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.Nomenclature-
a, b, c = coefficients of massless, lin- r length of the crank straight line from the
ear spring force exerted R resultant bearing force on crank end to the piston
on piston the crank end of the connecting
A = cross-sectional area of the position coordinate vector rod
connecting rod relative to inertial refer- y = transverse position coordi-
e,-, ej = unit vectors in the a; and y ence nate
directions, respectively t = independent time variable Z = rigid body position coordi-
e„ eg = unit vectors along and T = total kinetic energy of the nate of the piston
normal to the crank, connecting rod Z = second derivative of Z
respectively dynamic longitudinal dis- with respect to time
E = modulus of elasticity placement of the rod a* = ratio of the angular ac-
/ „ = -time dependent amplitude cross section at x celeration of the unde-
of the n t h mode shape ur, «_, = first and second partial formed axis of the con-
fnt fn ~ m ' s * a n d second deriva- derivatives of u with necting rod to the
tives, respectively, of respect to x square of the angular
/ „ with respect to time first and second partial velocity of the crank
F = time dependent external derivatives of u with re- £i) ti = constant coefficients of
loading on the piston in spect to time viscous damping
its direction of motion dynamic transverse dis- ex = axial strain in the connect-
gn = dimensionless time de- placement of the rod ing rod
pendent amplitude of cross section at x 9 = crank angle
the rath mode shape first and second partial 6,6 = first and second time
first and second deriva- derivatives of v, with derivatives of the crank
9n, 3„ tives, respectively, of g respect to time angle 6
with respect to the first, second, and fourth (j> = angle of the undeformed
crank angle 6 partial derivatives, re- axis of the connecting
area moment of inertia of spectively, of v with rod
I =
connecting rod cross respect to x <j>, <f> = first and second time de-
section about axis of potential energy of inter- rivatives of the con-
V =
bending nal forces (strain en- necting rod angle <j)
linear spring constant ergy) in the connecting 4>n = n t h function of space satis-
k =
I = length of the connecting rod fying the boundary con-
rod ditions of an equation
V. = strain energy of axial de-
m = mass of the connecting rod 4>* = ratio of angular velocity of
formation for the con-
per unit length necting rod the undeformed axis
M, = externally applied time strain energy of bending of the connecting rod
vh for the connecting rod to the angular velocity
dependent moment
il/ 4 = mass of the piston longitudinal displacement of the crank
iV = time dependent normal
w= of the piston end of the <J>„(0) = n t h periodic coefficient as
force exerted on the pis- connecting rod due to a function of the crank
ton, perpendicular to the lateral displacement angle 6
the direction of motion of the rod, i.e., ip{i) = periodic coefficient as a
of the piston function of time
P = time and position depen-
dent connecting rod axial
W ~
U/- '•dx
Q = ratio of angular velocity
of the crank to the first
load W = second derivative of W natural frequency of
Q = time and position depen- with respect to time flexural vibration of the
dent internal shear force x = longitudinal position co- stationary connecting
in the connecting rod ordinate extending on a rod
where m represents mass per unit length. — P(x, i) = m(24>v + v$ - rd* cos (6 + <f>) - xft) (8)
dx
The strain energies of bending, Vb, and of axial deformation,
V„, are and
EI oP(x, t)
I »xJdx, and EIvxxxx - P(x, l)-vxx vx + mi)
Jo ox
(4)
_EA rl = m(w</>2 + rd2 sin (d + f) + x$) (9)
v. 2 k + 1/2^2)!.^
~ Jo Integration of equation (8) from 0 to x yields
where EI is the flexural rigidity and EA the longitudinal rigidity, r*x f*x
and the subscript x denotes differentiation with respect to x. P(x, t) = P(0, t) + 2mi | 4>vdx
<j>vdz++ mm j I v<j>dz
v4
Equations (3) and (4) are employed, in conjunction with Hamil- Joo Jo
ton's principle, to derive the following equations of motion [4]
b — mrxB2 cos (d + 4>) - mx' (10)
EA — (ux + l / 2 ^ 2 ) - mu IT
ox
Utilizing the free body diagram of Fig. 2, it may be shown t h a t
= m(2<j>v + v$ - rd sin (6 + <£) - rd2 cos (6 + <j>)
tan (f>
and
- (x + u)fr) (5) P(0, i) = m\p(t) + MM + m
£(-* + v<t> +
I
?l = 1 ' )
X dx = 0 i = 1, 2,...,m (14) For simplicity assume t h a t the piston operates against a linear
massless spring that is undeformed at bottom dead center (6 =
m
dp I kirx 180 deg); then, the piston force
dx [24, E A sin — - - r<92 cos (0 + 0 ) - x&
F(t) = -fc(Z cos <t> + r cos 6 - I + r) + kW cos <£
where the last term represents the additional force due to fiexural
k=l activity of the connecting rod. In iiondimensionaiized form, the
foregoing equation becomes, for a two mode solution,
and
m 1 / F(jt) „ «
kwx\ — - r = a cos 4> + b cos 6 + c - - 7r2 cos 0 ((/12 + 4022) (19)
P{x, t) = mi/(I) + 2m4> COS k'K — COS
* mrlv' 4
where
- mrxd2 cos (0 + 4,) -(/> 2 + M 4 lV
fc = linear spring constant
-k k HI - r)
, v A . ! / . for* mrd3 mid c = ^77-
mrlO 2 = —a + 0
cos — oos
+ »?KJ> 2_j fh 7~~ ( K'K ~~7~
m 72 ?TI 7
Combining equations (14) through (19), the following two
sfc7r mode solution is obtained (the effects of viscous damping are in-
E A r- °° + ^ E AA ^ cluded and the damping coefficients are denoted by ei and £2):
2
.4=1 ^ iTi
2 c
+ <? E A 7, - rfc os (8 + <t>) E A r (1 - cos kK) ) (16) f/'i + «iffi + (~ + 7r2$i(0) k + ~ (2 -t cos (5 + <j>) +
*=1
In evaluating the above equations, the expression for W(t) is X ff2 + 7T0* I -2ffiff! - 2ffifif2 + - !7iS2J - T « » ( ffi2 + - gigt)
necessary. The usual small displacement expression for W is
Mi , . r air*
2 + —t 7T4 g,((gm + ff,2) + 4 W , + ()22)) - - — ffi((7i2 + 4ff22)
W = - ) d.r
" Jo / 1 r
+ ivgi tan <£ I — ^ + - g\ — 2 - gt cos (d + <p) + TT4>*
Using the aj^propriate derivative of equation (13) and differen-
tiating the above twice leads to X (ffiffi + f72<?2) + - ct*(gi2 + 022)
(k-K
W
2 h\ (AA + A2) (17) 4r 2
= - - sin (0 + <j>) + -a* (20a)
IT I K
/ r \ » gin'20 /
/ I cos <p \
J/A
("-=0 B
C
0.1 0.5
Inactive
Active
In
Out
D Active In
Z 3 cos <j> V / 1 2 c o s 3 0 \ m?/ E Inactive Out
ilf< r cos 20 F . Inactive In
H r 7 + a cos 0 + c (20d) 0.1 3.0
ml J cos <p G Active Out
H Active In
and
I Inactive Out
r 1 il/ 4 ,\ „ r cos20 / 5 \ J Inactive In
$ 4 (0) = 1/2 + h 6 I cos 0 + ( 1/3 0.5 0.5
? cos ml J Zcos0\ ' 167r 2 / K Active put
Mi 1 Active In
1 + 3
I 3 cos ml M Inactive Out
M , r cos 20 N Inactive In
0.5 3.0
H
rot t cos 0
7 + a cos
+ •] O
P
Active
Active
Out
In
Equations (20) represent the time behavior of the first two
modes of the connecting rod and are the equations with which
the remainder of this work is concerned. It is noted that the
coefficients of equation (19) were obtained from data given for
forcing functions for equations (20) are simply functions of the
an engine force analysis [12] and are as follows:
angular velocity of the crank. As the angular velocity of the
crank will be less than the first natural frequency of lateral vibra-
a = -5.0, 6 = -1.25, c = 3.75
tion of the rod for usual design, and as the connecting rod is
considered to be a slender bar, the assumption that the influence The mechanism normally operates under well-lubricated con-
of the longitudinal vibrations on the bending response is negligi- ditions; therefore, it appears reasonable to assume a maximum
ble appears reasonable. value of 10 percent of critical damping for the condition U = 1.0.
Digital and analog computer techniques were employed to For this assumption, the values of the viscous damping coefficients
solve equations (20). Hamming's modified predictor-corrector are ei = 0.2 and e2 = 0.8. The equations are also solved for the
method [11] was programmed for the C D C 6400 digital com- undamped case, 6i = e-i = 0.
puter, located at the Graduate School Computing Center of the The nondimensionalized frequency Q, was varied from 0.05 to
University of Colorado. The analog solutions were obtained upper values which produced a first mode amplitude beyond the
using an Electronic Associates, Inc. P A C E 231R analog com- range of application of the equations. For the purposes of this
puter. The authors are indebted to the Martin Marietta Cor- investigation, the connecting rod is considered to have failed if
poration, Denver Division, for the use of the analog equipment. the amplitude of the first mode exceeds 0.15. The choice of 0.15
The digital solutions were used to verify several of the analog is entirely arbitrary but some reasonable limit had to be set.
solutions. A first-mode amplitude of 0.15 represents a midspan deflection
equal to 15 percent of the length of the connecting rod which
Selection of Parameters would normally result in an overstressed condition. Also, at
deflections above 0.15, the use of small-slope theory becomes
The response quantities are the nondimensionalized time de-
questionable. Nevertheless, solutions in the regions of large
pendent amplitudes of the first two modes of flexural vibration
responses were continued until amplitudes of 0.5 were obtained.
of the connecting rod. Five dimensionless parameters define the
This magnitude is completely unrealistic as it implies t h a t the
system:
connecting rod has been bent double.
Mi Each of the sixteen combinations of parameters is given an
0 = d/brWEI/m/P)
ml mi'lO1 identification letter (A to P), in Table 1. The effect of the
numerical values selected for the system parameters on certain
The responses are presented for several values of the system components of the first of the modal equations (20) is shown in
parameters. T h e numerical values of the parameters were Fig. 3. The right-hand side of this equation is dependent upon
selected on the basis of the practical range of values encountered v
in design practice. only one of the parameters, -. Figs. 3(a) and 3(g) show the time
The ratios of crank length to connecting rod length selected r
are 0.1 and 0.5. The lower value provides nearly simple harmonic variation of the right side of the equation for - = 0.1 and 0.5,
motion of the piston (for rigid body motion of the crank and
respectively. For the smaller value the variation is essentially
connecting rod) whereas the higher value presents the upper
sinusoidal whereas, for the higher value, the variation departs
limit of usual design. The ratios of piston mass to connecting
greatly from the simple harmonic form. Therefore, it would be
rod mass are 0.5 and 3.0. These are in contrast to the values pre-
expected t h a t the responses would also differ considerably from
sented in reference [3] of 5.0 and 8.0 which seem too large to be
each other.
realistic.
The external loading F{t) is assumed to be a force propor- The portion of the external piston force parameters which af-
tional to piston displacement, as indicated by equation (19). As fects the periodic coefficient $i(0) may be written as
previous work has not considered the effect of piston loading, it
is desirable to investigate the response of the system both with
and without an external loading on the piston. The values of the +
Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY 1971 / 255
R.H.S. lixt. r
Piston
(a) Force tb)
i V V \J
i-
..jATV^C
•2r .2-
<I>j.(0) <c) ^(0) d • • 8 Ml
f ^ - ^ i ^ - ^ ^ - - ^ - 2S
.4-
$1(0) XA A A (0) *j.(0) (£)
(g)
Piston
Force
f (h)
1 ^y v v
V' \ y \ y \ y
1.0-
-J.cf-
l.q-
$l(0) '\ A A A ° (!) <&L(O)
<f , . • . JL (J)
2
-°t\ A A A
*J,(8) (H) O-^O)
I'w w w T U>
FREQUENCY RATIO
,a
Case .05 .10 .15 20 . 2 5 .30 . 3 5 .40 .45 . 5 0 .55 .60 <i65 . 7 0 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 1.0
A
B
- _ -- + +
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
C - - -1- + 1- +
+ +
D - "- "!- • + +
+
E " -i- + +
U + +
F +
G
:-j - - L - -- - - [ - ] -
+
+
H - _ _ M tt::: : : :, (2 +
I +
~ _ —
J
K
- - - I-} -+ -[-: 1-3 l-J + + +
L - - - _ H -+L ++ ++ ++
- :-J + +
M
- - - + + + +
£+3 +
- - -
N
0 - - - :-3 M+ M+ +4- ++
- - - -
P
- - - t-: K M + +
- solutions with amplitude less than ;15
+ solutions with amplitude greater than .15
£j time response shown (Figures 4 to 13)
CAS:S
11
B
•; W W- V A1 v V A A 2„
.005'-.
•H
D o ^ A A A . A... A A A A - A - , o.
1 \J A V A V V V A 2n n = 0.20
(a)
.01r
3 si 0-A A "v\ / ^ £^Y- ^
A jV\ -1 f-^ 0
f "V A 2 A ^J A 'w w w W 2rt
. oA
D *i
T^yvV v \rsrv-\rs) ^
(b)
a ' 0.30
.5i-
3 *i
.5-
D ii 9. = 0 . 7 5
(c)
0A AAA.A-. _A
a \J \J\J A tf*£
A^XA/V^--A
fy^vVVVVV*
fvwvv
.1-
?-AAAA=v^-
91
(a)
A/WW*
L 91
"o^wv\A/tyWWVWWWWW £
(b)
t V v^AAA/¥i
(c)
Case .02-
91 ^ A. /A. A .A. .A , e
f
r
.OS.
P 91
r £) = 0 . 2 0
(a)
.5-
K 9l
f
-=-^-VWA|PV.nv/tAA.v>A^ —-—\:AA=—-
p 91
r
•^^c » n •= 0 . 2 5
(b)
.5 L -
N 91
'3 2n
P 91 -A r^\ S\ f 9 9. = 0 . 2 8 6
t V 4X V 2.T
(=)
Fig. 7 First mode responses for cases N and P
,00b-
2n
E w V V V w v V WV V
.005;-
< . . . A /\ A f\t o.
i^-A-a-
-,
9i X - £ A - V A ^ - ^ A - A - ^ - A - A ^ U ^ J-
91
^WWviWA
f-v^-y^wv-w^vv^vw/
(b)
31
92 o^^^^-ij
(c)
Nonlinear
91 •C0X f\ & _ A T J V L J V A A , 0
2ll
Linear
91
"fWWVVV^ _C_
2ir
Case G .
a - 0.25
(a)
Kor.linear
.005-.
91 e
c 2n
= uVv v v V v v
Linear
-00
91 of/\ A A A A A A A , 0_
2lT
i U \A \AA v v v
Case H
a = 0.25
(b)
Fig. 10 Comparison of first mode responses obtained from nonlinear and linear equations
01—-^ „ _ ; ^ , [ v , j i _£_
9l 9r
.Sr
9l
(a) JJH1_
Fig. 11 Comparison of first mode responses obtained from nonlinear and linear equations,
cases G and H, fi = 0 . 5 5
(a) Response from nonlinear (fa) Response f r o m nonlinear (c) Response from nonlinear
equations, case G equations, case H equations with noniinear
piston inertia terms re-
m o v e d , case H
(d) Response from linear (e) Response from linear
equations, case G equations, case H
i gi i-
91 jL
M tt>)
E
W ^/WOiL^^UWlA^
F
....
lgl
(4)
Fig. 12 Comparison of first mode responses obtained from nonlinear and linear equations,
cases / and J, $2 = 0.45
(a) Response from nonlinear (b) Response from nonlinear
equations, case / equations, case J
(c) Response f r o m linear (d) Response from linear
equations, case / equations, case J
the nonlinear inertia terms become quite important for large in Table 1. For these cases the mass ratio is 0.50 and the non-
responses. Pig. 11(c) shows the damped response with the non- linear inertia term will, therefore, be smaller in value than in the
linear piston inertia terms removed from equations (20). All systems represented in Fig. 11. The acceleration does not ex-
other nonlinear terms are retained. This solution is periodic perience abrupt changes; however, the linear equations give a
and stable. In Figs. 11(d) and 11(c), the solutions of the linear- larger response than the nonlinear equations. Both the un-
ized equations are shown for the undamped and damped cases, damped and the damped solutions of the linear equations are
respectively. I t is seen that the responses are smaller than those characterized by steadily increasing amplitudes.
obtained from the nonlinear equations. The damped linear I t has thus been found that the linear and nonlinear equations
solution, Fig. 11(e), yields essentially the same response as the give similar results for the bending responses of the connecting
damped nonlinear solution with the nonlinear piston inertia terms rod only at small values of the response. Therefore, it may be
removed, Fig. 11(c). stated that, in general, the response of the connecting rod is not
Fig. 12 shows linear and nonlinear responses for cases I and J defined adequately by a linear analysis.
•51
^"V^^^^i
31
cf-^v^-
(c)
(a)
r/1 = 0.1667
M 4 /m /. =0.0
.02 £
1 = 0
Ext. Piston Force
Inactive
fl = .2266
.01
-.01 -
This Investigation.
-.02 L
Effect of Initial Conditions part of Fig. 13(c)) for 0 = 0.235. As a result, a solution with
amplitudes greater than 0.5 is obtained for Q = 0.235. A com-
All previous results have been presented for zero initial condi- parison of the first part of Fig. 13(5) and the second part of Fig.
tions (d = gi = ji = g2 = </2 = 0). As nonlinear equations are 13(c) therefore reveals the existence of multiple solutions for fi =
characterized by multiple solutions in certain regions, i.e., by 0.235. In Fig. 13(d)) the system is again started with zero initial
the jump phenomenon, it was considered important to investi- conditions and 0 = 0.25. The conditions after approximately
gate the effect of starting conditions. Fig. 13 shows responses one and one-half cycles are now used as initial conditions for 0
for case P. Fig. 13(a) indicates the response for 0 = 0.25 and = 0.20. In this situation, the amplitude steadily decreases and
zero initial conditions. The response is very large and quickly a steady state solution is obtained.
exceeds 0.5. The system is then started with zero initial condi- The system for this particular case is, therefore, showing multi-
tions for Q = 0.235, and a steady state solution is reached, shown ple solutions in the frequency range of Q S 0.25. However, this
in the first part of Fig. 13(5). The frequency is then increased region of multiple solutions is apparently bounded, i.e., it does
to Q = 0.25 and the system started (second part of Fig. 13(b)) not extend below a certain frequency. With additional tests, of
with initial conditions corresponding to the steady state solu- the type shown in Figs. 13(c) and 13(d), the lower bound is found
tion for Q = 0.235. I n this case the first mode reached a stable to be 0 ~ 0.22.
solution with an amplitude of 0.07, thus two solutions have been I t is observed that the zero initial conditions can produce
obtained for the same value of Q = 0.25, indicating the possible either a stable or unstable solution, depending on the frequency
existence of multiple solutions in this region. In Fig. 13(c), the ratio. Since case P includes the presence of the external piston
system is started with zero initial conditions and Q = 0.25 (same force parameter, the starting condition of 6 = 0 (top dead
conditions as for Fig. 13(a)). The conditions after approximately center) corresponds to a start with the maximum external force
one and one-half cycles are then used as initial^conditions (second on the piston. I n order to investigate the effects of other values