Forces: Chapter 8

Pushes and Pulls

CONTEXT AREA
■ You cannot push someone unless you touch them. To kick a soccer ball, your foot
has to strike the ball.
■ Some things, such as magnets, can move without being touched or hit. Magnets can
move objects without touching them at all. They are not the only things that can do
this. Some objects move without us seeing anything moving them.
■ It is not magic. They are moved by a force field. What is a field? What do they
move? Is there a catch?

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREAS

4.2 uses examples to illustrate how models, theories and laws contribute to an
understanding of phenomena
4.3 identifies areas of everyday life that have been affected by scientific developments

DOMAINS
KNOWLEDGE AND 4.9.5 hydrosphere
b describe the effect of the forces of the Sun and
UNDERSTANDING Moon on the hydrosphere
4.6.2 forces
a identify changes that take place when SKILLS
particular forces are acting 4.13 clarifies the purpose of an investigation and, with
b use the term ‘field’ in describing forces acting at guidance, produces a plan to investigate a problem
a distance 4.14 follows a sequence of instructions to undertake a
4.6.7 frictional force first-hand investigation
a describe friction as a contact force which 4.17 evaluates the relevance of data and information
opposes motion 4.18 with guidance, presents information to an audience
b identify everyday situations where friction acts to achieve a particular purpose
4.6.8 electrostatic force 4.19 draws conclusions based on information available
a describe ways in which objects acquire an 4.20 uses an identified strategy to solve problems
electrostatic charge 4.22 completes a variety of individual and team tasks
b identify everyday situations where the effects of with guidance
electrostatic forces can be observed
c describe the behaviour of charges when they are VALUES AND ATTITUDES
brought close to each other 4.23 demonstrates confidence and a willingness to make
4.6.9 magnetic force decisions and to take responsible actions
a describe the behaviour of magnetic poles when 4.24 respects different viewpoints and is honest, fair
they are brought close to each other and ethical
b identify everyday situations in which magnets and 4.25 recognises the relevance and importance of lifelong
electromagnets are used learning and acknowledges the continued impact of
4.6.10 gravitational force science in many aspects of everyday life
a identify that all objects exert a force of gravity on 4.26 recognises the role of science in providing
all other objects in the universe information about issues being considered
and in increasing understanding of the
world around them
CONCEPTS
Friction Concept of friction as a force
More about forces Contact and non-contact forces
Experiments to think about
Magnets Investigating magnets and magnetism
Testing magnetic substances, poles of magnets
Looking closer at magnets Magnetic domain theory
Types of magnets
Magnetic fields Seeing and mapping fields
Types and uses of magnets Ancient beliefs, discovery of magnets
Magnets in technology
Static electricity What it is, causes of it
Sparks and lightning History of discovery of static electricity
Role of static electricity in our society
Gravity is a field Concept of gravity as a field
Tides as a result of gravity of sun and moon
Understanding gravity Role of Newton and Einstein
Idea of curved space and black holes

155
 8.1
Why objects move
Nothing moves by itself. It must be pushed or home, push forces can be measured with some
pulled. A push or pull that makes something bathroom scales or kitchen scales. Pull forces are
move is called a force. A tug-of-war team measured with a spring balance or a rubber band.
produces a force. If there are more people in the Look at some spring balances. Compare the stiffness
team, or they are stronger, they can produce a of the spring in different types of balances. Stiff
larger force. springs can measure a large force.
The force that moves a hockey ball comes from The unit used to measure forces is called the
the hockey stick. The force that makes a bicycle newton. Its abbreviation is N. The weight force of
move comes from your legs. The downward force 100 g is about one newton. We will use this in the
of your mass due to gravity is called weight. You following experiment.
can see the effects of your weight if you stand on
your bed, or on soft cushions or
a trampoline.
Forces are all around us, but
we usually don’t notice them.
Forces can make objects move
faster, or slower, or in a different
direction. Forces also change
the shape of objects. A force
changes the shape of plasticine.
Forces have direction. When
you hit a hockey ball, it moves
in a certain direction. It is usual
to show the direction of the
force with an arrow. The arrow
has a second use—a small arrow
shows a small force, and a large
arrow shows a large force.
Forces can be added together.
Two locomotives (=railway
engines) on a coal train pull Wind is a force that we cannot see, but it A spring balance can be used to measure
with twice the force of one can move large objects forces in the laboratory
locomotive.
A sailing ship uses the force of
the wind to sail forward. Even if
the wind is blowing from the
side the sailing ship can move
forwards. Some of the force of
the wind pushes the boat side-
ways, and some pushes the boat
forwards. The boat has the
greatest force applied to it when
the wind is blowing from air swing stick hits ball
behind. Boats will use their
largest sails to gain the greatest
The hockey stick pushes the ball. The stick You push the bike to make it move. The
force and the greatest speed.
exerts a force on the ball, causing it to force comes from your legs. The bike goes
The size of a force can be move. If you miss, there is no force on down a hill and speeds up. The force comes
measured. In the laboratory you the ball from gravity
would use a spring balance. At
156
 8.2
Friction
If we make something move, it eventually slows as a lubricant. Lubricants work by coating the
down and stops. Rolling a ball, pushing your surface, making them more slippery. Putting oil
bicycle, and swimming in the pool are all and grease on bicycle wheel axles makes them
examples. Unless you keep on pushing or spin more easily, with less friction.
pedalling or swimming, the movement will stop. Friction is reduced by using roller bearings or
Every time something moves, there is a push (a ball bearings. The balls reduce friction because
force) acting against it. This force is called friction. they roll past each other,
Friction slows and stops everything that is rather than being dragged
moving. The more friction, the sooner the over each other.
movement stops. A hovercraft and puck
Friction happens because objects rub together. have low friction because
A rolling ball is rubbing against the ground. A they use a layer of air to glide
moving bicycle is pushing through the air and over a surface. There is no
against the road, and the wheels are rubbing contact between the surfaces
against the axles. When you are swimming you and no friction. The same
are pushing against the water. The water slows idea is used in magnetic levi-
you down. Without friction you could ride tation (maglev) trains, where
further and swim faster with less effort. the trains and carriages are Tyre treads help to
But stop! Without friction your feet would just held above the tracks by maintain a car’s grip
with the road
slip over the ground. It would be like trying to strong magnetic forces.
walk on ice. The wheels on a bike would just
spin. Your pen would run over the page without AIM: To use the force meter

EXPERIMENT
leaving a mark. Without friction we could not
Use your force meter to measure the friction of
walk, ride a bike or write.
some lumps of wood.
Friction is very useful to us, but it can also be a
problem. Air resistance is the friction between a
moving object and the air it is moving through. push this way
Air resistance is used in parachutes, but it is a
problem in cars and trucks. Streamlining
block of
(= making the surface smooth) helps overcome wood
air resistance. Air resistance is also called drag.
Fish and sharks have a streamlined shape. This
allows them to move through the water with the
least amount of force. Animals that do not need force meter
to swim fast, such as seahorses, are not
streamlined.
Measuring the friction of blocks of wood
Lubrication is using lubricants such as oil and
grease to reduce friction. If kitchen and bedroom Record your results in a table.
drawers stick, you can put on candle wax or soap
Object Force
air flow
s smoothly over
the c needed to
ar
make it move
Block of wood
Block of wood with book on it
Block of wood with rollers under it
Block of wood with sand under it
What was the best way to reduce friction?
Streamlining reduces friction

158
 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 159

AIM: To make an air puck AIM: To make ball bearings

EXPERIMENT

DEMONSTRATION
A puck is a device for showing motion with Ball bearings and roller bearings reduce friction in
reduced friction.You can make one with a plastic moving parts. They are used a lot in wheels, from
tube, a balloon, and a piece of flat timber or skateboards to large trucks.
metal. As the balloon goes down, the air goes Your teacher will set up the following
out of the tube. This places a layer of air between demonstration.
the bottom of the puck and the bench. The puck To see how good ball bearings can be, place a
will gently glide over the bench with not much brick on top of the top can, and gently spin it.
friction. Could you do this
identical tin,
without ball upside down
balloon
bearings?
plastic tube
In real bearings, marbles fit in
steel balls are used groove
wood or plastic instead of marbles. around lid
with hole in
centre (underside Adding oil or grease coffee,
must be smooth) further lowers the powdered milk
friction and makes or paint tin
the wheels spin
An air puck Making ball bearings
more easily.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Every time something _____, there is a ____ (a _____) acting against it. This force is called ________. Friction
_____ and _____ everything that is ______. The more ________, the sooner the ________ stops.
Friction happens because _______ rub ________. A moving _______ is pushing through the ___ and against the
____, and the ______ are rubbing against the _____.
Friction is very ______ to us, but it can also be a _______. Streamlining helps overcome ___ __________.
Lubrication is using __________ such as ___ and ______ to reduce ________.

QUESTIONS d A spacecraft entering the atmosphere gets red hot.

1 What are the meanings of these words: friction,
streamlining, air resistance, drag, lubricant?
2 In the following drawing of a racing cyclist, find two
examples of using friction, and two examples of
reducing friction. (Hint: use the four notes in the
text.) Write them in your note book.
The racing cyclist
3 Use friction to explain the following:
a Surfers put wax on their boards.
b People driving cars on ice or snow put chains
on the tyres.
c A car uses more petrol when it has a load on
the roof.
e It is hard to run on ice, such as at an ice-skating
rink.
4 Ball bearings are used in roller blades and skate
boards. How would these objects move without ball
bearings?
5 Think about how far a toy car and a marble would roll
along a flat bench. Which has the least friction?
Which rolls the furthest? What is the connection
between rolling and friction?
6 Hovercraft can travel over water and mud with almost
no friction. How is this achieved?
7 Fast cars and boats all have a streamlined shape.
What is the reason for this?
8 Toy cars with thin axles will travel faster and roll
further than toy cars with thick axles. The toy cars
with thick axles are more robust and strong. Explain
why the size of the axle determines the rolling
abilities of these toy cars and trucks.
 8.3
More about forces
A force is a push or a pull that changes how Balanced forces are very important. Two tug of
quickly something moves. The size of the force is war teams will be balanced if they pull with the
not the only factor that affects movement. What same force, but in opposite directions.
else determines how the movement changes? A weight lifter needs to
Some forces make objects move because of a exert a force to hold the
direct push or pull by another object. The objects barbells above the ground.
have to touch each other, or be in contact. These The upward force from the
are called contact forces. Hitting a hockey ball muscles of the lifter, and
with a stick is a good example. the downward weight
Some forces cause movement without contact force of gravity, balance
or touching. An example is a mass hanging from each other. To move the
a length of string. There is no contact force. But barbells higher requires a
there is gravity. Gravity can exert a force without greater effort. If the weight
touching anything. In fact, gravity is exerting a lifter stops applying his
force on us all the time. Magnets also exert a force force, then the force due to
on other magnets and some metals without gravity takes over. The A weightlifter applies a force
touching them. barbells crash to the floor. to lift a weight
There are many forces When you stand on a mattress your weight
around us, but most of force pushes down. The mattress pushes back.
them do not cause move- The heavier you are, the more the mattress will
ment. This is because the deform before it pushes
forces are balanced. If the back with your weight
forces of these two girls force.
balance each other there is
no movement. They are
pushing with equal and
opposite forces. Your weight force pushes
down on the mattress,
Forces can balance each other causing it to change shape

AIM: To perform experiments with What happens when you push against the wall?
EXPERIMENT

forces How hard does the wall push back? What would
How hard can you push? happen if the wall did not push back?
Try with two people pushing. Is the total force
When you push against a wall, how many newtons equal to the force of each person?
of force do you produce? You can measure this
with some bathroom scales. To convert the
kilograms into newtons, multiply the kilograms by
10. For example, 12 kg would become 120 N.

Explain what is happening above.

160
 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 161

Rocking bird Designing an experiment

Cut out the shape of the rocking bird (from the
back of the book) on some thick cardboard. Cut
out a square for its feet, and push it in the notch.
Colour the bird, and put some plasticine on its tail.
Place it on the edge of a bench and give it a
gentle push.
Explain why the bird rocks, and why the bird
slows and stops rocking.
blob of plasticine
Design some equipment which uses a block of
wood to hit a tennis ball. A block of wood from a
builder or the woodwork room is ideal. The picture
below shows one way to set this up. The wooden
block swings and the contact force causes the ball
to move. How far can you make the ball move?
Who in your class can make the ball move furthest?
You must use only the force of gravity: you cannot
push the wooden block.
clamp

retort string
stand and
boss head

wooden block

The rocking bird in action A possible design for the experiment

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

A force is a ____ or a ____ that changes how fast something _____.

Some forces make objects ____ because of a ______ push or pull by another ______. These are called _______
forces.
Some forces cause ________ without _______ or ________. An example is a ____ hanging from a length of ______.
There is no _______ force. _______ also exert a force on other _______ and some ______ without ________ them.

QUESTIONS 6 When you push against a brick wall, why doesn’t it

fall over? Why can a bulldozer push it over?
1 What is a contact force? List three examples.
7 Explain why weightlifters get tired when they hold
2 If the bathroom scales indicate that you weigh heavy masses in the air.
60 kg, how many newtons is this?
3 When a sky diver steps out of an aeroplane, what
force acts on her body? Is this a contact force?
After she has been falling for a while, two forces
act on her body. What is this new force? Is it a
contact force?
4 The photograph shows motocross riders. What forces
act on the riders when they are:
a stationary on the ground?
b moving across the ground at a constant speed?
c gliding through the air?

5 If Sally can push with 150 N force, and Jill with

200 N force in the same direction, what force can
they push with together? What is the force if they
push in opposite directions? Motocross riders
 8.4
Magnets
Magnets are great fun to play with. They push
and pull each other and attract pieces of iron. We
say that they are magnetic. Magnets are made of
an alloy (= mixture of metals) that is mostly iron.
One important magnetic alloy is Alnico, which is
made of iron mixed with aluminium, nickel,
cobalt and copper. The bar magnets used in
schools are made of this alloy. New strong
magnets are made from rare Earth metals. They
are much stronger than normal magnets and do
not lose their magnetism.
Magnets are very common. There are magnets
in the refrigerator door to keep it tightly closed.
Different types of magnets are used in telephones,
electric motors, computers, car engines, and even
some types of switches. Magnetism is used in
video and audio tapes, computer disks, and in
fridge magnets. Magnets are an essential part of
some alarms. Attached to doors and windows are
magnets that attract part of a switch. When the
door or window is moved, the magnetism stops
and this trips the switch. An alarm sounds.
Magnets come in many different shapes. The
AIM: To investigate magnets and
EXPERIMENT
magnetism
1 Which objects are magnetic?
Test a variety of materials, including nails, pens,
coins, electrical wire, plastics, fruit tin cans,
aluminium drink cans, retort stands, gauze mats,
and furniture.Test as many substances as you
can.
Write the aim into your note book, and then
record your results in a table.
2 Magnetism goes through many materials. Which
ones? Set up the experiment below and test a
variety of common materials. Use the materials
you used in Part 1. Record your results in a table.
paper clip
slide materials into
this space between
the magnet and the
paper clip
magnet
Do you notice any similarities in the
materials you found to be magnetic in Part 1,
162
most common are bar magnets. A magnet which
has been bent over into a U shape is called a
horseshoe magnet. Some magnets are round and
are called button magnets. Not all magnets are
made of iron. People attach vinyl magnets to their
fridge doors. The magnetic strips on the back of
plastic swipe cards are similar to the material in
video tape.
Bar magnets must be stored properly so that
they retain their magnetism for a long time.
Magnets are packed in pairs, side by side. They
are separated by a piece of wood or other
non-magnetic material. A piece of iron is placed
across the ends of the magnet. It is called a
keeper. It keeps the magnetism in the magnets.
Make sure that when you return magnets to the
teacher after a lesson they are packed properly.
Magnets with keepers
and those which magnetism goes through in
Part 2?
3 When you have a magnet and a piece of iron,
the magnet attracts (= pulls closer) the iron. It
never repels (= pushes away) the iron. What
about two magnets? Push two magnets near
each other. Try the like (= same) poles, and
then the unlike (= different) poles. Describe
your results using the following words: like,
unlike, repel, attract.
4 Why do magnets have ends called north and
south? The north end has N stamped on it, and
the south end usually has no markings. How
did they get these names?
Set up an experiment like the one shown
below. Recordmagnet
yourhanging
results in magnet
your onnote
piece book.
of wood or
from string cork floating in plastic container
Testing magnetism
through different
substances
Using a magnet to find north
 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 163

The north pole of the magnet points towards the

north pole of the Earth. We say that it points north. AIM: To design and make an

EXPERIMENT
The north pole of the magnet is called a north-seeking alarm
pole. This means that it points to the magnetic north
There are many ways of making an alarm.
pole of the Earth.
One idea is shown below. A hacksaw blade
Look at a variety of magnets. They can have different is attracted to the magnet. The hacksaw
shapes, such as bar, horseshoe, and button. Find which blade is part of an electrical circuit. When
part of them is the north pole and which is the south the magnet is moved the hacksaw blade
pole. springs back and touches a piece of bared
wire that completes the electrical circuit.
Tricks with magnets
This causes the alarm (a lamp) to glow.
1 Balancing trick. Two magnets can repel each other, and Make sure that the magnet is close to
one can be held in the air. but not touching the hacksaw blade. You
can rest the magnet on an upside down
beaker. Most hacksaw blades are painted
when they are new, and you will have to
remove some of the paint to make a good
electrical contact. retort stand and
bar boss head clamp
Balancing magnet to secure hacksaw
on blade
magnets retort stand, upside
boss head clamp down hacksaw blade
with wire beaker
contact
2 Magnetic toys. Small toys can move across the desk like
magic. The secret is to tape some iron, like a nail or
paper clip, at the bottom of the toy. The magnet is transformer
under the table where it cannot be seen. When you lamp 2
4 6 8
10

move the magnet, the toy follows it. 0

12

Equipment you may need wire leads

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Magnets ____ and ____ each other and attract pieces of ____. We say that they are ________. One important
________ alloy is ______.
Magnets are very common. There are magnets in the ____________ door to keep it _______ closed. Different types
of magnets are used in __________, ________ motors, _________, car _______, and even some types of ________.
Magnetism is used in _____ and _____ tapes, computer _____, and in ______ magnets.
Bar magnets must be ______ properly so that they ______ their magnetism for a long time. A piece of ____ is
placed across the ____ of the ______. It is called a ______. It keeps the _________ in the _______.

QUESTIONS
1 List some uses of magnets and magnetism. 5 Explain the origin of the name Alnico.
2 Why is one part of a magnet called a north pole? 6 Magnetic toys will work if you have a wooden or
3 What happens when the following poles of two plastic table, but not if you have a steel or iron
magnets are pushed close together? table. Explain why.
a N and S 7 How could you quickly make a vinyl magnet stick
b N and N onto a thin wooden cupboard door? (You cannot use
c S and S tape or glue.)
d S and N 8 Use the concept of a magnetically-operated alarm to
4 What is a keeper? Draw how bar magnets should be draw and describe how you could make an alarm to
stored. indicate when a door is opened.
 8.5
Looking inside magnets
The magnets you are using at school are called
permanent magnets. They stay magnetic for
many years, although they slowly lose their
magnetism. Magnets are made by adding metals
in the correct proportions and then melting and
mixing them. Next the molten metal is poured
into a mould of the correct shape, and then
strongly magnetised. The metal freezes
(= solidifies) and keeps its magnetism. The
magnetic pattern of the crystals remains as the
metal freezes.
This way of making magnets explains magnet-
ism. Inside magnetic materials are tiny magnetic
crystals. These are called magnetic domains. The
magnetic domains can face in any direction.
When magnets are being made, the magnetic
domains are all forced to face the same direction.
When the metal solidifies, all the magnetic
domains are frozen in this position. This creates a
strong magnet which lasts a long time. It is a
permanent magnet. In weak magnets, only some
of the domains line up. The other domains face
other directions.
strongly magnetic weakly magnetic
one magnetic domain
S N
non-magnetic
The magnetic domain theory
Making a temporary magnet
The concept of domains can be applied to
magnetic tape. Like magnets, magnetic tape is
made of tiny magnetic particles. Cassette tape,
video tape, computer hard disks and other
magnetic tapes are made of a coating of iron
oxide and chromium dioxide, stuck onto a
flexible backing material. Magnetic patterns can
be applied to the tape. The pattern recorded in
the tiny magnets stores the data for playback
later. Recording over this tape simply rearranges
the tiny magnetic patterns.
164
recorded
tape
recording
head
unrecorded
tape playback
How a tape recorder works
head
Some metals can become temporary magnets.
They can be magnetised by stroking them with a
permanent magnet. So long as you stroke the iron
in the same direction, and with the same end of the
magnet, the object will become a temporary
magnet.
Temporary magnets lose their magnetism very
quickly. In temporary magnets only some of the
magnetic domains line up. The domains are not
used to being in this new position, and will soon go
back to their old position. When this happens, the
magnetism is lost.
Pure iron (also called soft iron) loses its
magnetism easily. Nails and screwdrivers are
made of soft iron. The iron-containing alloy in
permanent magnets is called hard iron. Hard iron
keeps its magnetism for a long time.
If you hang a nail from a magnet, the nail
becomes weakly magnetised. It can induce
magnetism in another nail. More nails can hang
from it. Each nail is magnetised, and magnetises
the nail below it. We say
that one nail ‘induces’ the
magnetism in the next nail. N
The induced magnetism
becomes weaker the further
S
the nail is from the magnet.
N
Each nail is a magnet only
while it is touching a strong
S
magnet. The strong magnet
causes some of the domains N
to line up. Inducing magnetism
You can destroy the in nails S
magnetism in any magnet or
magnetic object by hammering and banging it.
This knocks the domains out of position. You can
also heat the magnet. This causes the domains to
vibrate faster, and they may lose their original
position.
 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 165

AIM: To make an electromagnet

EXPERIMENT
You will need an iron object
ends of wire
and a one metre length of
enamelled or insulated
electrical wire. An iron bolt coils of wire
or spike or a large nail is ideal.
Leave one end of the wire
free and wrap the wire iron nail
around the iron in a tight coil. hold this
Leave the other end free and down with tape

A scrapyard electromagnet
Electromagnets
All the magnets we have considered
hold the wire coil down with
tape. Making an electromagnet
Test the strength of your
electromagnet with iron pins electricity on and off. Does the

EXPERIMENT
so far have one large disadvantage. or paper clips. Turn the magnetism go on and off?
You cannot turn them off. There is
one type of magnet which you can
turn off. It is an electromagnet. It is
made of a coil of wire wrapped
around some iron. When electricity AIM: To magnetise a nail
flows through the wire, magnetism Magnetise and demagnetise a large nail by stroking it with a
is produced and this magnetises the permanent magnet. Test the magnetism using paper clips or pins.
iron. When the electricity is turned Then drop it or hit it to destroy the magnetism.
off, the magnetism disappears. The
iron inside the coil must be soft iron.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Inside magnetic materials are ____ magnetic ________. These are called magnetic _______. When magnets are
being ____, the magnetic domains are all ______ to face the same _________. This creates a ______ magnet which
lasts a ____ ____. It is a _________ magnet.
Temporary magnets ____ their magnetism very _______. In temporary _______ only ____ of the ________ _______
line up.
Pure iron (also called ____ iron) loses its _________ easily. The iron-containing alloy in _________ magnets is
called ____ iron. Hard iron _____ its _________ for a long time.
There is one type of ______ which you can ____ ___. It is an _____________. It is made of a ____ of ____
wrapped around some ____. Electromagnets have many ____.

QUESTIONS
1 Use the domain theory to explain why magnets can 5 What is the difference between a permanent magnet
be weak and strong. and a temporary magnet? Describe how to make each
2 How can magnetism be induced in non-magnetic iron? type.

3 What is the advantage of an electromagnet compared 6 Describe how you can compare the strength of two
with a permanent magnet? magnets using simple equipment in the laboratory.

4 List three ways in which the magnetism in a magnet 7 List places at home where you would find magnets.
can be destroyed. 8 How can you make a magnet from unmagnetised iron?
Describe the two methods discussed in the text.
 8.6
Magnetic fields
Around every magnet is an invisible region where
pieces of iron are attracted. Other magnets are
attracted or repelled. This invisible region is called
a field, or a force field. The field around a magnet
is called a magnetic field. We cannot see or hear
or smell a magnetic field, but a piece of iron or
another magnet can feel it. Magnetic fields are
invisible, but they are real.
A compass needle is a weak magnet. When a
compass is placed near a strong magnet, the
compass needle points in the direction of the
field. You can see this by moving a compass
around the sides and ends of a bar magnet.
A compass needle is affected by a nearby magnet
Iron filings and iron powder are tiny bits of
iron. If you put them near a strong magnet, they The part of the compass needle with N on it
become temporary magnets. They line up like points to the north magnetic pole of the Earth.
tiny compass needles around the strong magnet. Note that the North Pole of the Earth is not the
This lets us see what a magnetic field looks like. same as the magnetic north pole. They are both
We can draw this pattern and make a map of the in the Arctic Circle, but hundreds of kilometres
magnetic field. Notice that we use the iron filings apart. A compass should be held flat to show
to map something that we cannot see. direction. In many places on the Earth the
There is a magnetic field around the Earth. magnetic field is directed into the Earth. This can
When you use a compass, the magnetic compass be shown using a special compass that is held
needle lines up with the Earth’s magnetic field. sideways.

AIM: To investigate magnetic fields and printing the photograph using a computer.
EXPERIMENT

Your teacher will give you a bar magnet, some Then place the magnets in different locations.
cling wrap and some iron filings. Wrap the magnet These are shown in the drawings.
in cling wrap before using it. Lie the magnet on
the bench, place a sheet of paper over it, and
then sprinkle iron filings over the paper. Tap the
paper so that the iron filings can move and line 1 N S N S
up in the magnetic field. The pattern is the shape
of the magnetic field around the magnet.
In your note book, draw the magnetic field 2 N S S N
shown by the pattern of iron filings.You can also
keep a record of the magnetic field by placing the
iron filings on light-sensitive paper (such as diazo 3 N S 4 N S
paper), or photographing it with a digital camera S N N

sprinkle iron filings or

powder onto paper (end of magnet,
sheet of paper or when standing
cardboard upright)
N S S
magnet wrapped on
‘cling wrap’ 5 S N

Mapping a magnetic field The position of the magnets

166
 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 167

You can draw a map of the

magnetic field by joining the dots A B
and bars made by the iron filings.
Discuss with your teacher some
rules or patterns about the
magnetic field and the iron filings.
You can also map the fields
around other magnets. Some
ideas are a horseshoe magnet, a
vinyl fridge magnet, a button B D
magnet or an electromagnet.

Magnetic fields A around a single bar

magnet, B between two attracting bar
magnets, C between two repelling
magnets, and D at one pole of a bar
magnet

If a magnet drops and breaks into two pieces, it

forms two magnets. It is easy to see why if you
know about magnetic domains.
Ask your teacher if they have any broken
magnets. If so, use one to find the shape of the
magnetic field around a piece of broken magnet.
When a magnet is broken, it forms two magnets

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Around every magnet is an _________ region where pieces of ____ are _________. Other magnets are attracted ______
or ________. This invisible ______ is called a _____, or a _____ _____. The field around a magnet is called a ________
_____.
A _______ needle is a weak ______. When a compass is placed near a ______ ______, the compass needle points in the
_________ of the _____.
Iron _______ and iron ______ are tiny bits of ____. They line up like tiny _______ _______ around the strong ______.
This lets us ___ what a ________ field _____ like.

QUESTIONS 6 When you did the experiment to see the magnetic

1 What is a magnetic field?
2 How can we see a magnetic field?
3 How could you map the field around a magnetic nail?
4 Describe in words the shape of the magnetic field
when two magnets are
a attracting
b repelling.
5 By looking at the magnetic fields made by different
magnets, can you decide which magnet is stronger?
Suggest a rule to use.
fields, you wrapped the magnets in cling wrap. Why
was this?
7 How do people know the shape of the magnetic field
around the Earth?
8 Are magnetic fields two-dimensional or three-
dimensional? Justify your answer.
9 Draw the magnetic field around:
a a broken magnet that has been re-joined
b a broken magnet where the two pieces are 10 cm
apart
c a broken magnet where the two pieces are 1 cm
apart.
 8.7
Types and uses of magnets
The permanent magnets you use at school are Strengths of magnets
made of an alloy of iron. They have the type of
Magnets have different amounts of magnetism.
magnetism called ferromagnetism. Ferrum is the
The units for measuring the strength of
Latin name for iron.
magnetism are the tesla and the gauss. One tesla
Another important group of magnetic
equals 10 000 gauss. The magnetic field around
materials are called ferrites. They are made from
the Earth is about 0.5 gauss. A strong bar magnet
iron, oxygen and other elements. These materials
like you use in the laboratory is about 500 gauss.
are light. Ferrites are used in audio cassettes,
The strongest superconducting magnet made has
video tapes, floppy disks and computer hard disk
a strength of 350 000 gauss. This is 35 tesla.
drives. Magnetism is the main way information is
stored in computers and other systems. The other The Earth’s magnetism
form of storing information is on CDs. CDs use
The Earth is a magnet. There is a magnetic field
laser light to read the data.
around it. The Earth’s magnetism is sometimes
There are two new types of magnets. One type
called geomagnetism. Accurate measurements of
is the supermagnets. They are strong permanent
magnetism are made with a magnetometer. These
magnets made from boron, iron and neodymium.
measurements are important in prospecting
Supermagnets are small, and are used in electric
(=searching) for minerals in the ground.
motors, hi-fi speakers and computer printers.
Aeroplanes or helicopters with a magnetometer
The other type is the superconducting magnets.
attached fly over an area in a grid pattern. The
They are electromagnets with coils of wire which
resulting map of magnetism helps locate minerals
are superconductors. Normal wire slows the
in the ground.
movement of electricity, and it gets hot. A
superconductor allows electricity to flow with no
energy loss. All of the energy goes into the
magnetism, not into heating the wires.
Superconducting magnets are large and
expensive. They are used mainly in research
laboratories and hospitals.
In hospitals, powerful magnets are used to
obtain images of the insides of people. The
patient’s body is magnetised and then scanned by
radio waves to build up a computerised map of
the body. This image is called an MRI, or
magnetic resonance image. MRI scans are A magnetometer helps us locate important minerals
clearer than X-rays and CAT scans, and bones do
A compass is a weak magnet that lines up with
not show up as big white marks. MRI scans can
the Earth’s magnetic field. The north pole on a
show tiny cancers which are too small to detect
compass always points to the magnetic north pole
any other way.
of the Earth. The first compasses were used by the
Chinese in 300 BC. They were made of a piece of
the mineral magnetite hanging from a string.
Compasses were essential for navigation before
global positioning systems (GPS) were available.
They are still used by bushwalkers, because they
are simple, small and easy to carry.
The Earth’s magnetic field extends far into
space beyond the atmosphere, where it is called
the magnetosphere. The magnetosphere interacts
with the flow of charged particles from the Sun,
A patient having an MRI scan
168

and deflects them so they do not hit the Earth.
This interaction produces displays of light in the
sky called auroras. In the Southern Hemisphere,
these are called the aurora australis, and in the
Northern Hemisphere they are called the aurora
borealis. The auroras are mostly seen in the night
sky near the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
The aurora australis, or southern lights
Lots of other planets and stars have a magnetic
field. Our Moon does not have a magnetic field
now, but a study of rocks brought back from the
moon showed that it once did. Information about
the magnetism surrounding the other planets in
our solar system has been gathered by space
probes. Probes such as Voyager carried
magnetometers that measured the strength of the
magnetic fields of planets and their moons.
The Sun has a magnetism of about 2 gauss, but
this increases to 5000 gauss in solar prominences
COPY AND COMPLETE
CHECKPOINT:
The permanent _______ you use at school are made of an _____ of iron. Another important group of magnetic
_________ are called ________.
There are two ___ types of _______. One type is the ____________. They are ______ _________ magnets.
_______________ magnets are electromagnets with _____ of wire which are _______________.
Magnets have different _______ of _________. The _____ for measuring the ________ of magnetism are the _____
and _____.
The Earth is a ______. The Earth’s magnetism is sometimes called ____________. Accurate measurements of
_________ are made with a ____________.
QUESTIONS
1 What are the uses of ferrite magnets?
2 What are the two new types of magnets?
3 What do the letters MRI stand for? Which group of
people would use a MRI?
FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 169
and sunspots. These are made of charged particles
that may rise hundreds of thousands of kilome-
tres into space, and change the Sun’s magnetic
strength for a short period. Some remote stars
have very strong magnetic fields. A neutron star
has the strongest field—about 10 000 000 000
gauss.
AIM: To make an old-style compass
EXPERIMENT
You will need a bar magnet (or magnetised nail
or piece of iron), a piece of wood to hold the
magnet, and a copy of the compass face traced
onto thin cardboard. Place the compass face
onto the wood, and place the magnet on top of
it so that the north of the magnet is on top of
the north of the compass face. Float them in a
food container of water.
W
SW
NW
SE
N
NE
E
Making an old-style compass
A compass shows you which direction you
are facing. Hold your compass steady, and face
towards a tall building, a tower, or some other
landmark. What direction is the landmark? Read
the direction off the compass face.
4 When and by whom were compasses developed?
5 What units are used for measuring the strength of
magnetism?
6 What is meant by geomagnetism?
7 What is the aurora australis? What causes it?
 8.8
Static electricity
Imagine a hot dry windy Saturday. The wind is
blowing up dust. The referee has just blown full
time. You walk to the tap to have a drink. Zap.
You put a jacket over your nylon team jumper.
Zap. Here comes mum in the car, and you touch
the car door handle. Zap. Even at home the
carpet can zap you. What is going on? What is
causing this?
You have just experienced static electricity.
Static electricity is made when materials rub
together. The more they rub together, the more
electricity is made. This means bigger sparks. The
study of static electricity is called electrostatics.
An uncharged plastic rod has an equal number
of positive and negative charges. The negative
charges are called electrons. Because they are on
the outside of atoms, electrons are easy to rub off.
When you rub or brush a rod with a cloth, you
rub off electrons. Sometimes the electrons are
AIM: To investigate electrostatic
EXPERIMENT
charges
1 Rubbing a balloon
Blow into a balloon and tie off the end when it
is inflated with air. Rub the balloon on your
clothes. It will acquire a small electric charge.
Does it want to stick to them? Does the balloon
tend to stick onto the wall?
Rub the balloon over a friend’s hair. Does their
hair tend to be attracted to the balloon? Does
the balloon attract small pieces of paper?
2 Rubbing perspex and silk, and ebonite and
flannel
Your teacher will have some rods and cloth for
you to use. The colourless perspex rod and silk
go together, and the black ebonite and flannel
(wool) go together. Move the rod briskly against
the cloth as if you are brushing the dust off it.
brush the rod briskly
against the cloth
Brushing a rod
170
rubbed off the rod onto the cloth. And sometimes
the electrons are rubbed off the cloth onto the
rod. Having too many electrons makes a negative
charge, and having too few electrons makes a
positive charge. A spark is formed when electrons
jump from where there are too many electrons to
where there are too few.
Static electricity occurs with many non-metal
materials. There are many ways of showing static
electricity. Some of them are demonstrated in the
experiments on these pages. In these experi-
ments, do not put the rods near anyone’s face or
eyes, or make sparks near them. Static electricity
works best on dry, windy days.
Rods made of perspex and ebonite are the best
to use for static electricity experiments. These
rods make different charges.
An electroscope is used to detect an electric
charge. The earliest type was a gold leaf
The rods acquire an electric charge. Does the
rod attract pieces of paper, or water from a tap,
or the hairs on your arm? Write a report of
what you did and observed in your note book.
Using charged rods
3 Use the perspex and ebonite rods for this
experiment. Rub one rod, and balance it on a
watchglass.
upside-down
watchglass
plasticine
Charged rods interact
Rub the other rod, and bring it close to the
balanced rod. What happens? Devise a rule to
explain what happens if the rods are the same or
different. In your notebook, write a report of what
you did and observed.
 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 171

electroscope. When the electroscope is charged

the gold leaves repel each other and move apart. AIM: To make electroscopes

EXPERIMENT
Gold leaves are very thin and light, and this makes
the electroscope very sensitive. This type of 1 A vane-type electroscope
electroscope is called a vane electroscope. The A vane electroscope can be made using a
vanes are often inside an insulated glass box. shiny metal bar or a large nail and some
Simpler electroscopes are made from a lightweight aluminium foil. Stand the nail in an insulating
object, such as pith or material, such as a block of wood. Tape a
foam, hanging from an narrow strip of foil onto the top or side of
insulated thread. These the nail. The foil strip will move away from the
are called ball electro- nail when a charge is brought near to this
scopes. electroscope. The foil used in some types of
Static electricity can chocolate wrappers is thinner and more
attract objects without sensitive than cooking foil.
touching them. There 2 A ball-type electroscope
is no contact force. A ball electroscope is made from a small
There is an electric piece of koolite, foam or pith. Pith is the white
field around objects spongy material on the inside of water plant
gold leaves stems. Tie the pith or koolite onto a metal
which have an electric
charge. The electric frame with a thin thread. An insulating thread
field is much weaker such as silk or nylon is better than cotton.
A vane electroscope
than a magnetic field.
We cannot map it easily. We can feel an electric wire stand
nylon or
field because the hairs on our arms stand up. silk thread
Do not put your head too close to electrically wood base
charged objects. If a spark jumps it will travel to a pith or
koolite
moist surface. (Moist surfaces conduct electricity
ball
better than dry surfaces.) Your eyes have a moist
surface, and sparks will jump into your eyes rather
than your nose. A spark in the eye can cause A ball-type electroscope
permanent blindness.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Static electricity is made when materials ___ ________. The more they ___ together, the ____ electricity is made.
This means bigger ______.
When you ___ or _____ a rod with a _____, you rub off _________. Having too ____ electrons makes a ________
charge, and having too ___ electrons makes a ________ charge. A _____ is formed when _________ jump from
where there are too ____ electrons to where there are too ___.
Static ___________ occurs with many ___-_____ materials.
An ____________ is used to detect an ________ charge. There is an electric _____ around objects which have an
electric ______.

QUESTIONS 2 Explain what happens when a rod or balloon is

charged by rubbing. What type of electricity is made?
1 Match up the words on the left with the correct
3 What is an electroscope? Draw it on its own, then
meaning on the right.
when it is near a charged object.
positive charge too many electrons 4 How could you show someone that electric fields do
electrostatics too few electrons exist?
static electricity detects electric charge 5 What types of fabric produce the most static
negative charge made by rubbing electricity?
electroscope study of static electricity
 8.9
Sparks and lightning
People have known about static electricity for at
least 2500 years. The Greek writer Theophrastus
(‘Thee-oh-frast-us’) wrote about the attraction of
some objects in 300 BC. The Roman writer Pliny
the Elder (23–79 AD) described how feathers
were attracted to amber if it had been rubbed
with fur or cloth. Amber is solidified resin which
forms when sap oozes out of tree trunks.
In the 1500s an Englishman, William Gilbert,
found that if some materials were rubbed, they
could attract objects. He rubbed materials
including sulfur, glass, diamond and amber.
Gilbert named this mysterious property ‘electric
force’. Electron is the Greek word for amber.
Other people studied electric force. The
attraction and repulsion of different materials was
well known. In 1734 Charles du Fay inferred that
there were two types of electricity, which he
called resinous and vitreous. Resinous electricity Benjamin Franklin’s kite experiment
was made by rubbing resin (amber) with fur, and
vitreous electricity was made by rubbing glass Myths about lightning
with silk. Both types of electricity were called Ancient civilisations did not have the science and
static electricity. Static means ‘not moving’. There technology to explain lightning and thunder.
is also electricity which moves along wires, which Many of them had beliefs that involved their gods
is called dynamic electricity. Dynamic means and spirits. The ancient Greeks believed that
‘moving’. Zeus, the king of the gods, rode across the sky. His
Benjamin Franklin was an American horses’ hooves were the thunder, and Zeus
statesman, author, printer and inventor. He hurled lightning bolts at the ground. The Vikings
realised that vitreous and resinous electricity believed that Thor, the god of thunder, rolled
were similar. He called them ‘positive’ and drums of rainwater across the sky before tipping
‘negative’ electricity. Benjamin Franklin is best them onto the earth. The ancient Chinese
known for his kite experiment, which he thought that lightning was caused by the
performed in June 1752. He believed that reflection of mirrors held by goddesses hiding in
lightning was a form of electricity. To show this he the clouds. The American Indians thought that
did a dangerous experiment. He flew a kite into a the Thunderbird, rising from the mountains to
thunderstorm. The string tied to the kite was wet regain its freedom, was the cause of thunder.
and conducted any lightning down the string.
Franklin hung a metal key on the end of the How lightning is made
string. So he would not receive an electric shock, In our experiments we made static electricity by
Franklin tied silk onto the end of the string, rubbing. The same happens in a thunderstorm.
which he kept dry by standing in a shed. He held Storm clouds are a mass of swirling water drops
onto the dry silk because silk is an insulator. and ice. As the ice particles fall, currents of air
When Benjamin Franklin held his fist near the sweep them back up. The rubbing of the ice
key, a spark jumped between them. This particles produces static electricity in the cloud.
convinced him that lightning was a type of The huge sparks are called lightning. Most
electricity. He was very lucky not to be killed. lightning is inside the cloud, but some lightning
Other people have repeated Franklin’s jumps to the Earth.
experiment, but many have been electrocuted by
the huge electric shock carried by the lightning.
172

The lightning we see is not just one bolt of
lightning. A spark zigzags its way from the cloud
to near the ground, and a spark leaves the ground
to join with it. This zigzag path is the route for the
lightning. There are many strokes of lightning
which occur quickly, but our eyes see only one
stroke. Lightning travels from the ground up to
the cloud.
As the lightning travels through the air, its
energy heats the air. The hot air expands rapidly
and moves outwards at an explosive speed. The
sound made by this expanding air is what we call
thunder.
When lightning strikes, it travels to the ground
along the shortest path. It may strike any objects
above the ground, including people. If you are
caught in a thundersorm with lightning, seek
shelter in a building or a car. Do not stand in the
open or under a tree, or under an umbrella. If
there is no shelter, lie on the ground till the storm
passes. Do not talk on the telephone or hold onto
water taps during a storm.
Lightning travels from the ground up to the cloud
Most tall buildings have a lightning conductor
on their roof. It consists of a pointed metal
conductor that is higher than the highest part of
the building. A wire connects the rod to the
ground. If lighting strikes near the building it is
attracted to the pointed metal rod, and the
building is not damaged by the lightning strike.
Make a summary of this activity under the following headings:
CHECKPOINT:
Benjamin Franklin Myths About Lightning How Lightning is Made
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1 Say whether each of the following statements about
lightning is true or false.
a Lightning never strikes in the same place twice.
b Lightning occurs on other planets, such as Jupiter.
c There are more than 100 lightning strikes on the
Earth every second.
d One-third of all the natural nitrogen-based
fertiliser is made by lightning.
FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 173
Lightning conductors also help reduce lightning.
During a storm, charges on the underside of the
cloud attract charges from the ground. The
lightning conductor can assist in this movement
of charge and may prevent lightning from
occurring.
Photocopiers
A photocopier works by static electricity. A bright
light is is shone onto the document, and reflected
onto a drum. A charged image forms on the
drum, corresponding to the dark areas on the
paper. Toner (powdered ink) is then sprayed onto
the surface of the drum. It sticks onto the charged
parts of the drum because it has the opposite
charge. While this is happening, the photocopy
paper has been charged. The inked image is
transferred to the paper and heated for an instant.
This heat melts the toner and creates a
permanently inked copy.
Van de Graaff generator
The van de Graaff generator is also called an
electrostatic generator. It uses a rubber belt driven
by an electric motor. The
belt rubs against a brush,
and the resulting electric
charge is spread out over
a metal dome. Large van
de Graaff generators are
used in research to study
the inside of atoms.
Small machines are used
in schools and science
displays to demonstrate
static electricity.
The electricity from a van de Graaff generator can charge
a person’s hair!
Uses of Static Electricity
e Lightning never strikes during rain.
f There are no thunderstorms in Antarctica.
2 What is ball lightning? Does it really exist?
3 Sailors on old sailing ships often reported seeing
lights at the top of the masts. These lights are called
St Elmo’s fire, after the patron saint of sailors. What
causes St Elmo’s fire?
 8.10
Gravity is a field
If you jump up into the air, you quickly come
back down again. Gravity sees to that. Gravity
pulls all objects towards the Earth. We cannot see
or hear or smell gravity, but we can feel its effects.
Gravity, magnetism and electric charges have
one thing in common. They all have a field.
Certain objects feel a force when they are in a
field. Fields are correctly called force fields.
An electric field attracts anything which has a
charge or is made of charges. Charged rods and
tiny bits of paper feel a force when they are in an
electric force field. Objects can be attracted or
repelled in an electric field.
A magnetic field attracts anything which is
made of iron and some alloys. Fridge doors, nails,
and steel fences all feel a force when they are in
a magnetic force field. Objects can be attracted or
repelled in a magnetic field.
A gravitational field attracts anything which
has mass. People, cars, mountains, even the
Moon, feel a force when they are in the
gravitational field of the Earth. Gravitational
fields only attract.
When you jump up in the air, the gravity of the
Earth attracts you back to Earth. If you were on
the Moon and jumped upwards, the gravity of the
Moon would pull you back to the surface. You
can jump higher on the Moon than on the Earth
because the Moon has less gravity than the Earth.
For an object to leave the Earth, it has to
overcome the gravitational field that surrounds
the Earth. If you could throw a ball fast enough it
could leave the Earth and go into space. The
speed at which you would have to throw the ball
Moon 18 000 km above Earth,
gravity = 0.6
(1 60 as strong as on Earth)
gravity on Moon = 1.6
(1 6 as strong as on Earth) 6 000 km above Earth,
gravity = 2.5
(1 4 as strong as on Earth)
standing on Earth,
gravity = 10
Earth
Comparing gravity on the Earth and the Moon
174
is called the escape velocity. For Earth, the escape
velocity is 40 000 kilometres per hour.
To study conditions without gravity, or in
microgravity, you need a satellite. Astronauts
working in orbiting space stations are studying
how things operate without gravity. They have
germinated seeds, grown crystals, and studied
bones and blood. Some of these experiments
have been devised by school students.
Tides
Tides are regular variations in the level of the sea.
High tide is a high water level, and low tide is a
low water level.
The Sun and Moon have gravity. Their gravity
pulls on the Earth. Tides on Earth are caused by
the gravity of the Sun and Moon pulling on the
Earth’s oceans. The moon is much closer to the
Earth than the Sun, so it has a greater effect on
the tides. The biggest tides, with the highest high
tide and the lowest low tide, are called spring
tides, or king tides. These happen when the Sun
and the Moon pull in the same direction. When
the Sun and the Moon pull in different directions,
there is a small tide. The level of the sea changes
only a small amount. This is called a neap tide.
There are two high tides each day. They are
almost 12 hours apart. One high tide is caused by
the orbiting Moon as it passes over that part of the
Earth. The other high tide occurs on the opposite
side of the Earth. It is caused by the water bulging
out, like the skirt on a dancer as she spins in a
circle. Tide heights and times are calculated in
advance and published in books and charts.
high tide
low tide
High and low tides
 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 175

the moon pulls tides high tide on Sun

opposite side Earth
the water towards
it making a high tide of Earth
Moon gravity of Sun and
where the Earth
faces the Moon Spring tide Moon pull together
to create spring tides

size of tides
exaggerated
Sun Earth

gravity of Moon and

Sun pull at right
Neap tide angles to each other,
causing neap tides

child pulls the dancer’s skirt flies

dancer towards him out behind her Moon

How the second high tide is caused Spring and neap tides

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Gravity _____ all objects towards the Earth. We cannot ___ or ____ or _____ gravity, but we can ____ its effects.
_______, _________ and ________ charges have one thing in common. They ___ have a _____. Fields are correctly
called _____ fields.
Tides are regular __________ in the _____ of the sea. The ___ and ____ have gravity. Tides on _____ are caused by
the _______ of the ___ and ____ pulling on the Earth’s ______. The biggest tides are called ______ tides, or ____
tides. These happen when the ___ and the ____ pull in the ____ _________. When the ___ and the ____ pull in
_________ __________ there is a _____ tide. This is called a ____ ____.

QUESTIONS
1 What is meant by a tide? What is the relative
difference in water levels between king tides and
neap tides?
2 Which has the greater effect on the tides on Earth—
the Moon or the Sun? Explain.
3 Sometimes you see the Moon high in the sky in the
daytime. Will it be a high tide or a low tide? Why?
4 Explain in one paragraph why some tides are higher
than other tides.
5 Complete the table below for each of the three fields
described in this chapter.
6 A high tide and the next low tide are always 5 hours
and 52 minutes apart. If high tide occurs at 10 am
one morning, what time will the high tide be next
morning?
7 How would the tides be different if the Earth didn’t
have a Moon?
8 Imagine that the 2096 Olympic Games are to be held
on the Moon. List some effects this would have on
the following events: high jump, discus, diving,
soccer, hurdles.

Type of Objects which Does the field cause Does the field cause
field move in the field attraction? repulsion?
 8.11
Understanding gravity
In the year 1665 a highly contagious disease was
sweeping England. It was called the Plague.
Most people who contracted the disease died. A
young student named Isaac Newton left his busy
university to return to his parents’ home in the
country. In the country there were fewer people
and the disease did not spread.
One day Isaac Newton was sitting under an
apple tree when an apple fell onto the ground.
‘Why did it fall?’, he wondered. There was
nothing to see that could push it or pull it. He
realised that there must be a force that pulled it
towards the Earth. This is how he first thought of
the idea of gravity.
Like magnetism and electrostatics, we cannot
see gravity. But it is real. We feel gravity every
day. Gravity causes a field, or a force field, around
the Earth. We call it a gravitational field.
A gravitational field is like a magnetic field and
an electrical field. All these fields cause objects in
them to move. When you throw a ball into the
air, the gravitational field pulls the ball back to the
Earth.
Newton used the idea of gravity to explain one
of the great scientific problems of his time. What
holds the planets in position as they move around
the Sun? What holds the Moon as it moves
around the Earth? Newton answered these
questions using the concept of gravity and a
gravitational field. The gravitational field of the
Sun holds the planets, and the gravitational fields
of the planets hold their moons.
Our Sun is one of the one hundred thousand
million stars that make up the Milky Way galaxy.
A spiral galaxy does not collapse because it rotates
Each star in the galaxy is held in place by
gravity. The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy, and it is
slowly rotating. This rotation provides just
enough force to stop gravity collapsing the galaxy.
The next advance in our knowledge about
gravity was the idea proposed by Albert Einstein.
It is called the Theory of General Relativity, and
was proposed 250 years after Newton’s ideas. It is
easy to show Einstein’s ideas about gravity and
space if we consider this example. Imagine rolling
a ball across a trampoline. If the trampoline is flat
the ball rolls in a straight line. If the trampoline is
not flat, the ball will travel in a curve as it rolls
along.
The same happens in space. As a space probe
passes the Earth, it feels the Earth’s gravitational
field. It is attracted towards the Earth, so its path
is bent.
Einstein said that gravity works because it
bends space. A passing space probe falls in
towards the Earth like a ball falls in towards a
hollow. The gravity around the Earth is like the

force of gravity pulls Moon’s orbit

Moon towards Earth

straight-line path
Moon would take if brick on
Earth were not there trampoline

The Moon is held in its orbit by the Earth’s gravity A model of a gravitational field

176
 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 177

top of a trampoline which is not flat. Instead of

being flat, the space around the Earth is bent
inwards.
Another way of understanding this is by
looking at the lines. Flat, level lines mean no
gravitational field. Bent or curved lines mean that
there is gravity. The steeper the slope on the lines,
the stronger the gravity.
Einstein’s idea can explain many observations. Space is bent around the Earth
Light from the most distant parts of the universe
is often bent as it passes stars and galaxies. Black
holes are space objects with a gravity field so black hole
strong that nothing can escape. Not even light. A
drawing of curved space shows why they are
called holes.
There is still a great deal about gravity that we
do not understand. No one knows where gravity
comes from or what causes it. There is one other
odd thing about gravity. Magnetism and static
electricity can push and pull. Their fields can Space is very bent around a black hole
attract and repel. But gravity only pulls. Which is
why some scientists say, ‘Gravity sucks.’

A passing space probe is attracted towards the Earth Saturn’s rings are held in place by gravity

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Gravity causes a _____, or a _____ _____, around the _____. We call it a _____________ _____.
The ______________ field of the _______ holds the ________ and the gravitational ________ of the planets
________ their ________. Each ____ is held in _____ by _______.
The next _______ in our _________ about _______ was the ____ proposed by ______ ________. It is called the
Theory of _______ __________.
________ said that _______ _____ because it _____ _____. A passing _____ _____ falls in _______ the _____ like
a ____ falls in _______ a ______.

QUESTIONS
1 Who are the two people who have done the most to
help our understanding of gravity?
2 What holds the Earth as it orbits the Sun? What
would happen if the Earth stopped moving?
3 Our Sun is part of a spiral galaxy which is spinning.
Why is this spinning important?
4 What are black holes? Why are they black? Why are
they called holes?
5 What is a gravitational field? How does the
gravitational field of the Sun affect the planets?
6 What might happen to a space traveller who falls
into a black hole?
 Review and Research
Review questions b determine if there is magnetism
c see if a charge is positive or negative
In Questions 1 to 10, select the best answer from d make an electric charge without rubbing
the choices given.
10 Lightning is
1 The field around a bar magnet is a caused by thunderstorms
a electrical b the result of static electricity in storm
b gravitational clouds
c energy c always after the thunder
d magnetic d seen in storm clouds after rain
2 The field around a charged perspex rod is
a electrical Answer the following questions in your note book.
b gravitational Write in sentences and draw clear diagrams using
c energy a pencil and ruler.
d magnetic 11 Match the word with its meaning.
3 The two types of static electricity are magnetosphere magnetism around the Earth
a north and south
b positive and negative magnetometer magnetic field of the Earth
c up and down geomagnetism magnetism in and around an
d left and right iron nail
4 The two poles of a magnet are ferromagnetism magnetism caused by
a north and south electricity
b positive and negative
c up and down electromagnetism device used for measuring
d left and right the strength of a magnetic
field
5 The stream of water is attracted towards the rod
when it is brought near. This is because 12 What are the differences between an iron
a the rod is neutral magnet, an electromagnet, a supermagnet and
b the rod is charged a superconducting magnet?
c the water is charged 13 The diagram on page 167 shows the pattern of
d the water is magnetic iron filings over some bar magnets. Use the
6 A compass needle always points north because pattern of iron filings to label the poles as
a of the spin of the Earth North or South.
b it is like a gyroscope
c it responds to the Earth’s magnetic field
d compasses are made to do that
7 The strongest magnets belong to the group
called
a ferrites 14 A student charges a rod and hangs it from a
b ferromagnets loop of string. Her friend then brings another
c supermagnets charged rod near it. The hanging rod moves
d superconducting magnets away, as shown in the diagram. What can you
deduce (= infer) about the charges on the
8 Around the Earth are some fields, which are rods?
a magnetic and electric
b electric and gravitational
c gravitational and magnetic
d gravitational, electric and magnetic
9 An electroscope is used to 15 Why is it dangerous to stand under a tree
a detect an electric charge during a lightning storm?
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 FORCES: PUSHES AND PULLS 179

16 Which word is the odd one out in the list? spring balance and an iron bolt, or iron keeper
Give a reason. with a hook on it.
a copper, aluminium, zinc, iron bar magnet held in clamp
b pole, domain, positive, magnetise clamp on retort stand
c tesla, metre, gauss
iron with loop attached
d electric, electronic, magnetic, gravitational
string
mass carrier with masses
Thinking Questions Measure the force needed to pull the iron bolt
free of the magnet. Place a sheet of paper
1 Describe how you can make a compass
between the magnet and the bolt, and repeat.
needle face the wrong way.
Repeat with more sheets of paper, with coins,
2 Imagine that you are exploring a new planet in iron sheet, and so on.
a spacecraft when the instruments fail. How Which substances weaken the magnetic field
could you determine from inside your spacecraft the most? Do any substances strengthen the
that you are: magnetic field? Why aren’t the pole faces on a
a inside a strong gravitational field magnet painted?
b inside a strong magnetic field Write a report on what you found.
c inside a strong electrostatic field.
Explain your answers clearly. AIM: To investigate static electricity
3 The drawing shows a toy car connected to a Do some clothes or fabrics get static electricity
string with a 100 g mass attached. more than other clothes or fabrics? How could you
force pulling car pulley find out? Design an experiment with a control.
across table
Research Questions
1 What are the van Allen belts? What do they do
force pulling and why are they important?
masses
downwards 2 What are black holes really like? What happens
a How many newtons force does a mass of to the gravity inside a black hole? Could black
100 g exert on the car? holes lead to another universe?
b The 100 g mass exerts a force because it is in 3 What size force is exerted by the following:
a field. What type of field is it in? rocket engines, car engines, aeroplane engines.
c What size force (in newtons) acts on the toy How is the size of these forces measured?
car?
d Is this force (in c) a contact force or a force 4 In activity 3.6 the path of the Galileo space
due to a field? Explain. probe was outlined. It used the gravitational
field of some planets so that it could reach
4 When a petrol tanker arrives to fill up the petrol Jupiter quicker. How was this done?
tanks in a service station, the driver always
drops a steel chain from the truck to the ground Word Check
before doing anything else. What is the reason force newton calibrate
for this? friction streamline lubrication
Extension experiments contact Alnico domain
temporary electromagnet field
AIM: To find out why magnet pole faces are not superconducting gauss tesla
painted aurora electroscope lightning
The ends of a magnet are never painted. These neap spiral galaxy trampoline
ends are the north pole and the south pole, and black hole
are called pole faces. Why are pole faces never Why objects move Idea of a force as a push or
painted? Concept map
To find a possible reason, conduct this Draw a concept map of the concepts outlined in
investigation. You will need a bar magnet, a this chapter.pull