Fluid Dynamics

ME 5313 / AE 5313
Surface Waves
(revised 11/6/2013)

Instructor: Dr. Albert Y. Tong

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
The University of Texas at Arlington
 General Surface-Wave Problem
y z

x
ε
h λ

 ∂φ
h : mean depth u = ∇φ u=
∂x
λ : wave length
∇ 2φ = ∂φ
ε : amplitude 0
v=
∂y
Surface Waves 2
General Surface-Wave Problem

Consider as a small amplitude wave when

ε << h and λ

Surface Waves 3
 Kinematic Condition at the Free Surface
y
∇ 2φ =
0 η ( x, t ) constant P
P0+
x
P0−
−h
y = η ( x, t )
Kinematic condition: A particle on the free
surface will remain on the free surface

Surface Waves 4
Kinematic Condition at the Free Surface
at y = η ( x, t ) ⇒ y − η =0
D
( y −η ) =
0
Dt
∂ 0 ∂ 0 ∂ 0
( y −η ) + u ( y −η ) + v ( y −η ) =
0
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂η ∂η ∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ
− −u +v =0 ⇒ + =
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y

Surface Waves 5
Pressure Condition at the Free Surface
+
Consider the pressure above the surface, P0 ,
is constant. If the effect of surface tension is
−
neglected, the pressure just inside the liquid, P0 ,
+
is equal to 0
P
P0+ (η + ) P

P0− (η − )

(η ) P=
P=
0
+
(η ) P
+
0
− −
(Neglect surface tension)

Surface Waves 6
 Pressure Condition at the Free Surface
Bernoulli Equation: (for unsteady irrotational flow)

At the free surface,

∂φ P 1
+ + ∇φ ⋅∇φ + gη = F ( t )
∂t ρ 2

Surface Waves 7
Boundary Condition at the Bottom

At the bottom, i.e. y = −h

i) u = finite (slip flow)
∂φ
ii) v =0⇒ =0
∂y

Surface Waves 8
 Boundary Condition Summary
∇ 2φ =
0
∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ
i) + = @ y = η ( x, t )
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂φ P 1
ii) + + ∇φ ⋅∇φ + gη = F ( t ) @ y = η ( x, t )
∂t ρ 2
∂φ
iii) = 0 @ y = −h
∂y
Surface Waves 9
Small Amplitude Surface Wave

ε << h and ε << λ ⇒ η << h and η << λ

∂η ∂φ
⇒ << 1 and << 1
∂x ∂x

excluding high
frequency waves

Surface Waves 10
Small Amplitude Surface Wave
Linearization of B.C.
∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ
i) + = on y = η
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y
0

∂φ ∂η
is second order small
∂x ∂x
∂η ∂φ
⇒ = on y =η
∂t ∂y
Surface Waves 11
Small Amplitude Surface Wave
Expanding at y = 0

∂φ ( x,η , t ) ∂φ ( x, 0, t ) ∂ 2φ ( x, 0, t )
=
∂y ∂y
+η
∂y 2
+ Ο (η 2
)
∂φ ( x, 0, t ) ∂η ( x, t )
⇒ =
∂y ∂t

Surface Waves 12
 Small Amplitude Surface Wave

ii) Bernoulli Equation

∂φ ( x,η , t ) P ( x, t ) 1 0
+ + ∇φ ⋅∇φ + gη ( x, t ) = F ( t )
∂t ρ 2
Expanding at y = 0 and deleting H.O.T. :

∂φ ( x, 0, t ) P
⇒ F (t )
+ + gη ( x, t ) = Eq. 1
∂t ρ

Surface Waves 13
 Small Amplitude Surface Wave
Absorb F (t ) into φ , we have
=φ φ ( x, 0, t ) + ∫ F (t ) dt
So Eq. 1 becomes,
∂φ ( x, 0, t ) P
+ + gη ( x, t ) =
0
∂t ρ
∂ 2φ ( x, 0, t ) 1 ∂P ∂η ( x, t )
+ +g =
0
∂t 2
ρ ∂t ∂t
Surface Waves 14
Small Amplitude Surface Wave
With
∂η ( x, t ) ∂φ ( x, 0, t )
=
∂t ∂y

It becomes:

∂ φ ( x, 0, t ) 1 ∂P
2
∂φ ( x, 0, t )
+ +g =
0
∂t 2
ρ ∂t ∂y

Surface Waves 15
 Small Amplitude Surface Wave
Summary:
∇φ=2
0
∂φ ( x, 0, t ) ∂η ( x, t )
i) =
∂y ∂t
∂ 2φ ( x, 0, t ) 1 ∂P ∂φ ( x, 0, t )
ii) + +g =
0
∂t 2
ρ ∂t ∂y
∂φ ( x, −h, t )
iii) =0 v=0
∂y −h
Surface Waves 16
Propagation of Small Amplitude
Surface Waves
2π
=
Consider: η ε sin ( x − ct )
λ
c
ε

ε << h and ε << λ

Surface Waves 17
 Propagation of Small Amplitude
Surface Waves
Boundary condition:

∂φ ( x, 0, t ) ∂η ( x, t ) 2π c 2π
i) = −ε
= cos ( x − ct )
∂y ∂t λ λ
∂ φ ( x, 0, t )
2
∂φ ( x, 0, t )
ii) +g =
0
∂t 2
∂y
∂φ ( x, −h, t )
iii) =0
∂y

Surface Waves 18
Method of Separation of Variables

, t ) X ( x − ct ) Y ( y )
φ ( x, y=
∂ 2
φ ∂ 2
φ
∇ φ=
2
+ 2= 0
∂x 2
∂y
∂ 2φ 
= X "Y 
∂x 2

 ⇒ X "Y + XY " =
0
∂φ2

= XY "
∂y 2

Surface Waves 19
Method of Separation of Variables
X "Y + XY " =
0
X" Y"
+ =0
X Y
 2π 
2
X" Y"
⇒ =− =
− 
X Y  λ 

f ( x − ct ) f ( y)

Surface Waves 20
 Method of Separation of Variables

2π 
2

i) X "+   X= 0
 λ 
2π 2π
= X A cos ( x − ct ) + B sin ( x − ct )
λ λ
2π 2π
i ( x − ct ) −i ( x − ct )
=
or X A'e λ
+ B 'e λ

𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
2𝑖𝑖 2
Surface Waves 21
 Method of Separation of Variables

2π 
2

ii) Y "−   Y= 0
 λ 
 2π y   2π y 
Y C sinh   + D cosh  
 λ   λ 
2π y 2π y
−
=
or Y C 'e λ
+ D 'e λ

e −e y −y
e y + e− y
Note: sinh y = and cosh y =
2 2
Surface Waves 22
 Method of Separation of Variables
φ = XY
 2π 2π 
=φ  A cos ( x − ct ) + B sin ( x − ct )  ⋅
 λ λ 
  2π y   2π y  
C sinh  λ  + D cosh  λ  
    
2π
φ  cos ( x − ct )
Note: From b.c. (i),
λ
⇒B= 0
Surface Waves 23
 Method of Separation of Variables
0
 2π 2π 
=∴φ  A cos ( x − ct ) + B sin ( x − ct ) ⋅
 λ λ 
  2π y   2π y  
C sinh  λ  + D cosh  λ  
or     
  2π y   2π y   2π
C1 sinh  λ  + C2 cosh  λ   cos λ ( x − ct )
φ=
    
where C1 = AC and C2 = AD
Surface Waves 24
Method of Separation of Variables
∂φ ( x, −h, t )
From b.c. (iii), =0
∂y
∂φ   2π y   2π y  
=  C1 cosh   + C2 sinh   =
0
∂y   λ   λ  y= −h
 2π h   2π h 
C1 cosh   − C2 sinh  = 0
 λ   λ 
 2π h 
∴ C1 =
C2 tanh  
 λ 
Surface Waves 25
 Method of Separation of Variables

2π   2π h   2π y   2π y  
φ=
C2 cos ( x − ct )  tanh   sinh   + cosh  
λ   λ   λ   λ 

Surface Waves 26
 Method of Separation of Variables
Consider b.c. (ii)
∂ 2φ ( x, 0, t ) ∂φ ( x, 0, t )
+g = 0
∂t 2
∂y
∂φ  2π  2 2π
2 2

= −C2   c cos ( x − ct )
∂t  λ  λ
2

∂φ 2π  2π  2π h   2π y 
=g gC2 cos ( x − ct )  tanh   cosh  
∂y λ  λ  λ   λ 
2π  2π y  
+ sinh  
λ  λ 
Surface Waves 27
Method of Separation of Variables
∂φ 2π 2π  2π h 
⇒
= g gC2 cos ( x − ct ) tanh  
∂y λ λ  λ 
Substitute into b.c. (ii)
 2π c   2π   2π h 
2

⇒ −  + g  tanh   =0
 λ   λ   λ 
gλ  2π h 
c =
2
tanh  
2π  λ 
 λ   2π h 
2
c
=  tanh  
gh  2π h   λ 
Surface Waves 28
Deep Water Waves
Special Cases:
(i) h >> λ (deep water waves)
2π h  2π h 
>> 1 ⇒ tanh   →1
λ  λ 
e x − e− x
=
tanh x −x
→ 1 as x → ∞
e +e
x

c2
λ gλ
= ⇒c =
2
gh 2π h 2π
Surface Waves 29
Deep Water Waves

tanh x = 0.99 ⇒ x =2.65

2π h 2.65
= 2.65 ⇒ h = λ
λ 2π
λ
Rule of Thumb: h>
2
(can use deep water wave solution)

Surface Waves 30
Shallow Water Waves
(ii) λ >> h shallow water waves
2π h  2π h  2π h
<< 1 ⇒ tanh  →
λ  λ  λ
ε 3
Note: tanh ε =ε − + ...
3
 λ   2π h 
2
c
=
⇒  =  1
gh  2π h   λ 
⇒ c2 =
gh
Surface Waves 31
Effect of Surface Tension

∇ 2φ =
0 v= 0=
∂φ
∂y

∂σ
+
σ x +∆x =σ x + ∆x
P 0 ∂x
∂θ
− θ x +∆x =θ x + ∆x
θx
P ∂x
σx
0

x ∆x x + ∆x
Surface Waves 32
Effect of Surface Tension

∆xP + σ x sin θ x =
0
+
∆xP + σ x +∆x sin θ x +∆x
0
−

Small amplitude wave

∂η
⇒ sin θ  tan θ =
∂x

Surface Waves 33
 Effect of Surface Tension
∂η ∂η
∆xP + σ x
+
∆xP0 + σ x +∆x
= −

∂x ∂x
0
x +∆x

∂η  ∂σ   ∂η ∂ 2
η 
∆xP0 + σ x
+
∆xP0 +  σ x +
= −
∆x   + 2 ∆x 
∂x  ∂x x   ∂x x ∂x 

∂η ∂ 2
η ∂σ ∂η
= ∆xP0 + σ x
−
+ σ x 2 ⋅ ∆x + ⋅ ∆x
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x

Surface Waves 34
Effect of Surface Tension
∂ η ∂σ ∂η2
P − P= σ 2 +
+ −

∂x ∂x ∂x
0 0

Assume: σ = constant
∂σ
⇒ =
0
∂x
∂ 2
η
+ −
P0 − P0 =σ 2
∂x
Only the dynamic b.c. is
∂η 2
affected by the presence
⇒ P = P −σ 2
− +

∂x
0 0
of surface tension
Surface Waves 35
 Effect of Surface Tension
b.c. (ii)
∂ 2φ ( x, 0, t ) 1 ∂P( x, t ) ∂φ ( x, 0, t )
+ +g =0
∂t 2
ρ ∂t ∂y
∂ 2
η ∂φ
=
P P= −
P +
− σ
∂x 2
0 0
∂y
∂P ∂ ∂η
 2
 ∂  ∂η 
2
−σ  2  =
= −σ 2  
∂t ∂t  ∂x  ∂x  ∂t 
∂p ∂φ 3
= −σ 2
∂t ∂x ∂y
Surface Waves 36
 Effect of Surface Tension
Put back into b.c. (ii):
∂ 2φ ( x, 0, t ) σ ∂ 3φ ( x, 0, t ) ∂φ ( x, 0, t )
+ +g =
0
∂t 2
ρ ∂x ∂y 2
∂y

which yields:

c λ
2  σ  2π  
2
 2π h 
= 1 +    tanh  
gh 2π h  ρ g  λ    λ 

Surface Waves 37
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

y v = ∂φ2 u= U2 +
∂φ2
2
∂y 2
∂x U 2 ρ2 +∞
x
v1 =
∂φ1 ∂φ1 U1 ρ1
u= U1 + −∞
∂y 1
∂x
 i 2λπ ( x − at ) 
=y η=
( x, t ) Re ε e 
 
only the real part is used
Surface Waves 38
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

Note: complex form is introduced to treat

instability interface

a= c + id

Surface Waves 39
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
=
Previously: a ( d 0)
c=
2π
i ( x − ct )
=y η=
( x, t ) ε Re[e λ ]
 2π 2π 
= ε Re cos ( x − ct ) + i sin ( x − ct )
 λ λ 
2π
Real part ε cos
= ( x − ct )
λ

Surface Waves 40
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
=
Consider pure imaginary: a id=( c 0)
 i 2λπ ( x −idt ) 
η = Re ε e 
 
2π 2π
 λ λ dt 
i x
= Re ε e e 
 
2π dt
 2π x  λ
= ε cos  e
 λ 
Surface Waves 41
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
d < 0: η will decay
d > 0: η will grow (unstable)

Note: complex roots come in conjugate pairs.

i.e. a= c ± id
Whenever a is complex, i.e. d ≠0 , the interface
becomes unstable.

Surface Waves 42
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

∂φi
u= Ui + i = 1, 2
∂x
i

φi = velocity potential for the perturbation to

the uniform flow caused by the waves at
the interface.

Surface Waves 43
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Governing Equation: ∇ 2φi =
0 i = 1, 2

Kinematic Condition:
D
( y −η ) =0
Dt
∂ 
( y − η ) + (u ⋅∇)( y − η ) = 0
∂t
∂ ∂ ∂
( y − η ) + ui ( y − η ) + vi ( y − η ) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y

Surface Waves 44
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
∂φi ∂φi
ui =
Ui + ; vi =
∂x ∂y
∂η  ∂φi   ∂η  ∂φi
⇒− + U i +  − + =0
∂t  ∂x   ∂x  ∂y
∂η ∂η ∂φi ∂η ∂φi
⇒− − Ui − + =0
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂φi ∂η ∂η
⇒ = + Ui i = 1, 2 at y = η ( x, t )
∂y ∂t ∂x

Surface Waves 45
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Linearized:
∂φi ( x, 0, t ) ∂η ( x, t ) ∂η ( x, t )
= + Ui at y=0
∂y ∂t ∂x
Dynamic Condition:

∂φi Pi 1  
+ F (t ) at y = η ( x, t )
+ (ui ⋅ ui ) + gη =
∂t ρi 2

Note: F(t) can be absorbed intoφi

Surface Waves 46
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
2
∂φi   ∂φi 
2
   Second order small
ui ⋅ ui =Ui +  + 
 ∂x   ∂y 
Constant
2
∂φi  ∂φi   ∂φi 
2

=
U i + 2U i
2
+  + 
∂x  ∂x   ∂y 

Surface Waves 47
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
∂φi ∂φi
ρi + Pi + ρiU i + ρi gη =
0
∂t ∂x
Again, it can be expanded at y=0 and linearized as:

∂φi ( x,0, t ) ∂φi ( x,0, t )

ρi + Pi + ρiU i + ρi gη =
0
∂t ∂x
(i = 1, 2)

Surface Waves 48
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Neglect surface tension: ⇒ P1 =
P2

∂φ1 ( x, 0, t ) ∂φ1 ( x, 0, t )
⇒ ρ1 + ρ1U1 + ρ1 gη ( x, t ) =
∂t ∂x
∂φ2 ( x, 0, t ) ∂φ2 ( x, 0, t )
ρ2 + ρ 2U 2 + ρ 2 gη ( x, t )
∂t ∂x

Surface Waves 49
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Boundary Condition:
(i) y → −∞

=
u1 U1i + 0 j
∂φ1 ∂φ1
⇒ ∇φ1 =0 or = = 0
∂x ∂y
(ii) y → +∞

=
u2 U 2 i + 0 j
∂φ2 ∂φ2
⇒ ∇φ2 =0 or = = 0
∂x ∂y
Surface Waves 50
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Solution:
2π 2π
y i 
( x − at )
φ1 = A1e e λ λ
 b.c. at +/- infinities
2π 2π  have already been
− y i ( x − at )
φ2 = A2 e λ e λ  applied

Kinematic b.c. gives A1= iε ( −a + U1 )
2π 2π
( x − at )
−iε ( a − U1 ) e
y i
⇒ φ1 =
λ
λ
e
(detail)
Surface Waves 51
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

Similarly,

A2 =−iε ( − a + U 2 )
−
2π 2π
( x − at )
φ2 iε ( a − U 2 ) e
y i
λ
= e λ

Surface Waves 52
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
The only b.c. left is the dynamic condition at y = 0
∂φ1 ( x, 0, t )  2π a 
ρ1 = ρ1 A1  −i 
∂t  λ 

 2π a 
2π = ρ1iε ( −a + U1 )  −i 
i ( x − at )  λ 
Note: e λ
is a common factor
and is deleted

Surface Waves 53
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Similarly,
∂φ2 ( x, 0, t )  2π a 
ρ2 = ρ 2 ( −iε )( −a + U 2 )  −i 
∂t  λ 
∂φ1 ( x, 0, t )  2π 
ρ1U1 = ρ1U1iε ( −a + U1 )  i 
∂x  λ 
∂φ2 ( x,0, t )  2π 
ρ 2U 2 = ρ 2U 2 ( −iε )( −a + U 2 )  i 
∂x  λ 

Surface Waves 54
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
ρ1 gη ( x, t ) = ρ1 gε

ρ 2 gη ( x, t ) = ρ 2 gε

Putting all six terms back into the dynamic b.c. and
after some algebraic manipulations gives:

a −
2 2 ( ρ U
1 1 + ρ U
2 2 ) a+
ρ U
1 1
2
+ ρ U
2 2
2
+
g λ ( ρ 2 − ρ1 )
=
0
( ρ1 + ρ2 ) ρ1 + ρ 2 2π ( ρ1 + ρ 2 )

Surface Waves 55
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Solution:
( ρ1 − ρ 2 ) g λ ρ1 ρ 2 (U 2 − U1 )
2
ρ1U1 + ρ 2U 2
a= ± −
ρ1 + ρ 2 ( ρ1 + ρ2 ) 2π ( ρ1 + ρ2 )
2

Special cases
(i) U=
1 U=
2 0 ; ρ=
2 0
gλ gλ This agrees with the
a= ± or a =
2
previous result for
2π 2π deep water waves
No imaginary part =>Stable Waves
Surface Waves 56
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
(ii) ρ 2 = 0
gλ
=
a U1 ±
2π
Again, no imaginary part. Therefore, Stable Waves.

(iii) ρ1 ρ 2 ; U 2 ≠ U1
=

(U 2 − U1 )
2
U1 + U 2
=a ± −
2 4

Surface Waves 57
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

U1 + U 2 (U 2 − U1 )
=a ± i
2 2
Non-zero imaginary part => Unstable Interface

It is known as Helmholtz or Raleigh Instability

The interface can be stabilized by surface tension if

2πσ 2 ρ
− (U1 − U 2 ) ≥0
2

λ 2
Surface Waves 58
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
(iv) U=
1 U=
2 0 ; ρ1 ≠ ρ 2

ρ2
ρ1

a= ±
( ρ1 − ρ2 ) g λ
( ρ1 + ρ2 ) 2π
a) ρ1 > ρ 2 b) ρ1 < ρ 2

Surface Waves 59
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

a) ρ1 > ρ 2 (e.g. oil on top of water)

a= ±
( ρ1 − ρ2 ) g λ
( ρ1 + ρ2 ) 2π
No imaginary part=> Stable Interface

Surface Waves 60
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

b) ρ1 < ρ 2 (e.g. water on top of oil)

a= ±
( ρ1 − ρ2 ) g λ
( ρ1 + ρ2 ) 2π
Non zero imaginary part=> Unstable Interface

It is known as Taylor Instability

Surface Waves 61
THE END

Surface Waves 62
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

∂φ1 ( x, 0, t ) ∂η ( x, t ) ∂η ( x, t )
= + U1
∂y ∂t ∂x
2π 2π
∂φ1 ( x, 0, t ) 2π y i ( x − at )
= A1e λ e λ
∂y λ
2π
∂φ1 ( x, 0, t ) 2π i ( x − at )
= A1e λ
∂y λ

Surface Waves 63
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

2π
∂η ( x, t )  2π a  λ ( x − at )
i
= ε  −i e
∂t  λ 
2π
∂η ( x, t )  2π  i ( x − at )
U1 = U1ε  i e
λ
∂x  λ 
2π  2π a  i 2π
⇒ −ε  i
A1 =  + U1ε
λ  λ  λ
(back)

Surface Waves 64