Subject 5

LADDERS
Definitions and
Basic Objectives
On the fireground, one of the most important operations is
timely and effective laddering of a structure. Proper laddering
sets the foundation for firefighting and can enhance other
support functions.
Pre-fire planning is an important and integral part of
developing proper ladder placement techniques. The
recommendations made here for prioritizing ladder location
and placement are meant to be a guide only. Individual fire
conditions may require other adapted ladder solutions.

Beyond enhancing aerial or ground ladder operations,

effective ladder placement to an involved structure acts
as the catalyst that enhances subsequent strategic and
tactical priorities such as:
—Rescue
—Ventilation
— Access to upper floors and inaccessible locations
—Emergency egress
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Truck Company Operations Guidelines and Considerations

the desired height of the raise. This ensures that

Strategic Priorities
It cannot be overstated that selecting the
proper ladder for the task improves the truck
company’s efficiency. For example, do not use a
ladder that is too short for the raise. Conversely,
do not use a long ladder for a comparatively
short raise.
A number of factors influence the selection
and placement of ladders. For instance, when
laddering a structure, the roof or floor where the
operation will be performed dictates what length
ladder to use.
The following basic information will assist in
choosing ladder length:
— Residential occupancies are approximately
nine feet from floor to floor.
— Commercial occupancies are approxi-
mately 10 to 12 feet from floor to floor.
— The average windowsill height is approxi-
mately three feet above the floor. Windows
are normally four feet high.
COMMERCIAL
HABITATIONAL
the ladder will be at the proper climbing angle of
70 degrees.
Types of Ladders
— 10-foot Attic Ladder
This ladder is considered an inside ladder for
gaining access to attics and similar restricted-
width areas. It should be reserved for interior use.
— 12- and 14-foot Extension
Ladders
These may reach the roofs of some one-story
structures, but are generally considered inside
ladders for use in gaining access to attics, lock
boxes or Knox boxes, hanging salvage covers, etc.
This type of ladder should be reserved for
interior use.
— 16-foot Straight Ladder
This ladder will usually reach the roofs of most
one-story residential buildings with a hip or
gable roof. Occasionally, they can be used on
second-floor windows and the lowest fire escape
balconies.

3rd — 20-foot Straight Ladder

The 20-foot straight ladder will reach the roofs
of most one-story residential buildings with flat
2nd roofs and parapets, most second-floor windows,
4' and most of the lowest fire escape balconies.
Window
hgt.
— 24-foot Straight Ladder
24'

3' Sill hgt.

1st This will reach the roofs of most one-story

10' residential buildings, some roofs of one-story
9'
70˚
angle
commercial buildings, some roofs on two-story
residential buildings with a hip or gable roof,
second and third-floor windows, and most of the
6'
lowest fire escape balconies.
SIDE VIEW
These numbers also help calculate how far the — 35-foot Extension Ladder
base of the ladder should be placed from the
Regardless of the type of roof, this ladder will
building. The proper distance is one-fourth of

Ladders
reach the top of most two-story residential
buildings, second- and third-floor windows and
two- and some three-story fire escape balconies.
— Roof Ladders
Generally, 12-, 16-, and 20-foot roof ladders
require the initial placement of a ground or aerial
ladder before implementation. These ladders are
generally used on all pitched or sloped roofs
where footing is precarious. (Keep in mind that
pitched/sloped roofs are always steeper than they
look from the ground.)
PITCHED/SLOPED ROOFS
ARE ALWAYS STEEPER
THAN THEY LOOK
FROM THE GROUND
Roof ladders can also be used to ladder the
“backside” of tall parapets and fascias. Sometimes
they can be used in place of straight ladders.
Two more important considerations for ladder
selection are roof slope or pitch and the presence
of tall parapets. In the former instance, if footing
is precarious, always use roof ladders. A roof
ladder is also necessary if a parapet is ????
— Aerial Ladders
Aerial ladders add to a truck’s capabilities.
Aerial ladders can reach the upper floors that
ground ladders can’t. They can be placed and
used the same way as a ground ladder. Take into
consideration, however, that they are not as
portable as ground ladders, and that they may
not be able to reach the sides, rear or even the
front of the building.
One of the main advantages of aerial ladders is
that they can be raised quickly by one person,
freeing the remainder of the crew to either place
additional ground ladders or gather equipment.
Prompt and proper ladder selection and
39
placement set the groundwork for a coordinated
attack on the fire and aid in search and rescue.
The main advantage of a ground ladder is its
portability. It can be carried to positions that
would be impossible to reach with aerial apparatus.
Since a truck company has both ground ladders
and an aerial ladder, generally, ground ladders can
be used for lower-story operations, freeing the
aerial ladder for upper-story work.
The main disadvantages of ground ladders are
their limited reach and the number of personnel
required to raise them. Because of this, ground
ladder operations become inefficient and time
consuming when they are used for distances over
three stories.
Strategic
Considerations
— Rescue
Depending on priorities, size-up will dictate
where the first ladders should be raised. Initial
ladders should always be raised to the victims in
the most danger. Another high priority is laddering
a means of egress for firefighters. This includes
windows, roofs, fire escapes, balconies, etc.
— Ventilation
As with rescue, size-up of the fire will dictate
where the first ladders should be raised. When
placing initial ladders for ventilation, consider
how they can be used to maximum benefit,
reducing the need for too many additional
ladders. Also consider the location of the fire,
anticipated fire progress, the amount of work
and time needed on the roof, and the strongest
areas of the building’s construction.
For example, corners, pilasters, hips and
valleys provide more support. The ridge of a
building is usually a strong area also, but during
fire conditions it can be weakened substantially if
exposed to heat or flame. Consider placing a
second ladder for an alternative means of egress
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Truck Company Operations Guidelines and Considerations
once you are on the roof and the area of
operation is known. Factors that may influence
the decision for a second ladder are the type of
roof, direction of fire change, and whether
conditions on the roof are rapidly changing.
THE RIDGE OF A ROOF
CAN BE WEAKENED
SUBSTANTIALLY IF
EXPOSED TO HEAT
OR FLAME.
— Building Construction
One of the best areas to place a ladder is as
close to the corner of the building as possible.
Corners are considered an optimum placement
area for the following reasons:

No horizontal openings. Windows,
doors and vents are not usually found in corners.

Strength. The strongest areas of a
building are adjoining walls, hips and valleys.

Location. When ventilation operations
are complete, it is easy to find the ladder by
looking at the corners. This is especially an asset
at night, in smoky conditions, or when
immediate egress becomes necessary.
There are some exceptions to the advice on
laddering corners with certain types of building
construction:

Tilt-ups. Most tilt-up buildings are large
and have panelized or light weight roofs. The size
of the building is an important factor.
Consider placing the initial ladder close
enough to the anticipated area of operation on
the roof so that crews will not have to traverse a
great distance. However, it should also be far
enough away so that they will not be cut off from
their means of progress if additional roof work,
such as a strip cut, becomes necessary.
Also keep in mind that roofs are stronger over
beams and purlins. For this reason, corners on
tilt-up buildings tend to be one of the weakest
areas of the roof, due to lack of beams, purlins,
and occasionally, even ledger plates.

Common Storefront Commercial. This
type of building may span a whole block, with
numerous occupancies sharing one common
attic. The space is divided up into stores by either
partition walls or separation walls.
When making a decision about ladder
placement in this type of occupancy, consider the
location of the involved store(s), that is, is it in
the middle or to one end of the building? Also
consider which side of the building would
sustain the greatest fire loss.

Strip Malls. These occupancies usually have
fascias along their front and part of the sides.
Roofs are lightweight, and poke-through
construction can be found in the attics.

Fascias. Fascias are usually constructed on
the front and part of the sides of a building.
Fascias normally hide or conceal the roofline,
and are usually open or common to the attic of a
building. Another common feature of fascias is a
lack of firestopping.
The four factors shown in (Figure 2) should be
considered when a fascia is involved.
FIGURE 2
D
ROOF B
A
BUILDING
C
FACIA SIDE VIEW
A OVERHANG
B FACIA HEIGHT
C SUPPORTED OR UNSUPPORTED
D HEIGHT FROM ROOF

Ladders
1. Overhang
Consider the distance a fascia extends from the
building (A). Some fascias are constructed with
the ceiling joists or roof rafters extending into
them for support. Others have merely been
“tacked on” as part of a remodel.
The larger the fascia or longer its extension
from the building, the less chance it will
maintain structural stability when exposed to
fire. Therefore, if fire has already penetrated the
attic or fascia in this type of building, structural
collapse may be imminent.
2. Height
Fascia height (B) and shape will affect the
structural stability. It will also indicate the
amount of building materials utilized and the
potential path of the fire.
3. Support
Is the fascia supported or unsupported?
Structural stability will be enhanced if the fascia
is supported by pillars, posts, or other features
that are often used for style or decoration (C).
4. Height
How far does the fascia rise above the roof? If
it must be laddered, consider the distance from
the actual roof line (D).
41
Access
A primary function common to all ladders is
that they allow firefighters access to the upper
floors of a structure from the outside. When a
fire on a lower floor blocks egress from upper
floors, ladders are invaluable. Firefighters can
simply circumvent the affected floor via ladder in
order to conduct search and rescue operations, as
well as cut off any vertical extension.
In their capacity as an emergency exit, ladders
should be raised for firefighters as well as victims.
This is necessary even if firefighters entered the
building through interior stairways. Ladders
provide additional, immediate exits in areas that
may not have convenient stairway access. They
also let victims being rescued get to fresh air as
quickly as possible without having to be carried
or led through the fire building.
Radio communication is helpful in this type of
operation. Firefighters inside can use their radios
to call for ladders at certain locations. The person
receiving the request can advise when those
ladders are in place.
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Truck Company Operations Guidelines and Considerations
FIGURE 3
Tactical Considerations
Rescue
During a rescue operation, it is imperative that
the ladder be kept a safe distance from victims as
it is being raised. This keeps the victims from
prematurely grabbing onto the ladder, prevent-
ing its further extension or placement. This
maneuver is accomplished by raising the ladder
in a vertical position away from the building,
then pivoting it and lowering the tip toward the
victims (Figure 3).
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
When a ladder is placed at a window for
rescue, the tip should be at or just below the level
of the sill (Figure 4). This keeps the entire width
of the window clear for evacuating victims or
serving as an entrance or exit for personnel.
If a ground ladder must be use on sloped footing,
place it just above the level of the sill on the downhill
side of the window (Figure 5). A downslope spur can
be raised with a wood chock block or a wedge to
level the ladder (Figure 6). These two procedures will
prevent the ladder from moving away from the
supporting window frame as it is being climbed.
FIGURE 6
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Ladders

When an aerial ladder is placed at a window FIGURE 8

for rescue, the turntable should line up with the
window and the ladder should be perpendicular
to the building. If the ladder is placed at an angle
to the building, the beam of the ladder will
contact the building first. As the person climbing
up approaches the tip, his or her weight will twist
the ladder until the other beam also rests on the
roof edge. This is dangerous, as the twisting
causes a severe torsional load on the ladder that
can lead to its failure.
The recommended distance of the aerial
ladder from its objective is two to six inches. If a
rescue is being performed, use the two-inch
figure so that the ladder will rest against the
windowsill after weight is placed on it. This will
reduce dangerous wobbling when the person
being rescued steps onto the ladder.
However, there is an exception to this
recommended minimum distance: at very high

FIGURE 7

angles, allow the ladder to just barely touch the

building. This will prevent excessive movement
when a crew member climbs to the higher
elevations. During the climb, the ladder will be
forced to rest against the building, which stabilizes
it. Of course, as in every situation, be sure to
follow the manufacturers’ suggested operating
procedures for your specific aerial ladder.
When placing a ground ladder at the front or
side railing of a balcony or fire escape, the top of
the ladder should extend a maximum of one
rung above the railing. This provides a handhold
for victims stepping onto the ladder, and keeps
the landing clear.
Also avoid blocking fire escape access above or
below by placing the ladder on the opposite side
of the openings between landings (Figure 7). To
simultaneously ladder first-, second-, and even
third floor fire escapes or balconies, a 35-foot
extension ladder can be used at the wall beside
any of these landings (Figure 8).
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Truck Company Operations Guidelines and Considerations
WHEN A LADDER IS
PLACED AT A WINDOW
FOR RESCUE, THE TIP
SHOULD BE AT OR
JUST BELOW THE LEVEL
OF THE SILL
Ladders should be strapped to handrails to
withstand any side loads or forces. Avoid placing
ladders next to parts of fire escapes that will
interfere with their drop ladders. Remember to
release drop ladders for use by occupants and so
that the drop ladder won’t release at an
inopportune time during the incident.
There are several ways to position ladders as
bridges for rescue. Bridging can be accomplished
by placing ground ladders horizontally between
two buildings, over an alley, walkway, narrow
court, air shaft or from one balcony to another
(Figure 9).
A straight ladder can be placed from window
to window or roof to roof by pushing it tip-first
across the space. Several firefighters should place
their weight on the base of the ladder to keep the
tip from dropping below the victims.
Remember, however, that bridging is not a
standard Los Angeles County Fire Department
ladder operation, and it is a time-consuming
operation at best. If you plan to use it, practice in
advance to develop proficiency and determine
the best techniques for the crew.
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
Ventilation
The first ladder for ventilation should be
placed on the same side of the building you plan
to ventilate and at a corner away from the fire
(Figure 10) so crews can traverse the roof from
the uninvolved portion to the involved portion
of the building. Avoid laddering gable ends and
blocking entrances or exits unless there is no
other place for the ladder. Also take into
consideration that ladders may cause congestion
or create other hazards.
When ladders are raised to the roof, they
should extend a minimum of three to five rungs
above the roofline or parapet. This enhances
both the ladder’s visibility and its sturdiness. Do
not overextend extension ladders or use a straight
ladder that is too tall for the raise, as this may
make the ladder-top heavy and unstable.
When placing a second ladder for an
alternative means of egress, put it near the area of
operation so crews can quickly exit the roof if
necessary. When requesting a second ladder,
consider marking the location with a drop bag to
help ground crews find it.
If additional companies are ordered to the
roof, they should provide their own ladders for
access. Each company should have its own ladder
for access and emergency egress.
Tilt-ups
Again, consider placing the ladder to one side
of a pilaster or cold joint. This results in a 50-
percent chance of stepping on a beam or purlin,
depending on the direction they run across the
 45
Ladders

FIGURE 11 FIGURE 12

building (Figure 11). Avoid laddering the corners Parapets

of a tilt-up unless there is no other choice.
Strip malls
Since most strip malls have fascias, place a
ladder to the sides or rear of the building,
avoiding the fascias.
Common Storefront commercial
Consider placing a ladder to the corner of one
of the exposed occupancies on either side of the
involved occupancy. Potential dollar loss may
influence the side you choose (Figure 12). A
ladder at this location would give crews enough
time to ventilate the occupancy, perform any
other necessary topside work, and exit via the
same ladder.
It is imperative that the base of roof ladder be
the first end carried up the ladder. This puts the
ladder in position to be placed down the
backside of the parapet. Secure the ladder to the
adjacent ground or aerial ladder or to the
parapet.
Upper Floors and
Inaccessible Locations
An aerial ladder can solve this problem, but
ground ladders can be used by raising them to
the roof of an attached or nearby building that is
lower than the involved structure (Figure 13).
FIGURE 13

Fascias
Due to the poor construction of most fascias
and the same factors mentioned under “Strategic
Considerations — Fascias,” make every effort to
avoid laddering this type of construction. If you
must ladder a building with a fascia, ladder the
sides or rear of the building. This protects crew
members and the ladder in case of fascia collapse.

Pitched or sloped roofs

Roof ladders are placed on the roof where
ventilation operations are anticipated. Place
ground or aerial ladders near or next to the
section of roof to be ventilated. This will
facilitate placement of the roof ladder next to the
section of roof to be ventilated.
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Truck Company Operations Guidelines and Considerations

Crews should first climb onto the roof of the lower halyard on the front side to prevent the dogs from
building. If it is no more than two stories high, accidentally unlocking.
ground crews can pass additional ladders to the roof
— When necessary, a ground ladder should be
crews, who should be able to pull them up by hand.
secured to its objective by ladder hose straps, rope,
If the lower building is more than two stories high,
etc.
the ladders should be hoisted by rope.
— When climbing, always keep one hand on the
Once the additional ladders are on the roof of the
ladder. If you have a tool in the other hand, your
lower building, raise them to the proper positions
free hand should be positioned behind the beam,
on the side of the involved building. Sometimes
maintaining constant contact with the beam and
this will require ladders longer than those used to
ready to pull you into the ladder in case of a
get to the roof. Figure out in advance the height of
mishap. If possible, the hand carrying the tool
the required raise and which ladders will reach.
should be positioned behind the ladder, with the
Emergency Egress wrist cocked just against the beam.

Ladders should be raised at fire escapes and — Do not overload ladders.

hallway windows, if their locations are known.
Firefighters should be trained to expect ladders at
these locations. Alternative positions include just
about any window on the fire floor and the floor
above the fire.
— Do not rely on other companies’ ladders. Put
up your own.
— Never extend or retract any aerial ladder while
someone is climbing it.

Considerations
— Ground ladders should be properly spotted,
shifted or moved into position for raising prior to
being raised. This is due to the following
considerations:

Ground ladders are most easily and safely
maneuvered on the ground

Once a ground ladder is in a vertical position,
additional movement increases the chances of
losing stability or striking wires.
— Keep all ladders away from electrical wires. Be
aware of any wires in the vicinity when carrying,
raising, and climbing.
— Ladder movement is simplified and safety
enhanced when ladders are moved in the horizontal
position — on the ground—rather than the vertical
position — in the air.
— The base of an extension ladder may be
shifted toward a building or to either side after it is
lowered to the objective.
— When shifting extension ladders, capture the
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Ladders

Summary
Typical ladder operations involve a lot of choices,
and an incorrect decision can put everyone in
danger. Different types of occupancies impose
different considerations for ladder choice,
placement, and use. Rescue is always the primary
consideration.
Remember, ladder placement is a subject to
consider long before the alarm comes in. Effective
laddering may not only save the life of victims, it
may also save your own and that of your fellow
crew members.

Suggested Reading
1992 In-service IV Ladders manual
Fire Officer’s Handbook of Tactics, John
Norman
Truck Company Fireground Operations, Harold
Richman
Volume 4, Training and Equipment, Chapter
6, Subject 5, Page 6: Tying Off Equipment.