms of pedestrian and vehicular traffic passing by the site.
e. Site economics: alternative sites are evaluated in terms of establishments,
costs and operational costs under this. Cost of establishment of a plant is
basically cost incurred for permanent physical facilities but operation costs
are incurred for running the plant.
There were three plant locations proposed. Each was evaluated and the final
decision based on maximum net advantage was made.
Advantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Having selected a suitable site for the chemical plant, it is possible and necessary
to make a preliminary decision regarding the layout of the plant equipment. (Ray
et al 1989) Although the equipment has not been designed in detail, preliminary
estimates of the physical size of each item should be available in the equipment
list. Any sizing differences between the initial and final estimates should not be
too excessive, and appropriate areas should be allowed around the plant items
when determining the layout.
There are two schemes that can be adopted for determination of the plant layout.
(Buckhurst & Harker 1973) First, the ‘flow-through’ layout (or ‘flow-line’ pattern)
where plant items are arranged (sequentially) in the order in which they appear
on the process flow sheet. This type of arrangement usually minimizes pipe runs
and pressure drops (and is often adopted for small plants). Second, the
equipment is located on site in groupings of similar plant items, e.g. distillation
columns, separation stages, reactors and heat exchanger pre-heaters, etc. The
grouped pattern is often used for larger plants and has the advantages of easier
operation and maintenance, lower labor costs, minimizing transfer lines and
hence reducing the energy required to transfer materials. These two schemes
represent the extreme situations and in practice some compromise arrangement
is usually employed. The plant layout adopted depends upon whether a new
(‘grass roots’) plant is being designed or an extension/modification to an existing
plant. Space restrictions are the most common constraints; however, space
limitations are usually imposed even with new sites. Other factors to be
considered are:
(a) Siting of the control room, offices, etc., away from areas of high accident risk,
and upstream of the prevailing winds.
(b) Location of reactors, boilers, etc., away from chemical storage tanks.
(c) Storage tanks to be located for easy access, and a decision made as to whether
all tanks (for raw materials and product) should be located together or dispersed
around the site.
(j) Plant layout to facilitate easy clean-up operations and dispersion of chemicals
in the event of a spillage.
(1) Siting of equipment requiring cooling water close to rivers, estuaries, etc.
(m) Location of plant waste and water drainage systems (separate or combined?)
and treatment tanks.
(n) Adopting a plant layout that will act to contain any fires or explosions.
Some of these aims are conflicting, e.g. (i) and (iv), and compromises are usually
required when considering the plant layout to ensure that safety and economic
operation are both preserved. The final plant layout will depend upon the
measures for energy conservation within the plant and any subsequent
modifications, and the associated piping arrangements.
The process units and ancillary buildings are laid out in such a way to give the
most economical flow of materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous
processes are located a safe distance from other buildings. Consideration for
future expansion is also put in place. The ancillary buildings and service required
on the site include:
Administrative block
Laboratory
Storage for both raw materials and products
Maintenance workshop
Utilities (generator, steam boiler, transformer station)
Store for maintenance and operation supplies
Other amenities like car park, restaurant and clinic.
39
Emergency
Fire Station Water
Laboratory
Expansion
Tank Farm Plant Area
Stores
Workshop
Roads
Canteen
Medical
Center
Waste Car Pack
Utilities
Incinerator
Auditorium
Offices
Roads
Chile saltpetre is material which contains sodium nitrate NaNO3 with percentage
around 35-60%, and remaining percentage compounds with KNO3 and NaCl. This
raw material Chile saltpetre is concentrated by crystallization in pre-treatment of
ore to attain 95% NaNO3 and remaining KNO3 as feed raw material. (Kent 1983)
Sulphuric acid with 93% is mixed with the refined Chile saltpetre as per the ratio
required as per stoichiometry and sent into a retort which is made with cast iron
and the mixture is heated to 200oC with help of furnace flue gasses and coal fire.
40
All hot vapors of nitric acid are sent to cool down in water circulated cooled silica
pipes, condensed HNO3 are collected in receiver which has material resistance to
nitric acid. Uncondensed gas which escapes from the collector is scrubbed with
cooled water in packed bed tower to collect nitric acid in dilute format. Liquid
sodium bi-sulphate is collected from the bottom outlet of the retort.
Advantage: it was one of the first methods used in the manufacture of nitric acid.
N2 + O2 →2NO
The nitric oxide was cooled and oxidized by the remaining atmospheric oxygen to
nitrogen dioxide
2 NO + O2 →2NO2
This nitrogen dioxide is then dissolved in water to give dilute nitric acid.
Disadvantage: The process is very energy intensive and is only feasible when
electricity is available and cheap.
Advantage: it does not use electricity to provide the high temperature and
therefore does not have the disadvantage of the Birkeland-Eyed process.
42
Another method of production of nitric acid via nitrogen fixation is the nuclear
nitrogen fixation route. This method directly combines oxygen and nitrogen.
Yields of nitrogen oxide of 5-15% have been reported by exposing air at 150 and
400oF to radiation from Uranium 235.
Advantage: gives a greater yield of nitrogen oxide than the Winsconsin process
Disadvantage: with this method comes all the disadvantages of nuclear reaction
(problem of managing the radiation which is harmful to living things)
OSTWALD PROCESS
Nitric acid is then reacted with oxygen in air to form nitrogen dioxide.
This is subsequently absorbed in water to form nitric acid and nitric oxide
The nitric oxide is cycled back for re-oxidation. Alternately, if the last step is
carried out in air:
There are 2 basic types of systems used to produce weak nitric acid:
Both processes follow the basic Ostwald process for the catalytic oxidation of
ammonia. In summary, this involves an oxidation stage whereby ammonia is
reacted with air in a catalytic converter at temperatures in the range of 850-
950°C. Reaction gases pass through a series of energy recovery stages before
entering an absorption column. The bottoms from the column are bleached of
dissolved nitrogen peroxide using air, and the resulting solution is the weak nitric
acid product (Roudier et al 1979).
The major difference between the two processes lies in the initial conversion
stage. The dual-pressure process employs a conversion stage operating in the
range l00-350kPa, and a reactor temperature of about 865°C. The single-pressure
process however operates the converter at 800-1100 kPa, with a reactor
temperature closer to 940°C. ( Harvin et al 1979)
The higher temperature and the favorable pressure both increase the
energy recovery from the process.
Limited space availability may favor the single-pressure process
Disadvantage:
Less efficient as the overall process is favored by varying pressure.
Experimental work indicates that the rate loss of catalyst (without a catalyst
recovery system) is approximately three times more rapid at 973°C than at
866°C. This means that more catalyst is lost in the single-stage pressure
process ( Harvin et al 1979).
Absorber efficiency is reduced prompting the need for larger absorber
thereby increasing cost.
2. Dual-stage pressure process: here, the plant is operated at different
pressures and different stages.
Advantages:
The first reaction (catalytic conversion of anhydrous ammonia to nitric
oxide) is favored by lower pressure while the remaining reactions are
favored by higher pressures. This variation in pressure is achieved in dual-
stage pressure process. (Harvin et al 1979)
Capacities of 1130-1360 tonnes per day favor the dual-pressure process,
because of the possibility of absorption up to 1550 KPa.
Less catalyst is lost because of lower operating temperature
46
The process selected for this design of nitric acid is single-stage pressure Ostwald
process because of its above mentioned advantages.
CW BOILER
STEAM AIR
0-100
deg
CONDEN-
mV
SATE 10-50
E-30
CONVERTER
MIXER
AIR HEATER CW
TURBINE
STEAM
COMPRESSOR
NH3 SUPERHEATER
STEAM
FOR SALE WEAK AMMONIA
SOLUTION
FILTER
CW
STEAM
FILTER STEAM
DEIONISER
LIQUID AMMONIA CHILLED WATER
ATMOSPHERIC AIR REFRIGERATION
NH3 VAPORISER CW
OXIDATION VESSEL
E-33 E-27
CW
WATER DESOBED
NITROUS ACID
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
PURIFIER
SAGK
GAS HEATER
STEAM
STRIPPER
WASTE
CW
HEAT BOILER
CW CW
ABSOBER
E-35
FILTER
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIAL BALANCE
Balance over individual process units determines the process stream flows and
their compositions and also the sizes of the various process equipment used in
the process.
Material balance on the plant used in the production of 400000 tonnes of Nitric
acid per year.
𝑘𝑔⁄ 𝑘𝑔
Mass flow rate = 400000 x 1000 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 50000 ⁄ℎ𝑟
For a steady state process, the accumulation term will be zero; but if a chemical
reaction takes place, particular chemical specie may be formed or consumed in
the process. When there is chemical reaction, the material balance equation is
given as,
Input = Output
49
A balance equation can be written for any identifiable specie present, elements or
compound; and for the total material.
There are two basic methods of material balance and they are;
The algebraic method of material balancing is one of the simplest and most
common methods applied in balancing the materials that flow through a system.
It involves the systematic and sequential technique in indentifying some variable
sets which are related by some sets of linear or non-linear equations whose
solution depends on the resulting degree of freedom for the system. This degree
of freedom provides us with the limit of freedom for which we can set values for
some of the variable which is referred to as the design variables. A choice of
values for the design variables result in a corresponding value for the remaining
variables. The solutions to the equation set are obtained by the various method of
solution for simultaneous equations, most appreciably the methods of
substitution and elimination. The algebraic method is most efficient for simple
system but it may be inappropriate for complex systems involving large number
of units. The split fraction and method is recommended for such systems.
component between two or more outlet streams. This method is ideal in carrying
out material balancing of complex of multi-unit plants.
The following assumptions were made during the material balance calculations:
From the steady state material balance equation, the flow rates of each stream
are calculated as follows.
Basis: 1hr
THE COMPRESSOR
1a 1a
Stream 1 Stream 2
Stream 3
51
O2 49720. O2 49720.
N2 187080 N2 187080
Total 236750 Total 236750
THE MIXER
Stream 2 Stream 5
Stream 4
52
O2 42760 - 42760
N2 160860 - 16086
NH3 - 13500 13500
H2O - 65 65
THE COVERTER
Stream 5 Stream 7
Stream 6
53
O2 42760 - 11660
N2 160860 - 160860
NH3 13500 270 -
H2O 65 21060 -
NO - - 23320
HNO3 - - -
NO2 - - -
Total 217185 21330 195840
TOTAL 217185 217170
OXIDISATION VESSEL
Stream 7 Stream 8
H2O - -
NO 23320 1460
HNO3 - -
NO2 - 33530
Total 195840 195850
Stream 9
Stream 8
55
STRIPPER Stream 10
Stream 9
Stream 3 Stream 11
56
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Stream 13
Stream 10
Stream 12
57
PURIFICATION REACTOR
Stream 13 Stream 14
CHAPTER FOUR
ENERGY BALANCE
The Energy balance gives the account of all the energy requirement of the process
which is based on the principle of conservation of energy. The principle states
that energy can either be create nor destroyed but can be transformed from one
form to another. Also energy can be transferred from one body to another.
If a plant uses more energy than its competitor, its product could be priced out of
the market. Accountability of the energy utilization of a process plant is
necessary in every design project.
The conservation of energy however differs from the mass in that energy can be
generated (or consumed) in a chemical process. Material can change form; new
molecular specie can be formed in a process unit and must be equal to the one
out at steady state. The same is not true for energy. The total enthalpy of the
outlet stream will not be equal to that of the inlet stream if energy is generated or
consumed in the processes, such as that due to heat of reaction.
Energy can exist in various forms: head, mechanical, electrical energy, and it is the
total energy that is conserved. In plant operation, an energy balance on the plant
will show the patterns of energy usage and suggest area for conservation and
saving.
61
As for materials balance, a general equation can be written for energy balance;
Energy exists in many forms; the basic forms are listed below:
Internal Energy: This is the energy associated with molecules and is dependent on
temperature.
Work: This is achieved when a force gets through a distance. Work done on a
system is positive while work done by a system is negative
W Q
Z1
For unit mass of material Z2
62
𝑈12⁄ 𝑈22
𝑈1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1 + 𝑔 + 𝑍1 𝑔 + 𝑄 = 𝑈2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 + 𝑔 + 𝑍2 𝑔 + 𝑊
2
In chemical processes the kinetic energy factor (𝑈 ⁄𝑔) and the Potential energy
factor (zg) are small and negligible and the relation between U and PV is
correlated in terms of enthalpy (H)
H = U + PV
H 2 – H1 = Q – w
Also, the work term can be negligible in many chemical engineering systems.
Hence,
H 2 - H1 = Q
63
2. No heat is lost from the vessel and from the pipe i.e. there is proper
lagging.
THE COMPRESSOR
PROPERTIES QUANTITY/VALUE
Inlet Temperature( °C ) 20
Outlet Temperature( °C ) 155
Heat duty( KJ/hr ) 26259012
Power and Actual Shaft work, 399515.49 and 475613.68
repectively.(KJ/hr and KJ)
64
PROPERTIES QUANTITY/VALUE
Inlet Temperature( °C ) 350
Outlet Temperature( °C ) 200
TABLE 4.4 HEAT BALANCE AROUND THE WASTE HEAT BOILER (Unit 9)
PROPERTIES QUANTITY/VALUE
Inlet Temperature( °C ) 890
Outlet Temperature( °C ) 250
Heat Duty( KJ/hr ) -15976252
Outlet Temperature of Steam (°C ) 410
PROPERTIES QUANTITY/VALUE
Inlet Temperature( °C ) 250
Outlet Temperature( °C ) 350
Heat Duty( KJ/hr ) 1240891.54
PROPERTIES QUANTITY/VALUE
PROPERTIES QUANTITY/VALUE
Inlet Temperature( °C ) 50
Outlet Temperature( °C ) 54
Heat Duty( KJ/hr ) -53280.03
67
AMMONIA VAPORIZER
THE STRIPPER
CHAPTER FIVE
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
The equipment used in chemical process industries can be divided into two
classes: proprietary equipment such as pumps, centrifuge, etc which are designed
and manufactured by specialist firms; non-proprietary equipment which includes
the reactor, heat exchanger, evaporators, still, condensers and bleaching vessels.
The proprietary equipment will only be selected and specified while the non-
proprietary equipment will be designed as special, one-off, items for the
particular processes and purposes they are expected to serve.
This unit consists of series of packed beds containing various organic polymer
resins for the removal of unwanted divalent and monovalent ions. Used for the
generation of de-ionized water.
Consist of finned fan-type cooler for cooling the circulating de-ionized water.
69
3. Air Compressor
4. Ammonia Vaporizer
This unit consists of a shell and tube-type heat exchanger with two passes per
shell on the tube side. Operating pressure is 1240 kPa. The exchanger is made
from mild steel.
5. Ammonia Super-heater
6. Reactor
The reactor is a pressure vessel operating in the range 1050 kPa to 1100 kPa. The
bottom section of the reactor is jacketed. Air is preheated in this jacket prior to
mixing with ammonia. The bottom section of the reactor also contains a shell and
tube-type heat exchanger. This exchanger provides the final stage of tail-gas
70
preheating. Tail gas enters at 235°C and the reaction gases leave the exchanger
section of the reactor at 645°C.
7. Steam Super-heater
This unit superheats saturated steam from 250°C (and 4000kPa) to 380°C. The
product steam is of medium pressure and suitable quality for ‘in-house’
application and also for export. The super-heater cools the reaction gases from
the reactor exit temperature of 645°C to 595°C.
8. Waste-heat Boiler
A shell and tube-type exchanger required to heat pressurized (4000 kPa) hot
water from 117°C to a saturated vapour at 250°C. The waste-heat boiler cools
reaction gases from 595°C to 280°C.
9. Tail-gas Pre-heater
Also comprises of shell and tube-type exchanger. It takes reaction gases leaving
the platinum filter at about 315°C and 1020 kPa, and subsequently reduces their
temperature to 185°C. The cooling medium is tail gas. It enters at about 50°C and
leaves the tail-gas pre-heater at 235°C.
10. Cooler/Condenser
This unit condenses weak nitric acid from the gaseous mixture and cools the
remaining gases from an inlet temperature of 185°C to 60°C. The shell and tube-
type heat exchanger uses de-ionized water as its cooling medium.
71
The oxidation unit is an empty pressure vessel that takes input reaction gases and
blends in additional air from the bleaching column. The extra oxygen provided
enables further oxidation to occur and raises the gas mixture temperature to
140°C. At the top of the oxidation unit is a mist eliminator to prevent carry-over of
acid vapor by entrainment. At the bottom of the vessel is the weak-acid drain.
The secondary cooler takes the exit gases from the oxidation unit at 140°C and
cools them down to 65°C, a suitable temperature for entry into the absorption
column. The cooling medium is circulating warm water from the warm-water
loop. The inlet temperature is 50°C and the exit temperature is about 80°C.
13. Absorber
The bleaching column is a smaller sieve tray-type column. Impure acid runs down
the column from the top tray and air is bubbled up through the liquor to remove
dissolved nitrogen oxides. The acid from the base of the column is the final
desired 60% (wt.) product.
Stores the supply of nitric acid produced from the process plant.
73
CHAPTER SIX
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
The need to design process equipment may arise as a result of the desire to:
The specification of the problem is the key stone in the quest to design an
equipment to meet the needs of the customer. Specification of a problem may
include:
A thorough analysis will reduce the list for example if the equipment is to be used
for small scale processing. All the constraint listed above will need to be
considered.
The calculation process in the design of equipment may require simple arithmetic,
algebraic, differential calculus or integral calculus. In many cases an exact solution
may not be feasible thus necessitating the use of various approximation
techniques such as graphical or numerical methods.
In many cases also, only some parts of the equipment are designed on the basis of
analytical calculations. Practical conditions are used to determine the
specifications of the remaining part. It is thus not unusual to have several feasible
solutions. There is thus the need to select the best solution. The ultimate goal is
to minimize cost or maximize profit.
77
FOR REACTORS
The operating intensity is given for the reactors=11296.324kg/m2/24hrs
=11296.324kg/m2/day
Table 6.1: Table showing the heat transfer area of some equipment
CHAPTER SEVEN
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
Instruments are provided to monitor the key process variables during plant
operation. They may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or used for the
manual monitoring of the process operation. They may also be part of an
automatic computer data logging system. Instruments monitoring critical process
variables will be fitted with automatic alarms to alert the operators to critical and
hazardous situations.
It is desirable that the process variable to be monitored be measured directly;
often, however, this is impractical and some dependent variable, that is easier to
measure, is monitored in its place.
7.1 OBJECTIVES
The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and
control schemes are:
1. Safe plant operation:
(a) To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.
(b) To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and
automatic shut-down systems.
(c) To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.
2. Production rate: To achieve the design product output.
3. Product quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified
quality standards.
4. Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives.
81
These are not separate objectives and must be considered together. The order in
which they are listed is not meant to imply the precedence of any objective over
another, other than that of putting safety first. Product quality, production rate
and the cost of production will be dependent on sales requirements. For example,
it may be a better strategy to produce a better-quality product at a higher cost.
In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieved by a
combination of automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
7.2 PLANT CONTROL CONFIGURATION
The plant will be designed for manned operation and will be linked to the
adjacent fertilizer manufacturing plant. Certain configurations will be put in place
to monitor some key parameters of the plant.
The acid plant process control will be embedded in the plant DCS. The
instruments of the individual process units will be terminated in junction boxes
located at the unit’s skid limits. From here these instruments will be connected to
instrument cabinets in the auxiliary room and integrated in the PAS.
The plant safety instrument system (SIS) will be independent of the PAS. There
will be a link between the PAS and the SIS for data monitoring/logging and
maintenance/operational override control purposes. Fire and gas monitoring will
also be a dedicated module integrated in the safeguarding system.
The process control schemes of some vital units are discussed as follows:
Absorption column
The process control scheme for the absorption column is presented in fig It was
designed from the recommendations presented in the HAZOP analysis.
82
It features ratio control on the make-up water stream. The signals from flow
transmitters on this line and on the gas input line are fed to the ratio controller,
whereby the make-up water stream is adjusted.
Other control features include a pressure controller on the tail-gas outlet stream
so that the column absorption pressure can be maintained at the design
operating value of 950 kPa. A temperature transmitter on the tail-gas outlet
stream provides the signal for control of the overall cooling-water flow rate. This
is the temperature which is most useful in determining good absorption. The
cooling circuit itself is fed from a common line (on which the overall flow rate is
controlled). Small block valves on each of the tray cooling-coil feed lines enable
flow rate regulation to each of the coils. These valves feature a removable top
whereby a magnetic flow meter may be inserted to read the flow rate. The valves
need only be set initially and then periodically adjusted manually.
There is no automatic control on the flow rate of the gas inlet stream or weak-
acid condensate stream, since both of these flows are predetermined by feed
flow rates earlier in the process. Isolation valves and provision for spectacle blinds
are included to enable the column to be isolated during shutdown periods.
The product-acid solution is withdrawn from the column using a level control
valve on this line. The liquid level in the base of the column must be maintained
slightly above the level of the plate downcomer to prevent incoming gas from by-
passing the sieve plates.
All controllers suggested for the absorption column feature HIGH and LOW alarms
for good control.
The final safety requirement is a relief line with a relief valve protected by a
bursting disc.
83
Air heater
The process control scheme suggested for the air heater is shown in Fig. This flow
scheme features a control valve on the compressed air inlet line. A temperature
controller taking its signal from the heater outlet line ensures the flow is
regulated to maintain the heater temperature of 250°C. Air pressure is controlled
prior to entry into the unit and is kept constant at 7.3 atm.
A pressure indicator on both inlet and outlet steam lines enables this parameter
to be adequately monitored.
The nitrogen oxide reaction gas stream cannot be directly controlled from the air
heater. Instead the flow rate, temperature and pressure are predetermined by
the reactor feed conditions.
Both inlet and outlet lines possess isolation valves for plant shutdown. These lines
would be blanked before any platinum recovery work was attempted on the
heater. Inlet and outlet lines also feature temperature indicators, consistent with
the policy of constant monitoring of this parameter throughout the process.
Ammonia Vaporiser and Superheater
Pressure indicator and controller will be installed to maintain ammonia vapor at
7.3 atm. Temperature indicator and controller is required to ensure that the
outlet temperature of 250°C is achieved in the superheater. The control scheme is
shown in the figure below.
Ammonia Converter
Temperature control system is needed within the converter to ensure that the
temperature in the converter does not drop below the reaction temperature of
890-900°C, to avoid loss of heat.
84
measured
Flow – rate F FI FC
Level L LI LC
Pressure P PI PC
Temperature T TI TC
Humidity H HI HC
I- Indicator C - Controller
L- Level T - Temperature
F- Flow rate P - Pressure
H- Humidity
(Source: Sinnott, R.R 1999).
7.4 LINING, PIPING, VALVES AND PUMPS
In Fig.7.1, which is the piping and instrument diagrams, there are various
mechanical component introduced in the plant to obtain maximum efficiency
some of which includes, flanges, valves, piping lines, blinds, gaskets and so on.
7.4.1 VALVES
The valves used for chemical process plant can be divided into two broad classes,
depending on their primary function:
Shut-off valves (block valves), whose purpose is to close off the flow.
86
Control
Valves Used to control flow in lines.
Check Valves
Fitted in lines of relatively high pressure or
velocity
Butterfly
Valves
7.4.2 JOINTS
There are various joints used in fig 3.0 either as flow reducers, or to aid the
carrying property of pipe. And effective transport of fluids in the piping flow.
Below is a table of the various elbows and joints used in the P and I diagram:
90o T – CONNECTOR
Used in channeling lines also
reduces flow speed.
ELBOW
Used in channeling lines in
pipe support.
LONG – RADIUS
ELBOW Used in branching lines.
88
REDUCER
The Design of a plant’s P and I is not complete without the use of supports. Pipe
supports in plant piping helps in reducing cost and number of pump required to
maintain line flow parameter and safety of personnel through operation zone.
U – CHANNEL
CHAPTER 8
8.1 SAFETY
Safety is the condition of being protected against any danger. Every organization
has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the health and welfare of its
employees and the general public. The good management practices needed to
ensure safe operation will also ensure efficient operation. In a chemical processing
industry, the chemicals used or produced can be hazardous to humans or the
environment if not properly handled and this could equally lead to a lot of damage
structurally and financially.
The best organizations are those that have come to the realization that provision
of safety is not only the right thing to do for their employees, it is also profitable.
The term “engineering safety” covers the provision in the design of control
systems alarms, trips, pressure relief devices, automatic shutdown system and
duplication of key equipment, firefighting equipment and service; personnel
protect equipment and so on.
There are several hazards associated with industrial process. These hazards need
to be prevented and kept in check in order to protect the environment.
Environment in this context refers to the immediate surroundings around the
plant. For the safety of the environment to be ensured, the following points
should be noted and applied;
The system should have a suitable water pump. It is advised that there be
at least 2 pumps. One big one to fill the lines or pump large volume of
water into it (when the water is being depleted very fast like in a case of
fire) and a smaller jockey pump to maintain the pressure in the line. It
would start more frequently than the big pump.
It is suggested that the system should have its own separate standby
generator.
Fire entry suits and other protective clothing, compressed air breathing
apparatus and fire blankets should be made available in every building.
The personnel of a company refers to the operators and staff of that company
who ensure that the production process move on smoothly. Their safety can be
ensured in the following was.
6. Emergency exit doors must be provided and these exits clearly marked for
all to see.
7. Cleanliness of the facility must be ensured at all times to avoid
unnecessary risk or accident.
8. Smoking should be avoided in process area.
9. Fire extinguishers must be made available at strategic points within the
facility.
10. All ladders must have hand rails and personnel encouraged to use them
whenever climbing.
11. Safety signs and symbols should be placed at hazardous area.
4. Check to ensure that equipment and machineries meet health and safety
standards before it is purchased.
REACTOR
Reactor is a vessel in which chemical transformation takes place. The converter,
oxidizing unit and absorber are the reactors in this design. The catalytic reactor is
designed to give a uniform distribution of the air/ammonia mixture over the
catalyst gauzes. Maintenance of the catalyst operating temperature is very
important for the NO yield. This is achieved by adjusting the air/ammonia ratio
and ensuring that the lower explosive limit for ammonia in air is not exceeded.
The following safety steps should be followed in the design and operation of the
reactor.
The materials going into the reactor must be purified. This is done to
remove impurity that will affect the reactor.
The reaction condition i.e. temperature, pressure etc must be monitored
closely.
The reactor should be cleaned accordingly during periodic maintenance.
COMPRESSOR
While operating the compressor, the following precautions should be observed.
The air must be dried properly to avoid water entering into the compressor
which could damage it.
The air must be filtered properly to avoid foreign particle from entering into
the compressor.
The proper operating pressure should be maintained at all times.
94
Personnel coming into the facility for the first time must be given a proper
safety orientation on the do’s and don’ts of the company policy on safety
and regular safety talks on safety and maintenance of plant must be
conducted.
Regular training of personnel on safety issues should also take place.
Good housekeeping practice by all employees should be encouraged.
the way deviations from the intended operating conditions can cause
hazardous situations.
The following words are also used in a special way, and have the precise
meanings given below:
• Intention: the intention defines how the particular part of the process was
intended to operate; the intention of the designer.
• Deviations: these are departures from the designer’s intention which are
detected by the systematic application of the guide words.
• Causes: reasons why, and how, the deviations could occur. Only if a
deviation can be shown to have a realistic cause is it treated as meaningful.
More Flow 4. Increased feed Possible reduction in absorption F) Ratio control on the liquid feed
Efficiency. streams should be sufficient.
May cause flooding. g) Install HIGH LEVEL ALARM on
the FIC.
More Pressure 5.Flooding Unit subject to high pressure, Covered by c).
bursting discs may rupture, tail h) Ensure correct sizing on
gas release. pressure relief system.
6. Isolation valve accidently closed As for 2. Covered by b) and c).
7. Thermal expansion in isolation. Line fracture or flange leakage. i) Provide for thermal expansion
relief in the design of the isolation
valve section
More Temperature 8. Insufficient cooling Decreased absorption, higher j) Ensure accurate temperature
pollution. control on the internal cooling
circuit.
Less flow 9. Leaking inlet range As for 3. Covered by b), and d)
Less Temperature 10. Overcooling. Increased dissolved gasses in acid. Covered by j)
H i g h NOx composition 11. Improved yield from reactor. Higher tail-gas emission levels k) Manually increase make-up
possible. water Composition flow rate.
101
This is the assessment of the possible positive and negative impact that a
proposed project may have in the environment, together consisting of the
environmental, social and economic aspect. It is a systematic process of
identification, prediction evaluation, mitigating and presentation of possible
consequences on the environment of proposed actions at a stage in decision
making process so that environmental damage can be minimized or avoided.
8.3.2 GOAL
Negative impact
The major negative impact of a nitric acid plant is NOx emissions of the tail gas
from the absorption tower especially during start up and shut down before the
plant stabilizes. Others include:
Positive impact
Provide skilled and unskilled job opportunities.
Make available nitric acid in the country, thereby encouraging the production
of fertilizer as it is a major chemical used in its production.
106
Nitric acid production is one of the larger chemical industry sources of NO. Unlike
NOx found in combustion flue gas, NOx from nitric acid production is part of the
process stream and is recoverable with some economic value. Vent gas containing
NOx is released to the atmosphere when the gas becomes too impure to recycle
or too low in concentration for recovery to be economically practical.
The chemical reactions for each of the nitric acid production process steps
demonstrate that NOx must first be created before nitric acid can be produced.
The first reaction,
Shows NO forming from the reaction of NH and air. The NO is then oxidized in the
second step,
Producing NO2. The NO2 is subsequently absorbed in water to produce nitric acid.
However, as the absorption reaction,
Extended absorption
Extended absorption reduces NO emissions by increasing absorption efficiency
and is achieved by either installing a single large tower, extending the height of an
existing absorption tower, or by adding a second tower in series with the existing
tower. Increasing the volume and the number of trays in the absorber results in
moreNOx being recovered as nitric acid (1-1.5% more acid) and reduced emission
levels.
108
The process is called nonselective because the fuel first depletes all the oxygen
present in the tail gas and then removes the NOx. It can be operated at any
temperature, heat used to operate it can be recovered and it can achieve higher
NOx reduction than extended absorption but it is expensive due to the cost of
fuel.
Chilled Absorption.
Chilled absorption provides additional cooling to the absorption tower. This
process is frequently used in addition to other control techniques such as
extended absorption. The principal advantage of chilled absorption is improved
absorber efficiency due to lower absorption temperature. However, chilled
109
absorption by itself typically cannot reduce NOx emissions to the level that any of
the three primary control techniques can achieve.
The following are actions taken to mitigate the negative impacts of the plant sited
above.
CHAPTER 9
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
9.1 OVERVIEW
Table 9.1: typical factors for estimation of project fixed capital cost
An estimate of the operating costs, the cost of producing the product, is needed
to judge the viability of a project and to make choices between possible
alternative processing schemes. These costs can be estimated from the flow
sheet, which gives the raw material and service requirements, and the capital cost
estimate
The cost of producing a chemical product will include the items listed below. They
are divided into two groups.
1. Fixed capital cost: Costs that do not vary with production rate. These are
the bills that have to be paid whatever the quantity produced
2. Variable operating cost: Costs that are dependent on the amount of
product produced.
The ratio method is a simple technique whereby known capital cost data for an
existing chemical plant are adjusted to provide a cost estimate for the desired
plant capacity. This method is also able to update figures to account for
inflationary effects of past years. Finally the capital cost figure is adjusted for
exchange rate differences between countries .The method is centered around the
use of key cost estimation indices such as the CE plant cost index and the Marshall
and Stevens (M&S)index.
Therefore;
1200 0.6
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1200/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = $60 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × ( ) = $143.66 million
280
= ₦22.7 billion
significant processing steps in the overall process. Factors are usually included
to allow for the capacity, and complexity of the process: material of
construction, yield, operating pressure and temperature.
C=capital cost.
Q=400,000tons/yr
N=13
𝐶 = 14000 × 13 × (400,000)0.615
Capital cost estimates for chemical process plants, are often based on an estimate
of the purchase cost of the major equipment items, required for the process, the
other costs being estimated as the factors of the equipment cost .The accuracy of
this type of estimate will depend on which stage the design has reached at the
time.
116
Rough Estimate
Cf = Fl Ce
Ce = ₦ 824.43 million
Detailed Estimate
PPC = Ce ( 1 + ∑factors )
∑factors = 3.3
2) Miscellaneous 0.24
117
3) Utilities Cost
Steam Negligible
Power 0.4
Total 2.04
FIXED COST
₦ Million
1) Maintenance 1.21
2) Operating Labor 7.26
3) Laboratory Cost 2.18
4) Plant Overhead 3.63
5) Insurance 387.15
6) Royalties Not applicable
Total 401.43
Total interest = p (1 + r )n
= 5.41 (1 + 0.05)2
= ₦ 5.96 billion
= ₦ 6.77 billion
= ₦ 4.2 billion
= ₦ 8.4 billion
Total income after tax (based on 2.5% tax) = ₦ (8.4 – 0.025 × 8.4) billion
= ₦ 8.19 billion
On the assumption that market price of nitric acid will remain constant for a
reasonable length of time. The breakdown period for the plant will simply be the
inverse of the rate return on the investment
5.41
= = 3.81 𝑦𝑟𝑠
1.42
120
CHAPTER TEN
Shutdown is that period of time during which a boiler, gas turbine, process
heater or nitric acid production unit is allowed to cool from its normal
temperature range to a cold or ambient temperature.
The shutdown philosophy is based on the nitric acid plant process control and
safeguarding philosophy reference and adapted to suit the developments in the
design. High nitric acid supply availability is of paramount importance. The level of
safeguarding reflects the need for the plant to operate safely whilst ensuring
maximum availability.
Shutdowns of the main process will be avoided as much as possible within the
constraints of safer operation. Additional time is given to the operator to correct
process upsets by intentionally accepting cascading events. This in turn will result
in fewer disruptions in the process
For all separators, low low liquid level will cause the corresponding liquid outlet
SDV (Shut down Valves) to close rather than generating an OSD (Operational Shut
Down)
On high liquid level and high pressure in the main nitrous gas stream, gas
flow is stopped by closing the inlet shutdown valves. This is to avoid liquid
carry over to the absorption column and stripper.
Gas compressor unit.
122
In the absorption column, a high liquid level and a high pressure will close
the corresponding inlet SOV.
Trips in the off air compressor package will stop the compressor and the air
flow will be directed to the flare.
1. Isolate the plant from the flow lines, stopping all hydrocarbons containing
streams from coming in and going out of the plant.
2. Depressurization the plant.
3. Starting down the fired heaters
10.2 NOTIFICATION
Prior notification of scheduled shutdowns and scheduled start-ups following
scheduled shutdowns shall be made in a timely manner and form. Shutdowns and
start-ups must be scheduled in pairs with scheduled dates for each. Notification
of scheduled start-ups and shutdowns is required only if an exemption from the
123
Liquid piping and coded vessels: Pressure tested with water at maximum
working pressure.
Gas lines: cannot be checked until plant is operating
Relief valves: bench tested with required pressure—if serious problems
exist, they are sent out for repairs.
Heat exchanger: flushed with water or a cleaning solution.
124
Once all equipment is installed and thoroughly checked for proper mechanical
operation (this may take from 2 to 6 months), the plant is ready to undergo
initiation of nitric acid production. Preliminary startup operations consist of the
following steps:
Within 2 to 3 weeks of this initial startup, the plant is ready for a test or
demonstration run. Test runs usually last 3, 7, or 14 days depending on the
contract. During this time, the plant must achieve its peak efficiency, of maximum
design rate, and meet all applicable emission regulations. A violation of any of
these conditions or other equipment mal-functions results in a cessation of the
test run. The conclusion of a successful test run results in the “legal acceptance”
of the plant from the contractor.
The best point in time to define plant startup is when the ammonia flows to the
converter is initiated. Barring no usual problems, the completion of a successful
test run and the achievement of maximum production rate should be about one
month or less from this starting point. An important point with respect to nitric
acid facilities is that the summer months are the most critical for proper
operation due to cooling requirements for the exothermic reaction involved. For
this reason, most new plants try to come online during the hotter periods when a
successful test run would be most meaningful. Because of the requirement for
performance testing within 180 days of startup, it is conceivable that testing could
be required during the cooler months when a plant would find it easiest to meet
applicable emission limitations. In this instance, regulatory agencies might want
to conduct testing as soon after startup as possible, consider postponement of
tests until the following summer, or consider winter testing and subsequent
summer testing.
126
CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
11.1 CONCLUSION
From the design procedures followed and results obtained, it can be concluded
that a plant can be set up to produce 400,000 tonnes of Nitric acid per annum
from ammonia oxidation. The excess steam generated in the process can be
gathered and sold to increase the total income to be realized from sale of
products. Also, the exhaust gases from the turbine is reduced to the lowest
minimum (<1000ppm). This is to reduce the NOx emission from the plant which is
in line with the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) regulations. The
produced acid will be sold mainly to fertilizer manufacturing plants and oil
servicing companies in Nigeria, and can be exported as well.
Finally, an economic evaluation of the plant showed that the rate of return on
investment is about 26.25% and the payback time is about 3years and 7 months.
Therefore the project can be said to be economically feasible.
11.2 RECOMMENDATION
Additional control schemes should be put in place to ensure very low nitrous
oxide emission; this will contribute to the global objective in reducing
environmental degradation. There should be considerations for a two stage air
compression to supplement the fluctuations in air requirement due to the
anticipated increase in the demand of nitric acid. There should be provisions for
preventive maintenance, as this will help to reduce frequent shutdowns due to
repairs. It is also anticipated that this plant will be part of a larger chemical
complex. Ammonia will be produced by steam reforming of natural gas. The nitric
127
acid plant will take a portion of the ammonia product, and nitric acid and
ammonia will then be used to produce ammonium nitrate.
128
REFERENCES
Ababio, O.Y. 2005, New General Chemistry, Africana- Fep Publishers, Sydney.
Anon, A. 1979 ‘Nitric Acid rolls on’ Chemical Engineering 29 June, pp. 24-25.
Boland, D. & Linnhoff, B. 1979 ‘The preliminary design of networks for heat
exchangers by systematic methods’ Chemical Engineering, London 22 April,
pp. 25-27.
Canon, B.W 1998 Safety and health in workplace, Nostrand Rein hold, New
York, pp.201-203.
Durilla, M. 2009, NOx and NO2 control in nitric acid plants, Queens Publishing
House, U.S.A.
Gregory T.C 1999, Uses and Applications of chemicals and related materials,
Reinhold Publishing, New York.
Harvin R.L, Leray D.G & Roudier L.R 1979, ‘Single pressure or dual pressure
nitric acid: an objective comparison’, Ammonia Plant Safety, Vol. 21, pp.173-
183, AIChe, New York.
Kirk B.E & Othmer D.F (Eds) 1981, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology 3rd
Ed. Vol.15 Wiley-Interscience, New York, pp.853-871.
Martyn, S.R. & David, W. J. 1989, Chemical engineering design: a case study
approach, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow.
130
Max, S.P, Klus, D. T. & Ronald, E.W 2003, Plant design and economics for
chemical engineers; 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
APPENDIX I
Figure A.1: Temperature correction factor: for one Shell; two or more even
tube passes Heat exchange
134
APPENDIX II
MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATION
Basis: 1hour
3NO2+H2O ⇌2HNO3+NO
30 tons HNO3 3 tons moles 1 ton mole 46 tons NO2 100 tons NO2
NO2 HNO3 fed
2 ton moles 63 tons HNO3 1 ton mole 98 tons NO2
HNO3 NO2 converted
OXIDISING UNIT
2NO+O2⇌2NO2
CONVERTER
4NH3+5O2⇌4NO+6H2O
136
30 tons HNO3 1 ton mole HNO3 1 ton mole H2O 18 tons H2O
63 tons HNO3 2 tons moles HNO3 1 ton mole H2O
=4.286 tons H2O Required.
=0.64 tons O2
=2.29tons O2 reacted
=0.48 tons NO
APPENDIX III
ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATION
Unit 3: THE COMPRESSOR
𝑻𝟐
Heat, Q = n∆H = ∫𝑻𝟏 𝑪𝒑𝒅𝑻
Components involved N2 an O2
Specific heat capacities;
N2 = 1.04 KJ/KgK and O2 = 0.6486 KJ/KgK
Enthalpy, H;
H1= 1.04(428−𝟐𝟗𝟑) = 140.4 KJ/Kg
H2 = 0.64886(428− 293) = 87.56KJ/Kg
H3 = 0.6486 (428 – 293) = 87. 56KJ/Kg
𝟓𝟐𝟑
H1 and H3 = ∫𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟑(𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟒 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎-4 T−𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟕. 𝟒𝟔T-2)
H5 = -685.088 KJ/ Kg
Q = -15976252KJ/Kg
m= 1000Kg/hr
TSteam=410°C
Unit 13: STACK GAS HEATER
AMMONIA VAPORIZER
Q + ƛ =13565 × 2.15(T +33.4)
ƛ=Latent heat of Steam= 1910.3
Q=149781.4
T = 15169.14/ (13565×2.15) -33.4= -28.199°C
AMMONIA SUPERHEATER
Q= -1596252KJ/hr, ƛ=3300
Q + ƛ = 13565×2.15(T + 28.2)
T = (1596252+3300)/ (13565×2.15) -28.2
T=26.65°C
145
APPPENDIX IV
EQUIPMENT DESIGN CALCULATION
STACK GAS HEATER
74322.76/3600 =20.6452KJ/h
81.52 − 120
81.52
𝑙𝑛
120
38.48
0.387
∆𝑇𝑚 = 99.43𝑜 𝐶
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚
20.6452
0.102 × 99.53
A = 2.03m2
146
AMMONIA VAPORIZER
149781.4𝐾𝐽 149781.4
𝑄= , 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐽/ sec = = 41.606𝐾𝐽/𝑆
ℎ𝑟 3600
𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑛 = −33. 4𝑜 𝐶
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡= − 28.199𝑜 𝐶
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑛 = 208
(𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑛 )
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 167.2∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑛
236.199 − 200.6
236.199
ln[ ]
200.6
35.599 35.599
= = 218. 4𝑜 𝐶
𝑙𝑛1.177 0.163
U = 0.102KW/m2
𝑄 41.606
𝐴= = = 1.868𝑚2
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 0.102 × 218.4
WASTE HEAT BOILER 1
(𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑛 )
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑛
∆𝑇𝑚 = 333.76
𝑄 4437.8 4437.8
𝐴= = = = 130.73𝑚2
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 0.102 × 333.76 34.04
147
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚
Q = 149781.4KJ/hr, converting to KJ/s
= 41.61KJ/S
41.61
= 11.83𝑚2
0.102 × 34.48
NH3 SUPERHEATER.
(𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑛 )
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡
ln[ ]
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑛
Q = 4437.85KJ/S.
U = 0.102KW/m2
4437.85
𝐴= = 127.6𝑚2
0.102 × 340.95
AIR HEATER
Q = 14881486.75KJ/hr = 4133.7KJ/S.
148
𝑄 4133.7
𝐴= = = 588.7𝑚2
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 7.02
149
APPENDIX V
IN 1998
2 2
𝐴𝑚2 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 500𝑚 × ( )
500𝑚2
IN 2013
2013 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2013 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 1998 × ( )
1998 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
Index in 1998 = 390
AMMONIA VAPORIZER
A = 1.87m2
1.87 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 1998 = 𝑁1.84𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × ( ) = 𝑁0.06𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
500
683.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2013 = 𝑁0.06𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × ( )
390
N 0.11 million.
IN 1998
2 2
𝐴𝑚2 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 500𝑚 × ( )
500𝑚2
150
IN 2013
2013 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2013 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 1998 × ( )
1998 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
In 1998
11.8 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚2 = 𝑁1.84 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × ( )
500
𝑁1.84𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × (0.0236)0.6
𝑁1.84𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 0.106
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑚2 =
𝑁0.19𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
In 2013
683.6
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 2013 = 𝑁0.19𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × = 𝑁0.33𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
390
AMMONIA SUPERHEATER
A = 128m2
Cost in 1998
128 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 128𝑚2 = 𝑁1.84 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × ( ) = 𝑁0.8214𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
500
Cost in 2013
151
683.6
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 2013 = 𝑁0.8124𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × = 𝑁1.424𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
390
WASTE HEAT BOILER 1
A = 130.5m2
In 1998
2 2
𝐴𝑚2 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 500𝑚 × ( )
500𝑚2
130.5 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 130.5𝑚2 = 𝑁1.84 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × ( ) = 𝑁0.8219𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
500
683.6
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 2013 = 𝑁0.8219𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × = 𝑁1.44𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
390
FOR AIR HEATER
IN 1998
2 2
𝐴𝑚2 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 500𝑚 × ( )
500𝑚2
IN 2013
2013 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2013 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 1998 × ( )
1998 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
Index in 1998 = 390
1998
2.03 0.6
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚2 = 𝑁1.84 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × ( ) = 0.068𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
500
683.6
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 2013 = 𝑁0.068𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 × = 𝑁0.119𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
390
CONVERTER
680
Cost in 2013 = $1.457( ) = $2.541million
390
COMPRESSOR
In 1990
𝑐𝑎𝑝1 0.6
Cost of eq1 = cost of eq2( )
𝑐𝑎𝑝2
7294 0.6
Cost of eq1 = $2100 × ( )
447.8
928.1
cost in 2013 = 11203.4 ( )
756.3
153
=$ 13748.4
= # 2.2 million
1637.96 = $2830.56
= #447228
683.6
Cost in 2013 = 1593.39( )
395
= $2830.56
= N447228.00
RATIO METHOD
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 n
Cost of designed plant = cost of previous plant ( )
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
154
1200 0.6
Cost of 1200tons per day =cost of 280 per day( )
280
1200 0.6
= $60 million(
280
) = $144 million
=#23 billion
C = 14000 N Q0.615
= # 79.8 billion