Basic modes of heat transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction,convection and radiation. One or more of these modes
controls the amount of heat transfer in all applications.
Conduction Temperature is a property that indicates the kinetic energy possessed by the molecules of
a substance; the higher the temperature the greater the kinetic energy or molecular activity of the substance.
Molecular conduction of heat is simply the transfer of energy due to a temperature difference between
adjacent molecules in a solid, liquid or gas.
Convection Convection heat transfer within a fluid (gas or liquid) occurs by a combination of molecular
conduction and macroscopic fluid motion. Convection occurs adjacent to heated surfaces as a result of fluid
motion past the surface as shown in Fig. 2. Natural convection occurs when the fluid motion is due to
buoyancy effects caused by local density differences.
In the top portion of Fig. 2, the fluid motion is due to heat flow from the surface to the fluid; the fluid
density decreases causing the lighter fluid to rise and be replaced by cooler fluid. Forced convection results
when mechanical forces from devices such as fans give motion to the fluids.
Radiation Radiation is the transfer of energy between bodies by electromagnetic waves. This transfer,
unlike conduction or convection, requires no intervening medium. The electromagnetic radiation, in the
wavelength range of 0.1 to 100 micrometers, is produced solely by the temperature of a body. Energy
at the body’s surface is converted into electromagnetic waves that emanate from the surface and strike
another body. Some of the thermal radiation is absorbed by the receiving body and reconverted into internal
energy, while the remaining energy is reflected from or transmitted through the body.
Boiling point and thermophysical properties
The boiling point, or saturation temperature, of a liquid can be defined as the temperature at which its
vapor pressure is equal to the total local pressure. The saturation temperature for water at atmospheric
pressure is 212F (100C). This is the point at which net vapor generation occurs and free steam bubbles are
formed from a liquid undergoing continuous heating.
Steam-water separation
Subcritical pressure recirculating boilers and steam generators are equipped with large cylindrical vessels
called steam drums. Their primary objective is to permit separation of the saturated steam from the
steamwater mixture leaving the boiling heat transfer surfaces.
The steam-free water is recirculated with the feedwater to the heat absorbing surfaces for further
steam generation. The saturated steam is discharged through a number of outlet nozzles for direct use or
further heating. The steam drum also serves to:
1. mix the feedwater with the saturated water remaining after steam separation,
2. mix the corrosion control and water treatment chemicals (if used),
3. purify the steam to remove contaminants and residual moisture,
4. remove part of the water (blowdown) to control the boiler water chemistry (solids content), and
5. provide limited water storage to accommodate rapid changes in boiler load.
However, the primary function of the steam drum is to permit the effective separation of steam and water.
This may be accomplished by providing a large steam-water surface for natural gravity-driven separation
or by having sufficient space for mechanical separation equipment. High efficiency separation is critical in
most boiler applications in order to:
1. prevent water droplet carryover into the superheater where thermal damage may occur,
2. minimize steam carryunder in the water leaving the drum where residual steam can reduce the
effective hydraulic pumping head, and
3. prevent the carryover of solids dissolved in the steamentrained water droplets into the superheater and
turbine where damaging deposits may form.
Factors affecting steam separation
Effective steam separation from the steam-water mixture relies on certain design and operating factors.
The design factors include:
1. pressure,
2. drum length and diameter,
3. rate of steam generation,
4. average inlet steam quality,
5. type and arrangement of mechanical separators,
6. feedwater supply and steam discharge equipment arrangement, and
7. arrangement of downcomer and riser connections to the steam drum.
The operating factors include:
1. pressure,
2. boiler load (steam flow),
3. type of steam load,
4. chemical analysis of boiler water, and
5. water level.
Primary separation equipment generally takes one of three forms:
1. natural gravity-driven separation,
2. baffle-assisted separation, and
3. high capacity mechanical separation.