The Chapter 4

Particle Idea
CONTEXT AREA
■ Science is about explaining why things happen. A model is used to help us imagine
what is happening where we cannot see.
■ This chapter is about using the model of tiny balls to represent the particles in
substances. By using real balls, imagining what they would do, and testing these
ideas by experiment, we are building a model to help explain why solids, liquids and
gases do the things they do.
■ The particle idea can explain heaviness, melting, diffusion, pressure, and lots more.
The particle idea is a successful and easy-to-apply scientific model.

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREAS

4.2 uses examples to illustrate how models, theories and laws contribute to an
understanding of phenomena

DOMAINS
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
UNDERSTANDING 4.13
4.7.1 the particle model of matter
a describe the behaviour of matter in
terms of particles that are continuously 4.17
moving and interacting
b describe expansion and contraction of 4.19
materials in terms of a simple particle
model 4.20
c relate an increase or decrease in the
amount of energy possessed by particles to 4.21
changes in particle movement
4.7.2 properties of solids, liquids and gases: 4.22
a relate properties of solids, liquids and
gases to the particle model of matter VALUES AND ATTITUDES
b describe the physical changes that occur
during observations of evaporation, 4.23
condensation, boiling, melting and freezing
c explain density in terms of a simple
particle model 4.24
d explain the changes in pressure of gases
in terms of increases or decreases in 4.25
frequency of particle collisions
4.7.3 change of state
a relate changes of state to the motion of
particles as energy is removed or added 4.26
b relate energy transfers in melting and
freezing, condensation, evaporation and
boiling to the particle model
clarifies the purpose of an investigation
and, with guidance, produces a plan to
investigate a problem
evaluates the relevance of data and
information
draws conclusions based on information
available
uses an identified strategy to solve
problems
uses creativity and imagination to suggest
plausible solutions to familiar problems
undertakes a variety of individual and team
tasks with guidance
demonstrates confidence and a willingness
to make decisions and to take responsible
actions
respects different viewpoints on science
issues and is honest, fair and ethical
recognises the relevance and importance of
lifelong learning and acknowledges the
continued impact of science in many
aspects of everyday life
recognises the role of science in providing
information about issues being considered
and in increasing understanding of the
world around them
CONCEPTS
Solids, liquids and gases
The particle idea
Explaining with particles
More explaining with particles
Energy in particles
Particles in gases
Effects of heat
Atoms and molecules
Features of the states of matter
Changing states and their names
Particles explain the features of matter
Concept of hot and cold in particles
Shape of crystals reflects particle layout
Heaviness is mass
Compressibility in gases
Concentration of a substance
Diffusion in liquids and gases
Smoothness, hardness and scratching
Concept of density in solids
Kinetic energy of particles is heat
Energy changes with change in state
Idea of gas pressure
Pressure in water experienced by skin divers
Expansion and contraction
Examples and uses
Particles are atoms and molecules
Elements, compounds, symbols, formulae
73
 4.1
Solids, liquids and gases
Solids, liquids and gases are all around us. Steel, change from one state to another state has a
concrete, wood and plastic are all solids. Some name. The changes and names are shown in the
liquids are water, oil and petrol. One gas is carbon diagram below.
dioxide. This gas makes the fizz in soft drinks. Air
is a mixture of gases. The smell of perfume or m elti n g o ris a ti o n
v ap
boi l ing)
food being cooked is due to gases which move (or
through the air.
Some features of solids, liquids and gases are solid liquid gas
shown in the drawing at the foot of the page.
Find the information in the drawing to
complete the table below. Copy the table into sol co
id ti o n n d e n s a ti o n
your note book, and fill it in. The heading is: ( o r ific a n g )
fr e e zi
Comparison of solids, liquids and gases. Changes of state, and their names

Feature Solid Liquid Gas
Does it keep its shape?
Can it be squashed?
Does it spread out?
Three examples in the drawing
We usually find solids, liquids and gases mixed
together. Air contains bits of dust, which is a
solid, and drops of water, which is a liquid. Water
contains dissolved gases. The sand grains on the
beach have water and air bubbles between them.
Lemonade contains bubbles of gas in a liquid. If
you place ice in the lemonade, all three states of
matter are in the same container.
Solid, liquid and gas are called the states of
matter. All substances exist in one of these three
states. All substances can change their state. Each
When ice melts it forms water. Melting is the
name given to a change from solid to liquid.
When water boils, it forms water vapour, which is
a gas. Vaporisation is the change from a liquid
into a gas.
But not all liquids have to be boiled before they
vaporise. Spilt petrol vaporises quickly.
Vaporisation without boiling is called evapora-
tion. Liquids that evaporate easily are said to be
volatile. A common volatile liquid is methylated
spirits.
Imagine a glass of lemonade. It contains
bubbles of gas in a water mixture. When the gas
in the bubbles has left the lemonade and moved
into the air, we say that the lemonade has gone
‘flat’. If the lemonade is left long enough, most of
the water would evaporate as well.

Some solids are heavy Liquids have no shape

and some are light. of their own. All liquids
Some solids can bend, can be poured. Some Gases have no shape.
and others will break liquids are thicker Birds and kites fly through
if you bend them. than others. gases we call air.

Smells are gases

All solids keep their which have moved through Gases can
shape, except solids the air. Gases spread out (diffuse) be squashed.
Liquids and solids made of little grains. through other gases.
cannot be squashed. Each grain keeps its shape.

Features of solids, liquids and gases

74
 THE PARTICLE IDEA 75

A change from a gas into a liquid is called There is a fourth state of matter called plasma.
condensation. When water turns into a solid, Plasma exists only at very high temperatures. It
which we call ice, it is called freezing. A change sometimes exists due to electricity. Gases that are
from a liquid to a solid is called solidification. over 5000°C, or have been electrified, may have
Lots of people think that steam is a gas. But changed into plasma. The outer layer of the Sun,
steam is really a liquid. It is made of water vapour which is 6000°C at its surface, is made of plasma.
that has condensed into tiny drops. The drops are
so small that they float in air. Clouds are also made
water vapour escapes out
of drops of water. Clouds can evaporate and the spout, but condenses
reform, and planes can fly through them. in the cool air
There is one other change of state we have not
mentioned yet. It is called sublimation. It is the water vapour has boiling water
change from solid to gas, without melting. A brick condensed into bubbles are made
steam, which is tiny of water vapour
of dry ice (= frozen carbon dioxide) will turn into droplets of water
vapour and mix with air. Moth balls (made of
naphthalene or camphor) also sublime. Steam from a kettle is really tiny drops of liquid water

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Solids, liquids and _____ are all around us. Steel, ________, wood and _______ are all ______. Some _______ are
_____, oil and petrol. One ___ is carbon dioxide. This gas makes the ____ in ____ drinks.
Solid, ______ and gas are called the ______ of matter. All __________ exist in ___ of these _____ states. All
substances can ______ their _____.
There is ___ other change of _____. It is called ___________. It is the change from _____ to ___, without
melting.
There is a fourth state of ______ called ______. Plasma only ______ at very ____ temperatures.

QUESTIONS 4 Water exists in our environment as a solid, liquid and

gas. What is the state of water in these situations?
1 What is the change in state described by these a a puddle full of water
words: melt, vaporise, solidify, sublimation, b rain drops
condense, boil, freeze, and evaporate? c fog and mist
2 Name these changes of state. d humidity
a a block of ice left in the Sun e very cold clouds that are very high
b wet clothes drying in the Sun f frost on a cold morning
c wetness forming on the outside of a cold glass g dew on the windows
of drink h water that has just evaporated from a lake
d spilt petrol drying up i snow
e making ice in the refrigerator j ground water
f dry ice turning into carbon dioxide gas 5 Some substances are a combination of states. What
3 Use the beach cartoon on page 74 to name the states are in:
following. There is more than one answer for some a honeycomb?
of them. b lemonade?
a a liquid that is hard to pour 6 a What is meant by volatile?
b a liquid with a solid dissolved in it b Name two volatile liquids.
c a solid which is very light (not heavy)
7 Describe the changes in state that occur when a
d a solid made of small lumps
glass of lemonade, with ice cubes in it, is left out
e a solid which bends and returns to its shape
in the Sun.
f a gas which smells
 4.2
The particle idea
In explaining the features of solids, liquids and
gases, people use the idea that all substances are
made of tiny hard balls. We call them particles.
Particles are found in all substances. Different
substances have different particles. Substances
that are the same have the same particles. The
particles in water are always the same, no matter
what state it is in—ice, liquid water or water
vapour.
The idea of particles is used to explain the
features of solids, liquids and gases. The particle
idea is a scientific model. A scientific model is a
way of letting us imagine what is happening
when we cannot see it. By using the particle
model, we can imagine what is happening when
substances change. The particle model is
sometimes called the Particle Theory of Matter.
Solid is a state of matter which keeps its shape.
The particles in a solid are held together tightly,
and cannot move away. The particles are in lines
and rows, like people sitting in a theatre. The
people might move around to get a better view of
the stage, but do not move from their seat.
Liquid is a state of matter in which the particles
are close together, but free to move. The particles
are like people in a crowd. Everyone is close
together but people can move within the crowd.
People do not stand in a fixed pattern, and can
move in the crowd to get a better view.
Gas is a state of matter which has no shape.
The particles in a gas are not held together at all.
The particles move away on their own and fill up
the space they are in. This is why you cannot hold
a gas in your hand, and why you cannot keep a
gas in a jar with no lid. The particles in a gas are
like many high-bounce balls thrown at high
speed into a classroom. They bounce off the walls,
Solid — particles vibrate, but cannot move
away because they are held tightly
by other particles
Particle models of a solid, a liquid and a gas
76
the ceiling, the desks, and the windows without
slowing down. The diagram below shows these
ideas in drawings.
The movements of the particles and people are
related to their amount of energy. People sitting
still are using very little energy. The particles in
solids are like them. They have a small amount of
energy. People in a crowd have more energy,
because they are standing and can move around.
This is the same for liquids, whose particles have
more energy than those in solids. People running
use lots of energy. Particles in gases are also mov-
ing fast, so they have lots of energy. The particles
in solids have the least amount of energy, then
liquids, and gases have the most energy.
These changes of state are shown in water.
Since water is a compound, its particles are called
molecules. Ice is water in the solid state. Ice keeps
its shape because the molecules are locked into
position. As the ice melts it becomes liquid. The
forces between the molecules become weaker.
Water has no shape of its own, but the molecules
are still close together. When water evaporates it
becomes a gas. There are no strong forces to hold
the molecules together, and they can move around.
We can only see the molecules when the water
condenses to form clouds, frost or condensation.
Crystals are beautiful and unusually shaped
objects. Most of them are dug from the earth. The
shape of crystals can be explained by particles.
The shape of crystals is due to the pattern of the
particles inside them. As a result different crystals
have different particles and have different shapes
and colours. Crystals of salt and sugar are
cube-shaped, while blocks of calcite are
parallelogram-shaped.
Liquid — particles move about, Gas — particles move freely,
but stay held to other particles not held by other particles
 THE PARTICLE IDEA 77

A typical crystal The particles in a crystal Calcite

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

In explaining the features of solids, _______ and _____, people use the idea that materials are made of ____ hard
_____. We call them _________.
Solid is a state of ______ which keeps its shape. The _________ in a solid are held together _____, and cannot
move ____.
Liquid is a state of matter in which the particles are _________ together, but _________ to _________.
Gas is a state of matter which has no _____. The particles in a ___ are not held ________ at all. The particles move
____ on their own and fill up the _____ they are in.

QUESTIONS 3 What is the temperature at which ice melts? At what

temperature does it boil? What change of state
1 Which state of matter has particles that do the happens in each case?
following:
4 Which of the three main states of matter best match
a do not move around
each description?
b are free to move around
a has no shape of its own but the particles stay
c are locked into position
together
d are like a crowd of moving people
b has no shape of its own and the particles move
e stay together, but not in rows
away
f move the fastest
c has particles which vibrate but do not change
g are the most still
position
h are like seated people at the movies
d is also called vapour
i have the most energy
e has the least amount of energy in its particles
j have less energy than a liquid
f is formed by the evaporation of a liquid
k are the furthest apart
g forms when a gas is cooled
l have the lowest amount of energy per particle
h is between a solid and gas in energy content
2 Copy the following diagram into your note book, and
5 Air conditioners and refrigerators remove heat. In
fill in the labels.
the process, parts of these items become wet. Where
H does the moisture come from?
A D B E C 6 The Particle Theory of Matter is sometimes called the
F G Kinetic Theory of Matter. Why is the word ‘kinetic’
used?
I
7 Draw a picture to show how the particles in calcite
might be arranged. Use the photographs at the top
A, B and C are the three states of matter. of the page as a guide.
D, E, F and G are changes of state.
H and I relate to the change in the amount of energy.
 4.3
Explaining with particles
The idea that all materials are made of particles is ■ The heaviness of each particle. Materials with
very successful. Everything that people know heavy particles have lots of mass. Lead
about solids, liquids and gases can be explained particles (atoms) are much heavier than
using the idea of particles. It is called the particle aluminium
theory of matter. atoms. As a
result, pieces of
Heaviness lead are heavier
The proper name for heaviness is mass. Mass is than the same
the amount of matter, or particles, in a substance. sized pieces of
Mass depends on three things: aluminium. Lead Aluminium
■ The numbers of particles. Materials with lots
of particles have lots of mass. This is why ■ The space between the particles. In some
solids and solids there is a lot of space between the
liquids are particles. In other
much heavier solids, especially
than gases. Ice metals, the particles
and water are are very close. Wood
much heavier and rubber have
than water solid gas
particles that are Particles in Particles
vapour. spread out. wood, rubber in metals

AIM: To prepare solutions of different Add water to the 100 mL cylinder to make 100
EXPERIMENT

concentrations mL. This solution is not as concentrated and it is

For this you will need a 10 mL measuring cylinder
and a 100 mL measuring cylinder, some food dye, six
test-tubes and a test-tube rack.
1 Put 10 drops of food dye into the 100 mL
cylinder. The dye can be any colour you like. Then
fill the flask with water to the 100 mL mark.
2 Use the solution in the 100 mL cylinder to fill the
10 mL cylinder. Pour some of the left-over solution
into a test-tube, and label it A. The remainder of
the solution should be poured down the sink, and
the measuring cylinder rinsed with clean water.
3 Pour all the solution from the 10 mL cylinder into
the 100 mL cylinder. Rinse out the 10 mL cylinder.
90 mL water 90 mL water
not as coloured as solution A. The coloured
particles have been spread out more. Like before,
tip 10 mL of this solution into the 10 mL cylinder,
some into a test-tube labelled B, and discard the
remainder. Rinse out the 10 mL cylinder again.
Repeat procedures 2 and 3 four more times. Label
each test-tube C, D, E, and F. Each solution in the
test-tubes is one-tenth as concentrated as the
solution it was made from.
Write this experiment into your note book.
Explain why there is less colour in a dilute solution
compared with a concentrated solution. In your
explanation, use your knowledge of the particle idea.
90 mL water 90 mL water 90 mL water

10 mL dark 10 mL red 10 mL pale 10 mL pink 10 mL pale

red solution solution red solution solution pink solution

1 2 3 4 5 6
Place the test tubes side by side
in a test tube rack.
This is called a dilution series.
sample in sample in sample in sample in sample in sample in
test tube 1 test tube 2 test tube 3 test tube 4 test tube 5 test tube 6

Making a dilution series

78
 THE PARTICLE IDEA 79

Have you ever noticed that air does not have Gas in bike pump
much mass? A balloon filled with air is very light.
This is because air is a gas and the particles in a
gas are far apart. A balloon filled with sand is normal compressed
heavy. This is because sand is a solid and the
particles in solids are close together.
Gas can be compressed (squashed) because there is space
Compressibility between the particles.The particles are pushed closer together.
Compressibility means squashiness. Pillows and
foam rubber can be squashed. They are said to be
Liquid in bike pump
compressible.
Solids and liquids cannot be compressed. But
gases can be compressed. You can check this by
normal compressed
using a bike pump filled with air, then trying it
when it is filled with water.
In solids and liquids there is no space between
the particles. The particles are already squashed Liquids cannot be compressed (squashed) because there is
no space between the particles. The particles do not squash.
together. You cannot squash them any closer
than they are. In gases there is space between the Explaining compressibility
particles. The gas can be compressed. Compress-
ing pushes the particles closer together.
like the fraction of one substance mixed in with
Concentration other substances. For example, a solution has a
Concentration is a measure of the amount of one concentration of one part of dye in one hundred
type of particle mixed in with other particles. It is parts of water.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Everything that people know about ______, liquids and _____ can be _________ using the idea of _________.
Mass is the amount of ______, or _________, in a _________. ____ depends on three things:
■ The _______ of particles.

■ The _________ of each particle.

■ The _________ between the particles.

Compressibility means ___________. Solids and liquids cannot be __________. But gases can be __________.
Concentration is a _______ of the amount of one ____ of ________ mixed in with other _________.

QUESTIONS Particles in foam

rubber
1 What is meant by each of the following words?
particle theory of matter, mass, compressibility,
concentration
2 Use the particle theory to explain the following:
a why steel posts keep their shape
b why water forms drops
c why gases spread out.
6 Which has the greater concentration—one part in
3 Give two reasons why a piece of lead is heavier than
100, or one part in 1000? Explain.
a piece of ice of the same size.
7 a If you had a solution of 10 mL of detergent in
4 Which is heavier—one litre of air or one litre of
90 mL water, how could you dilute it so that it is
water? Give reasons.
10 times less concentrated?
5 The drawing above shows the particles in foam b Explain how you could make a solution of 0.1 g
rubber. Use the drawing to explain: salt in 100 g water, if you had 1.0 g of salt in a
a why foam can be compressed hard lump.
b why foam is heavier than air
c why foam is not as heavy as a solid substance.
 4.4
More explaining with particles
The particle idea is used to explain lots of
properties about all substances. In this activity we
will look at three more observations and
explanations.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the name for the spreading out of a
substance. Perfume spreads out and can be smelt
a long way away. Dye slowly spreads through
water, even though the water is not stirred.
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Explaining diffusion
Diffusion is fast in gases. The particles in gas
move very quickly. They travel a greater distance.
Particles in a gas will diffuse quicker than particles
in a liquid. The particles in a liquid do not move
very far before colliding with another particle.
They only move a short distance. Diffusion in
liquids is slow. In a solid the particles cannot
move. There is no diffusion in a solid.
80
AIM: To observe diffusion in water
EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
Fill a large beaker with water. Let the water
settle for about 5 minutes, without disturbing it.
It must be completely still. Then add two drops
of food dye. Observe how the food dye diffuses
into the water. In your note book, describe your
observations.
Dye diffusing through water
Hardness
A steel nail will scratch a plastic ruler. This is
because the nail is harder than the plastic. A nail
will not scratch glass, because the glass is harder
than the nail. A hard substance will scratch a
softer substance.
The particle theory explains hardness. Hard-
ness depends on how tightly the particles hold on
to each other. In a hard substance the particles
hold on very tight, so they cannot be scratched or
pulled off. In a soft substance the particles are held
loosely, so they can be pushed off easily.
Density
The particle idea explains mass as being caused by
the heaviness of each particle, and how close the
particles are together. Heaviness also depends on
size. A large object is often heavier than a small
object.
 THE PARTICLE IDEA 81

AIM: To measure the density of regular and calculate the volume and density using a calculator.
EXPERIMENT

objects An example has been done for you to follow.

In this experiment you will work out the density of
some rectangular objects. A brick, a book, a piece of Object Mass Dimensions Volume Density
foam rubber and a piece of wood are ideal. Or you (g) (cm) (mL) (g/mL)
can choose some other substances. Measure the Cork block 36 6X6X2 72 36/72 = 0.5
mass of each object in grams, and calculate its Brick
volume by measuring its length, width and height in Book
centimetres. The volume will be in cubic centimetres, Foam rubber
which we call millilitres (mL). Write the experiment Wood
into your note book, copy and complete the table,

A fair way of comparing heaviness is called than one litre of air. We say that sand has a
density. Density compares the mass of objects that greater density than water, and that water has a
have the same size. One litre of sand is heavier greater density than air.
than one litre of water, which in turn is heavier To find the density of any object, first find the
mass, then find the volume, and lastly divide the
mass by the volume. You will need a calculator to
do this.
Density is found by experiment. For rectangu-
lar solids you can measure the edges and calculate
the volume. This is done in the experiment
above. The volume of stones and objects that
1 litre air 1 litre water 1 litre sand 1 litre lead have no regular shape is found by the displace-
= 0.003 g = 1.0 kg = 2.5 kg = 8.7 kg
ment of water. (See the Extension Experiment on
Density compares the mass of objects of the same size page 91.)

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Diffusion is the ____ for the _________ out of a _________. Diffusion is ____ in _____. Diffusion in _______ is
____. There is no diffusion in a _____.
Hardness _______ on how _______ the _________ hold on to each other. In a ____ substance the _________
cannot be _________ or pulled off.
A fair way of comparing _________ is called _______. Density compares the ____ of objects that have the same
____.

QUESTIONS 5 Use the particle idea to compare how strongly the

particles are held together in concrete and in chalk.
1 What is the meaning of the following terms:
6 Use the particle idea to compare the density of lead
diffusion, hardness, density?
and foam rubber. Consider the heaviness and
2 Rank these states of matter in order of increasing closeness of the particles.
speed of diffusion: liquid, solid, gas.
7 What is density? How is density determined by
3 Rank these objects in order of increasing hardness: experiment?
plastic, nail, glass.
8 Which state of matter has the least density? Which
4 Rank these objects in order of increasing density: state of matter has the greatest density (usually)?
iron, lead, feathers, wood. Explain these answers.
 4.5
Energy in particles
When you heat cold water, you add energy and
make hot water. The energy goes into each
particle and makes the particles move faster. This
moving energy is called kinetic energy. The heat
energy in the flame has gone into the kinetic
energy of the particles.
cold hot
water water
Hot and cold liquids
The same thing happens in solids and gases.
When any substance is heated, the heat energy
makes the particles move faster. In solids the
particles vibrate faster and harder.
The change in speed of the particles is best seen
by the diffusion of dye in water. The faster the
particles move, the faster is the diffusion. In the
photographs below, the hot water is on the right.
Try this experiment for yourself.
The same is true for gases and all liquids.
Diffusion is faster when the particles move faster.
This is when the substance is hotter.
Particles of a gas have more energy than the
particles of a liquid. The particles of a liquid have
more energy than the particles of a solid. This is
shown in the energy ladder below.
energy in gases
energy in liquids
energy in solids
An energy ladder
Diffusion in cold and hot water
82
To change from a solid to a liquid, or from a
liquid to gas, energy has to be available. This is like
going up the energy ladder. The change from gas to
liquid, or from liquid to solid, releases energy. This
is like going down the energy ladder. When there
is a change in state, there is a change in energy.
A diagram showing the names of the change in
state and the change in energy is drawn below. In
this diagram the energy ladder goes sideways.
When you get out of the water after a swim,
the liquid water evaporates from your skin and
you feel cold. Heat energy from your skin is going
into the liquid water, making it evaporate. The
water particles are going up the energy ladder.
less heat energy more heat energy
solid melts or fuses liquid boils,
heat added, gets hotter vaporises or evaporates
solid liquid gas
heat taken away, gets heat taken away, gets
colder, liquid freezes, colder, gas condenses
or solidifies into a liquid
low temperatures high temperatures
Changes of state, and the changes of energy
Which has the most energy—water at 100ºC or
water vapour at 100ºC? Water vapour is
produced by heating liquid water, so water
vapour has the greater energy. On the energy
ladder diagram, water vapour is at a higher level
than liquid water.
Burns caused by steam (water vapour) are
often much worse than hot water burns. This is
because steam at 100ºC releases heat energy as it
condenses to water at 100ºC, and then releases
more heat energy as it cools. The heat energy that
is released causes skin to burn.
 THE PARTICLE IDEA 83

AIM: To investigate heat energy in

EXPERIMENT

boiling water clamp

When you heat boiling water, it does not get any retort stand
hotter. This is because the heat energy is being used thermometer
to allow the particles to vaporise. The heat energy
fills the gap in the energy ladder. beaker
Set up the experiment shown in the diagram.
gauze mat
Heat water from room temperature until it is boiling,
and then for another ten minutes. Stop if your beaker tripod
is nearly empty. From when you begin heating the
Bunsen burner
water write the temperature into a table every minute.
Use a wall clock or stopwatch to time one minute.
Write the experiment in your note book. The
heading is Change of State, and the Aim is to Boiling water experiment
investigate heat energy in boiling water. Draw a table
of your results. Later you can graph these results as a
line graph.
Be careful with boiling water. Clamp the Time Temperature Graph of boiling water
heated (˚C)
thermometer securely. Remember to wear safety (min)

Temp (˚C)
glasses when you are using flames and glassware. 0
Do not let the beaker boil dry. 1
2
What is the highest temperature reached by the 3 Time (min)
water? Does it change while you are adding more
heat? What happens to the energy? Talk this through
Results table and graph for the experiment
with your teacher and class, then write an
explanation in your note book.

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

When you heat ____ water, you add ______ and make ___ water. The energy ____ into each ________ and makes
the _________ move ______. The ____ energy in the _____ has gone into the _______ energy of the _________.
To ______ from a solid to a liquid, or from a liquid to gas, ______ has to be available. This is like going __ the
energy ______. The change from gas to liquid, or from liquid to solid, ________ energy. This is like going ____ the
______ ladder. Every time there is a ______ in state, there is a change in ______.

QUESTIONS
1 When a substance is heated, where does the energy
go?
2 How are the particles different in hot water compared
to cold water?
3 Why does diffusion happen faster in hot water than in
cold water?
4 It is easy to set up a beaker with ice floating in very
cold water. Both the ice and water are at 0°C. Which
state, solid or liquid, has the most energy inside it?
5 Which has the most energy in it: boiling water at
100°C, or water vapour at 100°C? Which of the two
loses the most energy as it cools to room temperature?
6 Why does salt dissolve faster in hot water than in cold
water?
7 Why do puddles evaporate faster on a hot day than a
cold day?
8 Why are scalds and burns from steam (water vapour)
much worse than hot water burns?
 4.6
Particles in gases
When you throw a ball, you give it lots of energy. The same applies to particles in a gas. The
If the moving ball hits a small object, the ball particles are moving fast, like a ball you have
could push it over. You can give the ball more thrown. Each particle in a gas has energy and can
energy if you throw it faster, or if you throw a push against anything that it hits.
heavier ball.

AIM: To observe and explain changes in 2 Pressure and temperature

EXPERIMENT

the size of balloons
1 Blowing up a balloon
Blow up a balloon.You are putting a gas, the air you
breathe out, into the balloon.The more you blow,
the more gas you put in.The gas particles push
outwards, making the balloon bigger. All the little
pushes of the air particles stretch the balloon skin.
Gas pressure increases with the amount of gas. As
you let some gas out, the balloon goes down. Less
gas exerts less pressure on the balloon skin.
Obtain two flasks and fit a balloon over the top of
each flask. Each flask contains only air. No air can
get in or out. Place the first flask into a beaker of
warm water. This warms the gas, and the gas
particles move faster. Faster particles push harder
against the balloon. Do your observations match
the explanation? Put the second flask and balloon
into a refrigerator or freezer. What happens?
Explain your answer in terms of the speed of gas
particles and the pressure they cause.

hot cold
100 air 50 air
particles particles

The more particles there are in a balloon, the bigger it gets Flask and balloon experiment

AIM: To observe the movement and when colourless fumes (gases) of ammonia and
DEMONSTRATION

diffusion of gases hydrogen chloride react.

The white smoke is actually a solid, but it is
This demonstration allows you to see gas-like
made of grains so small that they float in air. This
particles. Concentrated ammonia solution and
experiment can be repeated in a glass tube, at least
concentrated hydrochloric acid are very corrosive.
2.5 cm in diameter and 60 cm long. A ring of white
They release ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride
smoke forms where the gases meet as they diffuse
gas. When these gases mix a white smoke is formed.
along the tube.
Your teacher can show you the movement of gases
cotton wool with cotton wool with
cotton wool hydrochloric acid concentrated ammonia
dipped in
acid-proof concentrated
glove hydrochloric acid
white smoke forms
when ammonia and
Gas diffusion in a glass tube
hydrogen chloride
gas react
Concentrated
Ammonia
Solution
direction of
air movement Observing the movement of gases

84
 THE PARTICLE IDEA 85

When a tyre goes flat, it has lost most of its air.

There are no longer enough air particles in the
tyre to push outwards. An inner tube from a
truck or tractor tyre has to be filled with air so
that it keeps its shape. Inner tubes can be used in
fun activities when you are swimming.
An aerosol can contains gas at high pressure.
There is a lot of gas compressed in the can. The
valve on the top is like a gate that lets the
particles out. When you release the valve, some
gas particles inside are pushed out by the other
Particles in a gas particles. The can is ‘empty’ when there are not
In a gas the particles are very tiny, so their enough gas particles left to push the others past
energy is very small. But there can be billions of the valve.
particles in just 1 mL of gas. The total push of all
these particles is very big. It is called gas pressure.
In air it is called air pressure.
Gas pressure depends on the number of gas
particles. The more particles there are, the more
push they have, and the more pressure they
make. Gas pressure also depends on the speed or
energy of the gas particles. Fast particles are at a
high temperature and push harder than slow
particles at a low temperature.
Pressure can be shown in the experiments and
demonstrations on page 84. Read the explanations
and talk them through with your teacher and the
partners in your group. An inner tube from a tyre

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Each particle in a gas has ______ and can ____ against anything that it ____.
In a gas the _________ are very ____, so their ______ is very _____. But there can be ________ of _________ in
just 1 mL of gas. The total ____ of all these ________ is very big. It is called gas ________. In air it is called air
________.
When a tyre goes flat, it has lost most of its ___. There is no longer enough ___ _________ in the tyre to push
________.
An aerosol can contains ___ at ____ ________. There is a lot of gas __________ in the can. The _____ on the top
is like a ____ that lets the _________ out.

QUESTIONS 7 Use the idea of particles to explain the wind that we

1 What causes gas pressure?
8 An air bed is made of rubber or plastic, and is blown
2 Gas pressure depends on two features of the gas
particles. What are these?
3 An inflated balloon is larger on a hot day than on a
cold day. But it still has the same mass. Explain the
reason for this.
4 What happens when a tyre goes flat? How would you
fix a flat tyre?
5 Why is a jumping castle so soft to fall onto?
6 When an aerosol can is used up, does it still have
gas in it? Explain.
feel on a windy day.
up with air. They are used by campers as a bed, or as
a soft lounge at other times.
a Why are air beds so soft and comfortable?
b How can you make the bed softer or harder?
c What would be the difference if you filled the bed
with water instead of air?
d Imagine you could fill the bed with molten lead,
which then solidified. Why would the air bed be
unpleasant to sleep on? Consider the particles in
the lead.
 4.7
Effects of heat
All gases are made of tiny particles that are
constantly moving. They collide with each other
and the walls of the container. The total of all
these collisions is called pressure.
In the last activity we experimented with a
balloon over the top of a flask. The gas in the
balloon takes up more volume when it is hot than
when it is cold. To say this in a different way,
gases expand as they get hotter.
Is this the same for solids and liquids? Do they
also expand as they get hotter?
In the experiment, you should have found that
substances get bigger, or expand, as they get
hotter. Gases expand the most, then liquids, and
solids expand by the least amount. The expansion
happens because the particles vibrate harder or
move faster and need more space to move in. This
pushes the particles further apart from each
other. The metal bar gets longer, wider and
thicker as it gets hotter.
Expansion with temperature has some
important applications. A thermometer works
because the liquid inside it expands as it gets
hotter. A temperature scale is written on the side
AIM: To observe expansion and
EXPERIMENT
contraction of solids and liquids
The following experiments can be teacher
demonstrations, or they can be done by students
in groups.
Set up the flask with coloured water in it, and
warm it gently. How does the water level in the tube
change?
bored
cork
coloured
water
Metal bar
experiment using
commercial
materials
Coloured water and flask experiment
86
of the thermometer. A bimetal strip is made of
two metals bonded together. One metal expands
more than the other metal, so the strip bends
when it is heated. The metal which expands the
most is on the outside of the curved strip.
Concrete paths have soft strips that separate the
solid lengths of concrete. The strips are thinner on
hot days and thicker on cold days.
Railway tracks were once laid on wooden
sleepers with gaps between the lengths of rails. On
a hot day the rails expand and reduce the gap. If
this gap did not exist the rails would buckle
sideways as they lengthen on very hot days.
Overhead power cables are hung with slack in
them. On a cold night they contract (shrink) and
become tighter, but will not break.
Usually the increase in size is only small. A 30 m
steel bridge would be 10 mm longer on a hot
summer day than on a cold winter night.
Allowance has to be made for expansion and con-
traction in making buildings, bridges and other
structures. Road bridges have a fingerplate which
comes closer together on a hot day and further
apart on a cold day.
Some schools have equipment which shows the
change in length of metal bars as they are heated. Or
you can use a one metre long piece of copper hot
water pipe from a hardware shop. Set up the
experiment like the diagram below. In each case,
consider how the pointer would move as the bar gets
shorter or longer. While doing the experiment, think
about these questions:
1 Do objects return to their original length when
they cool to their original temperature?
2 Do all solids and all liquids expand by the same
amount, if they are heated by the same amount?
3 What is happening to the particles as the
substance gets hotter?
the metal bar is secured at one end, and
the other end pushes against a pointer
metal bar
screw to stop
this end of bar
moving
burners to heat bar
 THE PARTICLE IDEA 87

AIM: To make a simple thermometer

EXPERIMENT
Use the diagram below as a guide for making a simple water
thermometer. This thermometer can be calibrated (= have a scale
written on it) by comparing it with a laboratory thermometer.
The scale will no longer be accurate if the amount of water or
air inside the test-tube changes.

Calibrate your test

tube thermometer
thin glass tube by writing the
temperature on the
glass tube. Both
airtight cork thermometers
will have the same
measurement.
large test tube
beaker of water
coloured water can be ice-cold,
warm or hot

Making a water thermometer Calibrating the thermometer

A fingerplate on a road bridge

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

Substances get ______, or ______, as they get ______. Gases expand the ____, then _______, and solids ______
by the _____ amount. The expansion happens because the particles _______ ______ or move ______ and need more
_____ to ____ in. This ______ the _________ further _____ from each other.
A thermometer works because the ______ inside it _______ as it gets ______. A bimetal strip is made of ___
______ bonded together. One _____ expands more than the _____ metal.
Allowance has to be made for _________ and ___________ in making _________, _______ and other __________.

QUESTIONS 5 Use the concepts of expansion and contraction to

1 Describe an experiment you could do or have done to
show that substances expand as they get hotter.
2 How does a laboratory thermometer work? Can you
ever turn one of these thermometers off?
3 Explain, using the idea of particles, why substances
expand as they get hotter.
4 A ball and ring apparatus is used to show expansion
with heat.
The ball is made so that it just fits through the hole
in the ring. The ball and ring are both made of the
same metal. What happens in the following cases?
a The ball is heated, but not the ring.
b The ring is heated, but not the ball.
c They are both heated to the same
temperature.
Ball and ring apparatus
explain the reasons for the following.
a Overhead cables are hung loosely, so that they
droop down a little.
b Railway tracks were once laid with a gap between
the ends of the rails.
c Concrete paths sometimes have black strips
between the sections.
6 A bimetal strip is made of two metals that are
securely joined together. The top strip of metal
expands much more than the other when heated.
a Explain what happens when the bimetal strip is
heated.
b Explain what happens when the bimetal strip is
placed in a freezer.
7 On a hot summer day, a farmer erects a new fence
made of steel wire. He strains the wire tight so it
does not sag. Next winter, he finds the wire has
broken. Explain why.
8 Compare the expansion of solid, liquid and gas with
temperature. Give evidence from this chapter that
supports your answer.
 4.8
Are particles real?
So far in this chapter we have looked at the when two oxygen atoms join together. A
properties of solids, liquids and gases, including: molecule of ozone is made when three oxygen
■ mass atoms join together. These and other molecules
■ compressibility are shown in the diagram below.
■ diffusion
■ hardness O
■ density O O O O N N
■ change of state
oxygen ozone nitrogen
■ pressure
(O2) (O3) (N2)
■ expansion with heat.

P
The idea of particles can be used to explain all Cl Cl P P
H H P
the observed properties of substances. Particles
are tiny parts of substances which: hydrogen chlorine phosphorus
■ have mass (heaviness) (H2) (Cl2) (P4)
■ have a certain size
Molecules of elements
■ hold on to each other (solid and liquid)
■ COPY
pack together
AND (solid and liquid)
COMPLETE Compounds are made of two or more different
■ are always moving, either: vibrating (solids), atoms joined together. Some compounds, such as
jostling (liquids) or moving fast (gases) water, are made of atoms joined to make
■ collide with each other and the container molecules. A molecule of water is made of two
■ move faster and take more space when hot. atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. A
molecule of carbon dioxide is made from one
We cannot see what substances are made of. atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. Some
The scientific model we have used says that there molecules of compounds are shown below.
are particles. The concept of particles can explain
the properties of substances. There remains one H H H
H
last question. Are particles really there? O C O O H N
To answer that we need to look at elements and
carbon dioxide water ammonia
compounds. These were explored in Chapter 2. (CO2) (H2O) (NH3)
Elements are pure substances made of only one
type of atom. Elements are either metals or non- Some compounds are not made ofH molecules
H
metals, depending on their properties. but have a continuous H repeating structure. Table
Cl H C O
The smallest parts of metals are atoms. The salt, Cwhose
O correct chemical name is sodium
metal atoms line up in columns and rows and chloride, is one example. It has been Hmade from
layers. Each chunk of metal is made of many equal
carbon numbers
monoxide of sodium
hydrogen atoms and
chloride chlorine
methanol
metal atoms arranged like this: atoms,(CO)
and its formula(HCl)
is NaCl. (CH4O)

Molecules of compounds

Some compounds are not

made of molecules but have
a continuous repeating
structure. Table salt (sodium
chloride) is one example. It
has been made from equal
Atoms of a metal numbers of sodium and
In non-metals the atoms generally join into chlorine particles called sodium ions
small groups. A small group of joined atoms is ions, and its formula chlorine ions
called a molecule. A molecule of oxygen is made is NaCl.
88
 THE PARTICLE IDEA 89

All these tiny parts, either atoms or molecules,
are the parts of substances we have been calling
particles. Particles do exist and are real. The
particle theory can explain all the physical
changes and even how substances are altered in
chemical changes. We can explain the melting of
ice in terms of water molecules instead of water
particles. We can explain the expansion of copper
with heat by using the idea of copper atoms
instead of copper particles.

Some models of molecules

COPY AND COMPLETE

CHECKPOINT:

The idea of _________ can be used to explain all the observed ________ of __________. _________ are tiny
_____ of __________.
The smallest parts of ______ are _____. The metal _____ line up in _______ and ____ and ______. In non-metals
the _____ generally join into small ______. A small group of ______ atoms is called a ________.
Compounds are made of ___ or ____ different _____ joined together. Some _________, such as water, are made of
_____ ______ to make _________. Some _________ are not made of _________ but have a __________
_________ structure.

QUESTIONS 4 Write the formula of these substances, and state

whether they are an element or compound.
1 Which of the following is an interpretation or an
H H
observation? a b
C O O
a Honey is sticky because honey particles have a O H
H
velcro-like substance on them.
b Water is a liquid which freezes at 0°C.
c Cooking oil is a liquid which repels water. H H
d Hair is a solid which is made of strands of c N N d H O Cl
proteins that bend. H H
e Water forms drops because the particles are
attracted to each other.
f Water boils at 100°C.
g Most elements are metals. e O N O f H H
h All substances are made of atoms.
2 What is the particle model of matter? Why is the
5 Prepare a table which summarises the particle idea.
particle model accepted as being true?
List the nine properties at the start of this activity.
3 The drawings show models of particles in elements Use the following headings:
and compounds. What is a simple rule to identify
which is an element and which is a compound? Property Explanation in terms of particles
 Review and Research
Review questions 4 The table at the bottom of the page shows
some properties of gases.
1 Which one of the three states of matter does Use the table to name the gas which:
each of these statements refer to? a is a compound
a diffuses the quickest b you can see
b maintains its shape c is used in fire extinguishers
c contains the most energy in the particles d is made of particles of one atom only
d is made of slowly vibrating particles e is safe for making lighter-than-air balloons
e is made by the process of condensation f is essential for plant and animal life.
f forms when a solid sublimes
g makes lemonade fizz 5 This question refers to the table below.
h its particles hold tightly together but it has
Substance Melting Point Boiling Point
no shape (°C) (°C)
i vaporises to form a gas
Gold 1063 2970
j requires energy so it can change into a liquid
Sulfur 119 445
2 Put these drawings of particles in order from Iodine 114 183
solid to liquid to gas.
1 2 3 4 5 a At which temperature, 100°C, 200°C, 1060°C
do all these elements become a solid?
b What is the lowest temperature at which all
of these elements exist as a gas?
c Can gold and sulfur be a liquid at the same
temperature? Explain.
3 Match the word with the correct meaning. Each d Which substance will be a solid at 400°C?
word and its meaning has been used in this e Which substance will be a gas at 400°C?
chapter.
6 Sometimes a metal lid can stick tightly onto a
viscosity spreading out without glass jar. The lid can be loosened by running it
stirring or mixing
under hot water. Explain why this happens.
sublimation an increase in size
diffusion how easily something is Thinking questions
scratched or worn away
1 Use the particle theory of matter to explain the
mass a small group of atoms following situations.
joined together
a When you mix 100 mL of water and 100 mL
compressibility the amount of matter of methylated spirits, the total volume is 195
hardness gooey or thick mL. Explain why in terms of particles.
pressure the particles in elements (Hint: use particles of different sizes.)
expansion ability to be squashed b Why is it that a screwed up crisp packet
atoms change from solid to gas unfolds itself, but aluminium foil and paper
without melting stay screwed up into a ball?
molecules caused by the force of c Suggest a reason why honey is slow to pour,
the gas particles as but water is quick.
they collide

Name and Formula Colour Weight Other information

Hydrogen H2 colourless floats in air explosive
Helium He colourless floats in air does not react
Oxygen O2 colourless about the same as air needed for burning and breathing
Carbon dioxide CO2 colourless heavier than air puts out fires
Chlorine Cl2 yellow green heavier than air poison, bleaches coloured materials
Properties of gases
90
 THE PARTICLE
ECOLOGY
IDEA 91

d Why does warm honey pour from a jar better change in the water level in the measuring cylin-
than cold honey? der is the space, or volume, that the rock takes up.
e A bag filled with carbon dioxide gas is Its space, or volume, is the same in air and water.
heavier than the same bag filled with helium
gas. Both gases have the same number of
particles in the same sized bag. Why is the
bag of carbon dioxide heavier than the bag of
helium?
f Why do ice blocks melt faster on a hot day volume
than on a cold day? of rock
g Why does water evaporate quicker from a
flask with a wide top than from a flask with a
small narrow neck? Finding the volume of a rock

2 All substances expand as they are heated. There

have been several theories to explain this.
In your note book, make a table with the
Describe an experiment you could do to prove or
headings shown at the bottom of the page. Use
disprove the hypotheses below.
the table to help work out the density of each
a Substances expand when they get hotter
rock or other sample. Have a calculator handy.
because there are more particles in them.
How would you find the density of water? Write
down the steps needed, check with your teacher,
and then go ahead. You can also find the density
of cooking oil using the same method.
You can find the density of most substances by
using this method. Think about how you would
b Substances expand when they get hotter
find the density of sand. How would you find the
because the particles get bigger.
density of salt? (Remember, salt dissolves in
water.) How would you find the density of bean
bag balls?
Word check
evaporate vaporise vapour
Extension experiment condensation solidification sublimation
plasma viscous matter
AIM: To investigate the density of rocks vibrate jostle crystal
Your teacher will have some different rocks. Each mass compressibility concentration
piece of rock is tied to a length of string. Each dilution foam diffusion
rock has a different mass and a different volume, roughness hardness density
but they can all fit into a measuring cylinder. volume pressure aerosol
Find the mass using a balance or weighing bimetal expansion contraction
machine. Weigh the rock before you wet it. Do not calibrate molecule continuous
put water onto balances.
To find the volume, half fill a measuring cylinder Concept map
with water. Write down the volume of water. Use Draw a concept map of the important ideas in this
the string to lower the rock into the measuring chapter.
cylinder. Write down the new volume of water. The

Rock Mass of rock Initial level of water Final level of water Volume Density
Sample (g) (mL) (mL) (mL) (g/mL)