History of Tribal People in United Koraput

History of Tribal People in United Koraput
HISTORY OF TRIBAL PEOPLE IN

UNITED KORAPUT
(B.C. - 1250A.D.)
DAS KORNEL
DAS KORNEL
First published 2017

@ Das Kornel 2017
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of
the author and the publisher.
ISBN-978- 93- 5281- 937-9
Published by Das Kornel, 2017

kornel_das@yahoo.com
drkorneldas@gmail.com
Mobile:+91 9437411576
Coverpage by Arjun Ojha

Dedicated to
Freedom fighter Saheed Laxman Nayak of

Koraput
Dr. Das Kornel was born in a Punjabi family at Jeypore (Koraput district) in
Odisha State of India on 18th August 1948. His family came down during 1870
from Amritsar to Jeypore, then was under the Agency area of Visakahpatam in
Madras Presidency and Jeypore as a State ruled by the Suryavamsi family; they
have few documents since 1892. Dr.Kornel is a qualified Veterinarian with
specialization in Animal Genetics and exercised his profession uptill 1999.He had
an excellent accademic carrier and had earned Honours to his degree and 3
University Goldmedals and several prizes. He worked with Government of India
in various positions since 1971 and took Voluntry retirement from the post of
Director, CCBF in 1999.He was instrumental in establishing Indo-Australian
Sheep Breeding Farm, Hissar and Central Cattle (Jersey) Breeding Farm,
Sunabeda, Government of India. He had established Frozen Semen Bank and
Embryo Transfer Laboratory in CCBF, Sunabeda. He has worked with DANIDA
as Danida Advisor for 10 long years and was the Programmee Coordinator (IC-
SDC) Indo-Swiss Natural Resource Management Programme, Odisha for 4 years.
Dr. Kornel has grassroots level experience of 25 years in Rural Sector
Development.- Project and Programmes, especially the Poverty alleviation
programmee areas in tribal dominant districts of Odisha. His early education and
most service period were spent in Koraput district and for brief period in Bastar
district but from last eight years he is working with poor tribals of Mayurbhanj
and Kenojhore districts of Odisha. He is associated as a Consultant to GALVmed,
Scotland since 2009. The programmee is associated with two lakh fifty thousand
house holds in Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar district tribal families spread across16
blocks of the said districts. The skills to raise small animals particularly the
backyard poultry through trained Community Animal Health Workers is the
strategy to alleviate poverty here. Some how, the life and culture of tribals
fascinated him and thus he went deep into the subject. He has published about 44
papers in Animal Science and few books in Farming Systems, Socio-
anthropology etc. and notably, Tribal Crops - Livestock Farming Systems in
South-East India. Manohar Publishers, New Delhi. (2006). Tribal Culture
Heritage and Cult .Gutob Gadaba Tribe of Orissa, (1999c) Modern Book
Depot, Bhubaneswar; Tribal Culture. Koya Tribe in Transition,
A.P.H.Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, (2006).This is a work based on Koya
tribe of Malkangiri, Koraput, and the Bangladesh refugees who settled there. The
study is spread across 22 years, and observations on Koyas to meet the challenges
due to sudden influx of a modern world society have been detailed. Kornel started
working on the livestock bio-diversity of Orissa as early as 1975 and in 1999 he
published a book titled, Livestock and Poultry Genetic Resources in Orissa,
and in 2006 along with Prof. S.C.Móhapatra and Prof. R.M.Acharya published the
Indigenous Poultry Genetic Resources of Orissa, and Sheep and Goat
Genetic Resources of Orissa: A Survey Report with Government of Orissa.
He has also published a work entitled, Livestock and Poultry Dynamics in
Tribal life based on the tribals of Koraput. Kornel also published two volumes of
e-books entitled, Culture Heritage History and Historiography in
Dandakaranya (BC to 1250AD) – vol. I, & vol. II – (2010). This is a detail
work on tribal culture, local religion set up, history of people and history of
Dynasties that ruled the region and the Historiography that was awaiting
discovery here in United Koraput and Bastar districts of Orissa and Chhattisgarh
states. Kornel and Dr. Giridhar Gamang published a detail work named, Lost
Jaina Tribes in Trikalinga. This work depicts the former day Jaina tribals of
Koraput and the monuments and antiquities that are found in the district. Das
Kornel was the lead consultant to prepare the Livestock Policy and Plan of
Chhattisgarh Government and it was approved by the CG governmemt and
was also implememnted. Kornel worked for three years with FAO in India as
FAO Associate Professional to South Asia Pro Poor Livestock Policy
Programme (a joint initiative of NDDB and FAO) New Delhi. He was the
author of Poultry Sector Country Review---- India for FAO, Rome in 2008.
Das Kornel is a reputed International consultant in Backyard Poultry
Development and he is well known for his pioneering work on Biodiversity of
Livestock and Poultry Resurces in Odisha.
PREFACE
Dandakaranya as known from Ramayana has been well defined and documented.
The united Koraput district is a part of Dandakaranya of Ramayana fame. There
are 62 tribal groups in Orissa and out of that 51 are in united Koraput district
alone that constitutes 82 percent of the total tribals.The Tribals of united Koraput,
represent to a wide stock of origin, and may have come down from various
regions with time. They represent Austro-asiatic, Dravidian and Indo Aryan and
mixed origin. They have maintained their own tribe group identity through
various measures as social discipline and social orders.
For all practical puroses this book mentions Koraput means United Koraput
district i.e. Koraput, Nabrangpur, Rayagada and Malkangiri districts of Orissa.
This volume has been carved out of the two volumes of Culture Heritage History
and Historiography in Dandakaranya (BC to 1250AD), authored by Das Kornel as
the request for separate volume of Tribal People History of Koraput grew.
This book is mainly focuses the ‘Peoples History in Koraput contrary to the
Dyanasty History that normally prevails.
This study was designed to arrive at the origin and history of tribes and other
people of the united Koraput district of Orissa region in more authentically the
place of migration. So the linguistic or dialect knowledge was one of the sphere
and the other was to some extent the anthropological evidences along with genetic
distance between the linguistic groups, was verified with the available folklore or
oral history recorded and finally matched with available history both from
inscriptions and archaeology and geographical prosospectives. Finally the total of
all has been reported keeping in view the existing time frame of the event. In
reporting the inferences, suitable hypothesis were formed as well as few
rectification of certain inscriptions reported earlier were taken with due care to
keep out the bias. The hypothesis with reason and evidences mostly the
circumstantial are clearly mentioned for inference by readers and for future
researchers.
The tribal children are now going to schools and many are in Asram schools. The
tribals have their identity and the future generation shall search their culture,
history and thaeir roots. This book will help them. Their history and roots shall
give them the required strength to march in the process of development safely and
in dignified manner. History will guide them. They shall not be lost.
The history was built from the history that was recorded in the neighbouring
Andhradesa, Kalinga, and the South Kosala and others. The incidences like
marching of army and capitals, dynasties ruling for time and period were
considered for inference. After thorough study of relevant history texts a detail
study of specific Dynasties was taken up along with study of original inscriptions
as far possible in context to united Koraput district region as defined in the book.
It was the personal advice of renowned Orissan historian of repute, Prof.
Manamanth Das to make field studies to write history, otherwise it shall be like
many others whose works did not last long; similarly Dr. S.N. Rajaguru was of
the opinion that history should have evidences from inscriptions or else it will be
a story only. So the above advices were carefully followed to carve out this piece
of the history. Most important contribution was due to Prof. Somsekhar Rao and
Dr.Kolleru Suryanarayana of Visakahapatnam who willingly gave hours to
discuss the relevant history and historical evidences being close to Orissa and in
particular the South Orissa history. They also suggested the authors and books of
concern to my study which saved lot of my study time. In many instances they
were ready to make available inscriptions and photocopies of articles when
requested by me. This was very useful because I could save time. However my
knowledge of anthropology in particular in context to Koraput and Bastar and
practical experiences due to my birth in Jeypore, Orissa and by luck I had spent
most of professional carrier in the region was most helpful to derive many things
of interest, more so my knowledge of Tribal languages and culture was of
significant advantage in the direction.
This book starts with’Intriduction of brief history in Koraput’ for the benefits of
the reader. It gives introduction to the dynasties that came here or dynasties that
were born here and ruled along with important events of history that took place.
There is another separate chapted named,’Ancient and Chanhinging Geography:
Koraput’. It implies all that countries and states that emerged out in Koraput and
more widely in Dandakaranya from BC to 1250AD. This will give a clear
perception of history that the people of Koraput witnessed in the past.
Historigrapical change incorporates new evidence and new way of looking at the
existing history reports. Findings of new coins, inscriptions, archaeology, links
historical and socio-linguistics along with aspects of oral-traditions have enriched
knowledge of new history. In recent years history has increasingly drawn more
evidence from archaeology.
Odisha still houses a large number and range of societies and some of them are
still very primitive. This living pre-history, underlines the continuity of cultural
survivals. Attempts have been made here to bring the cross discipline like ethno-
archaeology to correlate ethnographic findings with history. Thus field work has
been the basis to bring together all elements of interest to form the history of the
region and has been reported. In this book a chapter called,’Societies and Culture
in Koraput’ has been incorporated.
The field works especially related to rituals, particularly in the primitive societies
and those tribal living in isolation do incorporate history and have been
enumerated. A special chapter on Religion and Koraput has been placed that
enumerates the religions that had past roots here and the Tribal religion also.
Archaeological evidence has underlined the geographical significance to history,

particularly the location of settlements and the movement of people and it still, to
a greater extent can indicate the period of occurance.There are departures to
earlier views as simultaneously the geographical regions continue to have
historical activity. That is multiple centers share the same history. This
phenomenon was witnessed simaltaniously during Sangma period of South India
and also in Koraput region and has been reported in detail. These events are of
most interest to historians.
The fieldwork and association to oral tradition, which has been parts of
anthropological studies along with myths have been analysed and with historical
finding and facts have in corroborated and inferences have been drawn. Ofcourse
these inferences have their limitations and thus needs careful inference is
acknowledged.
Linguistics is another area which is providing useful tips to the history of early
India.Lingustic diversity has been well documented in the Indian sub-continent.
Many anthropologists have made useful conclusions in classification of tribe and
indigenous societies especially in India. However, there is till space to work on
the linguistic variability among tribes in Koraput and look into their literature and
the Kondhs in future shall be one such aspect of study.
The distribution of different populations of tribes and people and their spread in
India and particularly in pensular India has been recorded. The problems of
chronology still remain complicated. Still large number of texts creative literature
and comparative linguistics give indication in these directions.
Indian history involves linguistics, archaeology and attempts to differentiate alien

people and others. But it is the history that has shown that communities are not
static; they change and are prone to be influenced by other more powerful
dynasties and rulers.
So many times the isolated societies those which hold strong reason to that effect
have continued to carry history along;such instances are rare but if known
contribute immensely to knowledge and history. The cultural practices through
societies do carry forward certain functions like ceremonies after death, some
typical festivals and ceremonies of life stay with them. These give indications on
the historical linkages of these communities and many times a good pointer
towards religion of the past they were members. Certain crops and food
production knowledge and technology also points to some past geographical
relations.
In future, studies related to genetically markers in plants, livestock, and even

human population in united Koraput shall conjugate to more information like the
anthropological linkages, geographical shifts and to history. There have been
numerous studies in understanding the origin of livestock and the stock from who
they have been through evolution. These have support from genetic studies and
phenotypic evidences that are known from studies and the geographical shifts.
Similarly the new world crops shift and regional variations on genetically
variations within species and between species. Most do believe these aspects
ethically incorrect and some are of the opinion that these are the research studies
and are taken as future good will to human being on the whole. In future more
research shall appear in order to corroborate history with genetic markers. The
genetic studies with relation to various diseases have been taken by researchers in
Koraput and Bastar and from the data so collected genetic distance between
communities have been derived and reported. The author has taken of these
aspects of genetic markers, linguistics, existing history, inscriptions, archeology
related to Indian religions in order to establish the history of tribals and
geographical shifts they have gone through in united Koraput of Orissa. It can be
summarized as follow,
 I have tried to bring the origin and History behind each tribe and other
caste and Communities with their linguistic analysis and where available
the Genetic distances between tribes. These data were generated due to
research on genetic basis of diseases in Koraput.
 Further a detail history has been built on the Dynasties and those rulers
lived in the Koraput region and shall be published separately in another
volume. It is based on research notes of the past and a list of
historiography has thus been built basing on practical field investigation
and analysis of the Historical notes, mostly the disputed areas of
importance. The political histories of different dynasties have been
detailed with relevance to Koraput.
 The culture notes for each of the communities in Koraput have been
enumerated with distinctions, where ever they occur and references have
been cited. The salient feature of the tribes and communities featured in
the text in a clear and distinct manner. The rituals and cerimonies of the
tribals have been travelling with time still intact and study of the same
gives good indication to their origin, their past liniage to the religions and
even their clans names gives some historical evidences to the dynasties or
region they belong to in the past. A special volume.
 The Koraput region has a great heritage, especially the religion aspect and
it has witnessed the rise and fall of several of the Indian Religions
including the Tribal Religion. The change that has formed the progress of
these societies is amply carried forward and reflected in terms of both the
Festivals and Ceremonies of life have been enumerated in detail.
Surprisingly, it still maintains the Heritage and Culture value inspite of
their primitive life style. This can be valued from the fact that these
societies have so far maintained these instruments of Social Heritage with
great respect and pride and valued it immensely.
 The archaeology and inscriptions where available have been incorporated

and reported. Two sepearte volumes entitled Jaina antiquities &
monuments in Koraput and Hindu and Budhist antiquities monuments in
United Koraput, respectively is being published. The authors are Das
Kornel and Dr. Giridhar Gamang.
Some how the beginning was from limited early works of Robert Sewell on
archaeology in (Rayagada) Koraput, a detail study of Edgar Thurston and
Rangachari and later works of many independent researchers including G.
Ramdas of Jeypore and Hira Lal from Bastar contributed to development of
anthropology and history in Koraput.
This work could not have completed without the encouragement of Dr. Giridhar
Gamang. Dr. Gamang does not need introduction; he had represented the Koraput
constituency for 9 times as Member of Parliament. He being a tribal himself has
deep love and respect as well as knowledge of the local Koraput culture and
tradition of the people and was very keen to record it; so that the future generation
can maintain the values. We both were associated since early 70s and had several
serious discussions on history, culture and heritage that the people have built
since centuries in Koraput-Bastar. Koraput remained special to both us, not
because we were born here but the people and their broad approach to life, their
rich heritage value full of poetry, songs of life, dances and music fascinated most.
I was practicing a profession for my living and twice I had to change it, so mostly
the little free time and holidays that was available to me was devoted to these
studies and research. In due course of time, it is natural to lose interest because
many new issues creep up in life but luckily this inspirations and interest in the
subject always renewed my interest. I am grateful to him. After long years of
struggle this piece of work has come to this shape. I hope in future many will take
forward this subject and more knowledge will enrich it.
I am thankful to many friends in academics, tribal friends who willingly

supplemented knowledge to this work. I had the privilege to use the published
literature of many and my thanks are due to them. I am thankful to Jeypore and
Bastar Museum for their help and co-operation.This research work is open and
there are hypothesis which will require validation; so I believe in future, scholars
and local knowledge base will take it forward to a logical conclusion.
In future, I hope collaboration in the field of Koraput culture; history will come
up with new partners from Chhattisgarh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and Orissa Universities and Research Institutions to enrich the field. There is an
urgent need to collect the Tribal Folklores and poetry that are sung at home in
festivals and in paddy fields by ladies for further study. Equally, there is a great
deal to explore the caves of Koraput that will shed more light on religion and
history and will also enhance the future tourism prospects in Koraput.
Conservation of archaeological finds through private-public partnership should
come in future as part of their social responsibility.
Das Kornel
Bhubaneswar
October, 2017.
ABBREVIATIONS USED
ARSIE Annual report of South Indian Epigraphy

ASI Archaeological Survey of India
CII Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum
DHNI Dynastic History of Northern India
EI Epigraphia Indica
Epi.Carn. Epigraphia Carnatika
EA Epigraphia Andhrika, Hyderabad
IA Indian Antiquary
IE Indian Epigraphy by D.C. Sircar
IHQ Indian Historical Quarterly
IO Inscriptions of Orissa by S. N. Rajaguru
Ins. Inscriptions
JAHRS Journal of Andhra Historical Research Society,
Rajahmundry
JAIH Journal of Ancient Indian History Edi. By D.C. Sircar
JAS Journal of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta
JASB Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta
JBORS Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Patna
JKHRS Journal of the Kalinga Historical Research Society,
Bolangir
JNSI Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Calcutta,
Bombay and Varanasi
JOR Journal of Oriental Research, Madras
JORS Journal Orissa Research Society
JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Ireland, London
JRASB Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta
MAR Mysore Archaeological Department
OHRJ The Orissa Historical Research Journal, Bhubaneswar
PHAI Political History of Ancient India by H. C. Raychoudhury,
Calcutta
PIHC Proceedings of the Indian History Congress
RE Rock Edict (of Aasoka)
SI Studies in Indology by V.V. Mirashi
Sel. Ins. Select Inscriptions by D.C.Sircar
SII South Indian Inscriptions
SRE Special Rock Edicts
Vol. Volume
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION OF HISTORY IN KORAPUT ................................................. 1
Dandakaranya ..................................................................................................... 1
Geographical location of Dandakaranya ......................................................... 1
Geographical Changes in Dandakaranya ........................................................ 2
Creative literature and knowledge in United Koraput ........................................ 4
EMERGING STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE AND REGIONAL KINGDOMS IN
PENINSULA & UNITED KORAPUT .................................................................. 6
Mauryas in South India ....................................................................................... 6
Eastern Gangas in Trikalinga ............................................................................ 10
Chola dynasty.................................................................................................... 13
Rajendra I to Kulottunga I ............................................................................ 14
Kulottunga I as Prince in Koraput –Bastar ................................................... 15
Chakrakote ........................................................................................................ 16
SOCIETIES AND CULTURE IN UNITED KORAPUT .................................... 19
Organization of Societies .................................................................................. 20
Customs and traditions...................................................................................... 21
Traditional Village Council .............................................................................. 22
Clan Identity...................................................................................................... 23
The totems ......................................................................................................... 23
Youth Dormitories ............................................................................................ 24
Types of Marriages ........................................................................................... 24
Women and Society .......................................................................................... 25
Common Names of Persons .............................................................................. 25
Festivals ............................................................................................................ 26
Bali Jatra ....................................................................................................... 26
Dasara ........................................................................................................... 27
Daili Parab .................................................................................................... 28
Pus Parab ....................................................................................................... 28
Chaita Parab .................................................................................................. 29
Agni Gangamma Jatra at Nilabadi ................................................................ 29
Tribal Beliefs .................................................................................................... 30
Cremation and Burial ........................................................................................ 31
Ancestral Worship and Veneration of the dead ................................................ 32
Gotar of Gadaba ............................................................................................ 32
Communal Dances ............................................................................................ 33
Megalithic Culture ............................................................................................ 34
Livelihood and Bio-Diversity in Primitive Societies ........................................ 36
Hill people and Valley civilisation growth ....................................................... 37
LANGUAGES IN KORAPUT ............................................................................. 39

Ethno-linguistic Classification ...................................................................... 40
Linguistic Reports on Koraput Population ................................................... 42
GENETIC DISTANCE BETWEEN KORAPUT TRIBES .................................. 45
Geographic affinity ....................................................................................... 46
RELIGIONS AND KORAPUT ............................................................................ 52
JAINISM ........................................................................................................... 52
Assimilation of Jainism................................................................................. 53
BUDDHISM ..................................................................................................... 54
Buddhist Stupas in Dandakaranya ................................................................ 54
Madhyadesa .................................................................................................. 56
Buddhaghosha ............................................................................................... 56
Sthiramati (Yogacharins) .............................................................................. 56
Dharamakiriti ................................................................................................ 57
Buddhism Tantric.......................................................................................... 57
SAIVISM .......................................................................................................... 58
VAISNAVISM ..................................................................................................... 62
JAGANNATHA CULT .................................................................................... 66
LORD RAMACHANDRA IN DANDAKARANYA ...................................... 67
SURYA WORSHIP .......................................................................................... 67
SAKTISM ......................................................................................................... 67
DURGA AS SAKTI IN KORAPUT ............................................................ 68
STAMBHAESVARI OR KHAMBESVARI .................................................... 69
BHIMA OR BHMA KHAMBA ....................................................................... 70
TRIBAL RELIGION ........................................................................................ 72
SACRIFICE AS RITUAL ............................................................................ 76
HUMAN SACRIFICE ...................................................................................... 78
SATI CULT IN KORAPUT ............................................................................. 82
TRANSVERSE OF FAITHS WITH TIME IN KORAPUT ........................ 84
BORIGUMMA IN KORAPUT DISTRICT ......................................................... 84
ANCIENT AND CHANGING GEOGRAPHY: KORAPUT .............................. 91
Emerging Struggle for Empire and Regional Kingdoms and influence on
Societies ............................................................................................................ 93
Dandakaranya and Koraput-Bastar ................................................................... 94
Epigraphic notes on Dandakaranya .............................................................. 98
Sangdrusne parichita bhuva dandakaranya bhagaha (29) ............................... 100
Puranic List of Rivers and Dandakaranya .................................................. 100
TRILINGA, TELINGA AND TRIKALINGA -KORAPUT CONTEXT ...... 104
Historians and their views on Trikalinga .................................................... 113
A T A V I ........................................................................................................ 118
VIDYADHARA TERRITORY ...................................................................... 121
NISADHA....................................................................................................... 123
MAHAKANTARA AND KANTARA........................................................... 126
CHAKRAKOTE ............................................................................................. 128
NAGAVAMSI CHAKRAKOTE AND ITS LOCATON ............................... 130
GIRIKALINGA .............................................................................................. 135
MASUNIDESA .............................................................................................. 136
KALINGA ...................................................................................................... 138
SOUTH KOSALA .......................................................................................... 144
DESIA DESA IN KORAPUT ........................................................................ 146
Lord Mahavira in Kalinga and Koraput ...................................................... 147
TRIBAL PEOPLE OF KORAPUT .................................................................... 152
PORAJA ............................................................................................................. 159
SODIA PORAJA ................................................................................................ 164
PENGO PORAJA ............................................................................................... 170
PURVADESA..................................................................................................... 178
ANCHOLAGUMMA ..................................................................................... 180
ANCHALA ..................................................................................................... 183
GUMMA AND HISTORY ............................................................................. 185
JHODIA .............................................................................................................. 187
Jhoria Muria ................................................................................................ 187
JHODIA PORAJA OF KORAPUT .................................................................... 190
Social Structure ............................................................................................... 193
Background and History behind Jhodia Porajas ......................................... 198
KONDH .............................................................................................................. 199
Haihayas of Konamandala .......................................................................... 202
KUTTIA KONDH .............................................................................................. 205
Kota dynasty ............................................................................................... 206
DONGRIA KONDH ........................................................................................... 209
Oral Traditions and History ........................................................................ 211
KALYAN SINGPUR.......................................................................................... 216
PENTIA OR HALBA ......................................................................................... 227
G O N D .............................................................................................................. 231
History of Gonds ......................................................................................... 232
BHATTRA TRIBE ............................................................................................. 234
Bhattras and History ................................................................................... 237
NALA DYNASTY IN KORAPUT .................................................................... 240
Nala Dynasty Inscriptions, Copper plates and Numismatics evidence ........... 243
Kesaribeda grant of Maharaja Arthapati Bhattaraka .................................. 247
Podagada Stone inscription of Skandavarman, son of Bhavadatta ............. 248
Podagada stone inscriptions ........................................................................ 248
The Nala Rulers .............................................................................................. 249
Archeological Remains of Nalas .................................................................... 253

Art and Architecture and Remnants of Nalas in Podagada............................. 259
SABARA TRIBE ................................................................................................ 270
Hill Sabaras of Ganjam and Koraput districts of Orissa ................................. 271
The Sabara tribe and inscriptions .................................................................... 274
JATAPU PORAJA OR DORA ........................................................................... 281
Jatapu Doras and History ............................................................................ 282
MATIA TRIBE OF KORAPUT ......................................................................... 284
Matia Tribe and History .............................................................................. 287
KOYA OF MALKANGIRI ................................................................................ 289
Origin of Koyas as from Folklores ............................................................. 289
Koya Society ................................................................................................... 290
History and Koya of Malkangiri, Orissa ..................................................... 291
KONDA PORAJA OR CHELLIA PORAJA ..................................................... 295
Chellia Poraja or Konda Poraja and History ............................................... 298
BONDO .............................................................................................................. 304
Origin of Bondo tribe and Folklores ........................................................... 308
GUTOB GADABA ............................................................................................. 315
Origin as of Folk stories .............................................................................. 317
History and Gutob Gadaba Tribe ................................................................ 318
PARENGA TRIBE ............................................................................................. 322
Parenga Poraja and Peramandi Kings of West Gangas .............................. 326
DHURWAS IN KORAPUT ............................................................................... 331
History and Dhurwa tribe............................................................................ 333
OLLAR GADABA ............................................................................................. 337
Ollar Gadaba and History ........................................................................... 339
BHUMIA TRIBE ................................................................................................ 341
Bhumia and History .................................................................................... 344
RAMAGIRI ........................................................................................................ 351
Location of Ramagiri of Kalidasa ............................................................... 354
No.49- Narayanpal Stone Inscription of Gunda Mahadevi. ............................... 368
The Saka Year 1033 ............................................................................................ 368
KOLOIE POROJA.............................................................................................. 376
Kalachuris of Ratnapur (1) and invasion of Chakrakota and South Kosala 377
KONDA DORA .................................................................................................. 378
Konda Dora and History Relation............................................................... 380
TELUGU IN DANDAKARANYA .................................................................... 383
TRILINGA AND TELINGA IN BASTAR-KORAPUT CONTEXT ................ 385
Garh Dhanora and Telingi .............................................................................. 389
DIDYAI TRIBE .................................................................................................. 392
Folk Stories on Origin of Didyai Tribe ....................................................... 394
History and Didayi ...................................................................................... 394

OMANATYA ..................................................................................................... 395
BAGATA ............................................................................................................ 398
History and Bagatas of Koraput-Visakhapatnam ....................................... 399
SUNDI OR SONDI PEOPLE OF KALINGA.................................................... 400
Sondis in Koraput and Bastar ..................................................................... 400
GAUDOS OF KORAPUT .................................................................................. 407
MAGADA GAUDO ........................................................................................... 409
MALI IN KORAPUT ......................................................................................... 412
RONAS ............................................................................................................... 418
Folk Stories and origin ................................................................................ 418
PAIKO ................................................................................................................ 422
KOTTIA PAIKO IN KORAPUT ....................................................................... 424
NANDAPUR ...................................................................................................... 428
Silavamsi Kings of Nandapur as per Inscriptions ....................................... 430
Hathigumpha Record and King Nanda ....................................................... 432
Pravhavati Gupta and Nandapur-Nandvardana .......................................... 433
Nanda or Nandodbhava family Ruling Jeypore-Nandapur ......................... 434
Nandivarman Pallavamalla and Nanndigrama............................................ 435
Bhatiporlu inscription and Nandapuram ..................................................... 436
Vyghraraja in Jeypore forest tract ............................................................... 436
Some Jaina Inscriptions and Trikalinga ...................................................... 436
Chalukyas of Vemulavada and Subaie (Nandapur) .................................... 438
Patasivaram inscription of the Chalukya king Tribhuvnamalla Vira.......... 439
Kalachuris of Tripuri as Trkalingadhipati................................................... 439
Kalachuris of Ratnapur and Nandavalli ...................................................... 439
Krishana Deva Raya of Vijayanagar Empire in Nandapur ......................... 440
Nandapur from People’s Account ................................................................... 440
Pandya Dynasty and Chellia Poraja or Konda Poraja in Koraput District . 441
Eastern Gangas in Trikalinga ...................................................................... 442
Eastern Chalukya in Trikalinga .................................................................. 442
Amma I, Vikramaditya II and Yuddamalla II (922-935) .................................... 443
Nadupuru in Pottapi-nadu ........................................................................... 445
Western Gangas in Kalinga (Nandapur) and Konga................................... 446
BHAIRABA SINGAPUR ................................................................................... 460
CHANDELLAS .................................................................................................. 466
DOMBS .............................................................................................................. 468
Vaidumbas and Dombs ............................................................................... 474
BOIPARIS .......................................................................................................... 478
Index ................................................................................................................... 484
History of Tribal People in United Koraput 1
INTRODUCTION OF HISTORY IN KORAPUT
Dandakaranya
United Koraput was with in the territory of Dandakaranya.The name
Dandakaranya derives from an alleged identity with the ‘Dandak forest’ of the
epic ‘Valmiki Ramayana’, where the demon Dandak held his sway. Epic of
Ramayana speaks that Lord Rama spent his precious 13 years in Dandakaranya
until the abduction of the Goddess Sita.
Geographical location of Dandakaranya

As regards it’s identification of territorial limits, some consider this region as far
as west as Nasik, the abode of Rama in the forest on the bank of the Godavari and
suggest the coincidence of Dandakaranya with modern Maharastra. A few
scholars, alternatively, claim that ancient Dandakaranya covered a very large area
of Central India from which the forests have gradually been cleared by man In
the maps of mid-19th century (1860), the Dandakaranya was a large triangular
tract (fig I)(John,1960) (4).
Dandakaranya region between 17.50’- 20.30’ N and 80.15’- 84.0’ E occupy about
89,078 square Kms that comprises of three states, e.g. the Bastar district of
Madhya Pradesh, the Koraput and Kalahandi districts of Orissa as well as some
parts of Andhra Pradesh including Yellavaram and eastern half of Chodavaram
(Rampachodavaram) tahasils of East Godavari district, Chintapalli and Paderu
tahasils of Visakhapatnam district and Salur and Parvatipuram tahasils of
Srikakulam districts. The region extends for about 480 Kms from east to west and
320 Kms from north to south.
In the Ramayana, Lord Rama tells his brother Lakshman on their way to
Agastya‘s asrama as to how Agastya rendered the earth habitable by
overpowering a demon. This may be indicative that the Aryan occupation of
Dandakaranya happened due to Agastya’s success against the asuras and Tataka
and her husband Sunda. The great forest of Dandakaranya had become unfit for
human habitation because Bhargava had cursed it. Agastya’s presence brought
back the fertility to soil; rains came and became fit for living of several groups of
Aryan sages (rishis).
The mountains and plateau of central India including the Dandakaranya, with
their dense forests, tended to get bypassed by migrants and settlers for many
centuries. The major settlements were along the more frequented routes from the
northern plain south wards to the Deccan. These settlements made only a
marginal impact on the forest dwellers until later centuries when encroachments
into the forests for timber and elephants, as well as cultivable land, became more
common. Central India was regarded as the major habitat of ‘tribal societies’ and
forest peoples, even though such societies were scattered throughout the
subcontinent. Pockets of these continue to the present.
Geographical Changes in Dandakaranya

The geography of Dandakaranya was first evident for Uttararamacharita, 2.14.
Recent publication of J.P. Mittal (2006) has identified many places, ponds, hills
and rivers cited in Ramayana and Puranos in Koraput-Bastar region
The major part of evidence to Dandakaranya so far has come from geography and
location of rivers, hills that continued appearing from Ramayana to many Purano
and literature.
The ancient history-geographical identity of undivided Koraput, parts of
Kalahandi districts of Orissa, and partly the undivided Bastar district of Madhya
Pradesh now in Chhattisgarh as has been found in various inscriptions, literature
is denoted as Dandakaranya and from time to time many dynasties who ruled the
area in part or full carved principality and was known by the following names
 Atavi
 Nisadha
 Vidyadhara territory
 Kantara and Mahakantara
 Trikalinga
 Telinga
 Chakrakote,
 Masunidesha
 Jharakhanda
 Purvadesa
 Girikalinga
 Paschimakalinga and
 Konga
 Desia Desha or Country
The adjacent countries were

 Kalinga to its east
 Dakshina Kosala to its north and north-west
 Vengi to south and south-eastern end
These represented fully or a small principality curved in the main land. The
South Kosala appeared as distinct land.
Sometimes this land came in as full or partial into the territory of Kalinga,
sometime into Vengi occupation and South Kosala dominion.
Several of the Southern dynasties came in to the present undivided Koraput and
Bastar and won the said country and or carved small feudatory for them. They
occupied the land thus owned or were compelled by their natural enemy kings.
This has been seen with the Maurya Chandra Gupta, Samudra Gupta,Kharavela,
Vakatakas,Western Gangas, Western Chalukyas, Eastern Gangas, Cholas, and
Telugu Chodas mainly and even by Eastern Chalukya (Vengi)’s and so many
others, may be Haihaya, Pallavas, Hoysalas and Rastrakuttas.
Apart from kings forming kingdom, the religion interception did occur from time
to time in the past centuries. The Jainism, Buddhism, Saivism and Vaishnavism
in its original and modified sects, came into this land and established.
It has been recorded that there are 51 scheduled tribes inhibiting Koraput
district alone of the total 62 tribes recorded in Orissa. That implies 82 percent of
the tribes group live in united Koraput alone. There is still more to redefine the
tribes of Koraput.
Bagata, Baiga, Banjara or Banuari; Bathudi, Bhottada or Dolada; Bhuiya or
Bhuyan; Bhumia, Bhumij, Binjhal, Birhor, Bondo Poraja, Chenchu, Dal, Dharua,
Didayi, Gadaba; Gandia, Gond or Gondo; Ho, Halva, Jatapu, Juang, Kawar,
Kharia or Kharian; Khond, Kond or Kandha including Nanguli Kandha & Sitha
Kandha;. Kisan, Kol, Kolha, Koli including Malhar, Kondadora, Kora, Korua,
Kotia, Koya, Lodha, Madia, Mahali, Matya, Mirdhas, Munda, Munda Lohara or
Munda Mahalis, Mundari, Omanatya, Parenga, Paroja, Pentia, Rajuar, Santal,
Saora, Savar, Saura or Sahora; Shabar or Lodha; Sounti and Tharua.
The Kondh, Sabara, Koya, Gadaba, Bhattra, Gond, Bhumia and Poraja are the
major tribe groups of Koraput district. The following distribution as denoted does
not count very minor tribes.
Creative literature and knowledge in United Koraput
Poetry as prose in Sanskrit was valued by elite, the court and aristocracy, they
thus gave support. The oldest Sanskrit inscription that is found is the one standing
at the Podagada of Umerkote in Koraput district. It was engraved by Nala dynasty
king during 5th century A.D. It is well evident from the inscription that Sanskrit
was the language of Nala court.
Mahakabi Kalidasa of Ujjain (c.A.D. 400). an extraordinary dramatist and poet
composed in Sanskrit, who is said to have composed Meghaduta (Cloud
Messenger) in Ramagiri located in Koraput district of Orissa. Many eminent
scholars have given their views basing on the geography and historical settings of
the time.
Poet Kalidasa describes in Raghuvamsa, canto X, how Vishnu lying on the great
serpent in the ocean of milk with Laxmi gently rubbing his feet. was born as
Dasaratha’s son for Ravana’s destruction; while Vakataka Queen Pravavati-gupta
(5th Century), the atyanta-bhagavad-bhakta daughter of Chandragupta II, was
worshiper of Bhagavat Ramagirisvamin( literally, the lord of Ramagiri ) who
seems to be no other than Ram, son of Dasaratha. The suggestion is supported by
the reference in Kalidasa’s Meghaduta to the foot-prints of Raghupati (Rama
Dasrathi) on the Rama-giri
Ugradityacarya, a Jaina teacher composed medieval medical text entitled
Kalyana-Karaka at Ramagiri in Tri-kalinga. The Tri-kalinga country has been
identified to be Bastar-Kalahandi- Koraput region.Ugradityacarya lived in 770-
840 A.D. and it is said that Ugradityacarya studied the science under his Guru,
Sri Nandin at Mount Ramagiri. Ramagiri is described to be beautiful hill adorned
with many Jaina caves, temples etc
Lord Rama’s Feet in Pujariguda, Ramagiri, Koraput District, Orissa.

Dharmkirit, a renowned Buddhist monk resided in Candralekhesvara at Padmapur
in Gunupur of Koraput district as per inscription of the 7th century A.D.
Dharmakirti composed Nyayabindu in Sanskrit to defend Dinnaya against
Uddyotakara, who probably was his senior contemporary. He mastered the
Sankhya philosophy and defeated the eminent teachers in controversies. He
surpassed Dinnaya in his contribution to science of logic. He contributed another
valuable work called Pramanavartika in his Tattavasngrha and also Padmana-
vinischaya that was translated by Parahitavrata of Kashmir.
Another Buddhist, Sthiramatti hailed from Dandakaranya became disciple of
Vasubandhu and learned sastras from him. He studied both Hinayana and
Mahayana philosophy and wrote commentaries on Vasubandhu’s
Abhidharmakosa, Abhidharmasamichchaya and other works. He committed to
memory the Ratnakntasutras and commented one of its texts, the Kasyspa-
parivarta. He wrote disquisitions on Madhyantavibhaga and Vasubandhu’s
Trimsika, both of which have been discovered in original Sanskrit.
EMERGING STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE AND

REGIONAL KINGDOMS IN PENINSULA & UNITED
KORAPUT
Mauryas in South India
Mauryas in the later part of 4th century B.C had covered a large part of the
subcontinent, the focus being construction of Empire there by a single power.
Chandragupta Maurya succeeded Nanda throne in c.321 B.C and founded the
empire. He acquired the throne of Magadha and interaction with Greeks was
initiated.
As per Jaina tradition claims Chandragupta, towards the end of his life abdicated
in favour of his son Bindusara and became an ascetic of Jaina. Along with a well
known Jaina elder Bhadrabahu, and other Jaina monks and he left for south India.
He ended his life by Sulakhanna process of Jainas. This story is associated to a
site close to the Jaina centre of Shravana Belgola in Karnataka.
Bindusara succeed him in about 297. B.C. and died in 272 B.C by the time he had
already acquired a large part of the subcontinent. It is said that one area Kalinga
(east coast Orissa) was hostile to Mauryan commerce thus interfering their path to
Peninsula and South India. Bindusara’s son Ashoka whose later campaign
(260B.C.) was more than just an event of military significance is well known in
Indian history.
It implies thus that Chandragupta Maurya had used the least resistant path, other
than Kalinga to reach south, and the same path was used by Samudra Gupta in his
south expeditions.
Samudra Gupta (A.D 335-380) of the Gupta dynasty is well known from
Nalanda plate of inscription. He is well known from his Allahabad Pillar
inscription that was engraved on one of the stone pillars set up at Kausambi by
Ashoka. He annexed several countries to build his empire. The Allahabad Pillar
inscription has given very valuable information about Samudra Gupta’s south
expedition.
The Bodo Malis of Nandapur in Koraput district claim their origin to Allahabad,
so it may be that they came with the vassal of Samudra Gupta. The route of
migration can be corroborated to Allahabad pillar inscriptions of the Samudra
Gupta.
The Magodhia Goudos of Kalahandi – Koraput may have come after
Chandragupta Maurya and may be with Samudra Gupta from Magadha.
It is with a strong tradition that Jainism came into South India about the same
time as Buddhism if not earlier.
The Nasik cave inscription of Vasisthaputra Pulumavi indicates the conquest of
Gautamiputra Satakarni .The inscription further indicates that he was the lord
of the mountains like the Vindhyas, Rksavat, Parijatra, Sahya, Krsnagiri, Malaya,
Mahendra, Svetagiri and Chakora.
However, Sahu wrote the Malaya is Malayagiri in Dhenkanal district; Krsnagiri in
the Ganjam, Mahendragiri of Ganjam. The Svetagiri is probably the Dhavalgiri in
Puri district. The Chakora was identified with the Chakrakuta hill in Bastar
district. However, we are inclined to believe it to be Chikma hill of Borigumma
in Koraput district, about 40 kms from Bastar district. This is based on ancient
Jaina it and note of Chikma
Hathigumpha inscriptions of Kharavela, of first half of the second century
B.C. mentions league of Tamil states that was 113 years at the date of inscriptions
was a source of threat to Kalinga Kingdom. The said reference to Tamil country
was after the Asoka Inscriptions. In the 11th year of his reign (c. 155 B.C)
Kharavela is said to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil sates –
Tramiradesasanghatam. The same inscription mentions that Kharavela caused
‘numerous pearls in hundreds’ to be brought from Pandya to Kalinga, and perhaps
also horses, elephants, jewels and rubies.
The Bramhin settlements began around the middle of the millennium, the
inscriptions were in Tamil with some Prakrit words, and this thus gives clue to the
process of adaptations of the Ashokan bramhi scripts in south. This may be
having been due to influence of Mauryan administration and together with the
arrival of Buddhist and Jaina monks.
Shangam corpse is a collection of anthologies of poetry on popular themes of the
time speak on Tamil traditions.
It is known that many centuries ago thrugh successive assemblies (Shangams)
were held, and the last was in Madurai which speaks between 200 B.C and A.D
300.
With the passing of Guptas, the focus shifted to south wards – Tamilaham. There
were long years of conflict between the western Deccan and Tamilham. The
kingdoms of the peninsula desired to control the entire water way particularly the
Godavari and Krishna Rivers and Vengi lying in between the said rivers became
the frequent bone of contention together with the fertile land of Raichur doab.
Vakataka prince Narendra-sena succeeded his father, Parvara-sena in c.440
A.D. Nala king Bhavadatta-varman, ruling from Puskari, present-day Podagada
in Umerkote region of Koraput District and border to Bastar district invaded and
occupied the capital of Vakatakas during 445 A.D.After the death of Bhavadatta-
varman Narendra-sena carried the war into Nala country and captured and
devastated the Vakataka capital.Arthapati the successor of Bhavadatta varman
was killed and later his brother Skanda varman recaptured the capital. Deva-sena
succeeded in 475 A.D. by his son Hari-sena who is credited to be the most
powerful ruler of Vakataka and gained victory over Gujarat, Malva, South Kosala,
Andhra and Kuntala. At that period the South Kosala was in Nala dominion.
The Vakatakas in the Western Deccan gave way to Chalukya power of Badami.
The control over Karnataka was between Kadambas, Nolambas and Gangas.
Kadamba control extended to the Konkan and the Eastern Gangas ruled in Orissa.
The eastern Deccan bordering (South Kosala) other dynasties were the
Sharabharpuriyas and Panduvamsis of Sabara lineage.
The Tamilham areas of further south remained under the control of the Cheras,
Cholas and Pandyas. From the middle of the sixth century, other a period of 300
years the Tamilham history of south is virtually a story of mutual conflict among
the above there powers each seeking control of the neighbour’s empire. They
were the Chalukyas of Badami, Kanchipuram Pallavas and Pandyas of
Madurai. The Chalukyas first came into prominence as subordinate rulers to
Kadambas but later they broke away as independent rulers. The Chalukyas of
Vatapi / Badami moved north wards and annexed the kingdoms of former
Vakatakas that was centered on the upper Godavari. Harsh was defeated by
Chalukya King Pulakeshin II and that contained the power of the north. In the 3rd
century A.D. Ikshavaku dynasty conquered the Krishna and Godavari. The rules
of Ikshavaku ended with the invasion of the Pallavas. The Pallavas were
responsible for the over throw of Kadamba rulers, south of Chalukya Kingdom.
The earliest records denote the Pallavas ruling at Kanchipuram. Pallava resources
refer to the sub-ordinate rulers, Udayana and Prithvi-Vyagrah as the chiefs of
Sabaras and the Nishada.
Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D) is credited to be the Pallava ruler of later
group who was responsible for the growing political strength. He begun his life
as a Jaina but converted to Saivism by Appar.
Besides the main house of Bandami / Vatapi the Chalukyas established
themselves in two other branches, more or less independent to the main branch,
the Chalukyas of Lata and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. The Eastern
Chalukyas and Gangas of Mysore together look sides in the conflict of the there
kingdoms.
The founder of the Chalukya line was Pulakesin I. Pulakesin I’s son,
Kirtivarman I (566-7 A.D) extended kingdom by war against Kadambas of
Banavasi, Mauryan of Knokan and the Nalas who ruled Bastar and Jeypore
Agency.
The Western Ganga rulers Durvinita gave one of his daughters in marriage to
Pulakesin, and she became the mother of Vikramaditya I.
Pulakesin II made his younger brother Vishnuvardhana yuvaraja and left him
in-charge of the capital and set into an extensive campaign of the eastern Deccan.
He subdued South Kosala and Kalinga. After return, Pulakesin II (621 A.D)
sent Vishnuvardhana to rule over the Andhra Country as Viceroy. He with the
approval his brother found the Eastern Chalukya dynasty that ruled the Telugu
country for over five centuries thereafter.
In about 500 A.D. a new kingdom named Trikalinga was evident from the
Jirjingi copper plate. J.K.Sahu wrote,” The ruler of the Eastern Gangas was
established in the hilly region of Bastar after the fall of the Nalas at the close of
the 5th century A.D. The dynasty is so called because Indravarman, its founder,
belonged to the Ganga ruling family of Karnataka which after this came to be
known as Western Gangas. Indravarman like Sarbhraja was probably a General in
the army of Harisena Vakataka and was allowed to rule the hilly region which
was the original country of the Nalas. He asserted independence after the sudden
fall of Vakataka power.”
The Eastern Gangas of Kalinganagara traced their descent from the Western
Gangas who claimed belong to Ikshvaku family; perhaps of Nagrjunikonda .The
founder of the Western Ganga line was Kongunivarman or Madhava I who
probably ruled 300-400 A.D. with his capital at Kolar. Durnvita (540-600)
conquered Punnad (South Mysore) and Kongudesa and maintained friendly
relation with Chalukyas. However, the Kukkanur plate of Marasimha I during
968-69 indicates the presence of Western Gangas in Dhavala visaya and
Gangapati-. The marriage between Santikara I of Bhauma king of Orissa and
Tribhuvana Mahadevi, daughter of Rajamalla I of Western Ganga dynasty of
Mysore, who ruled from 817-835 A.D. Prior to this inscription the relationship of
Bhauma Kings and Western Gangas, is well established.
Western Chalukya Pulakesin I’s son Kirtivarman I (566-7) expanded the

kingdom by wars against the Kadambas of Banavasi, the Mauryans of Konkan
and the Nalas. The Nalas ruled over a fair sized kingdom in the region of Bastar
and Jeypore agency and their capital at the modern Podagada, located near
Umerkote of Nowrangpur, Koraput district. Kirtivarman I ‘s son, Pulakesin II
received first the submissions of South Kosala and Kalinga and then made his
younger brother Vishnuvardhana yuvaraj leaving him incharge of the capital, he
started an extensive campaign of conquest in the Eastern Deccan (10)
The northern part of Koraput district and eastern part of Bastar district including
southern Dakshina Kosala area was under the Mahakantara and Kantar zone. Thus
in 4th century itself, Samudragupta Maurya crossed the kingdom during his
southern military expedition. A detail political history has been given in the Nala
chapter of this book. However, it can be said in short that, there has been
speculations as regards the identification of the enemy who defeated the Nalas
and destroyed Puskari, who was afterwards destroyed by Skandavarman. As
there was apparently a struggle between the Nalas and Vakataka of the main
branch and the enemy was identified with Prithvisena 11, who claims to have
twice restored the fallen fortune of his family. Skandavarman may also have been
the Panduvamsi king Nanna of South Kosala who had occupied the whole of
Western Madhya Pradesh and is indicated in an inscription at Bhandak. The
Chalukya king Kirtivarman I (AD 567 to 597) who claims to have subdued the
Nalas some times represented his old enemy of the Chalukyas and to destroy their
residences (Nilaya) and thus possibility it has got its name Podagada.
In the Aihole inscription of Kirtivarman’s son, who can hardly be expected to

have supposed the glorious achievements of his father, Kirtivarmana I is
described as the “night of destruction “to Nalas, Mauryas and Kadambas, and also
as having broken up a confederacy of the Kadamba Kings.
Eastern Gangas in Trikalinga

G.Ramdas of Jeypore was the first to publish his classical work ‘Chronology of
the Gangas of Kalinga’.However, it is certain from Jirjingi plate which is the
first copper plate source for the first evidence of Trikalinga and the Ganga king
named Indravarman was assumed the title of Trikalingadhipati (Lord of
Trikalinga). .J.K.Sahu wrote,’Jijjika in Vonkhara-visaya donated in the Jirjingi
plat of Indravarman I refer to village Tunganna in Rupygvati-visaya and the
village identified with Tung near Tekkali. So both Vankhara and Puspyavati were
in Tekkali estate .I have examined the Jirjingi plate,No.2 published by
S.N.Rajaguru and edited by R.Subba Rao,1928 and inclined to read it as
Bododongar-visaya and Jijika village but not Vonkhara district as mentioned.
Again, I identify the reference village with present day Jijingi village in north
Umerkote close to Podagada of Nala dynasty reference and Bododongar in
Bastar district.
Kubja Vishnuvardhana I: (Saka 526- C. 544-45) founder of Eastern

Chalukyas
Kubja Vishnuvardhana was the younger son of Kirtivarman I and therefore, the
younger brother of Pulakesin II. Pulakesin II sent Vishnuvardhana to rule over
Andhra country as Viceroy and completes the process of conquest, which

completed by 631 A.D. Then with the approval of his brother he found the
Eastern Chalukyan dynasty of rulers, which ruled over five centuries the Telugu
country.
The Chipurupalli grant indicates that Kubja Vishnuvardhana was in Kalinga, very
near the capital Kalinganagara, at the time of making this grant, probably fighting
Indravarman III, son of Gunarnava, the Eastern Ganga king of Kalinga. It was
probably that Kubja Vishnuvardhana died during the wars in Kalinga in the
southern part of Visakhapatnam.
Kubja Vishnuvardhana I rewarded 3 of his military officers, of which one Atavi

Durjaya, born in the Matsya family who had fought for his master. He was the
ainapti of the Chipurapalli grant of Vishnuvardhana I. The chiefs of the Matsya
family ruled over a small tract of the country to the south-west of Visakhapatnam
th
district, with their capital at Vaddadi or Oddavadi. They flourished upto 13
century.
Throughout the reign of Jayasimha I of Western Chalukya, the Eastern Ganga

king of Kalinga seem to have been constantly at war with Vengi to regain their
lost territories in the south. Kubja Vishnuvardhana conquered the Southern
provinces of the Eastern Ganga Kingdom as far as the Nagavali and was under
the control of his son. Simultaneously, the region of Jayasimha I witnessed the
Western Chalukyan kingdom of his uncle Pulakesin II being overrun and his
capital Badami sacked and burnt by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (A.D.
630-660), about the year 642.
The Madras Museum plates of the king Vishnuvardhana I were dated 684,
expressed by a chronogram possibly in 634 corresponding to A.D. 21 November
721. The Timmapuram plates of Vishnuvardhana I. Vishamasiddhi were
discovered from village Timmapuram in the Saravasiddhi taluka of
Visakhapatanam district in Madras Presidency. The plate was deciphered by Rai
Bahadur Venkayya and reported by Prof. E. Hultzsch. This finding is of great
significance to present Koraput district as it is.
The inscription records a grant by Vishnuvardhana- Maharya Surnamed

Vishamasiddhi, who was younger brother of Satyasraya Vallavha- Maharaja, the
son of Kirtivarman.
The grant’s donnees are not mentioned by name, but simply stated to have been
forty Brahmanas of the Chhandoga School. E. Hultzsch wrote. “ The object of
the grant was some land seems to be referred to in the Chipurupalle plates of
Vishnuvardhana I, and the name has been read doubtfully as ‘Puki-Vishaya’; but,
if the facsimile can be trusted. The engraver has written in reality Plaki-vishaye,
which may be meant for Palaki-vishaya.” The learned author had not identified
the village ‘Kumulura’ too.
However, I believe from my study that it is ‘Puki-Vishaya’ as has been rightly

mentioned in Ind. Ant. Vol. XX.p. 16, text line 13. This place is still called Puki.
It is located in Dasmanthpur area in Koraput block of Koraput district. This
Puki has a large population of Oriya Paikos at present is thus called Paika -Puki.
Around this place there are Jaina vestiges and it was an ancient Jaina culture
centre. The Kumulura village is near by present day Kumulura village with
Brahmin families. It is in Nowrangpur region of Koraput district.
In the 9th century the Pallavas succumbed to a combined attack from the Pandyas
and their southern neighbours and those tributary to them such as the Chola.In the
same period, Chola Adity I slew Aparajita and that was the end of the Pallava rule
of Tondanad and whole of the Pallava Kingdom became Chola territory.
The Cholas emerged as the dominant power in the south and thus Tamil identity
forged in the peninsula. This was a period in south Indian history filled with
corpus of inscriptions. It was a classical age of Cholas; it drew less on political
authority move on the institution development with cultural reforms. Social
institutions, religion, fine arts dominated the society and influence on South East
Asia was evident. The core region of the control was Cholamandalam, the
around Tanjavur up to the eastern ward, the Coromondal
Kirtivarman II was the last ruler of Chalukya of Badami. His power was
steadily undermined by the Rastrakuta prince Dandidurga. Dandidurga
subdued the Gurjarjs of Malwa, the rulers of Kosala, Kalinga and Telugu
Chodas of Srisailaim country
The Cholas came in conflict with the declining Rastrakutas, who were replaced
by Chalukyas of later period – rising to power in Western Deccan. The Deccan
was divided into small Kingdoms, and Cholas were occasionally at war. The
Yadavas of Devagiri (north Deccan), Kakatyas of Warangal were strengthening;
further south there was competitions with Western Ganga, Hoyasalas of
Dorasamdra (Karnataka ) as well as the Pandyas of Madurai and Cheras in
Kerala.
In their last days Cholas were weekend by incursions of Hoyasalas and Pandyas.
Chola dynasty
Towards the middle of the 9th century, a Chola chief conquered region of
Tanjavur, the heart of Tamilham. In 907 A.D. Parantaka I, the first Chola dynasty
ruler came to power and ruled almost half a century. He captured Madurai, the
capital of Pandyas. The hostility between Pandyas and their allies Sri Lanka thus
lasted for several decades.
But Parantaka I saw defeat under the hands of Rastrakutas and lost the recently
acquired northern districts of Chola kingdom. On the other hand Rastrakutas was
losing ground due to Chalukyas who were once their subordinates. In the
confusion the Cholas recovered the lost territories from Rastrakutas.
Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 AD) the Chola power firmly established and his son and
successor, Rajendra, consolidated the Chola kingdom in next half a century.
Rajaraja attacked the alliance between Cheras of Kerala, Sri Lanka and Pandyas
in order to break the trade monopoly held by these kingdoms with west Asia. By
that time Arab traders had established in the west coast of India. The Cholas and
later Chalukyas went on war to control the rich province of Vengi.
Rajaraja I ruled jointly with his father for 2 years, and succeeded him in 1014.
The policy of expansion continued with the annexation of Vengi from Chalukyas.
Campaign against Sri Lanka and Kerala continued.
Rajendra set out his nest expedition to the north, marching through Kalinga
(Orissa) to reach the banks of Ganges. On way, in Vengi, the Chola forces
defeated Vijayaditya and conquered the country and processed north towards
Kalinga, probably because the Eastern Ganga ruler Madhukamarnava (1019-
38) had sided with Jayasimha. After seducing Kalinga the armies proceed to
further north to Ganges. But with the advance of Chola army to north, trouble
broke out in the rear and thus Rajendra I marched towards north and camped on
the banks of Godavari and tried to secure the safe return of his army back. He
celebrated the coronation of his nephew Rajaraja on 16th A.D. 1022.
It is said that he carried holy water from Ganges back to his capital. He then
began his overseas campaign involving navy and army against the kingdom of
Shrivijaya in South east Asia. The campaign was successful, and trade interest of
Cholas with China – India was secured.
Rajendra then refocused his attention to conflicts within the peninsula, the
Chalukyas reviving their interest to control Vengi. A Chola raid into heart of
Chalukya territory, Kalyani was witnessed, and the same was avenged in 1050
A.D. by Chalukya king. The Cholas were generally aided by the Eastern
Chalukyas which drew closer to Cholas by marriage alliances until at last one
ruler Kulottunga I occupied both the Chola and Vengi thrones. The victorious
army joined him soon after.
The Chola ascendancy was weaning by the later part of 12th century AD. The
Yadavas, Hoysalas and Kakatiyas were gaining strength over the gradual
weakling Cholas. The main attack on the Cholas was from the west came from
Hoysalas, the Pandya kings of Madurai, the old hostilities revived. This lead the
Chola defense, in both western and southern boarders.
As the 13th century A.D came, Chola power that wakened significantly. Hoysala
king had inflicted much damage to Chola kingdom.
Rastrakutas, further north in the western Deccan were gradually unseated by their
subordinates, the Silaharas. They attained full power and gained monopoly our
trade and were known as ‘Lords of the West’.
Rajendra I to Kulottunga I
Rajadhiraja assessed by his younger brother and yuvaraja Rajendra II lead an

expedition against Somesvara (1053-4) at Koppam on river Krishna. Rajadhiraja
fell mortally wounded, but Rajendra turned the battle in victory and crowned
himself in the battle field and returned back to capital.
There were several battles between Somesvara and his sons with Rajendra
including the battle of Kudal – Sangama. Soon after Chola yuvaraja
Rajamahendra and his father Rajendra II died, Virarajendra became the king
(1063)
Somesvara I prepared to defend the Chola attacks, thus counted on the help of his
vassals, the Nagavamsi ruler Dharvarsha of Bastar and Eastern Ganga
Vajrahasta III of Kalinga. He stationed a Paramara prince, Janantha of Dhara
near Bezwada and engaged. Vijayaditya carried the war into the Chola country.
After a great battle near Bezwada that ended with defeat of Chalukya,
Virarajendra crossed the Krishna river and marched into Kalinga. He crossed
Mahendragiri and reached Chakrakuta to crush the Nagavamsi king of present
Koraput - Bastar region.
The war was assisted by Vijayaditya, and Rajaraja, the son of Vajrahasta III,
Vikaramaditya to Chalukya side where as Rajendra the future Kulottunga I on the
Chola side. Unable to meet the army of Virarajendra, Somesvara I due to his
illness took paramayoga by drowning himself in Tungabhadra river in 1068.
Somevara I of Western Chalukya was an able diplomat and great warrior of his
times.
Somesvara I was succeeded by his eldest son Somevara II, but Virarajendra took
over the throne from his brother. Vijayaditya made his submission to
Virarajendra and ruled Vengi as his feudatory.
Virarajendra married his two daughters, one to Vikramditya of W. Chalukya and
the other to Eastern Ganga prince Rajaraja. Vikramaditya IV ruled
independently the southern half the empire. This led to the settlement of eternal
feud between Cholas and the Chalukyas for sometime
Kulottunga I defeated Vikramaditya at Nangili in Kolar district and annexed
Gangavadi. But Somesvara who co-operated Kulottunga I by attacking
Vikramaditya’s rear was the worst suffer. He fell in the hands of Vikramaditya
who threw him into prison and proclaimed himself King (1076). Kulottunga
witnessed problems with Pandya and Kerala countries and Ceylon
Kulottunga I as Prince in Koraput –Bastar
At time of Kulottunga’s father’s death, his uncle Vijayaditya made himself the
king of Vengi kingdom and kept prince Rajenrdra II (Kulottunga I) out of his
inheritance. Thus alone and unaided Rajendra sought a life of adventure across
Vengi frontier in the land of Cakrakuta (Koraput-Bastar) and overcame the
treachery of his enemies, captured herds of elephants, levied tributes from the
Nagavamsi king, Dharvarsa of Chakrakuta. Rajendra spent best part of his
life in Koraput-Bastar from 1063-1070 A.D. He carved out for himself a small
dominion beyond it in the Puvadesa, even if he did not gain full control over
Chakrakote state and annexed parts of the Purvadesa to it. After making peace
with his uncle Vijayaditya; and after the death of Saktivatman II, he bided his
time hoping that in some manner he might gain the Chola throne for himself. He
is said to have made his mark in Vayirkaram and Sakkrakkottam. This attracted
invasion of Vikramaditya against Vengi and Chakrakote that was countered by
Virarajendra’s campaign culminating in the battle of Bezwada that ended at
Chakrakote. So Virarajendra and his army marched across Kalinga up to
Mahendragiri mountain and beyond Chakrakote.
At the death of Virarajendra, Vijaditya II pronounced his rightful claim to throne
of Vengi and expelled Vijayaditya. On the other hand, Vikramaditya the
Chalukya king installed Adhirajendra formally on the Chola throne but the Chola
king lost his life in a popular rising and the vacant throne was Chola was captured
by Rajendra II (Kulottunga I)
As it appears from historical accounts, Chakrakote was the bone of contention and
the south dynasties and the west made efforts to occupy the country.
Chakrakote
The Chakrakote has been mentioned in many inscriptions and various authors
have given their arguments to identify the region and place. The Chalukyas of
Vemulavada: Inscriptions of a later period and Vikramarjunavijayam trace the
descent of the family from Vinayaditya-Yuddhamalla. He captured a fort called
Chitrakuta, which was inaccessible. His son, Arikesari-I, is said to have
conquered the kingdom of Vengi and Trikalinga during the time of Nirupama
Dhruva, the Rastrakuta king who ruled from A.D. 780 to 793 (Kollipara
Plates).The inaccessible fort of Chitrakuta, which Vinayaditya is said to have
captured, is not identified. As there are a number of forts with that name in north
and central India, its identification bristles with difficulties have been mentioned,
was the opinion of Kolaru Surayanarayana.
Again, in the inscriptions of Eastern Chalukya and Choda the name Chakrakote
appears. Vijayaditya III of the Eastern Chalukya line, who ruled between 844
and 888 A.D, so far as is known appears to have been made raid and burnt
Chakrakota.As said above, the Chola Rajendra Chola I (A.D. 1011-33) took
Sakkara-Kottam While one of his successors, King Vira Rajendra I claims to
have crossed Godavari, passed through Kalinga, and advanced against
Chakrakota .Next the Chola king Kulottunga, while yet a youth cover his first
laurels in battle by storming Chakrakota. This happened prior to 1070 A.D.and
is mentioned in the Tamil poem Kalingattu Parani (x24) (5), and also in
inscriptions Vikrama VI was probably the fifth raider, the sixth being
Vishnuvardhana Hoysala in the 12th century.
The Nagavamsis of Barasur (Bastar) were the lords of Chakrakote.
Madhurakantaka occupied the throne of Chhindaka Nagas after King
Dharavarsha Jagadekabhusana (c.1065 A.D.) But Madhurakantaka was soon
ousted by Dharavarsha’s son Somesvara I, who was supported by Chalukyas of
Kalyani while Madhurakantaka received help from Cholas. Somesvara I killed
Madhurakantaka and is credited for his military activities such as burning of
Vengi, the subjugation of Bhadrapattna and Vajra, and seizure of South Kosala.
Many authors relate Bhadrapattana to Bahandak in the Chanda district but
Bhabanipattana in Kalahandi cannot be ignored. The success of South Kosala
was at the expense of both the Kalachuris and Somavamsis. The Somavamsis
acknowledged the supremacy of Somesvara I. Telugu –Chodas were rewarded
with governorship of a portion of South Kosala, as they were feudatory of
Nagavamsis.At the time of the conquest of Vengi, it was under the rule of
Chalukya-Chola Kulottunga I and his son Virachoda was ruling as a
Viceroy.Somesvara I also came in conflict with King of Udra and Lanji and
Lemna.The Kalachuri king Jajalla I claim to have seized Somesvara I in a battle
and later released him.
Gunda- mahadevi mother of Somesvara I had issued the Inscriptions of ------ had
gifted land at Narayanpur for the Bhagabati temple. I am of the opinion that the
said site of the inscription is present day Jeypore in Koraput district where most
of the identities mentioned are coinciding.
Somesvara I (W.Chalukya) and his feudatory, the Kakatiya Prola, raided Kosala,
and conquered Chakrakota, in the Bastar State, after defeating the Naga king.
At the death of Vijaditya (1076) of Eastern Chalukya, Kulottunga I sent his sons
to rule Vengi as Viceroys: Rajendra Mummudi Chola (1076-8), ViraChola
(1078-84), Rajaraja Chodaganga (1084-9), Virachoda again (1089-90), and
lastly, Vikrama Chola (1092 – 1118).
The chieftain of Kolanu entered into a league with Anantavarman Choda Ganga
of Kalinga and rebelled against the viceroy. Kolanu was sacked and Kalinga was
invaded by Vikrama Chola and Parantaka Pandya from south. Some year later in
1110, Anantavarman Choda Ganga withheld tribute to Cholas and second
invasion of Kalinga was evident. This war was recorded as celebrated poems,
Kalingattupparani of Jayangondar.
The Chalukya empire disappeared at the end of 12th century A.D. and Chola
tottered at the beginning of the 13th century.
There were several small kingdoms in South Kalinga after 12th Century and ruled
over by many a local dynasty. Such were the Matsyas of Oddadi, the Gangas of
Jantarnadu, the Pallavas of Virakuta, the Silas of Nandapur, Matsyas of
Madgole etc besides the Chalukyas and the Haihayas. All these dynasties had
allegiance to the Eastern Ganga emperors whose control over Trikalinga or the
Kalinga empire was never effective in this period and was definitely on the
downward move in the latter part the local dynasties grew stronger as the central
power grew weaker. Kalinga especially South Kalinga – was the invading ground
for the conquerors from the south, west and north – the Cholas, the Chalukyas and
the Muslims respectively.
This sounds natural for the names of some of the dynasties – for instance the
Gangas, the Matsyas, the Chalukyas, the Konas and the Pallavas are exactly
same as those some of the major dynasties and subsidiary powers in South-India-
suggesting, obviously their southern origin, though it is not possible to see when
and how they separated from the major dynasties migrated and settled down in
South Kalinga. This is the view taken by Yashoda Devi, the eminent historian
who has contributed a great deal in the aspect. The subject requires more research
and documentation in future
It can thus be concluded that Nalas, Estern Gangas and Eastern Chalukyas
origined in Koraput district in the past.
Refernces
1.Culture Heritage History and Historiography In Dandakaranya Vol I—Das

Kornel–(B.C. to 1250 A.D.)
www.scribd.com/.../Culture-Heritage-History-and-Historiography-
in- Dandakaranya-Vol-I
2.Culture Heritage History and Historiography In Dandakaranya Vol II--- Das
Kornel–(B.C. to 1250 A.D.)
www.scribd.com/.../Culture-Heritage-History-and-Historiography-in
Dandakaranya-Vol-II
SOCIETIES AND CULTURE IN UNITED KORAPUT
The east coast provides evidence of the movement of Buddhism from eastern
India, following the coast to south India and Sri Lanka, from approximately the
late-first millennium BC. East – coast traders also took the initiative in
establishing trade with south-east Asia and southern China.
The Indian sub-continent has been the house of several societies, ranging from
simple and primitive organization and to that of more complex ones. They have
been termed as the ‘living pre-history of India’- due to their survival in isolation
and the history that they have organized and carried forward with time.
The understanding of the early and particularly the existing societies in isolation
mostly the so called primitive societies of tribal have been of interest to
anthropologists and of late to the historians. These societies were indicating a
comparative term between the present affluent societies and the societies of the
past.
However, these societies have been classified as tribals, caste people and others;
where as some have listed them as hunter-gathers, pastoralists, rural farmers and
urban dwellers. The hunter-gatherers formed the first step of organization and the
last step was the urban dwellers with complex organizations.
Most of the societies in Koraput are tribal followed by caste people and others.
The tribal particularly of Dravidian origin also the Austro-Asiatic groups can be
classified as hunter-gathers and many are in transition to settled agriculture or
sedentary farming community. Most of them still follow Jhum or Slash and burn
cultivation, grow small millets of different species and earn the livelihood from
the gathering of forest produces including fruits and flowers also roots for food.
The Sabaras are the tribes of hills and of ancient origin grow efficiently more than
35 species of plants in small plots on hills with perfect knowledge of nutrition,
root system and family food, root and other medicinal value to the family
These societies in isolation have contributed to the development of bio-diversity
and its conservation. There are more than 1700 rice genotypes including 70
known wild rice verities in Koraput region as studied during 1930s. The Austro-
asiatic tribes are said have the major contribution in the direction. They have
enriched the rice cultivation techniques; the Gadaba, Sabara and even the
primitive Bondo have contributed the major. The Sabara tribe of Koraput is the
only tribe who are known to have named the months as per the agricultural
activities. They are most skillful farmers on hilltops to tame water for irrigation
and use of more than 35 species of plants for family food production. Dongaria
Konds are the second best tribal agriculturists on hills in the district.
Organization of Societies
These societies were organized in clans and the social hierarchy received little
attention and there was no differentiation between chief village functionaries and
common person in the village. They lived in isolation in forests, respected the
rights of neighbours, used limited technology and religion was mostly the
animistic as it looked but after deep study it can be concluded that most carry
tinges of the past association with Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism.
The villages of Koraput-Kalahandi region has an organization structure lead by
head of the village called Nayak, Peda or may be Jani in some tribes; followed by
Sirhas,Disaries or the medicine practioner, some have a lady as Gurumai. A nuke
or elderly women as the case may be to assist in some special ceremonies to
evade evil spirits from village or subjects. Families with large land holdings do
represent as member in these committees. A poor and needy person from the caste
community is employed to act as messenger of the village. The primary
responsibility in the past was to collect revenue for the Zamindars and maintain
order in the village. Additionally, the village head with the committee was
responsible to maintain village discipline, welfare of the people including
organizing the religious festivals and ceremonies that was being followed
traditionally. They were presiding on disputes in the village. Some societies have
a person called Bhat Nayak or Village Guru to take care of serious disciplinary
issues that demand out-casting a person along with the family. Most of these
positions were hereditary in succession. These societies in later centuries
maintained strict intra- village discipline and discouraged marriages between
tribes and social interference of any kind including personnel behaviour. The
organisation of villages and then subsequently a hierarchy of villages with in the
cluster were brought together under a regulatory control called’mutha’. Literally
mutha means ‘closed hand’. So mutha villages had their allegiance to the village
of origin called munda or mula village of the mutha. So most festivals were held
in munda village and all mutha villages participated actively. Mutha concept is a
very old one as can be seen from the ‘Bali Mutha’ of Desia societies which is
Jaina relevance and later it took the administrative responsibilities of the King or
Zamindars. The Mutha concept continued in the British administration structure
of Koraput agency.
The villages of Jhodia Poraja, Bodo Poraja, Pengo, and the Kondh sub-groups has
traditional chief of the village called’Jani’, it is hereditary position for each of the
village. The Jani name has possibly derived from the Jaina religious identity or
influence. Janis carry out the Nayak function as well as the function of the
religious head; however in some societies Janis have a limited function of priests
only. Similar position of ‘Sisa’ is known in Bondo and Parenga and few others; it
looks to me relevant to past Buddhism relation to the said group.
Customs and traditions

Normally the tribes express the cultural identity through their custom, tradition,
festivals, dress and ornaments. A certain name is coined especially for the identity
of a tribe e.g. the Paroja, the Kondh, the Sabara etc. Every tribe has a place of
origin but it is not clear. They have their own oral language for interaction. They
are highly disciplined society abide by social and village rules. They avoid
marriage between tribes and this amounts to out casting. The tribes maintain inter
and intra tribal discipline and never criticize others. The neighbouring tribes
attend the ‘Gotar’ceremony of the Gadaba families whenever it occurs and pay
their solidarity.
Each tribe maintains its tradition, own social bondage and village discipline. They
abide by village traditional village council. All these play a key role in
maintaining law, youth dormitory, worship, economic policy, and gathering of
food from forest, slash and burn cultivation, and handicraft and so on for their
lively hood. They live with ‘Nature ‘and Nature is their life and their god and
Nature is everything to them.
Salient Features of Tribal Socio-Cultural Life
 They live in relative isolation usually in hills and forests in interior areas.
 They constitute simple societies which are socio-culturally homogeneous.
 Most of them have their oral language or dialect for communication and
some are losing to the local state language.
 A particular tribal community is endogamous and is divided into a number
of exogamous divisions.
 They had very low access to education and health care services but from
tha last 10 years children are going to village and asram schools.
 They possess their own socio-cultural history which may be shallow and
un-written and persist in folk lores, stories and monuments and antiquities
lying around their habitat.
 They have their rich cultural tradition and heritage although their social
organization is simple.
Traditional Village Council

They lived in isolation in forests, respected the rights of neighbours, used limited
technology and religion was mostly the animistic as it looked but after deep study
it can be concluded that most carry tinges of the past association with Jainism,
Buddhism and Hinduism.
Traditional village council is the cultural center of tribal society and village. It
comprises of various positions and specific duties to perform. Some positions are
hereditary and some are elective. The head of the village council is the head of
the village. These societies were organized in clans and the social hierarchy
received little attention and there was no differentiation between chief village
functionaries and common person in the village.
The villages of Koraput region has an organization structure lead by head of the
village called Nayako or may be Jani in some tribes; followed by Sirhas,
Disaries or the medicine Practioners, some have a lady as Gurumai. A nuke or
elderly women as the case may be to assist in some special ceremonies to evade
evil spirits from village or subjects. Families with large land holdings do represent
as member in these committees. A couple of Dom caste living in the village are
given position like watchman, village messenger or interpreter to outside world . In
some village councils Chalans assist the Nayak.The primary responsibility of the
traditional Village council in the past was to collect revenue for the Zamindars
and maintain order in the village. Additionally, the village head with the
committee was responsible to maintain village discipline, welfare of the people
including organizing the religious festivals and ceremonies that was being
followed traditionally. They were presiding on disputes in the village. Some
societies have a person called Bhat Nayak or Village Guru to take care of
serious disciplinary issues that demand out-casting a person along with the family.
These including inter-caste marriages, beaten by a caste person, bitten by dog,
maggot wound etc. These societies in later centuries maintained strict intra-
village discipline and discouraged marriages between tribes and social
interference of any kind including personnel behaviour. The organisation of
villages and then subsequently a hierarchy of villages with in the cluster were
brought together under a regulatory control called ’mutha’. Literally mutha
means ‘closed fist’. So mutha villages had their allegiance to the village of origin
called munda or mula village of the mutha. So most festivals were held in munda
village and all mutha villages participated actively. Mutha concept is a very old
one as can be seen from the ‘Bali Mutha’ of Desia societies which is Jaina
relevance and later it took the administrative responsibilities of the Zamindar. The
Mutha concept continued in the British administration structure of Koraput

agency.
The villages of Jhodia Poraja, Bodo Poraja, Pengo, and the Kondh sub-groups has
traditional chief of the village called ’Jani’, it is hereditary position for each of the
village. The Jani name has possibly derived from the Jaina religious identity or
influence. Janis carry out the Nayak function as well as the function of the
religious head; however in some societies Janis have a limited function of priests
only. Similar position of ‘Sisa’ is known in Bondo and Parenga and Jani who
heads the village and is assisted by ‘Bis Majhi’in village council.
Now-a –days the democratically elected persons hold the village council and the
Panchayats. It is mostly the young people; but the traditional village councils are
functional. The new village elected members see the village development and
welfare schemes and relationship with neighbor villages and tribes and the
government functionaries.
Clan Identity
The tribes are characterised to possess an elementary social structure and each
tribe has adaptive strategy with in the scope. Each is known to have its diacritical
features that differs from the others and differs from the other tribe. However, the
Kond Groups like Dongria, Kuttia, Malia and the Pengo and Koyas of Orissa; the
Muria and Madia of Bastar organize themselves into different decent groups well
known as clan groups which guide their socio-culture and politico-economic life.
The clan identity is fundamental to their tribal specific identity. The Jhodia and
Bodo or Sodia Porajas have a rudimentary form of clanship. So other tribes have
clans or clan like structure and the variations can be attributed to their
fundamental attributes. In this volume I have detailed out the clan groups and
organization that also in some cases, sheds light on their origin and affiliation to
various ruling dynasties in the past. The Pengo Poraja clans are named after Tiger
and Leopard and it is attributed to the dynasty having Tiger emblem in its flag
(Eastern Chalukyas), the Matias have Oddi as the clan name and it relates to
Oriya affiliations etc.
The totems
The tribals in most case are divided into exogamous septs; each of it is named
after a totem. The common totem are tiger, bear, cobra, dog, goat, monkey,
tortoise, lizard, cow, bull, vulture etc. There are totems named after trees, sun.
Children inherit totem name from father and marriage between totems is
forbidden. Animals’ totem in account are not killed or eaten. The concept is that
the members of the totem is one family and strong bond exists between the
members and on death of a member observe three day pollution and eat from the
house of the wives’ family.
Youth Dormitories
The youth dormitories (Dhangda and Dhangdi Basa) are most significant tribal
culture and life institutions. In the past, each tribal village housed Dhangda basa
(Boys dormitory) and Dhangdi basa (Girls dormitory). In the evening all
unmarried youth including widows assemble in a house, specially constructed in
the center of the village and spend the night there. Men are not allowed to visit the
ladies dormitory and the vice versa. An elderly person of the village remains in
charge of the dormitory and maintains its discipline as prescribed by the village. It
is exclusively for the unmarried youth. In the evening the dormitory members
start playing drums and music that attracts dance and amusement. Sometimes they
share food in the dormitory. In the Bondo tribe it is the most important institution
of life where youth from nearby villages come down to select their life partner
and spend the night in the girls’ dormitory and date. These institutions are
declining fast and it may be due to modern influence of education, radio, TV etc.
Types of Marriages
The marriages in tribal society in general have its won identity and do not fall into
the category of Manu’s classification. There is marriage where the groom’s family
pays a token of bride price; it is called by some as reverse dowry of Hindus and
others call it marriage by purchase.But in practice it is a gift to the bride’s family,
which is used as a token of respect and well spent on mebers and guests in a grand
feast.The groom serves in the house of the in-laws for three years is called
marriage by service; where the groom can live with the in-laws, then he is called
Ghar juaine or can even live separately with his wife after the lapse of the service
period. The other forms of marriages are clandestine elopement, by forcible
compulsion by the groom with his friends over the selected bride and the other is
selection at the dormitory called dhangdi basa in Porajas. The Bondo and
Dongria Kondhs of Koraput and Muria tribes of Bastar have the youth dormitory
system that is found in some tribes of Northeast and in Central India. It is a
primitive institution for eligible bachelors and permitted to the members of the
tribe only, where marriages are materialized. Alternately, the youth meet in
festivals like Dashera in Nandapur, Jeypore, and Kasipur or in Weekly markets
and marriages are settled. In many tribal the general rule is to marry the maternal
uncle’s daughter or maternal aunt’s daughter.
The usual procedure is to pay visit to the girl’s parent and gift some liquor
saying,’ you have a beautiful flower, can we have the privilege to put on our
head?’ They will pay one or more visits with liquor as present and if accepted the
marriage date is fixed. As said earlier the groom’s family pays in terms of cash,
rice and livestock in the marriage that is spent in a grand feast.
Divorce and widow remarriage is accepted in Koraput and in Kondhs; the
younger brother of the deceased can lay his rights to marry his brother’s widow.
Women and Society

On the whole it can confidently be said that the culture of Koraput had given
equal rights to women that can still be visualized. The Gond tribes like Koyas,
Madias, and Murias like others have given the right to hold plough in the field and
can sow seeds, a right of fertility that is seldom given to women. The woman does
not hold the Social office of village administration but have the right to attend the
discussion in most cases. The women preists are vital to the welfare of the village
community and they are respected. The women are pivot to livelihood pursuit and
contribute immense in raising family and thus are important in Koraput culture.
They have maintained the heritage of the Koraput, even the folk lores, the
agriculture biodiversity and the calendar of the year. Dance and singing forms an
integral part of the social culture and life; the women have maintained it with out
any dent to the original form. They have the privilege to go to market for purchase
and marketing and economic freedom, right to divorce; selection of life partners is
bestowed to them by the society. Two women are allowed to travel together to
any part of the place and they are trusted. The societies in Koraput thus respect
the women and their freedom and are higher in social scale comparable to any
developed society.
Common Names of Persons

Communities observe special name giving ceremony that has been well
documented in anthropological studies. In general the names of children by
people of Koraput selected refers to the weekday in which the person is born, e.g.,
Aitu, Jyetu or Jyeta and Jyeti (Sunday), Sombaru and Sombari (Monday),
Mungala or Mangli (Tuesday), Budra, Budha, Budhu and Budri, Budhbari or
Budhi (Wednesday), Lekhma and Lakhmi or Guru and Gurubari (Thursday),
Shukra and Shukri (Friday), Shainu, Sonia, Sonu and Sonai (Saturday). Most
name are also from mythological selections like Bhima, Arjun, Parbati, Madhav,
Ganga, Jamuna, Rama, Ramo, Lachaman, Sadava, Hari, Siva, Mohadev. Some
names on physical defiantly like Konda for deaf and dumb, Bhaira for deaf,
Chotta (lame), Baiyya (mad), Kaba (foolish) is also seen. Some also name
children like Domu and Domani as per caste people to have long life to the
subject.
Festivals
Festivals are integral part of the cultural life of the people of any region. It is tied
with religious sentiments along with agriculture events and fertility cult in most
cases. Some festivals like Rathayatra, Dasara, Balijatra, Holopoda and Kundi
amabasya were celebrated in the Palace of the former Zamindars where the people
of Koraput came to celebrate the event and offered gifts to the rulers. Sivratri was
also celebrated by the people in their respective temples like Nandapur,
Narayanpatne, and Borigumma etc. Chaita Parab, Pus Parab, Nuakhia, Diali
Parab, Dasara, Amus Parab, Magh Parab etc are mainly tribal festivals but the
other neighbouring non-tribal communities i.e. Rana, Paika, , Domba, Ghasi etc
also observe these festivals like their own festivals
Bali Jatra
Bali jatra was observed in former capital of Jeypore rulers in Nandapur. It was an
important event where the first rice seeds were shown by the Sisa family priests at
Kutni parbad. Looking at the germination the future prospectus of crop was
predicted for the people.
Bali is an agricultural festival of Bhumia, Pentia, Omnyat and other tribes of
Koraput region. In Jeypore and Borigumma there are cluster of villages with
munda or mulla village where the Bali is celebrated by the communities. Bali
celebration is a village celebration and there is no caste discrimination. It is
observed once in every three years. But when crops fail for lack of rains for some
years, the people of Koraput conduct Bali Jatra to satisfy ‘Bhīma Devata’ (The
God of Rain).Disari and Gurumai - the traditional sacerdotal functionaries, fix the
auspicious day and time for holding Bali. Generally the festival begins from the
month of Bhadrab and continuous for one month. Some also observe Bali for a
period of three months. It begins from month of Magha (Jan-February) and ends
in Chaitra / Baisakha (April-May).
On the first day of the festival men and women bring bali (sand) from nearby
river and place it in the ‘Balighar’(a small room).The construction of the
structure of bamboo and straws is done amidst beating of drums and other
musical instruments. An auspicious pillar (Subha deli) is also fixed on the ground.
Various grains like paddy, alsi, black gram, ragi, oil seed etc are collected in
bamboo baskets from every household and shown on the sand bed inside worship
place. Regularly water is sprinkled over it. Gurumaies recite mantras and pray
and enchant names of temples and gods of the region for a better germination of
the seeds. It is accompanied by music from Dhunkel (a string instrument) and Bali
Ghuruma (a small drum) and other musical instruments in Balighar. Gradually the
seeds germinate and plants emerge. If the seeds sprout well then the Disari
predicts good harvest for the year.
On the closing day of the festival, all the young and old men and women take the
sand baskets from Balighar to Balipadia (a large open ground) in a grand
procession. Disari keeps the baskets on heads of Dhangdis (young ladies) and
other persons who carry it to Balipadia. A symbolic agriculture work is
demonstrated there. Wooden effigies of Bhīma God and Bhimani are worshipped
and their marriage ceremony is also held there. In the night, people from different
villages assemble and enjoy local tribal dances. A fair is held there in which
varieties of goods are bought and sold. In the next day morning, the God Bhīma
and Bhimani are planted on the ground. Fowls, Pigeons, eggs, sheep and goats are
scarified. The sand baskets are taken to the river in procession and with the sound
of music bid farewell. This is a festival of fertility.
Dasara
Dasara is celebrated in the month of Aswina (September-October).The tribal

headman of the village collects money from each house and purchases fowl,
coconut. Liquor etc. for worship of village deity ‘Hundi’ Devi. On the Dasara day
the village folk assemble in Hundi. Disari / Pujari worships the Mutha lathis
(Symbol of Goddess) with offer of fowls and goats to the Hundi Thakurani.
Paroja men cook rice and meat and feed their women and children. At night,
Dasara Jatra is celebrated in Dasara Padia of the main villages. The lathis from
different villages are gathered in the ground .The Disari and Pujari worship the
lathis with offering of fowls and animals. The tribal folks assemble in Dasara
Jatra and enjoy dancing Dhemsa. In the night, Desia Nata is performed and fair
organized.
The Dasara festival of Jeypore Zamindars was very famous and was said to be
next to Dasara of Mysore. It is still observed. The festival is observed in honour
of Maa Kanka Durga, the family Goddess of Jeypore king. Lathis from different
muthas come with the Mutha head to Jeypore and stay at Bankamatha. The
Mutha heads used to pay their respect to the Zamindar by giving gifts but now it
is discontinued. Inside the palace there used to be the Jogis, sitting 9days under
fasting state, but now this event is discontinued. People from far and near come
down to the main road of Jeypore in large number and move in village groups
with their village dancing groups and music parties. The crowd extend from
Jeypore palace to Dasrapodia. The scale is gradually diminishing.
Dasara is also observed in different places of Koraput region in Sakti peethas. The
whole night is spent amidst rituals, archery competition and dances.
Daili Parab
Diali Parab is celebrated in the month of Kartika (October-November) for

worshipping cattle. On the day of the festival the tribal decorated their cattle with
vermillion, turmeric and flowers. They tie thread to each animals and feed them
charu / Khatudi (rice cooked with vegetables). The cattle herders perform ‘Kikiri
dance’ with beating of musical instruments like Dol, Mahuri, Tidibidi etc at the
door of all cattle owners. They collect money, paddy, rice and clothes from the
cattle owners. The Bhottra tribes of Koraput observe ‘Gardan’ in Diali Parab.
They offer rice and salt to the cattle and worship cattle and Kasini Devi (the
goddess of cattle). Primarily the Diali parb is of high significance to Dombs of the
district.
Pus Parab
Pus Parab is another important festival of Koraput district. The festival is

celebrated in the month of Pousa (December-January) by Bhumia, Bhattra, Pentia,
Parenga, Gadaba , Durua and Paroja tribes and also other non-tribals of the
region. The festival starts fifteen days before the full moon night of Pousa. The
young and old tribal folks roam from village to village dancing and singing
Chera-Chera song and collect Paddy, rice and money from the villagers. On the
closing day of Pus Parab i.e. Pus Punei, they gather in a feast at Hundi cottage.
The Dhangdas (young men) start visiting other villages forming danda hulia
dance groups. During their night halt in other villages they make friendship with
the villagers as Sangata, Meeta, Mafsad etc. They return to their villages after one
month and assemble in a feast at Hundi Thakurani’s place.
Individual family members worship their household deities and ancestors by

offering fowl sacrifice and charu. Pus parab is the festival of dancing, singing and
marry making. Paroja tribe observes Pus Parab as Pus pandu by firing Bhogi.
They collect logs from different houses and fire the wood and dance and sing
around the fire throughout the night.
Chaita Parab
The grand festival of Koraput region is Chait parab. It is observed by the all tribal
communities in the month at Chaitra (March-April) with joy and great
enthusiasm. The people of Koraput remain in festive mood for the whole month.
Chait Parab begins with dancing, singing and merry making. In the past festival
was being observed for one month. But now it is celebrated for 10 to 15 days that
is total holidays to all. The houses are cleaned and painted and the tribal folks
wear new clothes. The auspicious day for starting the Chait Parab is decided by
‘Disari’. The village head, Nayak collects money from each house engaging his
assistant, Chalan, and purchases fowls, sheep, goat, coconut etc. from the market
for the rituals. On the first day the village folk gather at village deity Hundi.
Disari and Pujari start their ritual. They worship Hundi Devi, Mother Earth and
other Gods and Goddesses by offering Puja (sacrifice of fowls, sheep and
goat).The lathis (long bamboo poles)-the symbol of goddesses are cleaned and
worshipped. The paddy seeds already collected from farmers of the village are
kept before the Goddesses ‘Hundi’. After worship of seeds by Disari these are
distributed among the farmers of the village. They offer mangoes to the village
deity thence all are permitted to eat new mangoes of the year. The elder daughter
in law of the family cooks Charu and offers it to the household deity and
‘Dumma’ (Spirit of ancestors) and the whole family eat it together .On this day
Kandula (red gram) and Mahula flower are also newly eaten.
The second phase of Chait Parab is ‘Benta Parab’ (hunting festival).the Disari
declares the auspicious moment for the villagers to go for hunting. All the male
members getting them fully equipped with hunting implements like arrow, bow,
axe, spears etc proceed to jungle. They search for a suitable hunt. If they are
successful in hunting and return to the village with good hunt, the village women
warmly welcome them. Otherwise the village women make joke of them by
sprinkling cow dung mixed water on them singing Chait Parab songs. The meat of
hunt animal is divided among the villagers. Next day Benta Jatra is observed in
the main village and people enjoy with dance and drinks and Chait Parab song
completion continues. It is the tradition during the Chait Parab that women in
groups come out of the village and block roads by logs, ropes and stones (Pejar
cheka) and collect money as a gift from the passengers that is spent on a grand
feast.
Agni Gangamma Jatra at Nilabadi
The Goddess Agni Gangamma of Nilabadi village of Narayanpatna Block is

every famous among tribals and non-tribals of tribals of Odisha and Andhra
Pradesh. In the month of Chaitra a weeklong jatra is celebrated at Nilabadi village

and thousands of people congregate there. Those whose desires are fulfilled offer
magura fish to the Goddess. The similar jatras are also held in the places where
Agni Gangamma Goddess is worshipped in Koraput district.
Tribal Beliefs
The Tribal festivals can also be classified as related to Food and Harvest that
related mostly to Agriculture. They for specific purposes are like good rains;
weed less crops, disease free crops, good and bumper harvest, first consumption
of the newly harvested crops, fruits, flowers, and tubers of the year or season.
There is thank giving ceremonies to all those who have safeguarded the crop in
the field, to the mother Earth, to those animals living in the bunds of the field
including the draft animals at home who have given services in the field.
The other side is those god and goddesses who give good health, fertility, ward of
diseases and protect the village community from epidemics, wild animals. This
includes the health of Livestock also. Ancestors, malevolent and benevolent
ghosts or spirits are feared and worshipped respectfully for peace and prosperity
of the families.
The following verse from the prayers of Parenga Poraja taken gives an indication
of the spirit of the beliefs and life philosophy of tribals in Koraput
“Mata pita Duma dani, (father, mother, spirits and women devils)
Tamanama dhari pada padhi, (in your name we are reading)
Phula phul dhoida chaul (flower, fruits, and rice),
Hata guda sukho ho (hand, leg feet be healthy)
Charidand bulikari, (four doors-------)
Macha mari, Kanda khuli banchibu, (fishing, digging tubers let we live)
Kuli Kari bhuti Kari banchibu (let we live with wage, and contract labor)
Goda Ke Kante no hoe (let the leg and feet be healthy)
Mund ke lata no hoe” (let the head be healthy)
Gutab Gadaba in their worship says,

Aji Juhar Mahapru (Mahaprabhu),
Gaon ra Mata, Pita, Hundi,
Jakr, Ani, Dadi, Puni, Gosaie,
Purandi, Adhan, Gomirghar patno,
Sukal nindra, Misi bidi dukane,
Jidan, Godan, Podan sabu saman,

Duka naie: Dhup auro Belopatra
Bedtoning Misaiebu Dukanaie”
This means,’Oh! Mahaprabhu receive our respects today. Parents of the village, of
the village Hundi, of village Jankar, Grandparents, ancestors, let us all live. The
life gift, cow gift, son gift all one to keep all safe; the dhupa and Belo leaves let us
all remain safe.’
Every Tribal community has a village Health institution that takes care of the
village safety and wellbeing as well as the family concerns. It is on the tribal
culture line. This office can be one or two, of that one is required to diagnose and
predict the auspicious date and time to institute the regular religious institutions
and the other need to translate the advice into practicality. The former are known
as Pujari and the later are called Disari, Gunia, Gurumai and Beju or Bejuni etc.
They believe in bad or evil spirits who get into villages to harm the subject, so
there is in situ arrangements like Hundi devta etc to ward of the evil spirit; still
some powerful ones take entry, that is diagnosed by Pujari and if any subject is
effected that can be known from chronic illness and the family is advised to go for
a Bat Viba, where the bad spirit is married to a good spirit and is shown the way
out of the village. These ceremonies have been classified under Magico-religious
rites. These often have been names as blind beliefs and occultism etc.
Cremation and Burial

In general the people of Koraput follow the disposal of dead bodies by pyre and
children, people dead by smallpox and infectious diseases or killed by wild
animals are disposed of by burial. The Christian and Muslim community follow
burial method. It is a very elaborate procedure among the Gadabas and Sabars in
the district and is very expensive.
Among the Bhumias the dead are burnt and pollution period lasts for nine days.
On the tenth day a ceremonial bath is taken with friends and relatives and a feast
with copious supplies of liquor is held. The relatives and ladies who attend the
tenth day ceremony are dressed in white clothes so also the Malis.
The Bhottadas burn their dead and observe pollution for ten days during the
period all agriculture activities come to halt. On the tenth day the funeral rites are
completed in the burial ground.
Among Chitra-Ghasis the dead are burnt and death pollution is observed for three
days during which the caste occupation is not carried out. On the third day the
ashes are collected together and a fowl is sacrificed. The ashes are then buried or
thrown into running water.
Among the Gadaba, as a rule are burnt but if a person dies in the night or on a
rainy day, the corpse is sometimes buried. Only relations are permitted touch a
corpse. Death pollution is observed for three days, during which the caste
occupations must not be engaged in. Stone slabs are erected to the memory of the
dead, and sacrifices are offered to them in elaborate and most expensive ‘Gotar
ceremony.
Elwin has elaborated the ceremony of death among Sabars in detail. They
perceive soul of the dead family members a threat to the family and village. The
disposal of the dead is a very long process with ceremonies. But it is not a
separation. After death the corpse is laid on its back across the mortar in the
central room of the house and is covered with a cloth. Women carry the corpse
out of the house and lay in on a plank of wood in the street outside. They remove
most of the ornaments, bathe the body and comb the hair before the final rites
start. The Magadhia Gaudos bury the dead in sitting posture like many of the
Telugu Goldsmiths in Jeypore.
Ancestral Worship and Veneration of the dead

It is a practiced among the tribals of Koraput. It is based on the belief that the life’
Jiba’ after it passes away due to death, it loses the ‘shade’ and ‘Soul’ becomes
‘Dumba” and strays around the family. Normal death Dumba is good dumba
whereas abnormal death and in particular out of the house due to accident and
drowning etc is called Bad Dumba that can harm the family, harvest, happiness
etc.
Gotar of Gadaba
The very important and expensive festival of Gadaba is ‘Gotar’.Gotar is observed

for worship of ancestors for prosperity and security of their life. The buffaloes
are the vehicles that is given to the dead ancestor to cross over to the other world.
For every dead person of the family they offer one buffalo. Generally the festival
is observed in the month Magha. The Gadaba observe two types of Gotar i.e. at
individual and communal levels. Individual Gotar is observed by the agnatic kin
of the deceased and communal Gotar, by the whole village collectively to appease
their ancestors. The festival is observed for the duration of a month. For the
departed souls whose death rituals are not performed within 3 to 4 years their
kinsmen observe Gotar individually. But communal Gotar is observed for
obtaining blessings from ancestors of the village at every 10 to 15 year intervals.
On the day of Gotar a long stone slab is erected for each dead person on the
roadside of the village. Five buffaloes are sacrificed on Semilimunda during the
ritual conducted by Sisa (village priest).The buffaloes are decorated with new red
clothes and anointed with turmeric and vermilion. They perform dance and sing
Gotar songs by beating musical instruments like Dhol, Dhap, Mahuri, Khinide
etc. during the sacrifice of buffaloes. In that time the Gadaba women cry for their
dead. They distribute the flesh of buffaloes among them. A grand feast is also
arranged and they take pendum (rice beer).Dancing and singing continues
throughout the day and night.
Communal Dances
All most all people in villages of Koraput are fond of music and dances. They use
several type of drums and they are locally made; there are few musical
instruments made out of dried Gourd and metal strings. Women sing cores when
working in paddy fields. In the evening except for rainy season the youth start
playing music soon after the sun sets and this attracts all others to join the
musician for a small dance and fun. This may sometime continue late nights also.
In time of festivals dancing parties begin at night fall, last whole night and
continue even through the following day. Each tribe has its specialty in dance
form. The best efforts of Kondhs and Sabaras are clumsy besides those some of
the other tribes remarked Senapaty et al. 1966. But the most skilled dance
performers are the Jhodia Parojas and the Gadabas from the neighbourhood of
Koraput and Nandapur.
Bell (1945) wrote, “At a Paroja dance all the girls and the younger married
women of the village form themselves into a chain, each maiden passing her right
hand behind the next girl’s back and grasping the left elbow of the third. The girls
arrange themselves carefully according to the size, the youngest, who are
generally nine and ten years old, at one end and at other the leader of the corps de
ballet who carries a baton of peacock’s feathers in her right hand to mark the
time. Three or four young men take their stand in the middle of the dancing floor
and strike up song which they accompany on their mandolins while the long
chain of girls linked together and moving in perfect time, follow the leader with
her, sway baton, through an intricate series of sinuous lines, curvest spirals,
figures-of-eight and then unravel themselves back into the line again. They wind
in and out like some brightly coloured snake, never halting for a moment, now
backwards, now forwards, first slowly and decorously, then faster and with more
and more and more abandon, until suddenly someone gets out of step and the
chain snaps amid peals of breathless laughter. All the while the young men the
centre continue to sing, improvising the words as they go along and frequently
sending the dancers into bursts of merriment by their personal allusions, subtle
and poetic. The leader of the troupe varies the step in a half a dozen different
ways and the dancers now sway to the music with their bodies, now clink their
heavy German silver bangles together in time. The chain of comely young
maidens dressed in their hair neatly oiled and decked with flowers and all in the
height of good humour is a picturesque and pleasing sight.”,
The Gadbas are very famous for their dances and more famous for their devil
dance. Their dances are highly spirited. The chain of the girl all dressed exactly
alike in their red, white and blue stripped sarees reaching barely half way to the
knee, and with their feet loaded with heavy chased brass anklets which they clink
together in time, swings round in a circle to the accompaniment of the muffled
drums. The girls chant together in unison as they go round, and the time gets ever
quicker and quicker, their steps longer and longer, but still perfect step is kept
until the chain breaks or the leader exhausted. Now the Gadaba women have lost
their Kerang dress and the ornaments also.
Megalithic Culture
From down-south mostly the Dravidians came into Koraput. This is evident from
the anthropological studies, recent blood genetics markers as well as the linguistic
bases of the societies. Remarkably still today they carry with them the Megalithic
culture of peninsula. Koyas and Maria tribes have the culture of ‘Menhir’
construction in the memory of dead family members. Large flat stones are piled
having few erect flat stones in between in village centers or crowded places are
called Sodor among Bodo Gadaba, Sano Poraja, Parenga tribe members also the
Maria Gonds of Bastar. The Sodor varies in size and in general is the sitting place
where villagers assemble and rest or gossip. Children play around under the shade
of trees of Sodor. Similar culture of Sodor is also seen with the Ronas of Koraput.
The Bondo tribe names it ‘Sindibor’. These megalithic structures of Bondos are
not limited to the cult of dead unlike the Ronas. The Bondos do construct
miniature dolmens consisting of table stone supported by two or three smaller
stones, and these are memorials constructed in honour of wealthy dead, outskirt of
villages in Grand ceremony called Gota Mela.
Similar to Sodors most Jhodia Porajas construct the ‘Nisanmundi’ in a corner in

the village. And generally Ficus infectra tree is planted close to it. The village
god is worshiped in these sites.
The Sabara a large tribe of Koraput are also classified in Megalithic culture by
various authors in the past.
In Nowrangpur region villages, people offer terracotta horses, bulls etc as
witnessed in South Peninsula villages particularly in the Tamil country. The
practice was prevalent among Bhattra and Porajas of the said region.
Menhirs in a Koya tribe village Nisanmundi with Ficus infectria in a Jhodia

village
The peninsular societies with their megalithic settlements, cultivating rice, using
iron artifacts and with elaborate burial were more complex and such evidence
does exist in Koraput villages.
Livelihood and Bio-Diversity in Primitive Societies

Most of the societies in Koraput are tribal followed by caste people and others.
The tribal particularly of Dravidian origin also the Austro-Asiatic groups can be
classified as hunter-gathers and many are in transition to settled agriculture or
sedentary farming community. Most of them still follow Jhum or Slash and burn
cultivation, grow small millets of different species and earn the livelihood from
the gathering of forest products including fruits and flowers also roots for food.
As said above the Sabaras are the tribes of hills and of ancient origin grow
efficiently more than 35 species of plants in small plots on hills with perfect
knowledge of physiology, root system and family food, root and other medicinal
value to the family.
These societies in isolation have contributed to the development of bio-diversity

and its conservation. There were more than 1760 rice genotypes including 70
known wild rice verities in Koraput district region as studied during 1936. The
Austro-Asiatic tribes are said have the major contribution in this direction. They
have enriched the rice cultivation techniques; the Gadaba, Sabara and even the
primitive Bondo have contributed the major. The Sabara tribe of Koraput is the
only tribe who are known to have named the months as per the agricultural
activities. The January month is called Galanbur, where Galan means arhar and
it is Harvesting of Arhar, February is Niva Gae , that means carrying fire wood’’
etc. They are most skillful farmers on hilltops to tame water for irrigation and use
of more than 35 species of plants for family food production.
In general, settlements occur in rice valleys and societies grow agriculture base
and get supplements from livestock production. The primary crop in rainfed
agriculture that is limited to short 3 to 4 months of monsoon rains was the small
millets and beans as the legumes. These crops of importance is amply reflected in
the ritual and ceremonies of primitive tribal societies. Ragi and Rice forms the
most favourable crop along with bovines that was primarily for draft followed by
buffaloes for milk production in the region. Most tribes do not milk cows and are
beef eaters.
Many societies occupied the least productive semi-arid and derived their
livelihood from rearing and breeding livestock; thus animal husbandry became the
most vital element in their life.Baiparis of North-west India during their migration
to south influenced the Koraput with cattle husbandry.
The staple food of the families in the district is ragi and other small millets
followed by rice. They brew beer from rice and ragi called Pendum and Landa
respectively. In some tribes like Parenga brewing from ragi is forbidden probably
due to food security issue. The Bondo tribe prepare wine from several fruits and
the Mahua forms the major source. They are very fond of Salapha drinks that are
collected from Salapha tree in summer. It is an universal drink in Koraput. The
tribes do not cut any fruit tree or saplings. In Semiliguda, some of the tribes
process leafy vegetables and conserve for future food.
Hill people and Valley civilisation growth

Most societies who were displaced from valleys or semi-arid plains had the only
option to climb hills and make suitable settlements. In later course, the
competition to occupy the water streams on uphills for agriculture and drinking
became the issues between the social groups. This is how the Mali community
who are said have come from Allahabad occupied the hill streams of Koraput so
to the Dongria Kondhs and Sabaras and their horticulture pursuit sustained till
date.
Historically, societies occupied valleys had to go to hills and hill people came
down and occupied the fertile valleys. This in cycle continued with civilizations
taking shape in the process of development. On the whole, the defeated societies
took shelter on hills or as menial workers including acceptance of slavery among
valley societies was witnessed. This was the fate of most dynasties of the past and
still rudiments are felt. Displacements have taken place thousands of kilometers
away for safe and secure migration. There is evidence that due to famines and
inclement weather conditions societies have migrated to far off tropical lush
forests that is amply seen in present day Dandakaranya.
These events have resulted in strong bondage with families and members of the
clan or religious infrastructure as prevalent and ended up in to the Chiefdoms; that
could be small, simple or could be the larger confederacies.
In recent times with the advancement of technologies to harness rivers for
irrigation and electricity; agriculture became the occupation of priority for many.
These regions thus attracted more families as farm labourers and the flow was
from the more backward and over populated regions. Later a trend of flow of
population from irrigated belt to industrial rich regions especially the exotic
industrial rich regions has been witnessed. Dandakaranya has such demographic
changes in recent years, however it is stressed that migration of societies into this
region is known from centuries. Kautalya’s Arthasastra had advised the kings not
to trust forest-chiefs and to act in hostile terms. There are references since the
mid-first millennium A.D. regarding uprooting of forest-dwellers or to their
conquest or assimilation of their societies in order to form new kingdoms.
Encroachments and cleaning of forests for cultivation or cutting new routes
through forests have reduced the forest –dwellers.
References
1. Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India-from the origins

to AD 1300. Penguin Books (P) Ltd. New Delhi, India.
2. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L. Religion in Andhra.Director, Dept. of
Archaeology and Museums, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.
3. Bhandarkar, R.G. Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious
Systems.Vol. IV.Bhandarkar Oriental research Institute, Poona
4. Bell, R.C.S. (1945) Orissa District Gazetteer (Koraput), Cuttack.
5. Singh, R.L. (1995) Ed. India- A regional Geography, National Geography of
India. New Delhi. pp.775-790.
6. Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta. (1935) The Colas. Madras University History
Series- No.9.University of Madras.
7. Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta. (1975) A history of South India. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
8. R. C.Majumdar et.al (Edi). (1989) The Struggle for Empire. Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, Bombay.
9. Senapati, Nilamani and Sahu, N.K. (1966) Gazetteer of India, Orissa,
Koraput.
10. Kornel Das (2010) Culture Heritage History and Historiography in
Dandakaranya Vol I—–(B.C. to 1250 A.D.)
www.scribd.com/.../Culture-Heritage-History-and-Historiography-in-
Dandakaranya-Vol-I
11 .Kornel Das (2010) Culture Heritage History and Historiography in
Dandakaranya Vol II--- (B.C. to 1250 A.D.)
12. Kornel Das and Gamang Giridhar (2009) Lost Jaina Tribes In Trikalinga.
www.scribd.com/doc/168819869/Lost-Jaina-Tribes-of-Trikalinga
13.Elwin Verrier
LANGUAGES IN KORAPUT
Koraput tribal speak different dialects, and few have lost their mother tongue to
local dominant languages. Sabara tribe has its own script and non-others. The
Koraput dialects have been studied by various authors in the past and have
reported.
Nilakanta Sastri wrote ‘The languages of South India fall into three main groups –
the Indo-Aryan represented by Marathi, the Dravidian represented by Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam besides Gondi and other minor dialects, and the
Austro-Asiatic by the Munda languages including Kharia, Juang, Savara and
Gadaba of the north-eastern portions of the Deccan, the Kurku of the north-
western districts of Madhya Pradesh. Though the Indo-Aryan vocabulary shows
traces of Munda influence, the number of Dravidian loan-words in it is much
larger and the conclusion seems inevitable that the Dravidian group of languages
is more recent than the Austro-Asiatic which is usually recognized as pre-
Dravidian. There is no doubt that at one time the Munda languages spread over
the whole of North India, for they form the basis of a number of mixed languages
along the Himalayan fringe from the Punjab to Bengal. But the Dravidian
languages have also left survivals in north-western India, including the islet of
Brahui in Baluchistan in an ocean of Indo-Aryan. Hence this group of languages
may have prevailed in the north-west at the time of Indo-Aryans arrived. If this
view is correct, throughout the bulk of India, Dravidian speech was preceded by
Austro-Asiatic and followed by Indo-Aryan. Fuerer-Haimendorf, however, has,
with good reason, questioned the correctness of this view, and held that the
Dravidian speech never prevailed in India outside its present area. Brahi in
Baluchistan, he thinks, can be explained by a migration of Dravidian speakers on
land or by sea along the coast from more western lands.
Munda languages now survive in the Mahadeo Hills of Madhya Pradesh and are
found as far south as the Godavari; they must have prevailed at one time over the
whole of the Deccan, for Bhil shows Munda affinities. Whether they extended
farther south cannot be determined at present; a few tribes in the extreme south
like the Kakkalans of Travancore are said to possess languages peculiar to them,
but how far, if at all, they include Munda elements is not known.
There is a divergence of opinion among scholars as to which particular race was
responsible for the introduction of the Austro-Asiatic languages into India.
Different writers have suggested all the proto-Australoid, the Mongolian and the
proto-Mediterranean. Racial prehistory when correlated with linguistic prehistory
seems to suggest the following provisional general conclusions. Indo-Aryan was
the latest language family to reach India, and it seems reasonable to ascribe it to
the Nordics, the last ethnic element to arrive. But the Nordics were by no means a
pure stock when they entered India; on their way they must have absorbed much
of the Alpine element of the Pamirs and their neighbourhood. For a similar
reason, Dravidian must have been the speech of the round-heads, particularly the
Armenoids who represent the earlier amongst the two strata of round-heads in
India, and Austric the language of the Mediterranean. About the language of the
other ethnic elements noted above we have no knowledge.
Dravidian language and culture harp back to the highlands of Anatolia, Armenia
and Iran, the area of characterization of the Armenoid type. The script of the
Indus valley seals has not yet been satisfactorily deciphered, and this casts a
shadow of doubt over all the problems of pre-Aryan Indian culture. Yet there are
not many indications that point to some connection between the great culture-
complex that spread from the Mediterranean to the Indus valley in the third and
second millennia B.C. and the prehistoric culture of South India.”(1)
Ethno-linguistic Classification
Mohapatra (1997) has given a detail account on ethno-linguistic arena among
tribals of Orissa (2). The tribes of Koraput are ethno-linguistically classifiable into
three groups. Munda (Austro -asiatic). Dravidian and Indo-Aryan (3) A group-
wise tentative inventory of the tribal languages and dialects may be drawn up as
given follows:
Munda Group
Gata (Didayi),Sora (Saora, Lanjia, Juray, Arsi),Gourum (Parenga),Remo (Bonda)
Dravidian Group
Parji (Dharua), Koya, Kui (Kondh-Kutia/Dongria), Konda/Kubi (Konda Dora),
Ollari (Gadaba), Gondi (Gond), Kuvi (Kondh, Jatapu), Pengu (Pengo Kondh)
Indo-Aryan Group
DIALECTS LANGUAGE AFFINITY
Desia Southern Oriya
Bhatri Southern Oriya
Jharia Southern Oriya
Matia Southern Oriya
Banjara Hindi Dialect
Baiga Chhattisgarhi
Halbi Oriya-Marathi-Chhattisgarhi
Proto-Munda is classified as South Munda, Koraput Munda, and Sora: Munda,

Gutob: Remo
Central Dravidian are Parja, Ollar, Pengu, Manda, Kui, Konda Kui, Gondi,
Koya, Madia, Muria, Daria
The tribals either as mother tongue or second language use all these non-literary
Indo-Aryan dialects. Mohapatra (2004) was of the opinion that these dialects are
based on archaic forms of the modern literary languages and have developed
peculiarities in course of time due to convergence of languages belonging to
different families, diffusion of linguistic traits across genetic boundaries and
hybridization of language as a result of extensive bilingualism or multilingualism.
In multi familial and multi-dialectal situations there have been lot of inter-mixture
and mutual borrowing resulting in development of certain common traits among
the dialects of divergent origins.(4)
Typological Categorisation appears from the above statements by Mohapatra
loc.cit that the fifty-two tribes in Koraput use a variety of languages and dialects.
However, all of them differ and are not of equal status, which is conceivable
from several aspects, such as, numerical strength of the speakers, primitiveness of
the tribe, use of own separate script, richness of oral literary tradition, influence of
other languages, prevalence of bilingualism, tendency towards Oriyanisation,
adaptation of regional Oriya dialects at inter-tribal level, etc. As a result of such
considerations tribal languages are being differentially treated now as a
major/minor, autonomous/semi – autonomous, pure/pidgin, literary/ordinary and
recognizable/ignorable. Mohapatra loc. cit. has categorised the languages under
some sort of typological classification, such as,
a) Autonomous languages with definite tribal identity (e.g. Santali, Remo,
Kuruku, etc.)
b) Semi-Autonomous dialects with an established tribal identity (e.g. Bhuyan,
Bhatri, Bathudi etc.)
c) Semi-Autonomous dialects with no particular tribal identity but with inter-
tribal functions (e.g. Desia, Sadri, etc.)
It may be explained that most of the languages of the Munda and the Dravidian
Groups fall under typology (a) and the dialects of Indo-Aryan groups came under
typology (b) and (c).
In this context, other notable facts are as follows:
i. Some of the tribes, such as Lodha, Miradha, Bhumia, Jatapu, Bagata, Pentia,
sections of Gond etc. do not have distinctive linguistic identity and tribes
like Mahali, Kondh, Kisan etc. have only dialectal distinction from
autonomous languages like Santali, Kui-Kuvi Kurukh etc.
ii. Some of the tribes having scattered settlements in different regions, under
the same tribe-name use different languages (e.g. Kondh, Saora etc. living
elsewhere outside Koraput, Ganjam and Phulbani districts use Oriya
dialects) and on the other hand in some cases the name of the tribe and the
name of their language are different (e.g. Dharua speak Parji, Kolha speak
Ho, Gadaba speak Gutob or Ollari, Kondh speak Kui or Kuvi or Konda).
iii. Larger tribes like Kondh, Saora etc. have several subgroups as there are
Kutia/Juray/Arsi/ Sudha Saoras and each of these sub-groups speak a
distinct dialect of the language.(5)
Linguistic Reports on Koraput Population

Burrow and Bhattacharya (1953) pointed to Parji language and said it be an
important member of the Dravidian linguistic family and closely related to Ollar
and Koya tribes of Koraput. I think they are referring to Pengo poraja language
(6). Bell was of the opinion,” ‘Poroja’ undoubtedly covers a variety of entirely
different dialects. The term (derived from the Oriya word praja meaning a raiyat
or subject) is applied by the unintimated to all kinds of aboriginal tribes having no
relation with each other. There is infact no such language as Poroja, but quite
distinct languages are spoken by the following tribes to whom the title ‘Poroja’ is
usually given; Bondo Poroja, Jhodia Poroja, Dhruva Poroja, Konda Poroja, (also
known as Konda Dora), Parng Poroja, Pengo Poroja and Didayi Poroja.Of these
the languages of Bondo, Pareng and Didayi Porojas belong to Munda branch and
the reminder are Dravidian. The Dhruva language is unrelated to Kondh but is a
Dravidian in origin, probably derived from Gondi. Ramamurti is of the opinion
that the there is a remarkable resemblance between Pareng and Savara. The
languages of the Bondo and the Didayis have obvious affinities with that of the
Gadabas.” (7)
He further was of the opinion that Ollar Gadaba speaks a Dravidian language, but
their customs and appearance they resemble the Gadabas who in turn speak
Munda. This termed as a mystery and remains to be explained (8) .Now, it is quite
apparent from the recent genetic studies that the Ollar Gadaba are distinctly
Dravidian in origin and genetically distant from Gadabas.
Savara and Gadaba language are the principal Munda language as said above.
G.V.Ramamurti, his son G.V.Sitapati and Miss. A.M.C. Murno have studied the
Savara language in detail and the later author have produced English –Savara and
Savara-English dictionary. The Savara language is said to be very similar to
Juangas of Keonjhar, Pala Lahara and Dhenkanal States as also to the Pareng
Porajas of Pottangi taluk in Koraput district. This fact has much relevance to
history and correlations (9).
Bell wrote, “The Kondh language and the language spoken by Jatapu are
akin.Konda is the language used by Konda Dora although show this language
shows some resemblance to the Kui of the grammars is a Dravidian dialect and
can safely be classified in Kondh. The Kui language is spoken in 22 percent of the
population of the Koraput district in 1945 (10). As per Bell the Kui of the Ganjam
and Kondhmals have been studied and there are grammars of the language and
even small literature. According to H.W. Alderson the Kondhs of Kondhmals and
the dialect spoken by Kutia Kondhs of Bissamcuttack differs strikingly from the
Kuis of Kondhmals. The Kondhs of Kalyan Singapur maintain that they can
understand the languages of the Kondhs in neighbouring taluk of Bissamcuttack
and refuse to make the attempt. Bell was of the opinion that there is probably half
a dozen of different dialects of Kondhs spoken in the district , but the data
available is at present quite insufficient to define the language as per locality. The
Kondh is a Dravidian language” (11).
Bell (12) has given a detail note on the languages spoken in Koraput district from
the 1931 census. He wrote for every 1000 people in the district 552 have Oriya as
their mother tongue, 186 Kui or Kondh, 73 Telugu, 53 Savara, 39 Poroja,26
Gadaba,22 Koyya, 17 Konda,16 Jatapu and 8 Gondi. Of the other remaining
eight, six speak other aboriginal tongues namely Dhruva, Jhodia, Pareng and
Pengo and two other Indian languages principally Chhattisgarhi and Hindi. Oriya
spoken by the hill tribes differs so much from the Oriya of other parts of the
province as to be almost unintelligible to a new comer.
There is no expert survey of the aboriginal languages which are spoken by the 37
percent of the population was the opinion of Bell. Grierson’s Linguistic Survey
did not extend to the Koraput district but he commented, “The Parji language is
stated to have ‘hither to have been considered as identical with Bhatri. Bhatri has
now become a form of Oriya. Parji, on the otherhand, is still a dialect of Gondi”
The Bhatras are a tribe inhabiting the state of Bastar in the Central Provinces’
(13). But now they are extended into Koraput and Kalahandi, the neighbuoring
districts of Bastar.
The present report is mostly limited to Koraput district of Orissa and I am of the
opinion that there is space for a complete and detail study on linguistic pattern
followed here. However a detail account on dialects used by Dandakaranya
population is available in the following web
site.http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IN
References
1. Sastri, N.K.N. A History of South India, p.61-63

2. Mohapatra, K. (1997) Tribal Languages of Orissa: In Tribal Languages and
Culture of Orissa. (ATDC) Academy of Tribal Dialects and Culture,
Bhubaneswar.
3. Mohapatra, K. (2004) Tribal Languages of Orissa. Schedule Caste &Schedule
Tribes. Research & Training Institute, Government of Orissa, Bhubaneswar.
p.49-55.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Burrow, T and Bhattacharya, S. (1953) The Parji Language- A Dravidian
Language of Bastar, Preface.
7. Bell, R.C.S. Orissa District Gazetteers, Koraput.p.56-59.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid. p.57-59
12. Ibid. p.58-59.
13. Grierson, G.A. Linguistic Survey of India, IV, 1906 Cited by Thurston
et al. p.209
GENETIC DISTANCE BETWEEN KORAPUT TRIBES

There have been serious efforts by Scientists to identify Genetic related diseases
among the Tribal population of Dandakaranya and it included other communities
of the region also. Sickle cell anemia and Haemoglobin variants resistant to
Malaria have been recorded. Simultaneously, some studies have denoted the
Genetic distances between tribes and populations.
In order to investigate the origin of a particular tribe, one can investigate their
mother tongue and other is to use the measure of genetic distance through marker
gene analysis. It can strengthen certain of the hypothesis on relation of tribal
origin and relation to historical events that is known from various other evidences.
Kumar and Reddy (2003) have studied and given a detail account of Austro-asitic
groups living in India and particularly in Orissa. I have taken a good part of their
observations here. I am personally not happy to see the type of classification with
respects to the communities where I have large number of friends.
It has been suggested that the communities affiliated to the Austro-Asiatic
linguistic family are perhaps the first to settle in India and the
palaeoanthropological evidences suggest the earliest settlement probably around
60,000 year BP.(1)
The languages of India have been broadly classified into four major families –
Austro-Asiatic, Dravidian, Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan/Tibeto-Burman.
While Dravidian languages are limited to the southern and central Indian regions,
Tibeto-Burman languages are most common in East-Bengal and in the eastern
Himalayan region. However in western, northern and parts of eastern India the
Indo-European languages are spoken. The two main branches that represent the
Austro-Asiatic linguistic family in India are: (i) the Mundari, spoken mostly in
and around Chota-Nagpur plateau and (ii) the Mon-Khmer spoken in northeast
and in the Andaman and Nicobar islands.
The Mundari branch is further into three sub-branches as Western, Southern and
Northern Mundari groups. The Western group is further divided into two
linguistic families; the Southern and Northern Munda. Whereas the Southern
Mundari group is divided into Gorum, Saora, Remo, Gutub, Gata, Kharia, Juang
and Koruku languages, Kherwerian group of languages represents Northern
Mundari, are encompassing Santhali, Mundari, Ho and Korwa. About 25 tribal
communities, belonging to the central and eastern region of India represent these
languages. The Mon-Khmer branch in India includes three groups – the Khasi
tribe with a number of subdivisions confined to the Khasi and Jaintia hills of
Meghalaya and Nicobarese and Shompen of the Nicobar Islands (Kumar and
Reddy loc.cit.)(2)
An interesting corollary to this is that among the Austro-Asiatic speakers, one

finds all of them to be not only tribes but also practicing relatively more primitive
technologies.
Majumdar (2001) concludes that Austro-Asiatic tribes show a higher diversity
than the Dravidian tribes, implying their greater antiquity. (3)
The routes by which the first migrants entered India are also not clearly
understood. The fact that Mundari speaking tribes inhabit mostly eastern, central
and north-eastern region of India has been considered as an indirect evidence for
the first theory of migration. This can be, however countered by hypothesizing the
assimilation of some of the Austro-Asiatic tribes by later migrants; the disinterest
of the later migrants in accessing the difficult terrain of hills and forests of central
and eastern India had probably resulted in the survival of the Mundari and the
other Austro-Asiatic groups inhabiting such tracts. Further, Sergent (1997) noted
that the Austro-Asiatic groups were once predominant in a continuous belt, from
central India to Vietnam, but later many of the Mundari speaking tribes might
have been absorbed by the Indo-European populations, leaving the peripheral
ones in the inaccessible hills untouched.(4)
It may be pertinent at this juncture to consider that the Austro-Asiatic speakers in
India are represented by almost 30 different tribal groups, covering a wide
geographic area. Although having broad linguistic and cultural similarity, they do
represent two different subgroups of languages – Mundari and Mon-Khmer – and
physically belong to two racial types, the Mongoloids and Australoids.
Geographic affinity
Austro-Asiatic tribal communities affiliated to the Mundari branch are mainly
concentrated in and around Chota-Nagpur plateau. While the Southern Mundari
groups such as Juang, Gata, Bondo, Bodo Gadaba, Paranga and Saora inhabit the
Koraput and adjoining districts of Orissa, Kherwarian groups comprising of Asur,
Birhor, Ho, Korwa, Santhal, Turi and Munda are widely distributed from
Jharkhand (Ranchi, Gumla, Lohardaga and Singhbhum districts) to Orissa
(Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar and Sundergarh districts) to Madhya Pradesh (Raigarh
and Jashpur districts). A section of Korku is the only tribe that inhabits the north-
eastern border areas of Maharastra. From the distributional pattern one can infer
that these communities bear a strong affinity in that they occupy contiguous
patches of ecologically similar habitats characterized by hilly and heavily forested
areas.(5)
Table 1. Geographical distribution and the linguistic affiliations of the thirty

investigated populations.
Sl. Name of Distribution Linguistic Genetic Anthro-
No. population family Markers pometric
measures
1. Bado Gadaba (T) AndhraPradesh, Visakhapatnam Austro + +
District- Koraput, Orissa Asiatic
2 Bareng Paroja (T) Orissa, Koraput Dravidian + -
3. Dhurwa (T) Madhya Pradesh, Bastar Dravidian + -
Southeast Jagdalpur; Orissa,
Sundargarh
4. Khonda (T) Orissa, Phulbani, Koraput, Dravidian + +
Ganjam
5. Konda Paroja (T) Orissa, Koraput Dravidian + -
6. Lanjia Saora (T) Orissa, Ganjam Koraput and Austro- - +
Phulabi Asiatic
7. Munda (T) Bihar, Ranchi; Orissa
Austro- + +
Mayurbhanj Asiatic
8. Ollaro Gadaba (T) Orissa, Koraput Dravidian + +
9. Pareng Gadaba (T) Orissa, Koraput Austro- + +
Asiatic
10. Santhals(T) Bihar, Santhal Pargana; Orissa; Austro – + +
West Bengal Asiatic
6 Das et al 1963; 7 Das et al 1968; 8 Negi and Ahmad 1963; 9 Majumdar and Sen 1950; 10.
Papiha et al 1988; 11 Ray 1949; 12. Das et al 1966; 13. Kumar and Bhattacharjee 1976; 14.
Bhattacharjee 1969; 15 Kumar N and Mukherjee D P (unpolished); 16. Sarkar1954.
Figure1. Neighbour joining tree constructed on the Penrose’s shape distance matrix based on the
four anthropometric variables among the 22 populations (from Kumar and Reddy, 2003). (17)
Based on the allele frequency data Nei’s standard genetic distances (Ds) were
computed for different pairs of populations.
Within this broad cluster there are three sub-clusters: the first formed by the
Santhal, Kharia and Munda; the second by Ho, Bareng Paroja, Bhumij and
Rajbanshi; and the third by Brahmins of west Bengal in association with the
Dhurwa. It may be noted that Kumar and Mukherjee (1975), on the basis of a
small genetic distance of Bareng Paroja with most of the Munda speaking tribes
conclude that Bareng paroja is an offshoot of some Munda speaking group.(18)
Table 2. Average heterozygosity and its standard error based on four loci for
twenty-one populations.
Name of population Average Standard

heterozygosity error
Bado Gadaba 0.44415 0.06528

Ollaro Gadaba 0.48982 0.06538
Pareng Gadaba 0.45998 0.07060
Munda 0.47259 0.06654
Santhal 0.47485 0.06214
Saora 0.42201 0.07104
Bareng paroja 0.48086 0.05339
Konda Paroja 0.46157 0.06436
Dhurwa 0.51982 0.06547
Khonds 0.45735 0.06486
Kumar and Reddy, 2003
Ollaro Gadaba, Pareng Gadaba, Bado Gadaba and Konda Paroja form the second
cluster. The clustering of Ollaro Gadaba and Konda Paroja with the other two
Gadaba tribes, although linguistically different, is not surprising because they are
geographically proximate to each other, inhabiting the Koraput district of Orissa.
Furthermore, the Ollaro Gadaba is considered to be a sub tribe of the larger
Gadaba is considered to be a sub tribe of the larger Gadaba tribe. This cluster
joins the first cluster to form a major cluster. Thus the pattern of sub-clustering
within the major cluster, consisting of 13 of the 21 studied populations subtly
reflects linguistic, ethno-historic and geographic affiliations. The remaining eight
populations form a loose congregation of independent elements of Oraon, Riang
and Khasi and the two sub clusters formed by Lanjia Saora and Khond on the one
hand and Nicobarese. (19)
Fig. 2.
Similarly, Chenchu and Kamma from Andhra Pradesh and Lanjia Saora and
Khond from the neighbouring Orissa tend to form sub clusters suggesting implicit
geographic and/or linguistic similarity. Lanjia Saora is a subgroup of Saora of
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa; clustering of this Austro-Asiatic group with the three
Dravidian groups may also reflect possible admixture.
On the other hand, Dhudh Kharia and Bado Gadaba are outliers above the
regression line, which may suggest that they have experienced more external gene
flow than any of the other tribes. While Bado Gadaba inhabits the Koraput district
in Southern Orissa, Dhudh Kharia is the most advanced sub-section of the Kharia
having much greater interactions with outsiders.

References
1. Kumar V and Reddy B M 2003 Status of Austro-Asiatic groups in the
peopling of India: An exploratory study based on the available prehistoric,
linguistic and biological evidences: J.Biosici. 28 507-522
2. Ibid
3. Mjumder P P 2001 Ethnic populations of India as seen from an evolutionary
perspective; J. Biosci. 26: 533-545
4. Sergent B 1997 Genese de l'Inde (Paris: Payot) Simmons R J, Graydon J J,
Semple N M and D'Sena G W L 1953 A genetical survey in Chenchu South
India blood test and secretion; Med. J. Aust. 1 497-503.
5. K, Reddy P C, Gai P B, Bhanu A, Kusuma Y S, Lum J K, Fisher P and Jorde
L B 1999 Multiple origins of the mtDNA 9-bp deletion in populations of
South India; Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 109147-158
6. Das S Rand Bhattacharjee P N 1963 Blood groups (AJA2BO), ABH
secretion, sickle cell, PTC taste and colour blindness in the Rajbanshi of
Midnapur district West Bengal; Bull. Anthro- pol. Surv. India 12 1-6.
7. Das S R, Bhattacharjee P N, Sastri D B and Mukherjee D P “1963 Blood
groups (ABO, MN, Rh), ABH secretion sickle cell trait and colour blindness
in the Bado Gadaba and the Pareng Paroja of Koraput district in Orissa;
Bull.Anthropol. Surv. India 11 145-151 (Das S R, Mukherjee D P and Sastri
D B 1968 A somatological survey of five tribes in the Koraput district
Orissa; Bull. Anthro- pol. Surv. India 17400-422
8. Negi R S and Ahmad S H 1963 A study of A1A2BO, M-N, Rh blood

groups, A-B-H secretion in saliva and colour blindness in the Doria and
Dhurwa of Bastar; Bull. Anthropol. Surv. India 12 21-29.
9. Majumdar D Nand Sen A R 1950 Anthropometric status of Castes and tribes;
in Race realities in cultural Gujrat (Gujrat: Research Society Part II)
Majumdar P P, Roy B, Banerjee S, Chakraborty M, Dey B, Mukherjee N,
Roy M, Thakurta P G and Sil S K 1999 Human-specific insertion/deletion
polymorphisms in Indian populations and their possible evolutionary
implications; Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 7 435-446
10. Papiha S S, Roberts D F and Mishra S C 1988 Serogenetic studies among an
urban and two tribal populations of Orissa
11. Ray A K 1958 A note on Juang anthropometry; Man India 38 56-59.
12. Das S R, Sastri D B and Mukherjee D P 1966 Blood groups (A.A2BO, MN,
Rh) and ABH secretion in the Pareng Gadaba the Ollaro Gadaba and the
Konda Paroja of Koraput district in Orissa; Acta Genet. Stat. Med. 16 169-
183 Grierison G A 1906 Linguistic surveys of India. IV. Munda and
Dravidian languages (Calcutta: Office of Superintendent Gov. Printing)
13. Kumar Nand Bhattacharjee P N 1976 Blood groups of the Munda of Ranchi
district in Bihar (India); Indian J. Hum.enet. 2 201-214.
14. Bhattacharjee P N 1969 A genetical study of the Santals of Santal Parganas;
Anthropologist (Spl. Vol.) 93-103 India; Ann. Hum. Bioi. 15 143-152.
15. Kumar, N and Mukherjee, D.P. (Unpublished) cited by Kumar V and Reddy
B M 2003, loc.cit
16. Sarkar S S 1954 The Aboriginal Races of India (Calcutta: Book- land)
Watkins W S, Bamshad M, Dixon M E, Rao B B, Naidu J M, Reddy P G,
Prasad B V R, Das P .K, Reddy, P C, Gai PB Bhanu A, Kusuma Y S, Lum J
K, Fisher P and Jorde L B 1999 Multiple origins of the mtDNA 9-bp deltion
in populations of South India; Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.109 147-158
17. Ibid
18. Ibid.
RELIGIONS AND KORAPUT
Koraput has a long history from Ramayana period. It has housed many beliefs
and religions in seculiar set up from centuries. It mentioned various sages who
contributed for its development and brief has been given else where. So, in course
of time, the land faced migration and occupation thus many religions got their
place with the people. It remained ever changing with the advent of time so too its
religion history.
JAINISM
Jainism, one of the oldest religions of India and is said to be far anterior to
Buddhism. The traditions and history relate that all the twenty-four Tirthankaras
belonged to different royal families before. The period between Parsavanatha and
the rise of Mahavira is marked with religious chaos and is attributed to emergence
of numerous religious sects and schools.
The Jaina Harivamsa Purana and Haribhadriyavritti, speaks that Mahavira came
to Kalinga (6th century B.C).on the request of its king and preached his religion.
He traveled to Koraput district and preached Jainism.Kornel and Gamang have
shown that he was at Pitaiegumpa (records say Pithicampa) near Koraput town,
Paniyabhumi (Masunidesa reference), Sarbati (Savathi in records) and Majhima
gauri of Rayagada (records mention Majjhima Pava).
Kornel and Gamang have given a detail account of Jainism in Koraput-Bastar

region in their book entitled,’The Lost Jaina Tribes in Trikalinga’. The region is
very rich in Jaina sculptures and monuments of great antiquity. Nandapur, Subaie,
Kechela, Chatua, Bhairbasingpur, Charmula, Jamuda, Konga, Jeypore,
Boirigumma, Phampuni,Bansuli, Devta Honjore, Erenga, Umbel,Goriahandi,
Phuphugaon,Padua,Malda, Kotapad, Narigaon, Kamta, Mali Nuagaon, Nuagaon,
Paliba, Deveata Hanjor, Katharguda, Gad Bhodra and Barsur etc. the prominent
centers of Jainism. It indicates profoundly that Dandakaranya was greatly
influenced by the Jaina faith in the past.
Jainism first entered into Kalinga region in the 6th century B.C. with the advent of
Parsvanath and continued to flourish under the royal patronage till the late
mediaeval period.
Amba in Umbel, Nandapur Mahavira in Phuphugaon

of Kundra
Assimilation of Jainism
The Brahmanical shrines of Jeypore as Bhagabati temple and Nilakantheswara,

and Kali temple contains images of Jaina pantheon. The Bhagavati temple
locally known as Hindu Bhagavati is sixteen armed Chakresvari of the Jaina
pantheon and the same temple houses number of Jaina Tirthankars that are niched
in the temple wall. R.C.S.Bell, District Collector, Koraput had indicated that some
of the Jaina idols on the wall are recent findings from Jeypore and were
excavated. Similarly, the Kali temple of Jeypore has an excellent image of
Rsabhanatha along with several sculptures of Brahmanical pantheon. The pedestal
of it contains his Sasanadevi, Chakresvari seated on Garuda. Yaksa-Gomukha on
his right side, his lanchna bull below and lavishly decorated chauri bearers. These
have been reported by P.R. Mohapatra. The Jeypore museum has maintained as
many thirty-four Jaina sculptures collected from Bhairaba Singpur (twenty-one)
from Charmula, Kotpad, Jamunda and Kamta.
The above findings give the indications that Koraput district was one of the main
centers of Jainism and probably it sustained till 11th/12th century A.D. Due to the
advent of Jangam priests and Omnatyas into the district the Jainism had a serious
set back but its impact in significant scale has still persisted in the life and culture
of the people.
The social culture of the people in particular the doab of Indravati and the Kolab
spreading into Rayagada and Umerkote do justify the preaching of Jainism and
remnants of Jaina rituals and organization structure still persists. These
communities are known by the name “Desia loak”, which was derived from the
Desia or Desiga Mulasangha of Jainas. Nandi puja and Bali are some of the
important ceremonies performed in Desia Country are few of the ancient Jaina
festivals perusing good harvest and prosperity through fertility is denoted. These
have been well documented by Kornel and Gamang, 2009.
The communities, especially, the tribals are most discipline, they tolerate others,
are not violent in their nature and living peacefully , often misrepresented as timid
for their goodness; they respect and care for other neighbour tribe and respect
their culture and thinking. They have been accommodating refuses from centuries
and till date accommodating other religion and their sensitive thinking and
preaching.
BUDDHISM
Buddhist monuments are found in between the river Mahanadi (tributaries) and
Indravati in Dandakaranya and thence extend into Kalinga. Goutam Buddha idol
has been discovered at Bhongapal, and it has the first largest brick made 'Chaitya
temple' in Dandakaranya.
Bhongapal is connected with ancient routes that leads to centres of Buddhism in

South Kosala and Kalinga.The close by and famous Buddhist centres of the past
are located in Bilaspur, Sirpur near Raipur on way to Sambalpur.
It is believed that the Buddhist iconography of Bhongapal is of Gupta period,

but the temple and bricks are Mauryan period. Some believe that it may be the
same route through which Samudragupta passed during his south expeditions in
4th century A.D.
Buddhist Stupas in Dandakaranya
The ruin of Buddhist stupas near Bhongapal is of large size and still to be seen.
They are made up of bricks. There are few small stupas around the large
stupa.Here, there is a large single Buddha statue that is in dhyana mudra.
In Jayantgiri, close to Bastar village there are ruins of Buddha –Chaityas.

There are two Buddhist Stupas near Village Gubrahin (Garh Dhanora) So,
Gubrahin, Bhongapal and Jayantgiri are the recent known Buddhist monuments of
the past to be seen in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh.
Salihundam is a small hill on the right bank of river Vsmasadhar in the

Srikakulam district just four miles from the east coast. In the inscriptions found
locally, the hill is called Salipataka and the words have given rise to different
meanings.
The popular view is that that it is the corrupt from Salya Petika, which means a
box (patika) of bones (Salya), implying there by that the Stupa on the hill was
built on bone relic, probably the Buddha. In fact, four relic caskets were found at
Salihundam and one of them contains dhatu probably a piece of bone. The
antiquities found in Salihundam attest the early history of the Budhist Ksetra
The vihara is called Kattaharama or Kattarama. It sounds like Kutthara Sutta

delivered by the Budha to the faggot-carriers of Kosala when he visited the place.
Kosala is adjoining to Kalinga and the Vamsadhara flows through Kosala.
I am inclined to put the Kattaharama as Kathragada with rich archaeological

remains located near to Bhairaba Singpur in Koraput district. Close to the place is
Pakkanaguda village where Sabara and Bhumia tribes live together. It is here;
recently a Budhist temple was excavated when the villagers were building a new
Siva temple on an older depleted Siva temple. Small clay made Buddha in
Dhyanamudra has been recovered from the site by the villagers and is very similar
to that one exhibited in the Ghasiram museum, Raipur in Chhattisharh that in turn
was recovered from Sirpur, the famous Buddhist site on the bank of Mahanadi in
Chhattisgarh.
Out of many promising sites, associated with the early Buddhist remains Kesari
beda, about 55 kms from Papdahandi in the district of Koraput, deserves mention.
The tradition relates that three important places of Orissa have the distinction of
possessing celebrated stupas containing remains of the Buddha. One was the
famous Tooth Relic associated with Dantapura. Tapassu and Bhallika the first
lay disciples of Buddha brought with them a handful of his hair and enshrined in a
stupa in Orissa, known as Kesastupa. The 3rd stupa is stated to have contended
the finger nails of the Enlightened one, known as Kakha stupa, Charls Fabri’s
suggestion of Kesaribeda with Kesa is plausible
Madhyadesa
According to Buddhist school of thought, Madhyadesa was famous before 7th

century A.D., because when Hiuen Tsang visited India most Buddhist sacred
places were desolate and ruins. Kosala, Kalinga were classified in Madhyadesa.
I am of the opinion that the Trilinga region refers to Bhongapal Buddhist Chaitya
that has neighbouring Teling ghat of Keskal in Bastar and Telingiri river of
Koraput plains. Ancient Vasinava shrines and Sivalinga have been discovered
quite recently during 1979 close to Keskal, which is in the form of Chaityas. This
may be the former Buddhist centre but later occupied by Saiva and Vaisnava faith
temples.
Buddhaghosha
According to Mahavamsa, 'Buddhaghosa was born in a Bramhin family in the

neighbour hood of Bodh-Gaya and converted to Buddhism by a monk named
Revata thence went to Ceylon. But Dharmananda Kosambi however does not
accept the views that he was a Brahman and believes having to be a Telanga from
the Telugu country of South India, and not a Burmese Telaing as recorded in the
Burmese traditions.
It is suggested by the present author that Buddhaghosha if Telaing then can be

from the Telinga area of Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh whereas above Bongapal
Chaitya of Buddhism was instituted before 4th A.D.
Buddhaghosha’s Buddhist doctrine, his critical scholarships, his notes on rare

words are valuable and his preservation of ancient traditions entitles him to our
deep gratitude and his services to the development of Pali language was singular
Sthiramati (Yogacharins)
The origin of the Yogachara school of thought is usually placed some time after
the appearance of the Madhyamika philosophy of Nagarguna i.e. about the third
century A.D. Sthiramati hailed from Dandakaranya. He became disciple of
Vasubandhu and learned the sastras from him. He studied both Hinayana and
Mahayana philosophy and wrote on Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosa,
Abhidharmasam such Chaya and other works. He wrote disqualifications on
Madhyantaribhaga and Vasubandhu's Trimukha both of whom have been

discovered in original Sanskrit.
Dharamakiriti
There is a temple situated on the summit of a hill near the village of Padmapur in
Gunupur sub-division of Koraput district, Orissa where there is an inscription of
the 7th century A.D. The temple, according to the said inscription, is called
Candralekhesvara where Dhamakiriti, a renowned Buddhist monk resided.
Dharmakiriti composed his Nyayabindu to defend Dinnaya against Uddyotakara,
who was probably his senior contemporary.Dharmottara shortly thereafter
commented upon Nyayabindu.
I am of the opinion that the above name Padmapur which is located on in

Gunupur of undivided Koraput has origined from Padmana-Vinischaya work of
Dharmakiriti.
Buddhism Tantric
It can be traced in (Sahajaayana) Tantric Buddhism. The whole yogic process of
the Sahaja School is found to be based on a highly sublime aspect of the sex
where the Sadhak is to embrace and sport with the female Shakti called as the
Chandali, Dombee, Savaree, and Sahaja Sundaree etc. From the name it appears
that they are Advasis of Dandakaranya. Acharya Charyachaya (10th-14th century
A.D.) contains eloquent proof of this conclusion.
The Chandella communities in Bastar-Koraput are followers of Thakurani. The

same trend is seen with Tantis of the region. However the Tantis and Chandellas
there is no cultural differences and both were known for their weaving skills. It is
also the case with Dom community in the region. There is plenty of literature and
historical evidence to equate the Sabara Tribe Dynasties of South Kosala and
Kalinga who patronized the Buddhist religion.
Tantric Buddhism did prevail in this part of the country and the author has
discovered one Yogni stone in one of the Shakti pitha in Bansuli itself.
In the Tantrika pitha of Borigumma on its wall is the Aparajita with one of the
hands raised and is represents as trampling upon the Hindu god Ganesha.I am
inclined to identify the Borigumma as Buddhist center of the past .The village
Phampuni, near Jeypore has a idol, which was previously suspected to be of
Thirthankara but with new evidences I am placing it to that of Buddha.
At Paikapada Pataleswara temple in Rayagada there is a vast collection of

idols of archaeological importance preserved in the premises of the said temple.
The Paikapada temple is classified as Tantric pitha of Pasupata origin (Davidson).
Dantewada temple in Bastar, Chhattisgarh is a well known Sakti Peetha. The
temple is located on the configuration of Sankhini and Dankiny rivers. Dakini,
in Buddhist tantra is an autochthonous goddess, may be divine or demonic
similar to yoginis of Hindu temples. I am of the view that river Dankiny has been
derived its name from Dakini, the Buddhist tantra goddess. In the same region is
the Boadhghat is located, but till now no Buddhist evidence is found, but there is
possibility that the name Boadhghat has been derived from Buddhagahta.
SAIVISM
The concept of Rudra Siva was developed by Aryas. Rudra was prayed to not
afflict children and diseases. Rudra was thus believed to be the cause of disease.
Nisada, forest tribes were worshipers of Rudra. Gradually Rudra became the
benignant God. The concept of Uma-Haimavati got approval where Uma is the
wife of Rudra or Siva. In the Upanishad period, the Supreme Soul is reflected as
Deva and was identified with Rudra, Siva, Isana and Mahesvara.
Siva in Tandaba mudra, Siva, Paikapada, Rayagada

Paikapada, Rayagada
The Linga worship appears not come into use at the time of Patanjali. The Linga
is Siva himself and not mere external emblem of him.
The Saiva, Pasupati, Karukasiddhanta, Kapalika, and Karunikasiddhantin were
well known schools of Saivism that appeared.
The Pasupata system had five principles- Karya, Karana, Yoga, Vidhi and
Dukhhanta. Again each one subdivided to different sub-sector with philosophy.
Siva-Parvati in Nilakantheswara Siva in Nandapur

Temple, Jeypore
The doctrine of Saiva schools is more moderate and rational than those of the
Pasupati School. The Saiva schools are called Sidhantasastra and are based on
mantras; in Pasupata system, the individual soul attains boundless knowledge and
power of action where as the Saivas hold that he becomes Siva himself. The
Kapala and Kalamukha sect maintain that a person who knows the essence of the
six marks/mudrakas and can use them skillfully will attain the highest bliss by
concentrating his mind on the soul seated on the female organ. The Kalamukha
eat food in a skull, keep a pot of wine, eat the ashes, and hold a clue and warship
the god as seated therein. They believe to please Bhairava by worshiping by the
skulls, blood of men and with wine.
Then there were two schools of Saivism, the Kashmir Saivism; Spandasastra and
Pratyabhijanasatra.
In later period the Virasaiva or Lingayat sect appeared in Karnataka and it is
generally believed that Basava of Ardhya sect was its founder. Dr. Fleet on the
basis of certain inscriptions says that the founder of the Lingayat sect is Ekanta or
Ekantada, Ramayya. He is also mentioned in the Basvapurna. It thus appears that
Virasaiva or Lingayat system came into existence well before Basava.
A Virasaivite holding his head,

Bhairabsingpur. Bhirava from
(the head is reconstructed by Villagers) Bhairabsingpur
Bhairaba in Bhiraba and Sakti Goddesses in

Bhairabsingpur Borigumma
The Lingayat are of four class i) Jangamas are the priests ii) Silavants or pious
iii) Banijigs or traders iv) Pancamsalis. The Jangamas are of the branch of
Acaryas from Lingi-Brahamans. Among Jangamas there are some who call
themselves Viraktas (passionless) and devote their life in asceticism. They
maintain’matha’. The chief matha of Jangamas is at Chitaldurga in Mysore and
have 5 principal establishments located from Himalaya to the Mysore province.
Couples of Jangama families are inhabitants of Koraput district since centuries
past, still worship traditionally as the priest of main Siva temples in Kalyana
singpur, Bhairaba singpur and in Nowrangpur region. I am of the opinion that the
Pancamsalis are the Phulu Malis of Nandapur rejoin who are ardent followers of
Saivism not only in Nandapur but all through Orissa. They work as assistant in
Siva temples. The women in Virasaivites wear Upanayana with Siva Linga so
also the Mali women in Nandapur under go ceremonial Upanayana adoring. This
custom is only limited to Malis. The Banamaliput, a Phulu Mali village of
Nandapur has the only most excellent carved Ardha Siva- Sakti image still being
worshiped by the community. The Banijigs may be the Baligi tradesman of
Sirkakulam.
Virasaivites believe that the soul as long as it is associated with the body (Anga
Sangama) the communication with the spirit is denied to him (Linga Sangama).So
like tree holds fruits, when matured should loose itself to the earth, the divine
grace in the case of the soul and it should meet. Some groups of bhaktas in
Virasaivites thus indulged in cruel practice of head offering on Sivaratri. Portraits
of Virasaivas who had offered their head are still seen Srikakulam and
Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh. These portraits are curved on stone
plates with the person holding a cut head in one hand and the body without head
is holding a sword in of the hand. I have come across on such hero stone in
Bhairaba singpur where the villagers had reconstructed the head recently.
The village Bijjala in Jeypore block has a Babaji matha; I presume it be a
Virasaiva matha of the past as Bijjala the king of Chalukya had solely patronized
this concept and the village name is patronized after him.
There is community named Omanyats in Koraput, Ganjam and some in Nepal.
They are Saivites and I presume they are from Karnataka. They may have come
down with Chalukyas.The Cholas and Chalukyas in later period were Saivites.
The Kalyani branch of Chalukyas during the period of Bijjala, Virsaivites came
into prominence; later the Kalachuri family of Kalyana and Haihaya rulers of
Palnad patronized the sect. Both Saivism and Vaisnavism penetrated the extreme
south of India after revival of Brahmanism in North during 4th and 5th century
A.D. Buddhism and Jainism by then had established themselves in the south;
hence arose the controversies and contests which these systems carried with their
predecessors. Virasaivites replaced Jainism vigorously in the south so also in

Koraput-Bastar.
The Kalinga is Ka-linga.The word Ka means mother. This is one such analysis.
Then the famous Teling and we have seen its historical relation to Buddhist and
the Saivites. Its location so also meaning has varied facets, but in this we identify
the Gar-Dhanora ruins of Bastar to be the Teling, and the reasons are forwarded.
Then it is followed by Khilinga.
When we take note of the places that has ‘ling’ or ‘lingi’ at its post-fix, we come
across Kimling, Odiling, Tsrling, Dhobaling, Philinga,
Kalinga,Allalinga,Baghalinga,Bipilingi,Khallingi,Amarlinga,Singarsilingi,Potalin
gi,Malilingi,Kotilingi,Saruakinchilingi,Taladantalingi and Uparadantalingi in
Ganjam district alone.
VAISNAVISM
Vaisnavism is known in Dandakaranya from the earliest times. This widely
accepted religion after Saivism flourished in Kalinga and finally culminating in
the cult of Jagannatha in Puri. The Ningundi copper plate grant of Prabhanjan
Verma ruler of Mathara dynasty speaks that he was a devotee of Narayana and
had built a temple for the worship of Narayana. An image of four armed Visnu
holding conchsheel, wheel, discus and the lotus are attributed to the Mathara
reign.
Lord Narayana, Jeypore, Koraput

The Gupta princes, Candragupta II, Kumaragupta and Skandgupta are styled
Paramabhagavatas on their coins. They were thus worshippers of Bhagavata or
Vasudeva. Their date ranges from 400 to 464 A.D. Kalidasa was
contemporaneousness to Candragupta II as Vikramaditya we can place the
influence in Dandakaranya on the basis of Meghaduta.
Further, Vaisnavism was prevalent in South Kosala is attested by the inscriptions

of Nalas. The Podagada stone inscription of Nalas in Umerkote refers to offerings
and prayers in praise of Visnu.King Skanda Verma of Nala dynasty had donated
foot prints of Visnu that still stands in the said site.Sarvapuriya dynasty kings
Mahadeva, Sudevarja styled themselves a ‘Paramabhagabata’.
The Panduvansis who succeeded Saravapuriyas were the devotees of Visnu are
evident from their title of Paramavaisnava. Nanna I was succeeded by his son
Mahasiva Tivara. Like his father Tivaradeva, Nanna II also was a follower of
Vaisnavism and enjoyed the sectarian epithet Parama-Vaisnava.Tivaradeva was
most admired and the greatest ruler of Panduvamsis. Tivaradeva was a follower of
Vaisnavism and bore the sectarian title of Parama-Vaisnava, i.e., a devout
worshipper of Vishnu.
Candagupata was succeeded by his son Harsagupta. He was a Vaisnava and is
said to have worshipped Achyuta all the time. The construction of a temple of
Vishnu in his memory is also a pointer in the same direction.
Sivagupta Balarjuna, son of Harsagupta ascended the Panduvamsi

throne.Sivagupta changed the religion and reverted back to Saivism and was
styled Parama- Mahesvara. Sivagupta Balarjuna’s mother built a temple of
Vishnu, the same as the so-called Laksmana temple at Sirpur.
Lord visnu, Gad Dhanora, Bastar Lord Visnu, Paikapada, Rayagada

Sivagupta Balarjuna in the eighth century A.D is the last known Panduvamsin
monarch of South Kosala. From a stone inscription found in a wall of
Rajivalocana temple at Rajim, about twenty-eight miles south by east of Raipur,

records the erection of a temple dedicated to Vishnu by the Nala king
Vilasatunga. It is evident that the region round Rajim in the Raipur district was
under Vilasatunga at the time of the construction of the temple in question, which
is undoubtedly the same as the modern temple of Rajivalocana. Thus, it appears
that the Nalas, who were the neighbours of the Panduvamsis on the south in
Umerkote region of Koraput district, the Vilasatunga succeeded in capturing the
Raipur region from Sivagupta’s weak successors.
Choda Gangadeva, the founder king of the imperial Ganga dynasty, embraced
Vaisnavism under the influence of Ramanuja and erected the famous temple of
Jagannatha at Puri. He assumed the title of Paramavaisnava and made
Vaisnavism the state religion. The religious activities thus centered on the cult of
Jagannatha at Puri. Vaisnava saint and preacher Ramanuja paid visit to Puri
during the region of Choda Ganga but his doctrine is said to have influenced in
Srikurma than at Puri. The successors of Choda Gangadeva were all Vaisnavas in
their faith and impacted spread Vaisnavism in the entire Kalinga empire. It was
during this period many temples were erected to worship Visnu, Krishna and
Dasavataras.
Vaisnavism attained its glory and popularity through the influence created by Sri
Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda.
The tradition of Madhava worship in Orissa is proved to be of 7th -8th century. The
copper plate grant of Madhavaraja of the Sailodbhava dynasty refers to
Nilamadhava worship in the twin temple of Gandharadi in Phulbani district. The
shrine is associated with Matsya, Kurma and Varaha avataras as incarnation of
Visnu.
Vinayaka Deo of Nandapur was successeded by his son Vijayachandrakhya who

is said to have taken away the original image of Kanaka Durga and the stone
image of Ballava Narayana from the custody of the people of Purushottama Deo
Gajapati when they were led astray in the dense forests ( between Krishna and
Vizagapatam)-------- and left other images of Ganesa, Gopala (Sakhi Gopala) that
were being brought on elephants from the expedition of Kanchi- Kaveri was
remarked by K.B.S.Deo.He further said that the original image of the family
Deity of the Gajapatis is still worshipped and seen in the house of the Jeypore Raj
family( now it stands lost). This image was made up of gold. The beautiful image
of the Ballava –Narayana (stone image) was brought to Jeypore and is now the
main deity of the Narayana Temple.
Singh Deo opined that Purushottama Gajapati brought the image of Sakhi- Gopala
from Vijayanagar that has close resemblance to the image of Ballava- Narayana in
Jeypore to the extent that both share small hole in the nostril. The loss of the
above images on the way from Kanchi- Kaveri has been mentioned in the Bodo-
Madala Panji that with Gopinath Das, Kano-bhoi in Puri.
Bhairava Deo, son of Vijayachandrakhya was crowned in 1510 A.D. He was the
hero who defended the Kondapalli Fort. The new Vaisnavic cult of Sri Chaitanya
appeared on the Saivic and Sakti Cult of Nandapur. Viswanatha Deo the
successor of Bhairava like Pratapa Rudra Deo Gajapati made the Vaisnavic cult
the State religion of Nandapur.
The Jeypore town has one Cahitanya Matta in which two images of Gour and
Nityanada are worshipped. The other Vaisnavic temples such as Radha Madhava,
Rasik Siromani or Rasikaswar, Radha Kanta were maintained by the Jeypore
Principals.
The images in under worship in Malikesvara and Patalesvara temples of Paikpara,

and the large hoard collected in the premises of the Paikapada temple are due to
different place. It is said that they were collected during visit of Robert Sewell to
Raygada for his study and documentation. So the place of origin is lost. The
temples in this site contain Vaisnavite images along with Saivite and Sakta
images. In the sanctum of the Viranchi-Narayan temple is seen. It has an image of
Vishnu standing in a somabhanga posture holding a conch and charka in his upper
arms and the lower arm is holding a lotus while the other is resting on a mace.
Garuda and Hari-Hara are notable images as found in the compound.
The composite images of Laksmi-Narayana at Jeypore and Konda Kamberu

represent the combined cult of Sakti and Visnu.
The cult of Krishna or Gopinatha gained wide celebrity with popular themes in
12th century in Orissa.The bhakti cult revolved around Krishna-Vasudeva, Visnu-
Narayana.There is one Krishna-Visnu images in Jeypore of Koraput district and
is said to be one of the three such images so far known in Orissa.
Sri Chaitanya came from Bengal was a more courageous reformer who
preached spiritual devotion than the mechanical religious ceremonies and
condemned the caste structure. In the year 1510 A.D. Cahitanya became
Samnyasin and came to Puri to visit the shrine of Lord Jagannatha and thence
wandered in the country for six years preaching his new faith. He went to Benares
and returned back to Puri, where he spent the last eighteen years of his life and
died in 1533 A.D. It is said that Chaitanya visited Nandapur, he came through
Narayanapatna and thence to Nandapur, but I am of the opinion that he traveled to
Jeypore-Nowrangpur through the Kakrigumma hill pass and then came to
Nandapur to enter the plains of Kalinga. This is because you can still see the
influence of Chaitanya cult in Tentulikhunti, Patraput of Nowrangpur and is
similar to that is seen in Jeypore.
Chaitanya’s doctrine says Krisna is the highest god; he is so beautiful that he

excites love for himself even in the heart of the God of love, and is enmoured of
himself. So the bhakti cult as Krishna at the center with different names like
Krishna-Vasudeva, Vishnu-Narayana greatly enriched the literature, culture and
arts of Orissa so to in present Koraput.
JAGANNATHA CULT
The Jagannatha Vaisnavism cult, origined at Puri in Orissa and the Ganga rulers
styled themselves as Rauta of Jagannatha –Purusottama. It was the State religion
since Anangabhimadeva III.It is said that during 17 th century the Jeypore
Jagannatha Temple was established but I am of the opinion that during Choda
Gangadeva’s period, the Jagannatha temple came up in Jaganthapura in
Nowrangpur, because Choda Ganga had active presence in that part of the
country. There is one Jagannatha temple at Jagadalpur in Bastar also where only
the Lord Jagannatha deity is worshiped. This may be related to Gangas as there is
still a locality named ‘Gangamunda’ in Jagadalpur town.
Under the rules of Gajapatis spread of Jagannatha cult reached its zenith,
especially during the rule of Kapilendra Deva (1435-1467 A.D.). But Prtapa
Rudra Deva (1497-1534 A.D.) very effectively championed the cause of
Vaisnavism and there were four classes of Vaisnavas in Orissa and they were
Ramanuja Panthi, Visnusvami Panthi, Madava Panthi and Gaudiya Panthi.
LORD RAMACHANDRA IN DANDAKARANYA

Lord Ramachandra still holds in the life and culture of the people of
Dandakaranya. The Saiva shrine of Guptesvara caves with a natural Sivalinga is
connected with Rama Laksmana and here it is believed that they had worshipped
Gupta Kedar on way to Panchavati in the Dandakaranya. On Sivaratri day people
from Koraput-Bastar assemble in very large number to pray Lord Siva. It is
believed that the close by Ramesvara mountain to have been named after Lord
Rama during his stay in Dandakaranya. In Ramagiri chain of hills is the Foot
prints of Lord Rama that has been in referred in the fist stanza of Meghaduta by
Kalidasa.
SURYA WORSHIP
The Surya Temple or known as Sun Temple of Konark in Orissa was built during
the period of Narasimha Deva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty (1236-1264 A.D.).
There is another Surya Temple in Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh and the other
Suryanarayana Temple of Tamil Nadu, popularly known as 'Suryanar-Koli'. Lord
Surya at Orissa in at Buguda of the Ganjam District, there is another Surya temple
of Orissa. Similarly, the Marthand temple in Kashmir is known to be an ancient
Surya temple in Kashmir. It is believed to have been built around 9th century
A.D. but was destroyed by Muslim invaders later. There is no known Surya
temple at present in Dandakaranya, but in Jeypore there are two images of lord
Surya, one is in Purnagada, Sambartuta in the premises of Nilakantheswara
temple and the other is in the Narayana Temple of Jeypore town. The idol of
Nilakantheswar Siva temple of Jeypore is about 5 feet tall and the Sun god is
adhorned with horses below drawing the chariots. This is lying isolated in the
temple permisses and probably recovered from the vicinity. This is in relation to
the Eastern Ganga dynasty and Jeypore. In Paikapada temple there are also two
images of Surya and may have been due to the influence of neighbouring Kalinga.
It can thus be concluded that the deity Surya was under worship in the area in the
past, possibly during Eastern Ganga period. Not more can be derived at present.
SAKTISM
Sakti is generally worshipped as ordinary form, as in her fierce form with
sacrifice of animals and human beings and thirdly the sensational form as in the
school of Saktas or Kaulas. Vast mythology developed around Rudra Siva and the
goddess destroyed demons like Mahsasura, Sumbha, Nisumbha, Canda and
Munda. There were 7 mothers- Brahmi, Mahesvari, Kumari Vaisnavi, Varahni,
Indrani and Camundi who were worshipped as Sakti with their counterparts.
There are three well known Saptamatrika idols in Koraput-Bastar; one is at
Bailimella (Orkel), the other is in Paikapada in Rayagada and the third is in Bastar
district close to Narayanpur.
DURGA AS SAKTI IN KORAPUT

Durga in the Bhairava temple of Borigumma, the figure is mutilated, one at
Devigiri Kanak-Durga and Kalika (an eight armed Durga) Jeypore, Durga of
Orkel, Durga in Phamphni village forest near Jeypore Town, Durga in Podagada
of Umerkote and in Bansli village of Kotpad town, the deity Gadchandi at
Narayanpatna, are the images of Sakti cult that got importance in the region.
Mahisasuramardhani Durga in
Phampuni forest. Bhairaba, Bansuli
Mahisasuramardhani Durga Mahisasuramardhani Durga Podagada,

Umerkote
STAMBHAESVARI OR KHAMBESVARI
Some of the authors have pointed out to worship of deities by tribals in the form
of pillars, may be wooden post or made up of stones. These have been reported
from Western, Central and Southern part of Orissa, as well as in the Southern-
Coast of Orissa, the Ganjam. They have been classified under Saktism of Hindus.
Sthambhaesvari or Khambesvari, Vyaghradevi Kandhuuidevi etc. are the names
they are known and got anthropomorphized into the Brahmancal pantheon; and
were the presiding goddess in Ghumsur, Aska. Boudh, Sonepur, Angul,
Sambalpur, Talcher and Dhenkanal regions. It is beyond doubt that the Tribals
were worshiping these deities since time immemorial but in later period they have
been incorporated into Bramhinical religion and worshipped as Sakta cult.Infact,
the Buddhist were the first to take this aspect into their fold. This may be because
the Tribal dynasties like Panduvamsis and Saravapurias were known to be Sabara
tribe Kings. It can be traced in (Sahajaayana) Tantric Buddhism. The whole yogic
process of the Sahaja School is found to be based on a highly sublime aspect of
the sex where the Sadhak is to embrace and sport with the female Shakti called as
the Chandali, Dombee, Savaree, and Sahaja Sundaree etc. From the name it
appears that they belong to either to be Advasis. Ascharya Charyachaya (10th-14th
century A.D.) contains eloquent proof of this conclusion
Further, it is assumed that the Ksatriya chiefs in course of consolidating kingdoms

in the tribal areas tried to win their minds, adopted their indigenous beliefs
expressed through these gods and goddesses. In this connection the views of
Pargiter is appropriate here. “The Aryans met with the religious practices and
beliefs among whom (the tribes) they ruled over or came into lasting contact with,
and have assimilate some of them gradually thus modifying their own religion to
a certain extent.”
In the fifth century A. D. to cure his ailing mother Maharaja Tustikara worshipped
the goddess Sthambhesavari, is as per Terasinga copper plates of Tustikara. He
styled himself as Sthambhaesvari Padabhaktah and ruled, Kalahandi, Sonepur,
Boudh and Ghumsur. The installation of Sthambhesvari at Aska may be assigned
to Tustikara in 5th Century A.D.
The Sulkis (650-900 A.D) of Kodalaka Mandala (the present Dhenkanal – Talcher
region) were the worshippers of Stambhesvari and is widely popular even at
present in the Dhenkanal, Angul and Talcher regions. Stambhesvari shrines are
found at Barimul near Badamba, Bamur and Taras near Angul which is not far
form the capital of the Sulkis. Khambhesvari represented by a simple stone of

wooden post is worshipped in the cultivating season in different villages in the
Angul region by the Dehurias a caste of tribal affiliation. This worship is named
Kaduali Puja (worship of the cultivating season)
The Bhanjas of Khinjjali Mandala (the present Sonepur, Baudh) and the goddess
Khambhesavari at Aska are shrines of Skata pitha. There are several such tribal
institutions of religious importance has been transformed to Hindu and Buddhist
worship places.
BHIMA OR BHMA KHAMBA
There has been considerable research on tribal deities and religion by various
researchers in Orissa. So a large amount of literature is available in this aspect. In
Koraput and boarder district of Bastar there are, almost in most villages, on the
outskirt twin pillars, mostly under large and old trees can be spotted. They are
called as ‘Bhima’or Bhima Khamba’. These pillar gods have been a part of the
Bali-puja followed by all tribes in the Desia Country. There is no satisfactory
argument as to why these religious pillars are called Bhima.The Bhima pillars are
replaced with new ones in every three or twelve years when the Mutha village
performs Bali-jatra. One of the pillars is slightly smaller than the other and is
covered with white clothes and anointed with turmeric on the day of their
installation. The taller pillar is a male Bhima or Thengua Bhima and the smaller
one is the lady. The ceremonial installation is the last day of Bali-jatra.
Bhima Khamba in Nowrangpur area Bhimakahamba
The Khamvesari and Bhima are two separate identities. The Pengo tribe of
Koraput does have a pillar placed after elaborate ceremony before the Bali-puja is
celebrated. These pillars are called ‘Bali Kahmba’ and are placed firmly on the
ground just before the Bali-kudia or Bali house. These pillars are carefully
selected from the forest and installed after elaborate ceremony by all the members
of the village. These pillars are carved in different shapes. The Bali Khamba is
replaced after the village Bali Khamba loses its shape and it is totally depilated.
This Bali Khamba is very similar to those pillars placed before temples in the
South Indian culture called Kirtistambha and Manastambha and even seen in
some Orissan temples.
However, in most of the temples and shrines in Koraput -Bastar, before the
temple two stone pillars of unequal length are installed, this can be seen in
Papdahandi Siva temple, in Borigumma and other places. The relevance of this
concept is not known.
The Tribal priests like Jani, Mali, Beju, Bejuni, Sirha, Sisa, Disari and Pujari are
still in charge of these shrines suggesting its Tribal affiliation. I have mentioned
many examples in Koraput where the Tribal priests are the main player of
worship in Siva and Bhairiba temples and mostly the Malis are the assistants to
shrines taken over by the Brahmin priests suggesting the indigenous origin. .
During Dasahara in Jeypore and Kali puja the worship of the deity was taken by
Brahmin priest and the Jogis of Nandapur played vital role by a long fast and the
animals sacrificed in such occasions before the deity was by special tribal families
who had hereditary succession.
The Mariah or Human sacrifice was in vogue in Koraput- Bastar region along
with Ganjam-Phulbani districts, especially with the Kondh tribals. This entered
into the Shakti worship of the Ruling families and was highly prevalent up till mid
19 th Century, until British interfered and controlled this menace.
TRIBAL RELIGION
Contemporary tribal communities have a great variety and complexity in their

religious beliefs and practices. However, they share one characteristic which
binds them "by common understanding as to the ultimate nature and purpose of
life" (Redfield, R, The Primitive World and Its Transformations, Ithaca, Ill., 1953,
p. 12). This ultimate purpose is "the creation of a meaningful order through
imitation of the celestial model, transmitted by myths and celebrated in rituals"
(Kitagawa, Joseph M., Religions of the East, Philadelphia, 1968).
The festivals in the life of the people and the tribal are based on the above
principle and give the glimpses of religious belief. The archaeological monuments
in the region and in villages open up a new world influence which must have
persisted with the population that was living in that point of time. This cannot be
ascertained but still a measure can be set from their present celebrations,
ceremonies and cultural heritage. Jainism in the Desia Country of the
Dandakaranya still can be taken with certainty that the Jainism influence is the
oldest and still persists in the society. On the other hand, the Buddhism in
Gunupur, Rayagada and in Bastar region, especially in between the Indravatia and
Mahanadi rivers had a lasting effect on communities. The presence of
Brahmanism culture during the Nalas of Podagada in Umerkote and the advent of
Vakataks after them do signify the Saiva and Vasinavite cult in Dandakaranya and
its influence. The Telinga, around Keskal of Chhattisgarh and Tel river in Koraput
had a profound impact of Saivism that lasted centuries in all villages of the area
and still continues. The official Religion of the Ruling dynasties and families was
that influenced more and that persisted with the change of time; sometimes some
liberal rulers still gave support to other religions, may be due to the influence of
their queens or the strength of the community compelled to accept.
The Tribal festivals can be classified as related to Food and Harvest that related
mostly to Agriculture. They for specific purposes are like good rains; weed less
crops, disease free crops, good and bumper harvest, first consumption of the
newly harvested crops, fruits, flowers, and tubers of the year or season. There is
thank giving ceremonies to all those who have safeguarded the crop in the field,
to the mother Earth, to those animals living in the bunds of the field including the
draft animals at home who have given services in the field.
The other side is those god and goddesses who give good health, fertility, ward of
diseases and protect the village community from epidemics and wild animals.
This includes the health of Livestock also.
Ancestors, malevolent and benevolent ghosts or spirits are feared and worshipped
respectfully for peace and prosperity of the families.
The following verse from the prayers of Parenga Poraja taken gives an indication
of the spirit of the religious philosophy of tribals in Dandakaranya
“Matapita Duma dani, (father, mother, spirits and women devils)

Tamanama dhari pada padhi, (in your name we are reading)
Phula phul dhoida chaul (flower, fruits, and rice),
Hata guda sukho ho (hand, leg feet be healthy)
Charidand bulikari, (walking through four doors)
Macha mari, Kanda khuli banchibu, (fishing, digging tubers let we live)
Kuli Kari bhuti Kari banchibu (let we live with wage, and contract labor)
Goda Ke Kante no hoe (let the leg and feet be healthy)
Mund ke lata no hoe” (let the head be healthy)
Gutab Gadaba in their worship says,

Aji Juhar Mahapru (Mahaprabhu),
Gaon ra Mata, Pita, Hundi,
Jakr, Ani, Dadi, Puni, Gosaie,
Purandi, Adhan, Gomirghar patno,
Sukal nindra, Misi bidi dukane,
Jidan, Godan, Podan sabu saman,
Duka naie: Dhup auro Belopatra
Bedtoning Misaiebu Dukanaie”
This means,’Oh! Mahaprabhu receive our respects today. Parents of the village, of
the village Hundi, of village Jankar, Grand parents, ancestors, let us all live. The
life gift, cow gift, son gift all one to keep all safe; the dhupa and Belo leaves let us
all remain safe.’
The important Religious-Festivals are Chait Parab, Pus Parab, Diali Parab and
Nuakahai are the common festivals observed by all groups of people including the
tribals.The Nandi Puja of Jhodia Poraja, Gotar celebration of Gutob Gadaba, Bali
of the Malis and Jeypore King’s Dashara Puja, Bastar King’s Dashehara and
Danteswari Puja are heritage festivals of Dandakaranya region.
At the same time Bhima Puja of the Koyas, Meriha of the Kondhs are well
documented rituals followed in the Koraput District. The Human Sacrifice has
been translated to Buffalo Sacrifice by the Kondhs and is called Kedu in recent
days, is still followed seriously. There was prevalent of ‘Toki Puja’ among the
tribal of Kasipur- Kalahandi boarder and is now said to be obsolete. Bali jatra on
regular interval is followed by village communities on Mutha basis.
Holopoda, Rathyatra, Dashara are the well known official festivals followed by
the Jeypore Kings. Similarly the Ratha yatra and Dashara were the official
festivals of the Bastar Kings.
Every Tribal community has a village Health institution that takes care of the
village safety and wellbeing as well as the family concerns. It is on the tribal
culture line. This office can be one or two, of that one is required to diagnose and
predict the auspicious date and time to institute the regular religious institutions
and the other need to translate the advice into practicality. The former are known
as Pujari and the later are called Dishari, Wadae, Gunia, Gurumai and Beju or
Bejuni etc.
They believe in bad or evil spirits who get into villages to harm the subject, so
there is in situ arrangements like Hundi devta etc to ward of the evil spirit; still
some powerful ones take entry, that is diagnosed by Pujari or Wadae and if any
subject is effected that can be known from chronic illness and the family is
advised to go for a Bat Viba, where the bad spirit is married to a good spirit and is
shown the way out of the village. These ceremonies have been classified under
Magico-religious rites. These often have been names as blind beliefs and
occultism etc.
Ancestral Worship and Veneration of the dead is a practiced among the

tribals of Dandakaranya. It is based on the belief that the life’ Jiba’ after it passes
away due to death, it loses the ‘shade’ and ‘Soul’ becomes ‘Dumba” and strays
around the family. Normal death Dumba is good dumba where as abnormal death
and in particular out of the house due to accident and drowning etc is called Bad
Dumba that can harm the family, harvest, happiness etc.
The tribal communities such as Gadaba, Sabara, Koya, Bonda, Kondh, Muria,
Bison-horn Maria, Hill Maria, of Bastar and Koraput are known to the sacrifices
of bovines in particular the buffaloes in connection with funeral rites. The same is
also evident by large sections of tribal peoples inhabiting the Indian sub-continent
including South-east Asia. The buffaloe is the bridge or vehicle to transfer the
soul to the other world. The other world is pointed out with finger, a long distant
place of imagination.
The very common association of megalithic rites like erection of menhirs,

dolmens, memorial poles, etc. with tribal funerary ceremonies involving the
sacrifice of bovines. Christopher von Fürer-Haimendorf placed the ethnogenetical
theories with relation to the origin of the megalithic traditions observed in a large
section of the tribal communities in eastern India. He has proposed the fact that
the megalithic of Dravidian origin and that of the Austrasiatic tribes is different. .
He has rejected the possibility of any connection between the first millennium
B.C. megalithic archaeological complex of ancient Dravidians of South India and
the megalithic cultures of Indonesia, whose material remains apparently all date to
later epochs. But, I see the Koya, Muria and Bison Muria who are Dravidian
origin have the similar megalithic culture as that of the Savara and Gadabas. It
has been mentioned as megalithic culture is a cultural bridge which would link
some modern Austro-asiatic, Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman speaking tribes of
central-eastern and northeastern India, settled along the Eastern Ghats, on the
Chota Nagpur Plateau and in the Assamese area, to the structurally similar
megalithic rituals diffused among some Austronesian-speaking tribes of
Indonesia. Linguistically, the Sabaras are equated to Mon-khmer languages such
as Camobodian, Malay Peninsula and Montgnard peoples of Vietnam by Piers
Vitebsky in analysis of ‘Dialogues with the Dead’.
The sacrifice of bovines performed at funerals is a socio-economic function

attributed in Gadaba and can be regarded as the redistribution of wealth in terms
of bovines that tend to redefine the family status and kinship links with the other
families within the clan unity on the basis of bovines offered to common
ancestors like Panjiabahaie and others. The best instances of this social function
of the sacrifice of bovines are represented by the Naga, the Gutob Gadaba and
Hill Saora of Orissa and, as far as Indonesia is concerned, the Toraja of Sulawesi
and the tribes of Sumba.
SACRIFICE AS RITUAL
The fertility cult was dominant before the advent of Rig-Veda among the local
communities. The Brmhacharin institutions were established by mid-first
millennium and education was open to Brahmins. The number of Brahmin priests
increased with the expansion of rituals.
Mythologies were created on regular basis, with the theme of ‘devas’ and asuras’.
The Soma sacrifice became a key ritual to India like Iran. The Rig-Veda was
dedicated to ‘Soma’; and worship of fire became the center of all rituals. The
rituals were held in specific days and times considered to be auspicious; then
mathematics got into it.
Hymans were dedicated to power residing in sacrifice, especially the sacrificial
altar and to the stones used in sacrifice; then it extended into the weapons of war,
the war drums etc. Pengo tribe still worship their large drums, may be war drums.
The rituals of sacrifice were believed to sustain the wellbeing of the clan, system
and subjects. The Rajas gifted the priests enriched and empowered the Brahmins.
Domestic property, requiring increase in livestock population, good harvest of
crops, success in wars and safe health from epidemics and diseases was the
primary motive.
The public sacrifice was later followed by Kings and communities. Sacrificial
rites increased the power of the priest, without whom the sacrifice cannot take
place. In some places this power was taken over by Kshatriyas to assert influence
on Sudras and Vashyas. The Dongar Puja of Jhodia Poraja is celebrated in every
three years once on specific hilltops well known as religious grooves. A large
number of sheep and few buffaloes are offered in the sacrifice ceremony in hope
of good harvest or recovery from illness. The Paiko men take control of the
sacrifices and own hereditary right. The Paiko are the local Kshatriyas and still
today they assert their influence on tribals.
Between 300-700 A.D. the Indian sub-continent already hosted a range of
religions. Buddhism was rival to Vedic Brahmanism, but Saivism as rival became
prominent after Jainism was supported by merchant community of western India
and patronage by local Western Chalukya, Western Gangas and Eastern
Chalukyas. The use of Sanskrit was on increase and had already made its place.
The mid-millennium saw the up coming of substratum cults, and the focus shifted
to worship female deities and later course it laid the foundation of Tantrism. The
female deity was said to be the initiator of action, and power and energy- which
was Shakti of Shiva; it was then Shati-Shakta cult that attained a dominant status.
The Sakti worship is centered chiefly in mystic circle known as Bhairavi tantra. It
was otherwise also known as Cakrapuja, in which use of liquor, meat and women
was freely used. A new school of Buddhism, Vajrayana or the Thunderbolt
vehicle, with its center in Easter India appeared. These images remained as the
focus of worship and superseded by the Vedic sacrifice. The offerings of food and
in some regions animals a requirement of rituals became vital. Sakti worship was
prevalent in Koraput and Bastar districts in Kali temples and then it was extended
in to Durga-Sakti, as Kanaka Durga temple in Jeypore. The Zamindars of Jeypore
and Bastar states of the past had elaborate celebration of Durga during Dashara.
The ceremony was followed in Nandapur, the former capital of Jeypore and
continued with pomp in the new capital of Jeypore. The Jogi families of Nandapur
played vital role in the rituals. On Astami day hundreds of buffaloes and small
ruminants were given sacrifice at the Kanka Durga temple of Raja of Jeypore.
People say Human sacrifice was also prevalent in Jeypore before British
administration levied strict restriction to the effect.
I am of the opinion that at the advent of new societies into the Koraput the new
diseases like Smallpox, Yaws, and Cholera in the epidemic form entered into
these societies with utter devastation of the population. These diseases possibly
had a three year cycle, may be immunity lasted for that period, thus these societies
without alternate and knowledge to combat the disease first practiced shifting of
villages in regular basis after the epidemics and resorted to Sakti puja and the
Human sacrifice entered in massive way. They wanted to satisfy the evil spirit of
disease by offering in advance one human being in order to protect the total
population. They have considered the Smallpox disease a female and started
amelioration by addressing her as “Mother’ and thus various names like Maulima
etc came in. It is still being called very respectfully with fear. It is very similar to
the response in present day to Swine Flu. In the event, Sakti cult became very
deep rooted in Koraput In later days, possibily with British Syphlis, Gonnohrea
entered the region with detrimental consequences on population..
It is evident from the archaeological remains in Borigumma, Jeypore, Phampuni,
Bharabasingpur region including Katharagad that Buddhism was prevalent and
the place was influenced by Jainas, Saivism, Vishnu worship that followed with
Bhairaba and Sakti cult. In later age the Sasanadevis of Tirthankaras were
worshiped as Hindu Sakti deities like in Jeypore and else where. In Rayagada
region Buddhism was predominant, not much evidence of Jainism is known here.
However, the Saivism, Vaisnavism, Sakti and Tantra cult of Buddhist origin
became prominent and can be verified from the archaeological remains of
Paikapada and Padmapur of Gunupur. In Nandapur area, including Banamaliput it
can be said that the Jainism was highly prevalent. Visnu worship, Saivism like
Ardha-siva and the Tantric cult in minor forms can be witnessed. In Bastar, Gad
Dhanora was influenced by Buddhism, Visnu and Saivas but in Gad Bodra region,
the Narayana worship was prominent and had the influence of Jainas and
Bhairaba also the Tantra cult layed its impact that is visualized from the remains
and temples.So it can be concluded that the societies and the region both traveled
together from centuries and were a part of the religious transition that India
influenced. The time has changed, still glimpses all religion can be seen in the life
and custom of these societies.
HUMAN SACRIFICE
It was in 1835 first time the East India Company discovered the Meriah ritual
where human sacrifice was made. During 1835-1837, Mr.Arbuthnot, Acting
Collector, Vizigapatnam and Mr.Russell, Madras Civil Service reported the
Meriah during Goomsur Wars with Khonds of Ganjam. Cap.John Campbell and
Capt.S.C.Macpherson from 1837-1845, how the Meriah was put to death, the
rituals in detail was recorded.
An extract from a report of Capt. A.C.McNeill, officiating Agent in the hill tracts
of Orissa, to dated the 12th May, 1857 reads; “From Ramgherry I proceeded to
Mulcangherry (present Malkangiri) the most southern portion of Jeypore and
formerly the hot bed of Meriah sacrifices. Internal feuds have destructed the
country and the inhabitants appear very unwilling to have any intercourse with
me, but I have nevertheless received intimation of several cases of recent
sacrifices to have been committed since my former visit”.
In Gazetteer of the Viziagapatnam district (1907) said, “Fifty years ago the village
(Malkangiri) was described as ‘a hot bed of Meriah sacrifices’. Four victims
were annually offered up at the four gates of the fort and six were killed
triennially in the four dwaros. Other sacrifices were made on special occasions -
the Rani, for example, slaying a girl of ten in May 1854, in fulfillment of a vow,
on her recovery from illness. As many as one hundred Meriah were surrendered
on one occasion to the authorities”.
The extract from a letter from Captain MacViccar, Agent to the Governor General
in the hill tracts of Orissa dated the 21st May 1855 said, “At Mulcangherry
(present Malkangiri) four children were rescued, who were devoted to sacrifice
and their immolation only prevented by the opportune arrival of Captain
McNeill’s camp. In this country four are always sacrificed at a time, one at each
of the four doors of the fort; besides this, six sacrifices were offered triennially in
the four Pugunnahs into which Mulcangherry is divided, some of these sacrifices
were celebrated during the Desserah, some in September and others again in
December. The object in all cases was the same, to obtain benefits and avert
evils.
In the town of Mulcangherry, one hundred Toorees were surrendered and duly
registered. The best security being given for their future appearance they were
allowed to remain. The Chiefs and people have made the most solemn promises
to relinquish the rite; but I think some strongest law to reach these particular cases
should be passed and rigorously applied.
It is no usual thing in the district of Mulcangherry to put to death supposed

sorceresses, and a few years ago no less than five unfortunate women were
immolated on the plea of having caused the death of an Uriya Chief”.
The Earth Goddess was the supreme for which the Kondhs offered Meriah.
Mr.Russell (1837) described human sacrifice in Goomsur. It was offered annually
to Earth Goddess under the effigy of bird, peacock to propitiate the deity to grant
favourable seasons and groups. The victim may be of any sex, caste or age, but
adults were preferred most, even children were reared for several years before
offered for sacrifice. Apparently there was no difficulty in procuring victims.
They were sold by their parents or near relatives or older persons were kidnapped
and sold. The victim must always be purchased; animals, disabled and prisoners
of wars are not fitting subjects. The community of Mutas (districts) performed
the Meriah at their expenses, periodically. Individual village, individuals could
do Meriah. The price is paid in brass utensils, cattle or corn.
Meriah Khal in Poraja Sujuli village. Meriah site in Chatua on way to Padwa
Meriah Khal in Poraja Sujuli village Meriah Khal hole where bones,
Sskull hidden
Mr. Arbuthnot described the Kuttia Konds performing Meriah before Jenkery in
order to secure good crops. They purchased the victims, and in every 12 years
they performed once the Meriah for their village, but in case of Bastar (now in
Madhya Pradesh) 20 persons were sacrificed at a time.
The Khangars of Jeypore and Banjaras, salt traders were principal sellers of
Meriah victims to these tribes. The women victims were often married to head of
the village and had children before being sacrificed in Meriah. These children in
future were exchanged with other victims from another village.
As per the former authors, a month before Meriah sacrifices much feast,
intoxication and dancing round the Meriah victim continues. They carry the
victim before the Jakeri Penu (Earth God), put little rice, coloured with saffron
(turmeric) on his head (its influence prevents his attempt to escape), but they
continue keeping him intoxicated, he is allowed to wander about the village, to eat
and drink anything he fancies, to have connection with any woman he may meet.
He is stupified before the idol with toddy and spirits and even with opium and
made to sit at the foot of the post always placed before the village deity. A pit is
dug near the deity.
Wild riot follow; all are welcome because the festival is declared to be “for all
mankind”. Tari inspires all to drunken feast and frantic dances. It is considered
impious to resist. The victim is kept fasting from that evening to day. Victim is
carefully bathed dressed in new clothes and lead out from the village in solemn
procession with music and dancing. The priest makes the victim sit at the foot of
the post and binds his back to it. He/she is anointed with oil, ghee and turmeric
paste and adorned with flowers; all pay him reverence throughout the day and
contend for the smallest relic from the Meriah; women specially grab at drops of
spittle or turmeric paste or sweat. During the night feast continues throughout and
men group are sent out in dark to probe the ground and identify the deep chink by
sticks as indicative of Earth God for sacrificial spot.
In the morning, the victim is refreshed with milk and palm wine. A short post is
inserted and 4 larger posts set up around it. The victim is placed in the midst; all
proceed after a feast with stunning shouts and pealing music to consummate the
sacrifice. The victim is stupefied with opium and as he must not suffer bound, his
arms (if necessary, his legs) are broken. There is a long ritual of invocations;
legends and dialogue between victim and priest, i.e. a semi dramatic
impersonation of the victim is given by the best actor and occasionally of another
two. MacPherson (1841) described it in.
During that night strong parties watch over the victim’s remains. The next day,
the priest and all headmen burn all the remains along with a goat in a funeral pyre.
They scatter the ashes over the fields or lay them as paste over the houses and
granaries.
In some villages after the horrid ceremony has been completed in, a buffalo is
brought to the post and its fore feet cut off. It is left there until the following day;
women dress in male attire and arm themselves as men; then drink, dance and
sing around the spot. The buffalo calf is killed and eaten and the priest is
dismissed with a present of rice and a calf. .
The ritual was totally stopped by British officers. The efforts of Mr.Arbuthonot,
Mr.Russell, MacPherson, are most praise worthy and shall stay in the annals of
history forever. McNeill and MacViccar had direct involvement at Malkangiri to
stop the Meriah practice. The ritual was stopped, but it was not substituted as
among Kondhs with buffalo and at present the young generation hardly knows
that ever such practice existed in the area.
SATI CULT IN KORAPUT

Sati cult of North India was prevalent in Dynasties of Koraput particularly of later
centuries. Sati committed are known from erect carved stones of about 2 to 3 feet
height and are well carved with signs of sun and moon and even women giving
their reverence. The first Sati stones are found in the Podagada, where according
to myth, the sati stones lying in the ruins are for the eight Nala princesses. The
second set of Sati stones are found in the Papdahandi temple premises in
Nowrangpur. The third set is found in the Khairput block, under foot hills of
Bonda hills. The fourth sets are in Nadapur and the fifth site is the old fort of
Narayanapatna, where after the death of Viswanatha Deo, who had married one
hindered and sixteen wives locally, may be ladies of Tribal origin who self
immolated themselves in the active pyre of the king-husband, still called Sati-
kuano or Sati well. It is on the corner of the Narayanapatna fort, close to the
Jhanjabati river bank. This horrid act was committed as the king styled himself
Lord Krishna and was very much influenced by the Vasanavic cult. The river
flowing on the southern boarder of Jeypore town that joins Kolab is called ‘Sati
Nadi” and the people say in early days Sati was committed in the bank of the
river, thus it has derived its name.
Koraput, at present has a good population of Christians and Muslims. A detail
history on Christianity in Koraput has been published in two volumes by JELC,
Jeypore. On the other hand, Kumar Bidyadhara Singh Deo has given a good
account of Mohammedan history of Koraput in his book entitled’ The Forgotten
Kingdom of Nandapur’ and there are also reference to it in various Historical
Journals.Morever, I have limited my studies up to 1250 A.D. and these events are
later to the period and Christianity was limited to British occupation period.
Sati stone with symbols of a lady’s Sati Stones in Podagada.

hand, Sun and Moon
in Nandapur
Nandapur Sati Stone Sati Stone in Khairput, Malkangiri

TRANSVERSE OF FAITHS WITH TIME IN KORAPUT
The Bansuli, Phampuni, Bhairabasingpur, Katharagada, Jainanagara (Jeypore),

Banamaliput of Nandapur, Paikapada (Rayagada) along with Dantewada and Gad
Bodra formed the main Tantra pitha of the past and they have traversed from
Jainism or Buddhism to Saivism, from linga puja to Bhairaba cult and even the
extreme Virasaivites in some and then Tantra. It is evident from the
archaeological remains found in theese sites.
BORIGUMMA IN KORAPUT DISTRICT

Borigumma, a small town of archaeological importance is located 20 Kms from
Jeypore town and is in between Jeypore and Jagdalpur, Bastar. It is located on the
foot hills of Chikma Hills and was on the way to the ancient path to
Bhairabasingpur and also to Koraput village. The people claim that in the past it
was known as Bhairaba Borigumma.It had two sections one called Sano
Kenduguda and the other Deulaguda where there is an old temple identifiable
form images. The temple in the shape of a house was constructed by the late kings
of Jeypore and Sri K.B.S.Deo is credited for its conservation. The Deulaguda is a
small village in the foot hills of Chikma hills and close to the temple are twin
large ponds named Bodo Rajada and Sano Rajda bondha. The tradition goes that
in the past in one pond, the Jaina monks used to grow the wild rice; Chiting that
was going to the temple for bhoga and in the other, the lotus for the temple was
grown. The twin pond concept is widely seen from Borigumma to Nowrangpur
region. The Chikma hill is called as Buddha Raja and Rani Pahada, respectively.
The Deulaguda temple has two potions divided by a wall and in one is the
Sivalinga called Patalaeswara is worshipped by a Jangama priest and the other is
the Bharaba called Sasta Bhairaba worshipped by Omanaty priests. The priest
refers to Vikramadity, may be the Chalukyas because Omnatyas are from
Karnataka. The Bhairaba temple opens to west where as in Bhairabasingpur it is
facing to east. The outer wall of the temple is niched with small plates of images
and notable is three Buddhist images, one is Lord Buddha and the other too and
the third is the image of Hairti distinctly identifiable with the Ganesha below.
There are other images of Avatar of Visnu and two pieces of inscriptions written
in Pali language. These have not so far deciphered and reported. It will yield good
information and dates for Dandakaranya history.
But in the premises of the temple there are few twin erect stones standing on the
ground so also few rectangular stone pillars of 4 to 5 feet high, their significance
is not known. Few very old Brushas, most probably collected from the region are
also found. Bell had mentioned about one inscription in Dantewada temple of
Bastar that denoted that the King had purchased a piece of land for the
Borigumma temple. This indicates that in the past the Dantewada Sakti pitha and
Borigumme temple had concept relationship and were of the same school of
thought. More ever there is a street in Borigumma town still called Meriha Sahi
and I have mentioned about the Humanscrifice in the Dantewada temple so also it
was prevalent in Borigumma.
The Magha Purnima Puja of Bhairaba at Borigumma is the principal one

celebrated by all section of the people and mostly the tribals assemble.
Surprisingly, the dates of the festival are the same as that of the Khandagiri Jaina
Jatra in Bhubaneswar. On the day of the celebration three Omanatya pujari and a
lady priest in white dress sit before the Bhairaba deity. In side the Bhairaba
temple, it is sukla bhoga and the priest enchants mantra that refers many of the
sakti pithas of the coastal Orissa.
In front of the Bhairaba temple and with in the boundary wall there is secured
small place with on erect stone piece serves the purpose of altar where people
offer their animals and birds for sacrifice, however just few yards before and out
side the boundary there stands a Ficus tree and under it are two stone pillars
standing together are worshipped with sukla bhoga. They are called Dongar Dei
and Bardaudee. The on passers stand with fold hands and pay their respect here
for good health and welfare. People come on Full moon with sick children and the
priest does the puja out side the temple for cure.
This place of altar in the temple was the last place where Human sacrifice was
taken before 17th and 18th century until the British administration removed this
mennce by force through the Kings of Jeypore and Bastar.
The Siva linga faces towards the Bhairaba, but separated by a wall, thus is called
Gaiatri Tantra Pitha was the opinion of Narayana Padal.
It is claimed by local residents that there were several Siva temples with Sivalinga
in Borigumma and now about 5 to 6 have been uprooted and being worshipped in
Kumli and Kamata region. The Sivalinga are about 6 feet long and underneath it
they have seen small plates of jantra on metal foils. I am of the view as said
earlier that the Siva linga worship is due to Choda influence in the region but the
presence of Jangama priests in these temples points to Western Chalukya
influence.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS IN PHAMPUNI NEAR JEYPORE
Rsaabhanatha
Buddha
?
Durga Brusva
Bhairabas
Kartikaia
ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS IN BORIGUMMA
Bhiraba and Sakti Goddesses Buddha? In

in Borigumma Borigumma
Aparajita in Borigumma Sacrifice

Temple, Koraput Memorial Pillar
Nrusingha Avatara
Bali Badha Avatara
Hanumana carrying
Baraha Avatara Lord Rama, Sita, & Laxmana
Pataleswar Buddha
Sivalinga
Borigumma Inscripation
Siva & Parvati
References
1. Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India-from the origins to

AD 1 300.Penguin Books (P) Ltd. New Delhi, India.
2. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L. Religion in Andhra. Director, Dept. of
Archaeology and Museums, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.
3. Bhandarkar, R.G. Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems.Vol.
IV.Bhandarkar Oriental research Institute, Poona
4. Das, H.C. Religious Monuments in Southern Orissa.OHRJ.Vol.XXXV,
No.3 &4. p.1-56.
5. Mishra, K.C and Mishra, R.K. Studies in Saivism.Institute of Orissan
Culture, Bhubaneswar.
6. Ibid. Studies in Saktism.
7. Bell, R.C.S. Orissa District Gazetteer (Koraput), Cuttack.1945
8. Kornel Das.Tribal Cultural heritage and Cult (Gutob Gadaba Tribe of
Orissa), Modern Book Depot, Bhubaneswar.
9. Kornel Das and Gomang, Giridhar. Lost Jaina tribes of Trikalinga
10. Singh, R.L. (1995) Ed. India- A regional Geography, National Geography
ANCIENT AND CHANGING GEOGRAPHY:

KORAPUT
The ancient history-geographical identity of united Koraput is primarily
Dandakaranya that is studied and reported; and is limited to, parts of Kalahandi
districts of Orissa, and partly the undivided Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh
now in Chhattisgarh.It is seen from various inscriptions, literature that the
Dandakaranya region was carved out to different states/countries at various
periods and was also known by various names as following.
 Atavi
 Nisadha
 Vidyadhara territory
 Kantara and Mahakantara
 Trikalinga
 Telinga
 Chakrakote,
 Masunidesha
 Jharakhanda
 Purvadesa
 Girikalinga
 Paschimakalinga and
 Konga
 Desia Deasa
Adjacent countries to Dandakaranya was--Kalinga to its east, Dakshina Kosala to
its north and north-west; Vengi to south and south-eastern end
There appeared small or larege principality curved in the main land of

Dandakaranya but the South Kosala appeared as distinct land.
From time to time parts of Dandakaranya came into the territory of Kalinga,
sometime into Vengi occupation and South Kosala dominion.
Several of the Southern dynasties came in to the present undivided Koraput and
Bastar and won the said country and or carved small feudatory for them. They
occupied the land thus owned or were compelled by their natural enemy kings.
This has been seen with the Western Chalukyas, Cholas, and Telegu Chodas
mainly and even by Eastern Chalukya (Vengi)’s and so many others, may be
Haihaya, Pallavas, Hoysalas and Rastrakuttas.
Apart from kings forming kingdom, the religion interception did occur from time
to time in the past centuries. The Jainism, Buddhism, Saivism and Vaishnavism
in its original and modified sects, came into this land and established.
Emerging Struggle for Empire and Regional Kingdoms and

influence on Societies
The Koraput region in the past was occupied by various kingdoms, mainly the
Vakatakas, Nalas, Chodas, Western Chalukyas, Rastrakuttas, Western Gangas,
Eastern Gangas, Nagas, Haihaya, Pallavas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, Telugu Chodas
and many others have contributed new migration and assimilation of the forest-
dwellers into their fold. The attraction was land for agriculture, lush forests rich
with minerals and gem stones. The peninsular dynasties were attracted towards
Kalinga breed of elephants that were robust, compact in shape and size with great
maneuver in the war field like the present day war Tanks. The numbers of
elephants in the war field definitely contribute to the power of the king and
victory in the battle. According to Kautalya the elephants of Kalinga were the best
type and Greek writers mention that neighbouring nations were afraid of the
overwhelming number of war elephants possessed by Kalinga. The other aspect
was a safe route to north from south and vice versa, mostly it was a holy trip to
reach the Holy River Ganges. This route was the best alternate to avoid the
powerful Kalingas of eastern coast. Many Kings and empire traditionally banked
upon the forest tribes to contribute able body men for their cavalries. The Koraput
was invaded by Peninsula dynasties to take elephants as booty. Kharavela
received Bhoja and Sabara warriors for his north expeditions. Rajendra II annexed
a small principality for himself in Koraput-Bastar region and ruled for 7 years as
prince and collected elephants for the Chodas of Kanchipuram.
The pastoralist societies of Goudas came from Magadha and Kosala to
Dandakaranya and Koraput enrute to South; along with Mauryas and after
Samudra Gupta’s south expedition. Centuries later Baiparis/ Banjaras of Gujrat-
Rajputana followed the same trade route with their cattle thus Sir Wilferd
remarked they brought civilization to Bastar and it is true to Koraput also.
However, the present population of tribes must have come in the past from
various places to take refugee on the hills or as invaders of forests to supply
elephants to kings or to occupy cultivable fertile lands, and even to preach
religion in the area. Through the centuries, they have all settledown for a peaceful
co-existing living.
Dandakaranya and Koraput-Bastar

The name Dandakaranya derives from an alleged identity with the ‘Dandak
forest’ of the epic ‘Valmiki Ramayana’, where the demon Dandak held his sway.
Epic of Ramayana speaks that Lord Rama spent his precious 13 years in
Dandakaranya until the abduction of the Goddess Sita.
Geographical location of Dandakaranya

Dandakaranya region between 17.50’-20.30’N and 80.15’-84.0’ E occupy about
89,078 square Kms that comprises of three states, e.g. the Bastar district of
Madhya Pradesh, the Koraput and Kalahandi districts of Orissa as well as some
parts of Andhra Pradesh including Yellavaram and eastern half of Chodavaram
(Rampachodavaram) tahasils of East Godavari district, Chintapalli and Paderu
tahasils of Visakhapatnam district and Salur and Parvatipuram tahasils of
Srikakulam districts (Singh,1995) (1).The region extends for about 480 Kms from
east to west and 320 Kms from north to south.
As regards it’s identification of territorial limits, some consider this region as far
as west as Nasik, the abode of Rama in the forest on the bank of the Godavari and
suggest the coincidence of Dandakaranya with modern Maharastra (Bhandarkar,
1957)(2). A few scholars, alternatively, claim that ancient Dandakaranya covered
a very large area of Central India from which the forests have gradually been
cleared by man (Deshpande, 1948) (3)
In the maps of mid-19th century (1860), the Dandakaranya was a large triangular
tract (fig I)(John,1960) (4).
Physical Landscape
Singh described the physical landscape of Dandakaranya and it
runs,”Dandakaranya, on the whole, has an undulating topography with well-
marked elevations and depressions. While the region, on the one hand, represents
typical wide forest-clad plateaus and hilly tracts including highly dissected
plateaus and the Abhujhmar Hills in the west and the Eastern Ghats mountains,
known as Mahendragiri in ancient times after a peak of that name which is about
1500 m high, in the east, there are few extensive plains also comprising a part of
Chhattishgarh Plain in the north and Godavari-Sabari Plain in the south west.
The plateaus, however, are dominant landform of the region, covering about two-
fifths of its area.
Map of the Dandakaranya Region
The plateaus extend throughout the region except for the portion of the Koraput
district occupied by the Eastern Ghats. The hills abruptly rising on the eastern side
gradually lower down on the west. The Ghats end at Koraput where the elevation
is about 900 m which gradually decreases to about 600 m in the Umarkote region.
They further lower to about 300 m and 200 m in the Paralkote and Malkangiri
zones respectively.
The plateau topography is most evident in the Bastar region; right from Jeypore
ghat the long axis of Bastar Plateau stretches away for about 190 km at an
elevation ranging from 550 m -750 m to Keskal Ghat where an abrupt descent to
the Kanker Basin is observed and where the width of the plateau, approximately,
varies between 80 km and 130 km. consequent upon almost general internal relief,
the plateaus are slightly dissected with the existence of fretted scarps in the east
and north due to the deep and narrow cutting by the tributary streams. But they
are highly dissected on the west by the tributaries of the Godavari including the
Indravati. The western dissected edge of the Bastar Plateau, lying to the north of
the Indravati is marked by the Abhujhmar Hills which provide one of the richest
iron ore deposits of the country at Bailadilla Range, but much of the Bastar
Plateau is undissected, formed of the gneisses of the Dharwar and Cudappah
Systems. The Bastar Plateau drops on all sides except in the south-east (bordering
the Eastern Ghats), where they are considerably eroded to form the Godavari
Plain.
To the east of the well-marked scarp edge of the Bastar Plateau extends the
Kalahandi Plateau ranging from 250 m to 300 m in elevation drained by the Tel,
Udanti and other tributaries of middle Mahanadi, the Kalahandi Plateau tapers
into the Tel Valley towards the north-east. To the north west of the region lies the
Kanker Basin (450 m) a southward extension of the Chhattishgarh Plain, crossed
by the few higher ridges of quartzites. Another extensive plain spreading in the
south –western portion of the region, designated as Godavari-Sabari plain is
drained by the tributaries of the Godavari, chiefly the Sabari and Sileru. This plain
has undergone different nomenclatures by various scholars, notably Great
Southern Plain and the Malkangiri Plateau.
River System
The drainage of Dandakaranya may be classified into two systems: (i) the
Mahanadi river system in the north draining the northern parts of both Bastar
(Kanker Basin) and Kalahandi (Tel Valley) districts and the (ii) Godavari river
system draining about three-fourths of the region including the Central Plateaus
and the Southern Plains; a part is also drained to the Bay by the Nagawati and the
Vamsdhara rivers.
The Mahanadi River System: The Tel, Jonk, Udanti, Hatti, and Sandul, the
tributaries of the Mahanadi, drain a major potion of the Kalahandi district. The
Tel and Jonk are the most important tributaries, rising from the hills of the Eastern
Ghats. The Ret and the Udanti take their rise in the north-western hills of
Nawapara tahsil of Kalahandi district and flow towards east.
The Godavari River System: The Godavari, the biggest of the east-flowing rivers
of the Peninsular India comes in contact with the south-western limit of the region
for about 16 km where it coincides with the Bastar district boundary near
Bhadrakali. Since the Godavari flows through high lands on both the sides, its
valley is narrower at this place than in the lower reaches.
The Indravati, a major tributary of the Godavari, flowing through the central part
of Dandakaranya region, with about 41,665 km catchment area in M.P(
Chhattisgarh) and Orissa rises at an altitude of 915 m in the Kalahandi district on

the western slopes of the Eastern Ghats. It flows westward through Koraput and
Bastar districts, turns south and joins the Godavari about 530 km from its source
at an elevation of 82 m near Bhopalpatnam. At Chitrakot, about 40 km west of
Jagdalpur, the Indravati, while descending from the quartztic sandstone to the
Archaean granite and gneisses, makes a 30 m waterfall. Also it makes a few
rapids towards further west from Chitrakot.
The major tributaries to the Indravati are the Narangi, Boardhig, Kotari, Bandia
and Nibra flowing from its right and Nandiraj as well as Dantewara from the left.
On the north the Narangi and Boardhig drain the north-eastern plateau while the
Gudra flows through the eastern Abhujhmar hills. The Abhujhmar hills lying
between the Indravati, the Gudra and the Nibra exhibit radial drainage pattern.
The southern tributaries of the Indravati, the Dantewara, Nandiraj, Berudi and
Chintavager, smaller than the northern ones, drain the Bailadilla and Usur Hills as
well as the slopes of the southern plateau of Bastar.
The Kolab joins the Indravati, another important tributary of the Godavari, rising
at an altitude of 1,372 m, in Sinkaram hill range of the Eastern Ghats, drains the
southern uplands of the Dandakaranya region. The Sileru or the Machkund, a
major tributary of the Sabari, rises at an elevation of 1,220 m and flows for about
306 km before joining the Sabari above its confluence with the Godavari. The
Indravati and Sileru to gather cover a catchment area of about 20,427 km. the
Kanger and Malengar are the two other important tributaries of the Sabari. The
former rises at Tangiri and the latter in the Bailadilla hills. Both flow towards
south to join the Indravati. The Kanger makes a water fall (45 m) at Tirathgarh
while descending from the Cuddappah quartzitic sandstone.
The Nagawati and the Vamsdhara rivers drain the easternmost pen plain of the
region. The latter takes its rise in the Eastern Ghats near Ambodala in Kalahandi
district and falls into the Bay flowing from north to south through the
Parvatipuram and Salur tahsils of Andhra Pradesh.
Most of the rivers of the Dandakaranya region are perennial through with highly
fluctuating regime. Upper Indravati, upper Kolab, Sileru water is used for
agriculture. The local nalas and streams are seasonal and dry up as soon as the
monsoon ends. Dues to rapid run off and evaporation, the land is very quickly
dried up after the monsoon. The topographical and stratigraphical features
indicate that the region is mostly deficient in underground water resources.”(5)
Epigraphic notes on Dandakaranya

The geography of Dandakaranya was first evident for Uttararamacharita, 2.14.
Sukla (1977) (6)in his work ‘Lanka Ki Khoja’ which means ‘The search of
Lanka’ had placed his argument that greater Bastar is the Dandakaranya. Recent
publication of J.P. Mittal (2006) has identified many places, ponds, hills and
rivers cited in Ramayana and Puranos in Koraput-Bastar region (7).
According to Kalidas’s Raghuvamsa 12.9 and 12.25 versus, Dandakaranya’s

north boundry was the Chitrakutta forests and south boundry was the Godavari
river. Chittrauta in Bastar has been identified as the place of description.
The major part of evidence to Dandakaranya so far has come from geography
and location of rivers, hills that continued appearing from Ramayana to many
Purano and literature.
Tripathy (8) had cited Ramayana and other literature there on and identified
Indravati river of present day as Indarataya, a tributary to Sapta Godavari
river and countries like Suktimata Khetra and Sapta Godavari Khetra.
Mahendragiri or parbata: Ramayana (6.26.80) (9), Bhagabata purano

(10.79) (10) Raghuvamsa (4.39) (11) of Kalidasa cite Mahendragiri of
Dandakaranya. The Harshacharita (VII) (12) and Chaitanyacharitamruta
describe Mahendargiri extending upto Madura in south. The Mahendragiri is
the present hill located on the border of Orissa, Ganjam district and is close to
Bay of Bengal and the height of the peak is 5000ft. On the basis of
Vamsadhara river and Langulini origin, Hiralal was of the opinion that
Mahendragiri eastern boundary of Dandakaranya and was with Bastar and
Jaypore States. The Vamsadhara river is flowing 88 miles of Koraput district
before entering Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh; Nagavali river is about
151 miles long covers 63 miles of Koraput from its origin point. Nagavali is
called Langulia from Srikakulam onwards. It is the puranic river Langulini.
(13)
Chitrakutagiri: In the early banabasa, SriRam first came to Chitrakuta.

Chitrakuta is mentioned in Ramayana (Pyadhakanda, adhya 55) (14),
Mahabharata (Banaparba, 85.58) (15), Bamanpurano (45.99) (16)
Matsyapurano (114.25)(17) Padmapurano (adhya II Tirthamahatyams)(18)
Bnagabatitika (7.6)(19).
There are different views on the location of Chitrakuta of Mahabharata; some

opin Banda district, Uttar Pradesh and Hiralal loc cit. believes it is the Bastar
district, and he has laid his arguments (20).
According to Sivapurano (Astama Khanda, daitia adhya) to the south west of

Chitrakuta is thick forest, where from river Godavari is flowing (21).
As per Ramayana (Ayodhyakanda, 56. 1-18) (22) Chitrakuta is the place

where Mandakini and Malini rivers are flowing. The river Mandakini is north
of the said hill, and SriRam stayed in the same hill. Agin Mahabharata (85.58-
9) (23) and Raghuvamsa (12-15; 13.47) (24) also cite that Mandakini is close
to Chitrakuta. Hiralal identified Narangi river of Bastar to Malini.(25)
However, I believe it is Chitrakuta of Nabrangpur close to village
Ancholaguma on the bank of Indravati river. The Mandakini is the present
Indrabati river. Malini is the Muran river of present days, which is joining
river Indravati.
The description of Sivapurana, Chitrakuta may be present Chitrakonda located

near Balimell river of Malkangiri (Koraput district)
Ramagiri:
Markandaya Purano mentions,
Maharastra mahiskaha kalingaeshaba Sarbasha .||

Kaberiaha saha chausika attabhia sabaraicha yae.||
Pulinda bindhiamulika (ya) bidarva dandakaha saha.||
Parika molika scheva asamaka bhogovardhasaha. ||(26)
The author Sircar has identified Kalinga to be Puri and Ganjam district of Orissa,
Sabaran forts, Saoras of Ganjam and Visakhapatnam and Dandaka as the old
name of Mahrastra identity especially the Nasika draft.
Sircar cited, “Act I of Uttaramacarita by Bhavabhuti, who flourished in the 8th

century A.D., is styled ‘the inspection of the painting’. It is said that a painter
(chitrakara) painted along a walk (vithika) the experiences (carit) of the Iksavaku
king Rama of Ayodhya in Dandakaranya, Kiskindha, Lanka and other places,
according to the institution of the king’s brother Laksmana who had accompanied
Rama to the forest.” (27)
Another picture of the nature of a map in the same context is introduced by

Laksmana to Rama and Sita in the following words; “Here is the tract (bhaga) of
the Dandaka forest, known as Citrakunja vat, to the west of Janasa thana, haunted
by the headless giant Danu; this is the site (pada) of the heritage of Matanga on
the Rsyamukha hill, his again is the Savara women named Sramana; this is the
celebrated lake called Pampa.”(28)
Singhdhasyamha kabichidparto bhisanobhogorukhya ||

Sthane sthane mukhurokokubha jhadangalerute nirijharanam
Ita tirthasriramagirisa ridgor ta kantara misraha
Sangdrusne parichita bhuva dandakaranya bhagaha (29)

(Uttaramacharita, 2.14)
The Kalinga forest is described in the following verse, Vindhyadri-

Citrakutadri-Kalinga-Dravid-asritams vanam Kalingakam name
samudra-avadhi kirtyat. As per Mansollasa verse 1.2. 175-76. (30)
This forest (Kalinga vanam), the Vindhya range, the Citrokuta hills and the
Kalinga and Dravida countries and extended upto the sea (i.e. the Indian Ocean)
Puranic List of Rivers and Dandakaranya

Sircar mentioned, “Mandakini dasarna cha (i) chitrakuta tatheba cha (ii) Tamasa
(iii) pipala srane (iv) karamad pisachika (v) Chtropola bipas cha (vi) manjula
balubahini (vii) and Dandakaranya.”(31)
i. The Mandakini river flows into the Paisuni near the Citrakuta hill, while
the Dasarana is the modern Dhasan flowing past Sagar between the
Betwas and the Ken .
ii. Citrakutas is the same as the Mandakini or, more probably, a part of it
(32).
iii. Tamsa was classified to modern Tons flowing into Ganges below
Allahabad (33).
iv. Chtropola bipasa cha: The citropala is a branch of the Mahanadi in
Orissa or Mahanadi itself below its junction with the Pyri (34).
However, I belive that Citrakuta is the village close to Anchalagumma of

Nabrangpur and about 2 km from the Indravati river. Indravati was known as
Mandkini in puranic literature.
The former authors could not identfy Tamasa; however Tamasa is a river 7 kms
south of present Malkangiri in Koraput and known by the same name.
Mahendra
(a) Trisama rishikuliya scha

(b) Ingsula tridiva sch ya
(c) Langulini bansodhara
(d) Mahendratanaya ha smuritaha (35)
a) Rishikuliya still bears its ancient name. It flows into Ganjam district from
Koraput district.
b) Langulini is the river running through Sikakulam district in Andhra
Pradesh (36).
c) The Vamsadhara, still bears its ancient name, and runs through
Kalingapatnam near Srikakulam (37).
d) Mahendratanya is name of the river coming from Mahendra, the great hill
of Paralakhamundi. The name still stands (38).
Suktimati:
(i) Rusikulejya kumari scha

(ii) Mandaga mandabahini
(iii) Kupa palasini scheba
(iv) Suktamt prabhavaha strumetaha(39)
The name of the Suktimat is preserved in that of the Sakti hills in Raigarh,
Chattisgarha, and possibly in that of the Suktel river which joins the Mahanadi
near Sonepur in Orissa. The name Suktimat was probably applied to the chain of
hills that extends from Sakti in Raighar, Chattisgarha to the old Manbhum dist. by
the Kumari and perhaps even to the hills in the Santal paraganas.
References
1. Singh, R.L. (1995) Ed. India- A regional Geography, National Geography of

2. Bhandarkar, R.G. Early History of Deaccan (1957), pp.11-12.
3. Deshpande, C.D. Western India (Dharwar, 1948). pp.99
4. John, Wyld. Geography to the Queen and the Prince’s consort, (London,
1960).
5. Singh, R.L. (1995).op.cit.
6. Sukla, H.L. (1977) Lanka ki khoj (in Hindi) Allahabad, 1992..
7. Mittal, J.P. (2006) History of Ancient India.
books google.co.in/books?isbn=8126906154
8. Tripathi, Sunderlal. Historical and Archaeolgical Aspects of Dandakaranya.
Dandakaranya Samachar, Jagdalpur (Feb.8, 1970).
9. Ramayana (6.28.60), Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay.
10. Bhagabatapurano (10.79), Bangabasi Office, Calcutta.
11. Raghuvamsa (4.39)
12. Harshavamsa (VII)
13. Nagavali river is puranic Langulini, Sircar, D.C. Geography of Ancient and
Medieval India: Puranic list of peoples. VII. Mahendr, p.61
14. Ramayana (Pyashakanda, adhya 55), Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay.
15. Mahabharata (Banaparaba, 85-58), Sircar, D.C. op.cit.
16. Bamanpurano (45.99)
17. Matsyapurano (114.25), Bangabasi Office, Calcutta.
18. Padmapurano (Adhya II Tirthamahatyams)
19. Bangabatika (7.6)
20. Hiralal, Sukla. Adibasi Asmita Aur Bikash., M.P. Hindi Granth
Accademy. pp59.
21. Sivapurano (Astama Kahanda, daitiaadhya)
22. Ramayana (Ayodhyakanda, 56.1-8) Sircar, D.C. op.cit.
23. Mahabhata (85.58-9) Sircar, D.C. op.cit
24. Raghuvmsa (12-15; 13.47)

25. Hiralal, Sukla.op.cit pp44-106
26. Ramagiri: Markandaya purano: Sircar, D.C. op.cit. IV Daksinapatha, p.39.
27. Sircar, D.C. op.cit, p.326-27; Chapter XVIII, Cartography cited-Ed. S. Ray,
Calcutta, 1934, p.106.
28. Ibid.
29. Sircar, D.C. op.cit. The Eight Elephant Forests., p.336.
30. Uttramacharita, 2.14.
31. Ibid. III, Rksa, p.55
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid
34. Ibid
35. Ibid
36. Ibid. GAMI, p.61
37. Ibid
38. Ibid
39. Ibid. VIII, Suktimat, p.62
TRILINGA, TELINGA AND TRIKALINGA -KORAPUT

CONTEXT
Trilinga, Telinga and Trikalinga as a geographical term have been of interest to
the historians since long. The Trikalinga review and sequences basing on
epigraphic sources and others have been detailed by G.Ramdas (1926 & 1928) (1)
Acharya (1952) (2), Ms.Tripathi (1985) (3) and Ajay Mitra Shastri (1995).”(4).
The assumptions of earlier scholars that the territory of Trilinga comprises three
parts, viz, Northern, Central and Southern parts of Orissa and also by others that it
meant three contiguous regions, such as Kalinga, Utkala and Kangoda have now
proved to be wrong, as said by Tripathi, 1985. (5). On the other hand, scholars
have taken it to mean a separate region suited to the western part of Kalinga. The
inscriptions of Amma I clearly indicates that it was a forest country and the
opinion of G.Ramdas has been rightly taken up and the suggestion that Trikalinga
denoted the high or elevated hilly region situated contiguous to the country of
Kalinga. So it can be located as per Tripathi (1985) in the present district of
Koraput in Orissa and the western part of Bastar in Madhya Pradesh, the southern
most part of the Kalahandi district. This was the finding of G.Ramdas. So it can
definitely be said that this region forms southern border of the South Kosala
kingdom of the Somavamsis, the South-eastern border of Tripuri kingdom of the
Kalachuris, the northern border of the Vengi kingdom and western side of the
Eastern Gangas of Kalinganagara. This hilly and forest regions of Koraput and
Bastar which are even in the present day covered with dense forest, some of its
areas are still inaccessible were considered to be one of the most important
strategical units. This was also one of the reasons given by the historians that the
enmity between the Kalachuris of Tripuri and the Somavamsis was possibly their
respective claim over the possession of the Trikalinga region.
In verse 2 of the Bahmesvara inscription Janamejaya has been described as lord of

Trilinga (Trilingadhipati) and the conqueror of Odradesa. But Janamejaya’s
copper plate grants mention that he had the title of Trikalindhipati and not
Trilingadhipati. This inscription mentions in the last line that Udyotakesari had
the title of Trikalingadhipati that was assumed by all his predecessors (6).
The Trilinga has been identified and cited from the following epigraphic sources.
 Akkalapundi grant of Singaya-Nayaka (7) of the year 1368 AD

mentions Desastrilinganama and Trilingadesadhipat.
 Srirangam plates of Mummandi-nayaka (8) of the year 1358 AD gives

the boundary of Tilinga, which is “to the West and the East, two
famous countries Maharastra and Kalinga; to the south and the north
Pandya and Kanyakuvja, it is that country which is called Trilinga”.
The above two inscriptions belong to the same family.
 Purle plates (9) of Indravarman the lord of whole Kalinga (Sakala

Kalinga) mentions that the donee came from Tilinga and got land in
Kalinga. The date of this plate was assigned to 631 AD (11). These
inscriptions give a history of Trilinga from the 7th Century
onwards upto 14th century AD. The Trilinga has been mentioned in
Puranas and in Sankrit literature in Markandey Purano, Vayu Purano.
According to Acharya, the Trilinga cannot be taken as a mistake for
Trikalinga (12). G.Ramdas has quoted a verse from a work called
Trilinga Gramma belonging to the 12th Century AD (13).
 The Thana plate (10) of Ram Chandra of the year 1272 mentions the
defeat of Tilingas (Tlingatunga-tarunmulana-damatavala).
Trilinga from foreign sources
 ‘Taranatha’ wrote Caldwell ‘repeatedly designates the Telugu country

Trilinga’ and describes Kalinga as a portion of Trilinga and Kalingapura
as its capital (14). Taranatha’s Tibetan History of the propagation of
Buddhism in India’ was written in 1573 AD (15).
 The Arab and Persian authors write Tilong and Tilingana (16).
 Ptolemy’s (c.150 AD) writing has been translated as Triglypton or

Trilingon. But it is bit surprising that only after the year 1000 AD the
name of the country was met after Ptolemy. The above reference clearly
shows that the antiquity of Trilinga is well established for a period of 1500
years from 15 AD from the time of Ptolemy to Taranatha.
 Cunningham suggested that the Sankrit equivalent of the Greek Trilingon

is Trikalinga and Trilinga (17). But Caldwell very rightly doubted this
identification and wrote “General Cunningham thinks Telinga derived, not
from Trilinga, but from Trikalinga, but this derivation of the word needs to
be historically confirmed Kalinga and linga may probably in some way be
connected, but the nature and history of connection have not as yet been
made out”(18). Again elsewhere he writes “the foreign name Trilinga
must have been the name by which the place was called by the natives of
the place, whilst Triglypton or Trigly-phon must have been a translation of
the name which had come into use amongst the Greeks. Hence the
antiquity of Trilinga, as the name of the State, or of the capital city of a

State, situated somewhere in India in Ptolemy’s time must be admitted to
be established”(19).
 McCrindle fully agrees with Caldwell and writes “The Andhras and
Kalinga, the two ancient divisions of the Telugu people are represented by
Greeks and Gangetic nations. It may be taken as certain that Triglyphon,
Trilinga or Modolinga was identical with Telingana or Trilingam, which
signifies the country of the three lingas. Pliny and Ptolemy fix the Telugu
name and language as near the mouths of the Ganga or between the
Gangas and the Godavari. Modo or Modogas equivalent to mudu of
modern Telugu means three (20). McCrindle’s Ptolemy was published in
1885 and Yule and Burnell’s Hobson Jobson was first published in 1886
and from the following note on Telenga, it appears that the authors had not
the occasion to take advantage of McCrindle’s views because this note
seems to support the views expressed by Cunningham in his Ancient
Geography of India which was published in 1871 was remarked by
Acharya, P. (21).
 The McCrindle’s researches on Ptolemy’s Geography were confined to the

study and identification of places in India alone, but Girini’s researches on
Ptolemy’s Geography were extened to further India and Indo-Malayan
Peninsula. Girini writes that “the Andhras and Telengana in conjunction
with their near relatives, the Kalingas, founded, it appears, in that region,
kingdom consisting of three districts or separate communities called Tri-
Kalinga or Trilinga, a name from which the town Telengana was derived
and employed to designate the country of Kalinga proper, on the western
side of the Gulf of Bengal, as well as the country of Mons or Telenga
(Talaings) on the opposite shore, which had been colonized by them”(22).
The identity of Trilinga with Trikalinga as said in the extract is attributed
to the influence of Cunningham on Girini. There is no direct reference to
or even tradition of Trikalinga, has been recovered in any of the works on
this subject of the further India up till now.
 The Burma colonisation by the people of Kalinga or Trilinga of India

proper is forgotten to the extent that in Eastern India the traditions are
even silent. The study of history in Burma, Siam, Combodia, Java etc. has
dispelled the obscurity of the then history of Eastern India has become
brighter now. Kalinga is mentioned as a civilised country in the Dhauli
edict of Ashoka and the title of Kalingadhipati of Kharavela is found from
Hatigumpha inscription (23).
 “The coast of Kalinga appears to be that of the continent which

commences with the Archipelago at an early date and emigration thither
was most ripe; and the name appears to have been in great measure
adopted in the Archipelago as the designation of India in general or of the
whole of the peninsular part of it. Throughout the book of Malay
historical legenda called Sijara Malaya the word Kalinga or king is used
for India in general but more particularly for the southern parts”(24).
 Acharya wrote, “The geographical and ethnical names such as Sriksetra

(25) Utkala (26) Kalingarattah (27) and Tilanga (28) in Burma shows the
influence of the people of eastern India on the western side of the Bay of
Bengal who established their colony there before the Asokan period. But
we have not yet got any reference from Indian sources to Trikalinga in that
period. The remark of the reviewer of the Gazetteer of the Pegu district is
worthwhile quoting here in this connection.
“The only city of Pegu is referred to in inscriptions of the eleventh and twelfth
centuries as Ussa Pegu, and the identification of Ussa with Orissa has been placed
beyond doubt in Mr. Duroiselle, the Government Epigraphist. The long debated
question of the origin of the name Talaing may also be looked upon as settled.
According to Mr.Stewart the non-inhabitants of the country were confounded by
the Burmese with Indians from Kalinga (Taleing) and Orissa (Ussa)” (29).
 Cunningham writes “the Mahabharata names the Kalingas three separate

times and each time in conjunction with different peoples”(30). Sylvain
Levi has discussed all the three appelations, which do not help us to find
out the term Trikalinga from them. Asokaa’s Edicts only mention Kalinga
and “after him under Kharavela, Kalinga became the centre of a powerful
empire of which the Chief assumed the title of Chakravartin”(31). As
Kharavela’s inscription omits Trikalinga it is unsafe to think of Trikalinga
in these days. Pliny mentions Macco-Calingae, Gangarides Calingae as
separate peoples from Calingae and this led Cunningham to write that the
name Trikalinga is probaly old and was known as early as the time of
Magasthenes, (4th Century B.C) from whom Pliny chiefly copied his
Indian Geography (32). Cunningham’s chief sources of information on
Trikalinga are the copper-plate grant from near Jabalpur in the Journal of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol.VIII, p.485 and Colonal Francis
Wilford’s article on the Indian Geography published in the said Journal
Vol.XX 1851 which was written as early as 1811 was cited by Acharya
(1952).
Wilford writes on Trikalinga,“Sri Karna Deva takes the title of king of Trikalinga
or the three shores to the east, west and south of India.
In his grant found lately at Benares he calls himself Sri Karna Deva King of
Trikalinga or India”(33). “The sea coast of Calinga of India is divided into three
parts emphaticaly called ricalinga or three shores. The first Calinga includes the
seacoast about the mouth of the Indua; the second extends all round the peninsula;
and the Gangetic shores, from Cuttack to Chatganh constitute the third. No
emperor in India, would pretend to celebrity, and lasting fame unless he was the
master of these three shores when he assumed the title of Tricalingadhipati, the
lord-paramount of Tricalinga (34), Elsewhere in the same paper he writes: “This
is a well known legend in India and these three towns are styled Tripuri or
Traipuri under Tripurasura who was Tricalingadhipati and had a town in each
Calinga. These were destroyed at once by unerring arrow of Siva who was
standing in the district of Tipperah. One of these towns was to the east-wards of
the Ganges, the other near Amaracantaca and the third to the west of Indua” (35).
 The copper plate grant 41 of Vajrahasta V mention that his predecessor

Gunamaharnava who came from Trikalinga Kingdom which was ruled by
Gangas. Sahityadarpana, a treatise on Alamkara written by Visvanatha
(early 14th Century AD) mentions that the then king of Orissa possessed
the title of Trikalingabhumitilaka. From this it appears that the title was
assumed by the Ganga kinga from 1038 AD to 1327 AD nearly for 300
years by the later Ganga king.
The earliest reference to Trikalinga is met with in the Jirjingi copper plate grant of
Indravarman I of the early Eastern Ganga dynasty of Kalinganagara, issued in the
Ganga year 39 (665 AD)(36). He assumed the title of Trikalingadhipati, evidently
after claiming Trikalinga or atleast a part of it to be under his control. The other
ruler of this line of kings to assume the title was Mahasamantavarman as known
from his Ponnuturu copper plate issued in the Ganga year 64 (790 AD)(37).
These two rulers seem to have in their possession both the territories of Kalinga
and Trikalings with the capital at Kalinganagara and sometimes at Dantapura
where from the above two characters were issued. From this it can be derived that
the present Dantewada which remained a place of history for Bastar and the
relevance of the Dantewada temple since centuries may be the one to place
Dantewada as Dantepuram and of Trikalinga and the Dantewada comes under the
control of Trikalinga.This needs examination by future historians.
After Samantavarman, the successor known from the records; who have issued
the title of ‘Sakala-Gondramadhipati’. Kalinga is well known to comprise of the
districts of East Godavari of the present Andhra Pradesh together with the Ganjam
district in Orissa. The question may arise here as expressed by Ms.Tripathi did the
expression ‘Sakal Kalinga’ mean to include the territory of Trikalinga also. But
from the records of Gangas of Svetaka, who ruled almost contemporaneously the
northern part of the Ganjam district with the present Chikiti as their headquarters
in a semi-independent capacity under the Bhaumakaras of Tosali and Utkala, also
often used the expression ‘Sakala-Kalingadhirajya’ and the title of ‘Sakala-
Kalingadhipati’. It appears to indicate that there existed constant rivalries
between both the Ganga families over the Kalinga country. But the Svetka had
never assumed the title of ‘Trikalingadhipati’, thus evidently denoted a separate
region, different from the whole of Kalinga (Sakala Kalinga) and which remained
under the possession of the Eastern Gangas till atleast the end of the 8th century
A.D.
Trikalinga had gone out of control of the Eastern Gangas for long time, after
Samantavarman, until it was recaptured by Vajrahasta III during about 1045-46
A.D. and thus in the possession of the Gangas, they are generally called the later
Eastern Gangas or the Imperial line till at least beginning of the 12th century A.D.
There are various copper plate grants of the Imperial Gangas, after Vajrahasta III
that the title continued to be with his son Devendravarman-Rajaraja (1070-78
A.D) and then continued with Anantavarman Chodaganga (1078-1152 A.D)(38).
But it was discontinued for sometime, indicating that Trikalinga reign was lost to
the Gangas until Aniyankabhima II, the great-grandson of Chodaganga, who was
the last king of this dynasty to assume the title, recovered it. The Chatesvara
temple inscription (39) of his time records that Visnu, his minister claimed to
have established the empire of the lord of Trikalinga, i.e., Anyankabhima III.
After the reign of this ruler there is no history to indicate that, king of this dynasty
nor the contemporary rulers of any other royal family have assumed this title.
The Eastern Calukya inscriptions show that there was a kingdom called
Trikalinga adjoining to Vengimandala. The Masulipatam plates of Amma I (918-
925 A.D) tell us that king Vijayaditya IV (918 A.D) ruled Vengimandla joined
with Trikalinga forest (Trikalinga-tav-yuktam)(40). Likewise, we learn from the
Kolavaram plates of Calukya - Bhima II that Vikramaditya II (sometimes after
925 A.D) held sway over both Vengi-mandala and Tri-Kalinga (sa-Tri-Kalingam
Vengi-mandalam)(41). The inclusion of Tri-Kalinga, obviously a part thereof, in
the Vengi Calukya Kingdom finds support from some unexpected literary
evidence also. The following stanza into he colophon of the medieval medical
text entitled Kalyana-Karaka by one Ugradityacarya states that the work was
composed at Ramagiri which is described as adorned with structural as well as
rock-cut temples and situated in the Tri-Kalinga country which was under the
Vengi ruler (cited Itihasa, second edition:447).
Veng-Isa-Trikalinga-desa-janana-prastutya-san-utkata-Prodyad-Vrksa-lata-
vitana-nirataih
siddhais = ca vidyadharaiah/
Sarve mandira-Kandar-opama-guha-caity-alay-alamkrte
Ramye Ramagirav-idam viracitam sastram hitam praninam (42)
As per Ajay Mitra Shastri, “This Ramagiri is apparently different from modern
Ramtek near Nagpur which is generally believed to represent the Ramagiri
mentioned in the opening stanza of Kalidasa’ and Megha-duta (Purva-megha,
verse 1). We propose to identify it with the homonymous locality situated in the
Koraput district of Orissa bordering the Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh,
which alone would satisfy the description. The assumption of the title Tri-
Kalingadhipati by the Somavamsins, who also called themselves Kosal-endra or
‘Lord of Kosala’, would show that Tri-Kalinga. It must be remembered in this
connection that the Panduvamsins, who were lineal ancestors of the
Somavamsins, also ruled over South Kosala and when under pressure from other
powers they were forced to shift eastward and southward, they naturally moved
towards the Kalahandi-Koraput-Bastar region. For some time they could have
continued to hold a part of Kosala together with the adjoining area. And lastly,
the assumption of this title by some later members of the Kalachuri dynasty as
well as the continuation of its use by the later Eastern Gangas would show that it
was a bone of contention among them as well as the Somavamsins and the
Eastern Calukyas. Therefore, the region of Tri-Kalinga or a part of it must have
been situated not very far from their territories. Any identification of Tri-Kalinga
must satisfy this condition”(43). This supports the view that Trikalinga,
obviously a part thereof, in the Vengi Chalukya kingdom.
While considering the question of the location of Tri-Kalinga, Ajay M.Shastri

continued, “The fact that in ancient times natural barriers like mountains, rivers
and seas played an important role seems to have been ignored. Taking into
consideration the above mentioned political facts together with the geographical
factors, we may conclude that the region comprising the Three Kalingas had three
distinct geographical features: (i) Eastern Ghats dividing Kalinga region into
Western and Eastern parts; (ii) the Mahanadi and the Godavari forming the
northern and southern borders of Western Kalinga; and (iii) the Indravati dividing
the Western Kalinga into North and South Kalinga, North Kalinga between the
Indravati and the Mahanadi and South Kalinga between the Godavari and the
Indravati. With this geographical overview we may attempt to locate the Three
Kalingas as follows: (i) South-Kalinga, bordered on the west and north-west by
the Indravati, on the south by the Godavari and on the east by the Eastern Ghats,
comprised southern portion of Koraput together with a considerable part of Bastar
and a small region of north-West Srikakulam; (ii) North Kalinga, bordered on the
north and west by the Mahanadi and on the south and east by the Eastern Ghats,
consisted of northern Koraput and the adjoining south-eastern region of
Kalahandi; and (iii) East Kalinga-bordered the west by the Eastern Ghats, on the
south by Godavari till it meets the Bay of Bengal, on the north by the Mahanadi
where it empties into the Bay of Bengal and on the east by the Bay of Bengal-
includes the whole of eastern Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam together with the
whole of Ganjam”(44).
He further continued; “The above is only a very rough indication of the areas
comprised in the three Kalingas, and it is impossible in the present state of
disinformation to be more precise. Perhaps, none of the kings who assumed the
title Tri-Kaling-adhipati controlled at any time of their rule the whole of Tri-
Kalinga; but even capture of a part of it, temporary or permanent, was thought
enough to justify the assumption of this title. This was true of the Somavamsins
also as they could control only a part of Orissan region of Tri-Kalinga adjacent to
South Kosala, viz., Koraput-Kalahandi-Bastar”(45).
It is also interesting to see that during the first part of the 10th Century A.D., the
Eastern Chalukya king Vijayaditya IV (918 A.D), son of Chalukya Bhima ruled
Vengimandala together with the forest kingdom of Trikalinga for six months and
passed away. This is revealed by the Masulipatam plates of the Eastern
Chalukyan, Amma-I (918-25) (46). It seems after Vijayaditya the forest kingdom
of Trikalinga asseed to the hands of the Eastern Gangas. But it also seems
probable that the Kalachuris of Tripuri under the rule of Gangeyadeva and
Karnadeva had shared a part of this kingdom with the Eastern Gangas of
Kalinganagara.
These ruling families probably occupied the western and southern parts of this
forest kingdom, contiguous to Vengi and Kalinga the kingdom of the Gangas.
During the first part of the 10th century A.D. the Kalachuri kings of Dahala,
ruling from Tripuri, who were also known as the Hahayas assumed this title at
least for sometime. Yuvaraja I claimed victory over the Kosala and probably
Janamjaya I, but only Yuvaraja-I seemed to have taken part of Trikalinga and
claimed the title. During his regime, Trikalinga is known to be in the possession
of Somavamsis. Along with his subordinate ally Kamalaraja of Tummana, he is
known to have defeated the king of Kosala and Utkala and assumed the title of
‘Trikalingadhipati’. His son and successor, Karnadeva is also known to have
assumed the title, from his first known grant (Banaras grant), issued just one year
after Gangeyadeva’s death in 1041 A.D. He was probably contemporary of the
Eastern Ganga king Vajrahasta II of Kalinga.
Probably the Somavamsis had captured the territory of Trikalinga from

Karnadeva of Tripuri and from the time of Janamejaya-I, who was the first known
powerful king of the Somavamsa and extended the kingdom east-ward in the
Sonepur-Bolangir region of Orissa, the rulers of this family continued to assume
the title of ‘Trikalingadhipati’ till the downfall of the dynasty during the time of
Karnadeva, the last known independent ruler of this family. The claim of the title
by the Eastern Gangas, the Kalachuris of Tripuri and the Somavamsis and their
struggle over the possession of Trikalinga may tend to suggest that this
geographical unit was situated quite contiguous to their respective kingdoms.
Among the Kalachuri kings the following possessed the title of Trikalingadhipati
(47):
Gangeyadeva Vikramaditya (C.1030-40 A.D), Laksmikarnadeva (C.1040-70

A.D),
Yasakarnadeva (C.1073-1125 A.D), Gayakarnadeva (1151 A.D),

Narasimhadeva (1155-70 A.D), Jayasimha (1175 A.D) and Vijayasimhadeva
(1180-95 A.D)
Among the kings of Jejakabhukti dynasty only Trailokyavarmadeva Candella

(1205-1247 A.D) assumed this title and his Rewa grant of 1240 A.D. mentions the
title.
The Paithan plate of Yadava king Rama Chandra of the Saka year 1193 (1272
A.D) mentions that Jaitungi I “slew the king of Trikalinga and seized the whole of
his kingdom and rescued king Ganapati from the prison”.
The above references clearly prove the existence of the Trikalinga kingdom on the
north of the Godavari. It seems that this kingdom Its northern limit is said in the
Mahabharata to be the river Viatarani (mod, Byterni), which river and the Kalinga
people the Pandavas are described to have reached at the same time on their
southward progress from Bengal in the course of pilgrimage. According to this
account, Kalinga would include a considerable portion of Orissa. But the limits
of the countries fluctuated from time to time and there is no certainty that the
same river was the northern boundary of Kalinga also at the time of inscriptions
some points which would indicate tht Kosala was included in the countries known
as Tri-Kalinga (or the three Kalingas). The grantors of these charters have the
title Tri-Kalingadhipati attached to their names, but not the title Kosalendra (lord
of Kosala), although they were undoubtedly the masters of the Kosala country.
Indeed, by the later title is not used along with their names nor is it joined to the
title Trikalingadhipati, which is almost invariably prefixed to their names. This
seems to show that the title Trikalingadhipati was thought sufficient by these
kings to imply their possession of Kosala also. It is therefore, probable that
Kosala; (i.e. Southern Kosala) was included in Trikalinga (three Kalingas). Thus
we see that they possessed at least a part of Trikalinga and, therefore, the title
Trikalingadhipati was not altogether an honorific one as thought by
Mr.M.M.Chakravarti. I do not mean to say, however, that the whole of Trikalinga
was under their rule” (50).
Historians and their views on Trikalinga

In 1926 and 1928 G.Ramdas discussed on the significance of the title of
Trikalingadhipati and wrote, ‘Thus Trikalinga means ‘high or elevated or hilly
Kalinga and signified in those days the region of the Eastern Ghats from the upper
course of the Mahanadi to about the source of the Languliya river in the south. It
cannot be understood to signify the country occupied by the Kalinga proper,
Kongada and Orissa; nor does the affix ‘Tri’ means three’ (51).
B.C.Mazumdar has interpreted Trikalinga as denoting three countries Kalinga,

Kongada and Utkala. He has further identified Kongada and Kalinga with the
modern Puri and Ganjam districts respectively (52). Pandit B.Mishra and
Dr.R.G.Basak have accepted Mazumdar’s identification.
Harekrishna Mahtab is in agreement with Ramdas and gave the boundary of

Trikalinga to comprise of the entire region between the Rishikulya river and
Languliya river with the Zamindari of Jeypore in Koraput and Bastar, Bolangir,
Kalahandi and Sonepur districts and also the district of Sambalpur (53)
R.D.Banerji wrote,’ The country of Kalinga was divided from very early times
into three parts and was called Tri-Kalinga. The existence of the term Tri Kalinga
in Sanskrit tempts us to accept Mudu Kalinga as a direct translation of the
Sanskrit form or vice versa. The natural division of the northern extremity of the
eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal is very well suited to the term Tri-Kalinga.
The vast country of the western shore of the Bay of Bengal, which extended from
the Delta of the Ganges to that Godavari was called Kalinga in the ancient times;
but he also writes that Trikalingadhipati is “the high sounding title” and “the
meaningless title” respectively (54).’
R.Subba Rao writes that ‘Trikalingas’ are Utkala or north Kalinga, Kalinga proper
and Tel Kalinga or South Kalinga” and Trikalinga country “extended from the
river Ganges in the north to the river Godavari in the South”(55).
From the geographical existence of a country called Madhyama Kalinga in the

Ganga inscriptions D.C.Ganguly is of the opinion that it “corresponds roughly to
the modern Vizagapatam District.
The designation was probably given to this province in order to distinguish it

from south and north Kalinga which corresponded roughly to the modern Districts
of Godavari and Ganjam respectively. These three divisions seem to have
constituted the country known as Trikalinga” (56).
R.C.Mazumdar’s note on Trikalinga is very illuminating and it runs as follows:
“In Eastern Chalukya records of the 10th and subsequent centuries Trikalinga is
distinguished from Kalinga and is obviously regarded as a place of less
importance than Kalinga. Without entring into further discussion on this point I
think we have to admit that we cannot take Trikalinga in the present record to
denote the whole Kalinga, and that it was the designation of a separate region,
most probably the hilly tract to the west of Kalinga”(57).
H.C.Ray at first took the title of Trikalingadhipati as a conventional one. His

notes on Trikalinga only refer to Pliny. He has also criticised the interpretation
suggested by G.Ramdas. But in the map No.1 of Vol.II he has shown the position
of Trikalinga as the very same as Daksina Kosala comprised in the modern area
covered by the Ex-States of Kanker, Patna, Kalahandi, Sonpur and Baud and the
Districts of Raipur in Madhya .Pradesh and Sambalpur and Ganjam in Orissa
(58).
P.Acharya (59) has discussed the question at length, though at one place he
appears to be in agreement with Ganguli’s findings. Although V.V.Mirashi says
Tri-Kalinga as ‘three Kalingas’, and he refrained from defining it and confined to
that it was different from Kalinga, Kongoda, Utkala and Kosala (60).
There had been controversies among the scholars of the location of Trikalinga,
which had remained unsolved to a satisfactory degree.
Almost all the rulers of the Somavamsa, whose inscriptions have been discovered,
had assumed the title of ‘Trikalingadhipati’. According to some scholars,
Janamejaya I, the first known Somavamsi ruler to assume the title of
Trikalingadhipati, acquired the title only after he conquered the Sonepur region
from the Bhanja ruler, Ranabhanja (61).
The territory of Trikalinga must have covered an extensive region. We also come
across references to Trikalinga country in two more epigraphical records of about
the 12th century A.D. During the last part of the regime of Chodaganga of the
Ganga dynasty of Orissa, perhaps a part of this territorial unit passed away to the
hands of the Velamanti-Cholas under the able generalship of Ganga II, the father
of Rajendra Chola II, who is said to have vanquished during about 1142-43 A.D.,
the lords of Marata, Lata, Karnata, Kuntala, Andhra, Kataka and Trikalinga
during about the first part of the 12th Century A.D (62).
It was evident from the Gangas, that a part of the territory, situated contiguous to
the Vengi country, was captured. Further a ruler of another royal family claimed
the title of Trikalingadhipati, though it seems for a short time only. The Rewa
charter of the Kalachuri (1174 A.D) refers to this title known to have assumed by
one Jayasimha, probably a later Kalachuri king of Tripuri. The grant was issued
by one of his feudatory chiefs belonging to the family of the Kauravas of
Karkkaredi (the present Kakreri, 28 miles north of Rewa), who were at first
feudatories under the Kalachuris of Tripuri and later on of the Chandellas of
Jejakabhukti (63).
From the above references to the rulers claiming the title of ‘Trikalingadhipati’ it
may be inferred that there was a keen contest among the several royal families of
imperial status, such as the Kalachuris, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas, and
the Somavamsis etc. It may also be presumed on the above context that the
territory of Trikalinga comprised a vast area situated contiguous to and
surrounded by the kingdoms of the above ruling families. On the whole,
Trikalinga was never under the control of any of the above ruling families for a
long time. The Somavamsi rulers are only known to have continued to claim the
title for generations and probably a major part of the territory of Trikalinga was
under their control.
Reference
1. Ramdas, G. (1926 & 28) JBORS, Vol.XIV, pp 539.ff JAHRS, Vol. 1, pp 16-
23 ff.
2. Acharya, P (1952) Trilinga, Trikalinga, Kalinga, Odra and Utkala, OHRJ
Vol.I (1) 93ff
3. Tripathy, S (1985) “Royal Titles of Trikalingadhipati and Samasta-
Gondramadhipati of the Early Medieval Orissa's Epigraphics. ORHRJ, Vol.
XXXI, No.2, 324 p. 143 ff.
4. Shastri, Ajay Mitra, Inscriptions of the Sarabhapuriyas, Panduvamsins and
Somavamsins, Part I, II.
5. Tripathy, S. OHRJ, XXXI, Nos. 2, 3 and 4, p. 143 ff.
6. OHRJ, Vol. XXXI, No. 2, 324 pp 143 ff
7. E.I. Vol. XIII, p.362
8. E.I. Vol. XIV, p.90
9. Ibid, Vol. XIII, p. 199 & 202.
10. Ibid, Vol. XIV, p.362
11. JAHRS Vol. VI, p.79.
12. OHRJ. Vol. I, No. 1 p.93 ff.
13. I.A. Vol. XLII, 1925, pp 35-37.
14. Caldwell’s Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian languages, 1913, p.28.
15. Ibid. p.9
16. Pre. Arya and Pre-Drvidian p.76.
17. Ancient Geography of India, 1924, p.524.
18. Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Language 1913, p. 29.
19. Ibid. p.77
20. Ptolemy’s Ancient India by Mr. Crindle, 1927, p. 234
21. Acharya, P. OHRJ, Vol.I (1), p.98.
22. Gerini’s Research on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia, p.139
23. Hobson Jobson, kling, p.488
24. Goromo p.66
25. Ibid p.73
26. Ibid p.32
27. Ibid p.30
28. JRAS, 1918, p.150.
29. The Ancient Geography of India, 1924, p. 594.
30. Pre. Aryan and Pre-Dravidian, p.75
31. The Ancient Geography of India, 1924, p.594
32. Asiatic Research, Vol. IX, 1807, p 104 and 107.
33. JASB Vol. XX, 1851, p.233.
34. Ibid. p. 484.
35. JAHRS, Vol. VI, p.71.

36. E.I., Vol. XXVII, pp 216, ff.
37. S.H, Vol.V. No. 1010, JAHRS, Vol. VII p.183; S, II, Vol. V. No. 1348.
38. E.I. Vol. XXIX, pp 121 ff
39. E.I. V, p 133, text-line 17.
40. S.I.I, I. 43.
41. Cited by Nathuram Premi in his Jaina sahitya aura Itihasa, second edi. 447.
fn.1.
42. Shastri, Ajay Mitra, op.cit. p.183
43. Ibid. p. 184.
44. Ibid. p. 185
45. E.I. V, 133, text-line 17
46. Ray, H.C. Dynastic History of Northern India. Vol II. Haihayas of United and
Central Provinces.
47. I.A, XVII, 225, E.I. 11, 298
48. E.I. Vol. 11, p. 298.
49. JB & ORS Vol. XIV, p.145.
50. JBORS, XIV, 547.
51. E.I. XXIII, p.70.
52. Mahtab, H. K. History of Orissa.
53. Banerji, R.D. History of Orissa p 1-3.
54. JAHRS, Vol.VI p.201, 203.
55. I.H.Q Vol. VIII p.29.
56. E. I. XXIII, p.70.
57. Ray, H.C. op.cit. Vol.I, 391 and 392
58. Acharya, P, OHRJ Vol. I (1) p. 109-116.59 &Inscriptions of the Kalachuri-
Chedi Era, CII, 249, 262 et.
60. Rath, B.K., ‘Cultural History of Orissa’ p.59.
61. E.I., Vol. XXIX, pp 235 ff.
62. I.A., XVII, 232, text-line 6.
ATAVI
The word ‘Atavi’ also ‘ataviyo’ country has been mentioned in the Asoka Rock
Edicts (R.E.) XIII, Shabhazgarhi, which is now in Pakisthan (1). This rock edict
was edited by Buhler and Hultzsch, independently and has been mentioned by
Sircar in his Select inscriptions. The said inscription of Asoka mentions clearly
about his Kalinga war. There are two more Edicts, OSRE I and II, which
elucidate the administrative policy of Asoka in the newly conquered provinces of
Kalinga, as well as, his policy towards the unconquered Atavi people living
beyond the borders of his empire to the west of Kalinga.
The Rock Edicts XIII, L.V.7 and 8 runs as follows:
L.V.7: Sata-bhage va sahasra - bhagan va (a) ja guru-matim v(o)

Devanampriyasa Yo picha apakareyati ksamitaviya - mate va Devanamp (r) iyasa
yam sako ksamanaye Ya picha atavi Devanampriyasa vijite bhoti ta pi
anunetianunijapeti anutape pi cha prabhave
L.V. 8: Devanampriyasa vuchati tesa kiti avatrapeyu na cha (ha) - mneyasu -

ichhati hi D(e) vanampriyo savra-bhutana aksati Sa(m) yamam sama (cha) riyam
rabhasiya - ayi cha mukha-mut(a) Vijaye Devanampriya (sa) yo dharma-Vijayo
so cha puna ladho Devanampriyasa iha cha savesu cha amtesu.
The translation of said edicts L.V 7 and 8.is “If any one does harm that may be
pardoned by the ‘Beloved of the gods’ as far as it can possibly be pardoned. To
those Atavi people, who are residing in the empire of the ‘Beloved of the gods’,
he appeals and warns that the ‘Beloved of the gods’ has power in his remose, and
he tells them to desist from (doing harm), as otherwise, they would be killed.
He explicitly tells those people, “The kind Asoka himself desires that they should
not have any anxiety because of him, they should be consoled by him, and they
should obtain happiness and not sorrow from him.”
Further, Asoka seems to have incorporated in his empire the costal plain of
Kalinga with its long sea-board, but the wild country uplands to the west, known
as Atavika territory was not annexed by him. That this territory was left
unconquered and remained, as an outlying region is known from the S.R.Edict 11,
where he speaks of the Atavika as the ‘unconquered frontagers’.
After the annexation of Kalinga, Asoka could have occupied the Atavika the wild
country to the west of Kalings, which was then probably the asylum of many
national heroes of Kalinga. But the emperor eschewed the ideas of conquering the
land by violence and conceived in its place the sublime idea of conquering the
hearts of the Atavikas by love, remarked N.K.Sahu.(2)
The R.E.XIII suggests that these officers were employed for cultural and religion
missions in the lands of the frontier people and very probably an imperial envoy
was also stationed in the territory of the Atavikas, who were regarded as ‘Anta
Avijita’.
The Antas are also described as Avijita, unpublished in K.R.E.I, also referred to
R.E.11, where the alternative term pratyanta is also used and also in M.R.E.I,
R.E.11 and their Edict shows that by the term Antas, Asoka meant people outside
his dominion, both in India and beyond. This has been as per footnote by
Radhakumud Mookerji. (3)
However, Law (4) wrote, “Samudragupta made the ruler of the Atavika rajyas
(forest kingdoms) his servants, and led an expedition to the south’. He cited that
according to Dr. Fleet, the Atavika rajyas were closely connected with Dabhala
i.e. the Jabbalpur region. (5) This is not tenable.
Further, N.K.Sahu (6) wrote, “The Rock Edict XIII of (7) Asoka refers to the
people of the Atava territory and very likely the same territory finds mention in
the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta (8) as ‘Sarvatavika rajya’. He
further concluded, ‘The Nalas ruled over the Bastar-Koraput region which was a
part of the ancient Atavika territory and later on became well known in the history
as the land of Trikalinga. Subsequently, the name Trikalinga is found for the first
time in the Jirjingi Grant of Indravarman dated 537 A.D. (9). In the Betul Plates
Samksobha (10) these tracts have been described as ‘Astadasatavika -rajya’ and in
the Early Medival copper plate inscriptions of Orissa they have been named
‘Astadasa (11) Gondramas’
Footnote: The word Atavi also Ataviyo, has been mentioned by Kautilya (XIII.5)
where mentions two kinds of conquests, viz. (1) the conquest of the Atavyas or
Forests, and (2) the conquest of settled territory (gramdi).
References
1. Rock Edict XIII, Shabhazgarhi (Pakistan) Version, Inscription on the west
face of the Shababagarhi rock in Kharas the script. It was edited by Buhler
E.I. II, pp 246 f. Hulzsch, C.I.I. 1, PP 667. Sircar Slect Inscription, i, pp. 35. f
2. Sahu, N.K.Utkala University History. p.108
3. Mookerji Radhakumud (1995) Asoka. Motilal Banarasidas, New Delhi, p.165
4. Law, Bimala Churn (1973) Tribes in Ancient India. Bhandarakar Oriental
Series No. 4. Poona.
5. E.I. VIII, pp. 284-7
6. Sahu, N.K. op.cit.p.108
7 Hultzsch, C.I.I, Vol.I, p.66 ff& E.I.., II, pp.246ff.
8. Fleet, C.I.I, Vol.III, p.6 ff
9. E.I.XXI, pp.281 f
10. E.I., Vol.VIII, pp 286-287
11. Ibid., Vol.XXVI, p.77
VIDYADHARA TERRITORY
The Vidyadhara territory, which probably extended over the present Kalahandi
Bastar and Koraput region, was under the political sway of Kalinga. This land
during the Kharavela period was being referred as Vidyadhara territory, which is
the Atavika country of Asoka (1). N.K.Sahu wrote, “Hathigumpha inscription
rightly calls their territory as ‘Ahatapurvam’ meaning never conquered in the past
(2).” The second Chedi King Chetaraja, the King of Kalinga was the lord of
Vidyadhara. As per Hathigumpha inscriptions, he had premature death in 49 B.C.
The Line 5-6 translation says, ‘Then in the fourth year (His Majesty)... the
Vidyadhara tract that had been established by the former kings of Kalinga had
never been crushed before (3)’. Kharvela succeeded Chetaraja and ruled as
Yuvaraja from 49 B.C. to 40 B.C. and was anointed in 40 B.C.
The Hathigumpha inscription refers to the Vidyadhara settlements
(Vijadharadhivasam) in connection with the military exploits of Kharavela in his
4th regnal years. It is indicated that Kharavela organised the strength of the
Vidyadhara land and led a powerful army against the Rathikas and Bhojakas (4).
The relation between the Vidyadhara family as mentioned by the Paumachariyam
and the Vidyadhara settlements referred to by the Hathigumpha inscription.
Before his second invasion of the Satavahana territory Kharavela organised the
military sources of the Vidyadhara settlement (Vijadharadhivasam) which has
been described by the inscription as an invincible land founded by the former
kings of Kalinga. It was indicated that early literary works like Paumachariyam
and Tilakamanjari (5) have designated the family of Meghavahana as Vidyadhara
and as such it is generally assumed that the settlement made by the members of
this family is known as the Vidyadhara territory. We find reference to eighteen
Vidyadhara settlements with their sixty towns in the Jaina Jambuddivapannatti
(6) and it appears that ‘Vijadharadhivasam’ of Hathigumpha inscription and
‘Vijjaharanagharavasa’ of the Jain work refer to the same territory. In some
epigraphic records (7) a territory called ‘Astadasatavi rajya’ extending from
“Baghelkhand right up almost to the sea coast of Orissa (8) is met with, and we
(handarkar) to identify these eighteen forest kingdoms with the eighteen
Vidyadhara settlements, associated with the Vaitadhya or the Vindhya range.
N.K.Sahu (1984) wrote, “The Vidyadhara territory which was the same as the
Atavi territory probably comprised the forest clad hinder land of Kalinga and
Kharavela organised the fighting forces of that land for his campaign against the
Satavahana Kingdom”.
He further wrote, “The Rock Edict XIII of Asoka (9) refers to the people of the
Atava territory and very likely the same territory finds mention in the Allahabad
Pillar inscription of Samudragupta (10) as ‘Sarvatavika rajya’. The Vidyadhara
territory which was the same as the Atavi territory probably comprised the forest
clad hinder land of Kalinga and Kharavela organised the fighting forces of that
land for his campaign against the Satavahana kingdom.” While the Atavi people
fought for the defense of Kalinga in the famous Kalinga war of Asoka.”
Reference
1. Sahu, N.K. ‘Kharavela’ Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar p.102
2. Ibid p.108.
3. Hathigumpha Inscriptions L 5-6, Ibid. p.336
4. Sahu, N.K. op.cit. p. 108.
5. Tilakamanjari of Dhanapala (Nirnaya Sagar Prem) p25.ff
6. Jambu divapannatti, 1-12 (See also Barna, Asoka and his inscriptions p. 85)
7. Khoh Copper Plates (528 A.D.) of Samkosyobha, Fleet, C.1.I, No.C. 111, p.
114 ff
8. Bhandarkar, G. R. Asoka p. 47
9. Hultisch, C.I.I. Vol.1, p. 66 ff
10. Fleet, C.I.I. Vol. 111, p. 6 ff
Foot Note: The Paumachariyam of Vimalasuri (1) traces the ancestry of king
Meghavahana to Rsabha who was ruling over some territory at the neighbourhood
of the Vindhyas. In his later life, Rsabha relinquished the world dividing the
kingdom between his two sons Nami and Vinami. Vimalasuri status that these
two brothers well-versed in many Vidyas because of which they were called
Vidyadharas(2).In the Tilakamanjari of Dhanapala (3) who flourished in the
courts of the Paramara kings Munja and Bhoja.(4), we come across a Jain King
named Meghavahana. According to this work the son and successor of
Meghavahana had the epithet ‘Vidyadhara Narendra’ (King of Vidyadhara
lineage).
References to Foot note

1. The date of Vimalasuri is subject to dispute. He himself states that the work
Paumachariyam was written 530 years after Mahavira’s Nirvana which would
be 63 A.D. and scholars scribe it to the period from the 3rd to the 7th century
A.D.(vide Romila Thapar, the Ramayana, India: History and Thought, p.235
and note 68 at p.248).
2. Paumachariyam (Varanasi 1962) V, 168-251
3. Tilakamanjari (Nirnayasagar Press);, p.25ff
4. The date of the Paramara kings are as follows:
i) Munja - A.D. 914-995
ii) Sindharaja also called Navasahasanka (both of Munja) - A.D.995-1018
iii) Bhoja (son of Sindhuraja) A.D. 1018-1060
NISADHA
The word “Nisadha” means ‘Forest’. Nisadha is mentioned in ancient Indian
writings like Veda, Purano, Mahabharata and Ramayana and it is mentioned with
Kosala, which denotes as two adjacent geographical distributions. According to
the Mahabharata, the capital of the Nisadhas was Giriprastha. The Nisadhas
played an important part in the Kuruksetra war in which they remained with
Pandavas, along with Mekalas, Kosalas and Dasarnas. But notwithstanding the
celebrity of the Nisadha country as the kingdom of Nala, it is not difficult to
ascertain exactly where it is located. It was thought to be not far from Vidarbha,
the Nala queen, and Damayanti’s country. Wilson (1) and place the Nisadha
countries in Vindhyas and Satpura hills to the north-west of Berar. The evidences
from above sources it has been concluded that Koraput-Kalahandi districts,
between Kosala and Vidarbha is the ancient Nisadha kingdom over which the
Nala ruled.
The famous Sanskrit grammar scholar Panini points out in ‘Astadhyai’ that
Nisadha and Vidarbha are two adjacent countries (2 and 3) It is between 6th and
7th century A.D.
The Nisadha has been ruled by Nalas. Thus, according to G.Ramdas and
N.K.Sahu who have rightly identified Puskari i.e. modern Podagoda of Umerkote
in Koraput district of Orissa as the capital of Nalas (4 and 5). This has been
further strengthened by the evidence of the extensive ruins of a city of 3rd 4th
century A.D., a copper plate grant of Nala king Arthapati which was issued from
Puskari and stone inscriptions of his successor Skandavarman lying still in the
ruins of the fort. Other Nala relics i.e. coins and epigraphs found are from Bastar-
Durg and Koraput districts proves the fact.
There has been reference to Nisadha and Nisadas, in the ancient Indian literature.
Law (6), identified the Nisadhas and Nisadas to be origined from two different
stocks, and said to be have been confounded by many. According to the Epic and
Puranic traditions, the Nisadhas are said to have sprung from King Prthu, son of
Vena (7). The Nisadha tribe has been identified to Nalas. It is described in
Puranas and Bhagavatgita to have been the son of Atithi, grandson of Kusa, and
the father of Nala (8). According to Vishnupurana (9) the ten kings of the Mekala
country and nine of the Sapta Kosala country state to have been succeeded by the
nine kings of the Nisadhas. They were all descendants of King Nala, and
according to Vayu purana lived in the country of Nisadha (10). This king Nala of
Puranas is most probably identical to the king Nala whose story has been referred
in the Mahabharata (11).
As per Mamata Choudhury (12) the Nisadas seem to have settled themselves over
a widespread area, as various ancient texts have described them inhabiting regions
in west, east, south and north. On the basis of the evidence derived from the
Junagarh inscriptions (A.D.150), they possibly had their original settlement in
Malwa around Dwaraka in the Western region and then migrated during the Epic
period to the east along the Ganges beyond Kosala (13), as also to the South-West
(14) (comprising the region between the Sarasvati and the Western Vindhya)(15),
and the South-Eastern(16) regions of Madhyadesa.
These tribes are: the Paripatras (17) (Pariyatras)- dwellers of the mountain
Paripatra along with the Nisadas and the Kukuras; the Mahendra (18) dwellers of
the mountain in the Eastern Ghat representing the Kalingas.Mahenragiri hill is
still the epicenter of Sabara tribe and culture.
With reference to Sabara tribe N.K.Sastri wrote, “Early in his (Mahavarman

Rajasimha I, Pandya king, C.780 A.D) formed an alliance with Chalukya
Vikramaditya 11, espoused the cause of Chitramaya, and after inflicting a number
of defeats on Nandivarman Pallavamalla beseiged him a place called Nandigrama
i.e. Nandipuram, near Kumbakonam. The able Pallava general Udayachandra,
who encountered the Pandya forces in many battles, raised the seige of
Nandigama, beheaded Chitramaya, and thus made the Pallava throne secure for
his monarch. He also dealt with other enemies of Pallavamalla like the Sabara
king Udayana and the Nisadha chieftain Prithivivyaghra who were probable
acting in collusion with the Chalukya, Vikramaditya11. The invasion of
Vikramaditya (735A.D), in which the Ganga feudatory Sripurusha also co-opted,
was indeed the greatest danger that threatened the kingdom of Pallavamalla in the
early years of his long reign (19)”.
During the reign of Vishnuvardhana III, who was an Eastern Chalukya king, a
Nisadha king named Prthivivyaghra had let loose a horse for performing the
Asvamedha sacrifice (20). They seem to have occupied the southern part of the
Eastern Chalukya; a dominion about the northern fringe of the Nellore district has
been mentioned.
References
1. Wilson, H.H. (8bs) Visnu Purana Vol. Vl.p.220 ff.

2 Sukla,H.L. Prachina Bastar. p 29-176
3. Bhandarkar, G.R. History of Deccan and JRASW 1903-4, P.48
4. Ramdas, G., J.B.R.S Vol. XXXIII, pt.I-II, pp. 33-42 also E.I.Vol, XXVIII
p.12
5. Sahu, N.K. Utkala University History of Orissa, Vol-I, p-508
6. Law, Bimala Churn (1943) Tribes in Ancient India, Bhandarkar Oriental
Series No.4, Poona.
7. Vayu P.62, 137-48, Brahmanda P., 11, 36, 158-73
8. Kurma P, 21.58, Bramha p, 8, 88
9. Vishnuparana IV Chp. 24,17
10. Vayu Purana Chp. 99, 376
11. Mahabharat 111
12. Mamata Choudhury (1977) Tribes of Ancient India, Indian Museum, Calcutta.
13. Ray Choudhury, H.C. (1) p.491; Br hat Sam, XIV,4
14. Raghu, IV; VI, 54 ef.also Wilson’s Note Vis P.Vol.II, P.179
15. Dey, N.L.Geographical Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval
16. Brhat Sam; XIV.10; Mark, P.LV III, 18: Manu.X.48; Vaikh.Smarta.Su, x.12
17. Rath 11, 50:83; 19; Law, B.C.p.99
18. Mbh; Sabha, P.XXX; 65; Santi P.LVIII, 93-97
The Nala story itself seems to have been much older than Mahabharata for it
is referred to by Sita in the Ramanaya.
19. Sastri, K. Nilakanta. A History of South India. p-155
20. Ibid
MAHAKANTARA AND KANTARA

Literally ‘Kantara’ means famine, impassible road, deep forest, desert, a time of
scarcity, bamboo etc. The name Kantara, Kantaraka or Mahakantara was first
traced in Mahabharata. Mahakantara literally means a great forest.
The Raipur Gazetteer puts the Mahakantara to be southern part of Kalahandi

district, parts of Dhamtari tahasil, somewhere near Sihawa in Raipur district and
much of Bastar district (1).
H.C.Ray Choudhuri (2) wrote that the Mahakantara tract comprised the southern
part of Kalahandi district and most part of Koraput of Orissa and Bastar tract of
Madhya Pradesh.
G.Ramdas (3) identifies the Mahakantara of the Prayaga Prasasti of

Samudragupta with Jharkhanda.
N.K.Sahu (4) puts forth that Mahakantara was then under a king named Vyghraja
whom Samudragupta claims to have defeated. He continued to say that the
territory of Mahakantara is very likely the same as the land of Mahavana referred
in one Nagarjunikonda inscription and it comprises the modern Koraput and
Kalahandi tracts.
He further continued “There are instances to show that the hill and the forest
region of Western Orissa, Chhattisgarh and south-east Bihar forms single cultural
unity during the early historic times being known as the Mahakantara.”(5)
The Allahabad Pillar Inscription enumerates Kosala along with the territories of
the Daksinapatha and associated it with Mahakantara and the kingdoms of the
Kalinga region (6).
Mahakosala, Mahakantara and Kosala comprised the Western and the South-
Western parts of the modern Orissa and the exact territorial limits of these three
kingdoms are difficult to be determined. It seems that Samudragupta started his
campaign from the Jumna valley more particularly from Kausambi and marching
through the modern Rewa and Jabalpur regions entered into the territory of South-
Kosala. After subduing Kosala, Mahakantara and Korala he could easily precede
towards the Eastern coast through the ancient trade route that linked Kosala with
Kalinga (7).
Sahu wrote, “To the West of the Mathara Kingdom lay the Trikalinga territory
which was probably known as Mahakantara comprising the modern Bastar,
Koraput and Kalahandi region. It was this territory that the early Nalas rose to
power by the time the Matharas flourished in Kalinga. Mahakantara served as an
important buffer territory between the dominions of the Vakatakas and the
Matharas, and as such, the Nala who played an important role as a bulwark
against the Vakatakas, were a power friendly to the Matharas. (8)”
There is also strong significance to the name of Mahakantara, due to repeated

draught and famines like conditions of Kalahandi till date that may have been due
to rain pattern and eastern Ghat geographical positions.
References
1. Singh Deo, J.P. Cultural Profile of South Kosala, p.50
2. Ray Choudhuri, H.C.,Political History of South India.(1950) p.538 &
Gazetteers of India, Orissa, Bolangir, Edt. Senapati, N., Cuttack, 1968, p.43
3. Ramdas, G., Indian Historical Quarterly. Vol.p.684
4. Sahu, N.K. Gazetteers of India, Orissa, Bolangir, Edt. Senapati, N., Cuttack,
1968, p.43.
5. Sahu, N.K. Utkala University History of Orissa, Vol. I, Bhubaneswar. p. 432-
33
6. CII, Vol.111, p.13.
7. Sahu, N.K. op.cit. p. 432 and 514.
8. Ibid.p.505
CHAKRAKOTE
The Chakrakote has been mentioned in many inscriptions and various authors
have given their arguments to identify the region and place.The Chakrakote has
been spelled as Sakkarakottam, Cakrakotya, Citakota, Chakrakuta,
Chakkarakttam, Chakrakotta, Chakrakottam, Chakrakutam, Chkrakotam,
Chakrakuta, Chakkarakkottam, Chakkrakote, Cakrakote, Ca-krakuta etc. by
various literature and authors. The Chalukyas of Vemulavada: Inscriptions of a
later period and Vikramarjunavijayam trace the descent of the family from
Vinayaditya-Yuddhamalla. He captured a fort called Chitrakuta, which was
inaccessible. His son, Arikesari-I, is said to have conquered the kingdom of
Vengi and Trikalinga during the time of Nirupama Dhruva, the Rastrakuta king
who ruled from A.D. 780 to 793 (Kollipara Plates).The inaccessible fort of
Chitrakuta, which Vinayaditya is said to have captured, is not identified. As there
are a number of forts with that name in north and central India, its identification
bristles with difficulties has been mentioned, was the opinion of Kolaru
Surayanarayana.(1)
Again, in the inscriptions of Eastern Chalukya and Choda the name Chakrakote
appears. Vijayaditya III of the Eastern Chalukya line, who ruled between 844 and
888 A.D, so far as is known appears to have been made raid and burnt Chakrakota
(2) Then the Chola Rajendra Chola I (A.D. 1011-33) took Sakkara-Kottam (3).
While one of his successors, King Vira Rajendra I claims to have crossed
Godavari, passed through Kalinga, and advanced against Chakrakota (4). Next the
Chola king Kulottunga, while yet a youth cover his first laurels in battle by
storming Chakrakota. This happened prior to 1070 A.D.and is mentioned in the
Tamil poem Kalingattu Parani (x24) (5), and also in inscriptions (6) Vikrama VI
was probably the fifth raider, the sixth being Vishnuvardhana Hoysala in the 12th
century (7).
It would therefore, instead of “Rajakesarivarman (i.e. Kulottunga Chola I)

conquered the king of Dhara at Chakrakota ‘read’ Rajakesarivarman conquered
king Dhara (varsha) at Chakrakotta’ (8).
According to K.A.N. Sastri, who mentioned Sakkarakkottam has been identified

with Cakrakotya which finds mention in a Nagavamsi copper plate grant from
Bastar dated A.D. 1065, and its modern representative is probably Citrakut or
Citrakota, 8 miles from Rajapura where the copper plates were found. Rajapura,
the capital of Bastar, is itself 22 miles north-west of Jagadalpur, on the bank of
the Indravati river. (9)
Accordingly Hiralal pointed out that Bhramanakotya was possibly an alternate

name of Chakrakotya, which seems to survive in Ghumara, a name given to the
fall of the Indavati at Chitrakota. (10)
Somesvara I (W.Chalukya) and his feudatory, the Kakatiya Prola, raided Kosala,
and conquered Chakrakota, in the Bastar State, after defeating the Naga king (11)
However as per literature it is evident that there are different spellings of

Chakrakota they are Chakrakota and Chakrakuta. I identify the Nagavamsi
Chakrakota in the district of Koraput rather than Bastar.
References
1. Kolaru Surayanarayana. History of the Minor Chalukya Families in Medieval
Andhradesa.p-7 and 16
2. E.I. Vol.IV p.226 - Vijayaditya III
3. S. I.I.., Vol.II, and p.108 - Rajendra Chola I. p.120 note 3
4. S. I..I..,Vol.III, p.70 - Vira Rajendra I. p. 132 Kulottunga I
5. Kalingttu Parani (x24) Tamil poem
6. I.A. Vol. XXI. p 286
7. Kielhorn’s South List No.3960
8. Kielhorn’s South List No.756
9. E.I. IX pp. 178-9.
10. E.I. Vol.X. 24ff
11. The Struggle for Empire. The Nagas or Chihindakas, Bharatya Vidya Bhavan.
p.216.
NAGAVAMSI CHAKRAKOTE AND ITS LOCATON
About the beginning of the eleventh century, a family of kings of Nagavamsis

ruled over Chkrakuta mandala which was the ancient name for the modern Bastar
State. (1) The province of Chakrakuta appears to have formed part of the country
known as Trikalinga, and throughout the ancient history remained the bone of
contention between the Chalukyas of Vengi, the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga and
lastly the Haihayas or the Kalachuris of Chedi.(2). The Chodas of Tamilnadu
were also involved in the politics and occupation of Chakarakote.
Most authors in the past have pointed out Chakrakote to be some where in
Jeypore-Bastar, the former princely States. Hiralal was of the opinion that
Chakrakote is in Bastar, close to Jagdalpur. (3)
Many historians have opined that Chakrakote has been mentioned in various
literature and time, thus it is difficult to pin point which Chakrakote it refers to.
(4)
Chakrakote ruins Chakrakote ruins of the Fort
Nagavamsi ruled from Chakrakote and the place was under seize by Cholas and
Chalukyas and even several others, which has been detailed out in the book in
various relevant chapters.
I am of the opinion that Chakrakote that is referred with reference to Chhindika

Naga kings is located in hills, in the Dasmathpur area of Koraput subdivision,
Orissa. Chakrakote has been referred in many inscriptions of Cholas, Chalukyas
and many more. Chakrakote now stands totally demolished, only known to the
local people and except for its name in the Indian survey map. The place is
between Chhabili river and Muran river. An ancient pathway from Borigumma
plains to Chakrakote is still being used. The villages close to Chakrakote are
Arliput and Domjori. The fact that the present find place Chakrokote, is the
Nagavamsi Chakrakote is further strengthened by the fact that,
 About 2 Km. from Chakrakote, Chindirijori, a small revolute and village

of same name is known.
 Close to Chakrakote, Chindarja a village inhabited by Porajas in
Dindariji hills is located. Potasil is another village which is inhabited by
Sodia Poraja is closely located here.
Names like Chindirijori and Chindaraja around Chakrakote strengthens the

evidence that the find place is the Nagavamsi Chakrakote, because Nagas’ were
also well known as Chhindika Nagas from their inscriptions.
After centuries, Barigachha village on the bank of Aundari nadi (river) and
Narigachha on the bank of Muran close to Chakrakote are the only two remnant
of ‘gaccha’ of ancient Jain sect is surviving here in these remote hills. Chhindika
Nagas were Jainas. However, Bodo or Sodia Porajas, a dominant population in
and around the locality of Chakrakote signifies the past occupation of the place by
Chodas. Desia Kondhs are next to them followed by Magada goudo, Kausilia
Mali, Kamars and Paikas.
The entry path to Chakrakote is through village Admunda to Nandigaon, then to

Sugli and then to Sunajam Domjri and finally, Chakrakote. Very close to Sunajam
Domjori village on the bank of Bakda Nal, Chakrakote village remnants lie
dormant with its history. Still the place is called Chakrakote; the local claim there
was a village once upon a time. Now, only large number of stones of various sizes
are scattered around, possibly they were once in part of the walls of the houses
and fort. Chakrakote joins to a hill named ‘Podpuja’ to its northeast. On the east is
‘Mundlipable parbat’ stands. Western end has ‘Malguni parbat’ and has another
parbat called ‘Kotyal’. The word, Parbat means hills.
A small heap of stone in Chakrakote called ‘Nisanmundi’, still being worshipped

by local villagers.
The hill Podpuja that means Buffalo (male) worship is evident over the crown of
hill. It is steep train, stands high and there are few stones assembled, where local
villagers assemble once in three years to offer their worships.
The Pithapuram inscription of Mathapadva report that Gunaga Vijaditya III of

Eastern Chalukya, slew Mangiraja, burnt Chakrakuta, tesited Sankila, residing in
Kiranpura and joined by Kishna, restored his dignity to Vallabhendra, and
received elephants as tribute from the King of Kalinga.(3)
Somesvara I of Western Chalukya of Kalyani with his feudatory, the Kakatiya

Prola, raided Kosala and conquered Chakrakota in the Bastar State, after defeating
a King of the Naga Dynasty. It is not unlikely that he came into clash with
Virarajendra and Rajendra Chola II at Chakrakote.(4)
B.R. Gopal wrote, “As a prince Vikramaditya VI started on a digvijaya after

obtaining the permission of his father He finally conquered Gangakund, Vengi
and Chakrakuta” (5)
Nilakanta Sastri wrote, “At the time of his father’s death and the forcible seizure
of the Vengi throne by Vijaditya mentioned in the Ryali plates, Kulottunga, or
Rajendra, as he was then known, must have been a young man in his teens. For
considering he lived on to have a long rule of fifty years from A.D. 1070, it is
hardly likely that about A.D. 1062 he was more than twenty years of age. His
earliest Tamil inscriptions record certain facts that seem to indicate how Rajendra
engaged himself when he was thus kept out of his inheritance. This records of his
second year (6). state that, with the aid only of the strength of his arms and his
sword, he over came the treachery of his enemies, captured many herds of
elephants, levied tribute from the Nagavamsi King, Dharavarsa of Chakrakuta,
and gently raised the Earth resembling the lotus expecting to rise of the sun for
blooming, as Visnu raised the Earth from the ocean in his boar incarnation, and
seated her, to her great pleasure under the shade of his parasol (7). His records
soon came to describe these achievements as belonging to the period of his
ilangop-paruvam, when he was still heir-apparent (8). It this view is correct, we
must conclude that Rajendra spent the best part of the period A.D. 1063-70 in the
region of the modern Bastar state, and possibly even carved out for himself a
small dominion beyond it in the Purvadesa, even if he did not gain complete
control over the Chakrakuta state and annex parts of the Purvadesa to it, as his
inscriptions imply. Possibly this northern extension of the influence of Vengi, so
closely allied to the Colas, was the cause of Vikramaditya’s expedition against
Vengi and Chakrakuta, counteracted by the campaign of Virarajendra culminating
in the battle of Bezawada. It will be remembered that in the course of this
campaign, Virarajendra is said also to have marched up to Sakkarkkottam (9)”.
(10)
Triummukkudal inscription implies (11) an important fact that the Vengi region
was under the hold of the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Vengi ruler Vijaditya VII
was under subordinate position to W. Chalukyas. Tirumukkudal record, Vira
Rajendra corresponding to 1069 A.D., further describes the advances of the Chola
army close to the city of Vijayawada, which caused the armies of the enemies to
drink the water of the Godavari. On the banks of Krishna, in a decisive battle Vira
Rajendra inflicted a crushing defeat on the Western Chalukyan. After this the
Chola army and Vir Rajendra marched across Kalinga upto Mahandragiri
mountain and then beyond to Chakrokottam (or Chakrakutan). Vir Rajendra then
bestowed free Vengi on Vijayditya. (12)
As stated, Vir Rajendra passed through Mahendragiri mount to Chakrakuttam

(13).This means Cholas passed through Gunupur and then Chakrakottam. This
can be through the present Rayagada area to Kalahandi or through the hill paths of
Kathargad to Nowarangpur area. The other alternate path was through the
Kakrigumma and thence to Katharagad or Bhairaba Singapur. But this is a hilly
walking path. As Vira Rajendra was moving with his army, cavalry and elephants
he may have taken the path from Koraput to B. Singpur through Borigumma.
Later a battle was fought at Kondai in Chakrakottam in the Bastar region. Chola
and then they owned this battle erected one victory pillar these. In there exploits
the Chola appears to have been assisted by his nephew Rajendra, the future
Kulottunga I(14). The battle was fought between Vikramaditya VI and
Virarajendra was assisted by Rajendra II.
As per literary work Vikramakadeva Charita of Bilahan; Vengi and Chakrakottam

were conquered by Vikramaditya VI, during the time his father Somesvara I was
ruling. The Chola Virarajendra and Kulottunga I marched into Chakrakutam
region and defeated Vikramditya VI (15). Records of Virarajaendra Chola (1086
and 1069 A.D.) refer to the Chola attack of Kalinga and Chakrakottakam region
(16).Hereafter Virarajendra gave his daughter to Vikramaditya VI.
Someswara I of the W. Chalukya of Kalyani with his feudatory, the Kakatiya

Prola, raided Kosala and conquered Chakrakota in the Bastar district, after
defeating a king of the Naga dynasty. It is not unlikely that he came into clash
with Virarajendra and Rajendra at Chakrakota.(16). A.C.P. grant from Rajapura in
Bastar State gives a list of achievements of Vikramaditya VI.(17)
References
1. Rao, B.V. History of the Eastern Chalukya of Vengi (610-1210 A.D).

p.344-45
2. Ibid
3. Hiralal Rai Bahadur. Inscriptions of C.P. and Berar; and E, I.IX.p.160,
174 and 311
4. Ganguly, D.C. Struggle for Empire. p.172; A.C.P. grant fro Rajapura in
Bastar State gives a list of achievements of Vikramaditya VI.; E.I.IX,
p.108.
5. E.I. IX.p.108
6. S.I.I.IIIp.64-7& E.I. IX., p.179n.1.22
7. Venkatarama Aiyar. (1943) Indian History Congress, Aligarh, .pp.161-2
8. S.I.I. III.p.68
9. A.R.E. 1914, II 10; S.I.I. III., p.128”
10. Sastri, K.A.N. The Colas.p.291-292.
11. E.I.XXI, No. 38.p.220
12. Ibid.p.243., S.I.I. Vol., No.30
13. Ibid.p.220; S.I.I.vol.III., No.30.
14. E.I.XXI, pp.232-33, E.I.IX.p.179 n.182& A.R.E.No.125 of 1900.
15. Krishana Kumari, M. The Rule of the Chalukya-Chola in
Andhradesa.p.15.
16. Ganguly, D.C. In Struggle for Empire.p.172
17. E.I. Vol. IX, 108
GIRIKALINGA
The word Girikalinga, itself is indicative of its location on hills. The Pedda-
dugam plate of Sri Sattrudmanadeva was issued at Simhapura mentions
Girikalinga. The plate was deciphered by V. Bhanumurti (1) and re-edited
D.C.Sircar (2). It had 3 plates. The donees were Bramhins with names as
Yajnasarman, Bappasarman and Sarvasarman of Kaundiya gotra. The topography
is Basu-vataka (district?), Juha-grama (village), and Giri-Kalinga (Province?)
Varhamana – ograhara (village). The site was never ever identified.
I am definite that the said topography is the present Balimella suberv of Koraput
district. Informants say that the Vardamanapura village is now located 2 km. from
Balimella, still known by the same name. (I have not confirmed) The Juha village
in at 5kms from Balimella, and the name remain unchanged. The Patuva grama or
village may be the Patrali which is near to Tarlakota in the same region. Again,
the said topography comes under the present Patrali Panchayat.
It is thus concluded that Girikalinga was including the hill portion of present
Koraput, part of Vizagapatnam (Paderu) and extended to Balimella and
Malkangiri area, and beyond Govindapalli hills.
Reference
1. Bhanumurti, V. J.A. H.R.S. Vol. XXI p. 159 ff
2. Sircar, D.C. E.I. XXXI, pp 89-96ff.
3. Rajaguru, S.N. Inscriptions of Orissa (c.600-1100 A.D) Vol. 11. p.237-241.
MASUNIDESA
The Tamil prasasti records transactions where Chola king Rajendra in his second
phase of campaign, the march of his army through Kalinga and Odda to the
Ganges. Rajendra himself advanced to Chakrakote through Godavari to protect
the rear of the Ganges expeditionary force, because of the threats issued by the
Kalinga rulers and Odda who were acting under the order of Chalukya Jayasimha
(1). A much more detailed picture is as follows (2).
“(He seized) Sakkarakkottam, whose warriors were brave, Maduramandalam

destroyed in a trice (3), the prosperous city of Na-manaik-Konam with its dense
groves (4), Pancap-palli whose warriors (bore) cruel bows (5), Masunidesa with
its green fields, a large heap of family treasures together with many other
treasures (which he carried away), after having captured Indraratha of the ancient
race of the moon, together with (his) family, in a fight which took place (at)
Adinagara (a city) whose great fame knew no decline; Odda-visaya which was
difficult of approach on account of its dense forest defence, the good Kosalai-
nadu, where Bramhins assembled. Tandabutti, in whose gardens bees abounded,
(land which he acquired) after having destroyed Dharmapala (in) a hot battle.”
Learned historian of repute K.A. Nilakanta Sastri gave his opinion, which runs as
follows:
“Sakkarakottam has been identified with Chakrakotya which finds mention in a

Nagavamsi copper plate from Bastar dated 1065 AD, and with modern
representative in probably Citrakuta or Citrakuta, 8 miles from Rajapura where
the copper plate was found. Rajapura, the capital of Bastar, is itself 22 miles
north-west of Jagadalpur, or the bank of the Indrabati river (6). Sakkarakkottam
and the places that follow up to Masuni-desam have to be sought in the territory
contiguous to the Vengi kingdom to the north-west of it. Masunidesam literally
means the land of the snakes, the king of the Chindaka family represented by the
Rajapura plates, called Naga-vamso-dhava (born of the cobra race), and
Bhagavatipura-naressvar a (lord of Bhagvati, the best of cities); in a later stone
inscription of Saka 1140, one of them is called Sri-bhuja gavara-bhusana-
maharajulu, (7) the maharaja who was the ornament of the race of the best
serpents. It is perfectly reasonable to suppose that by Masuni-desam is meant the
land ruled by these kings. Or this assumption, Maduraimandalam,
Namanaikkonam and Pancappalli must be sought in the same region and held to
be part of Masunidesam. It may be noted that Cakrakota is itself called a mandala
(8) like Madurai-mandalam, and that the donor of the Rajapura plates is called
Madhurantaka.”
He further continued, “The fact that Sakkarakottam was the first place taken by
Rajendra’s army in the course of this campaign and that the king met his
victorious general on the banks of Godavari on his way back at the end of the
campaign imply that the Vengi kingdom had come back to the same relation of
close subordinate alliance with the Cola empire which it has held in Rajaraja time
(9)”.
We are thus inclined to identify the area thus mentioned in the inscriptions as per
analysis and proposals placed by K.A.Nilakanta Sastri.
As per the description given in the said above inscription, the Masunidesa may be
the Jeypore tract, extending into Bastar covering Indravati-Kolab, doab and
Mathil-Kondakamberu area. This is the plain land and still the granary of the
district. The Nagavamsi King of Chhindaka ruled this area.
The Namanaikkonam may be the Naimgiri-Muniguda-Chatikona area located in

Bisam-cuttack area of Rayagada. The Naimagiri-Chatikona area is the most
dense groove locality. Well known horticulturists, Dongria Kondh tribe and
Kuttia Kondhs inhibit it.
The Panca-palli is the Panchapalli hill range above Potangi connecting the
Kalinga region. The entry to this area (Koraput in ancient time towards
Nandapur) was from Pachipetta, which was later in British period was a small
Zamindar under Jeypore state. In Jeypore tract it was called Panchipetta Kabata,
means Panchipetta door. The hill route from Panchipetta was to Sanki, Chandka,
Pukali, Raisingi, Balda and then Nandapur.
Reference
1. Tiruvalangadu plates of Jayasimha -S11, III p.399 v. In. See Ibid V 120p.400
and E.I. IX p. 233.
2. E.I. IX p.233
3. Hultzsch wrote: whose forts (bore) banners which (touched) the clouds’, but
K.A.Nilakanta .Sastri commented that it has no support from the text.
4. The translation here is based on the reading in 176 of 1923: ‘Kamidai val
anagar Namanaikkonamum’.
5. Another form has ‘Venjina Virar’ for Venjilai-virar’
6. Hultzsch. S.1.1, iii p. 57, n.1.
7. E.I. XVI p.53
8. 185 of 1893
9. Read: pasadaip-palanr -masunidesam (S11, II 20 1.5 & p.108)
KALINGA
The name Kalinga, Trikalinga and Trilinga has been referred in several literatures.
This has been the subject of research for long time.
The ancient Kalinga Empire had included the whole of present Orissa and
extended to neigbouring states from time to time. Kalinga Empire was spread has
‘appeared in several literature’.
Megasthenes (1) refers to a territory Gangaridum Calingarum Regia (Gangetic

Kalinga Kingdom) with the river Ganges as its north boundary. Pliny (2)
suggested that the south boundary of Kalinga to be Cape Calinga. Yule (3)
pointed it to be the mouth of the river Godavari. Thus Kalinga Empire was spread
to Ganges as its northern boundary and to its south was the Godavari river. The
eastern border of Kalinga was the Bay of Bengal, which was known as Kalinga
Mahodadhi. The Western border was upto Amarkantak hill of the Vindhyas. The
Amarkantak hill in Kalinga has been cited in Matsya (4), the Kurma (5) and the
Skanda (6).
The Matsya purano speaks that Kalinga was located both in Dakshinapatha and
Madhyadesa. (7)
Pliny (8) gives clear picture of Kalinga territory. He had divided it into three
parts. The Gangarides Calingae that is apparently the same as Gangaridum
Calingarum Regia refers to the region on the bank of the Ganges near its mouth.
The Macro Calingae may be the middle or central Kalinga comprising of Utkala,
Odra and Tosali region. Calingae was Kalinga proper. This may be called as the
home land of Kalinga people. Pliny wrote on the basis of Megasthenes, which
indicates that Kalinga had extended from Ganges to Godavari in 24 B.C. It is
when Asoka conquered it.
It is not well known when Kalinga was established. The Jaina Parisista Parvan
(9) has shown that the minister of King Nanda conquered the whole Kalinga
down to the sea. The fact is supported by Hathigumpha inscriptions of Kharavela
(10), where it refers to the excavation of a canal in Kalinga by the Nanda King
and the Kharavela restoring the Kalinga Jina, which had been seized by King
Nanda from Kalinga.
The Greek historians as Diodorus, Curtius and Plutarch state that Agrammes, the
last Nanda king, who was also contemporary to Alexander the Great, was ruling
over Prassi and Ganga ridae. The Prassi is the same as Prachya, the home
province of Magadha and Gangaridae was the Gangarides Calingae, the part of
Kalinga Empire near the mouth of the Ganges (11). It is also indicative that the
central and southern part of Kalinga was lost from the Kalinga Empire.
The rebel Chandragupta Maurya occupied the throne in 322 B.C. The classical
writers never mentioned Chandragupta Maurya as King of Gangaridae, but Prassi
continued to be the centre of his empire. (12)
Ashoka destroyed the Kalinga Empire. He had incorporated the Gangetic portion
of Kalinga, the Gangaridae of the classical writers to his mainland. The central
part of Kalinga Empire, the Macco Calingae, which was Utkala, Odra and Tosala
region, formed a separate state with its capital at Tosali near Dhauli (13). Kalinga
proper in the south formed another administrative centre with its headquarters at
Sampa near Jaugada (14). This thus after Asoka’s invasion of Kalinga there was
reorganisation of Kalinga empire territory.
The grammarian Panini, who may be taken to have lived more or less about 600
B.C., mentions only Kalinga in the east and knows nothing south of Narmada on
the west except the country of Asmaka, near the headwaters of the Godavari (15).
The following stanza is met in the Brahmanda Purana, of Orissa State Museum
defines Kalinga and Tri-kalinga respectively as (i) the land between the Rsikulya
and Jhanjavati and (ii) that between the Jhanjavati and Vedavati. The river
Jhanjavati now origins from Koraput district whereas Vedavati flows to east
boundary of Salur, a small town at the bottom of Eastern Ghat, and road entry
point to Koraput from Andhra Pradesh. The Vedavati location referred by
Rajaguru is incorrect (16).
Rsikulgam samasadya yavad Jhanjavati nadi/,

Kalingadesa prkhyato desana garhitas- tada//
Jhanjavati samasadya yavad Vedavati nadi/,
Trikalingeti Vikhyato...........//
Ajay Mitra Shastri wrote, the dependability of these stanzas is not beyond doubt;
they contain grammatical errors and the last eight syllables of the second stanza
are lost. They may represent the narrow definitions prevalent at the time the
manuscript was copied, viz. during the late medieval period. Anyway not much
significance can be attached to these stanzas, particularly, as they go against the
unimpeachable epigraphic evidence (17). However, S.N.Rajaguru reports the
same stanza.
Epigraphical and literary evidence points out that in ancient and medieval times,
Kalinga, whether it was a part of Andhra or Orissa, always remained a separate
political entity.
The inscriptions of Later Eastern Gangas, Gajapatis from Simhachalam,

Mukhalingam, Srikurmum and Narayanpuram point out land between Mahendra
hill and Simhachalam was referred to Kalinga desa, Kalingamandala,
Kalingavisaya, Trikalinga. Daksinadesa, Kalingavani, Trikalingavani, or Kalinga.
D.C.Sircar wrote, “In early medieval period, it is only the kingdom of these early
Eastern Gangas that was exclusively known as Kalinga, because, as will be seen
below, the kingdoms in the Ganjam-Puri-Cuttack region assumed different names
such Kongoda, Tosali, Udra etc, since the later part of the sixth century A.D. But
the old name did not get time enough to became popular again as the successor of
Anantavarma Codaganga soon transferred their capital to the Cuttack District
(Orissa) far away from the Srikakulam region that had become famous under the
name Kalinga during the many centuries’ rule of Early Eastern
Gangas.....................................(18)
The later E.Gangas records also make it clear that Kalinga and Trikalinga refer to
one and the same region of which Kalinganagara (modern Mukhalingam),
Srikakulam District was the capital. Thus in reference to the location of the
Madhukesvara temple at Kalinganagara, we get the following expressions:
Kalingavaninagari Sriman = Madhukesvaraya Sarvaya (19 a)

Trikalingavaninagai Sriman = Madhukesvaraya etc (19 b)
An inscription of Rajendra Coda 11 of Velanadu, dated S’1091 say,
Purvambonidhi Kalahasti sikhari Sriman= Mahendracala

Srisaliar = Valayikrta Andhra visayam (19)
Bishop Caldwell notes: “Taranatha repeatedly designates the Telugu country
Trilinga and describes Kalinga as a portion of Trilinga and Kalingapura as its
capital (20).
It should be noted that Anantavarma Codaganga, who had the title

Trikalingadhipati, defines the limits of his kingdom, when he says that to his west
was the ruler of Utkala and to his east the ruler of Vengi (21).
1. The ancient Kalinga country (roughly speaking the coastal land between
the river Mahanadi and Godavari) was split up into a number of small
states, which is disintegration of the Chedi Empire founded by Kharavela.

(22)
2. The Allahabad pillar inscriptions mention Gupta emperor Samudra-
gupta’s victory over the kings of these region i.e. the kings of
Dakshinapatha and several others located in different parts of
Kalinga.............but nothing is mentioned about their history related to
their states and the name of Kalinga does not appear (23).
It informs that
1) But the continued existence of Pithapuram in East Godavari, which was

Pishtapura, and the Yallamanchili taluks of the Vizagapatam district, which
was Devarastra, is proved from the above inscription.
2) A royal city named Simhapuram is mentioned in these records, historians
have identified it to modern Singupuram near Chicacole. But this city is not
found in Samudragupta’s inscription, thus indicates it flourished after
middle of 4th century A.D.
The conquest of Kalinga by Asoka (C.260 B.C) is one of the best known events of
his reign and formed the turning point in his spiritual carrier. No wonder his
edicts are found in Dhauli in the delta of the Mahanadi, and at Jaugada in the
Ganjam district, then certainly part of Kalinga. Dhauli was perhaps the same as
Tosali, the capital of Kalinga in those days (24).
Kharavela of Kalinga states clearly that the territory of the Satavahana king
Satakarni lay to the west of his kingdom. Kharavela defined in the second year of
his reign by sending a large army, the Satakarni King II (25).
In Kalinga the period following Samudragupta’s invasion is taken up by the rule

of a lineage of kings who belonged to the Mathrakula. Seven kings bearing
names ending with varman are known, from their copper-plate grants, although
their genealogy is not forth coming. Pishtapura, Simhapura and Vagdh amanpura
are among the places from which grants were issued. The language of the
inscriptions is Sanskrit and the kings called themselves Kalingadhipatis and
Paramamahesvaras (26). Roughly their period of rule extended from 375 to 500
A.D when the Gangas in north Kalinga, south Kalinga becoming part of Vengi,
succeeded them.
Village Sumandala in Khallikote, Orissa refers to Gupta suzerainty in Kalinga in

the year 250 of the Gupta Era (A.D. 569-70). It also says that king Prithivi-
Vigrha was ruling over Kalinga under Gupta suzerainty (27).
The Sailodbhava king Sainyabhita II Madhavaraja II, one of his grants dated A.D.
619 invokes the name of Sasanka as his suzerain. The king issued this grant from
the Jayaskandhavara of Kongoda and claims to have exercised sovereignty over
the whole of Kalinga (28).
According to Hiuen-Tsang Kalinga was south west of Konyodha (the present

North Ganjam district) (29).
The Odras appeared to have seized the northern parts of Kalinga before the time
of Hiuen-Tsang, dividing the Kalinga Rajas south into the northern most outposts
of the Telugu country in Vizagapatnam and a bit of Ganjam district (30).
The Supreme lord of Kalinga in Vasistiputra Saktivarman whose Ragholu plates

are in early southern alphabet and were issued from Pithapuram. The grant was
made on Kalinga Visaya (31).
Reference
1. McCrindle, Ancient India, p.137
2. Pliny’s National History (Trans. by Dr. Bostock and Riley) vol. II, pp.42-44
3. McCrindle, pp. 42-44
4. Matsya, CXXCIV, 12
5. Kurma II, XXXIX, 0
6. Skanda V, 3, XXI, 7
7. Matsya, Ibid, 31
8. Pliny, op. cit. pp.42-44. List of Indian Races quoted by Mc Cridle in Ancient
India, pp-129f
9. Mc Cridle, Invasion of India by Alexander, pp. 221, 228 and Parisistha
Parivar, VII, p. 81
10. E.I. XX, pp.87-88 Text lines 5, 12
11. McCridle op cit, p.136
12. Sahu, J.K. Historical Geography. In: History and culture of Orissa, Vol. I. p.
55
13. Sahu, N.K. Utkala University History of Orissa, WCI, Bhubaneswar 1964 pp.
284ff
14. Ibid. pp. 295ff
15. Astadhyayi of Panini (5th Century B.C.)
16. Rajaguru, S.N. Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol. II, pp.333-34.
17. Ajay Mitra Shastri cited N.K.Sahu, op.cit. 98, fn. 3
18. Sircar, D.C. Kalinga: In Classical Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay pp.
211-217.
19. (a) S.I.I.V. 1039
(b) SI.I. V. 1101
(c) E.I. XXX. P. VIII
20. Ramachandra Rao, C.V. The Later Eastern Ganga and Somavamsi Gajapatis.
21. Majumdar, R.C. Outline of the History of Kalinga. Dacca University Studies,
Vol. II No.1 pp.213 ff.
22. Ibid.
23. Sahu, N.K.op.cit. p.80.
24. Sastri, K.A.N. The History of South India p.86.
25 Ibid p.93.
26. Ibid p.106
27. E.I. XXVIII, p.79.
28. Rajaguru, S.N.op.cit.p.331-332.
29. Subramanian, K.R. Budhist Remains in Andhra Part-I, p.119-125.
30. E.I. XII, p.212.
31. E.I. XII, p.1.
SOUTH KOSALA
South Kosala had played significant role in Indian history. N.K. Sahu says that in
the epic Kosala (South Kosala) is not included in the Daksinapatha, but Allahabad
pillar inscription enumerates it (1).
H.C.Raychaudhuri identifies the territory of Kosala state mentioned in Allahabad

pillar to be the modern Bilaspur, Raipur and Sambalpur district of M.P. and
Orissa (2).
The Imperial Gazetteers of India cites the country between 19.50’ and 23.7’ north
and 80.40’ and 83.38’ east with an area of 21,240 sq. miles as South Kosala. The
area as of now is Durg,Raipur, Bastar, Raigarh, Surguja and Bilaspur districts of
Madhya Pradesh; and Sundargarh, Sambalpur, Kalahandi and Koraput districts of
Orissa.(3 )
There is very scanty history of South Kosala prior to the rise of Sarba
Sarabhapuriyas, about the end of fifth century A.D (4). The available history
indicates it to be a part of the Maurya and Satavahana empires.
The Allahabad inscriptions of Samudragupta show certain Mahendra in the region

as the ruler and defeated by him. It is presumed to be either a Nala or
Sarabhapuriya member only. However, there is evidence to indicate that there
was growing influence of Gupta era from the coins of Mahendraditya and
Kramaditya (5). The Vakatakas king Narendrasena boastfully claims that the lords
of Kosala obeyed him (6). But after the Sarbhapuriyas rise between the end of 5th
century and early 6th century A.D. the historical grounds became clearer.
N.K.Sahu further wrote, ‘It is further known from the Vana Parva that the
territory of Kosala was distinct from the kingdom of Vidarbha. The epic
represents Nala, who was wandering with Damayanti in the Vindhyan forest, as
pointed out the paths to Vidarbha and Kosala in the following words: “This path
leads to Vidarbha and that one to Kosala beyond that to the South lays
Daksinapatha”. (7)
Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang has described South Kosala in his accounts (8). He
writes, “From Kalinga, he went by hills and woods for above 1800 li to Kosala.
This country more than 6000 li was surrounded by mountains and was a
succession off woods and marshes……….. The soil of the country was rich and
fertile, the towns and villages were together.”
Patel concluded that the above description refers to the Nala territory in the north-
west of Kosala, i.e. modern Koraput, Kalahandi and Bastar region (9).
Cunningham (10) identifies the Vidarbha and Berar region as South Kosala of the
pilgrim’s account.
Reference
1. Sahu, N.K. History of Orissa p.129.

2. Ray Choudhuri, H.C. Political History of Ancient India. 1950, p.536.
3. Imp. Gazetteer of India.Vol.X, p.202.
4. Watters, II, p.200.
5. Majumdar, R.C. and Altekar, A.S... The Vakataka-Gupta Age. p.85 &104.
6. E.I. IX p.271.
7. Van Prava, IVIII, 22.& Sahu, N.K. Gazetteers of India, Orissa, Bolangir. Ed.
Senapati, N., Cuttack, 1968. p 43.
8. Watters, Book II, pp.200-08.
9. Patel, C.B. Dynastic History of Nalas.p.14.
10. Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p.520.
DESIA DESA IN KORAPUT

The tribal people living between Kolab and Indravati rivers and extending into
Rayagada region in Koraput district of Orissa present themselves as “Desia
loak”, where as they refer other population in the district as “Godia loak”.
Kornel and Gamang (2009) have discussed the issue more vividly (1). They were
of the opinion that the Godia people refer to Goudia people who came here in the
past and are living in the region. Non-tribals look down the local tribals and utter
the word’Desia” in a degrader sense. The Desia country and Desia people have
relevance to Jaina identity but not as a mere society name with in a geographical
limit as has been indicated by some authors like Strumpell (2001) (2) and others.
On the other hand, Pfeffer (1997)(3) and Berger (2000)(4) indicated the
importance to understand the Desia society to take into account the
interrelationships between tribal, Scheduled Caste and other societies living in the
area. The social relationships within Desia society are hierarchic, but the
hierarchy in Koraput is of a different type than the one prevailing in caste society
of coastal area, it cannot be discovered in the tribal hills at all. No estate of
intellectual ritualists is opposed to the holders of secular power or segregated
from the general peasant community’ (Pfeffer 1997) (5). The terms expressing
status differences are also not the same as those of caste society. Status
differences are expressed in the idiom of seniority ordering the different Desia
categories internally into senior (boro) and junior (sano) sub-tribes and externally
into senior and junior tribes.
Some how, Pfeffer and Berger along with Strumpell described the Koraput
inhabitants in the anthropological setting and described the hierarchy that exists
in-between the tribes and other non-tribal population.The top hierarchy described
by Berger point to the ‘Godia loak’.
Desigana are found in the relevant Jaina records of the 10th – 11th centuries.
Desigana is one out of the nine ganas known in the Jaina organization of the past.
The Pustaka gaccha, which is an important branch of the order, is referenced to in

the inscriptions. Govind Pai states that the country between the Western Ghats,
the Karnataka country of architect and medieval times and the Godavari river was
known as desi and the members of the Nandi-Sangha who settled in this area
called their order as Desigana (6/8), clearly the word Desi is derived from the
Sanskrit desa which means home land. Possibly the monks of the south, for it is
frequently referenda to as a branch of the Mula Sangha on Kundkundanvaya,
which was the oldest monastic order in Kantanaka”.
Singh with reference to his studies of Jainas wrote, “The Desigana, variously
known as Deisya, Desiga and Desika in the epigraphs from Sravana-Belgola and
other places, emerged as an important monastic order of the Digambare monks
(7). An epigraph of 860(8) described Trikalyogisa as belonging to the Pustaka
gaccha, Desiya gana of the Mula Sangha. Ramesh has given a detail account of
Desiagana that is known from the Western Ganga records.
Kornel and Gamang loc.cit. with reference to Desiagana, and Nandi sangha; have
identified two Gachchas in the close vicinity to Chakarokote of Nagavamasa
reference in Koraput district and they are Narigachha and Barigachha, that
survived centuries (9). The Dev Honjeru of Nandapur has been identified to the
Honjore cited with relation to Nolamba-Pallava family and there is a Jaina temple
(depilated) in Paliva village of Nandapur(10).The relevance of ‘handi’ suffix to
village names like Papadahandi,Dhamanahandi,Chndahandi, Nandahandi etc has
been enumerated in detail and these are possibly the past Jaina sub-centers of
Nandi sangha and points to Nandi sangha and influence Jaina schools during the
period of Amma II, the Eastern Chalukya who had fled into Kalinga(11).
Kornel and Gamang loc cit. have also given several identities to Jaina relevant
place in Trikalinga that has derived its name from Jaina teachers of the past (12).
Two inscriptions from the Tumkur District in the Mysore States furnish
interesting information testifying to the eminence of Padmaprabha Maladhari
and his sphere of influence (13). The epigraph further states that Padmaprabha
was a disciple of Viranandi Siddhanta-Chakravarti and that he belonged to the
Mula Samgha, Desiyagana, Pustaka gachchha Kondkundanvaya and Vanada bali.
In the centre of Jaina movement in Nandapur there is the village called Maladha
and Virahandi exists in Kotapad, on the boarder of Bastar. This amply verifies
the Desia influence of Kanada in Trikalinga.
Lord Mahavira in Kalinga and Koraput

Lord Mahavira’s travel to Kalinga is a well established fact; further it is
strengthened due to his presence in present Koraput district in particular reference
to Pithicampa, the name still refers to a cave in the heart land of Jainas in
Nandapur (14), Panyabhumi is the same as of later Masunidesa of Nagavamsis,
Sarvati in Nandapur, Majjhima Prava is the present day Majjhima gauri of
Rayagada has been identified. The names of the places cited in Lord Mahavira are
from various Jaina literatures (15).
Ikshvakus
Ikshvakus traveled down south from the north and are said have influenced the
southern culture. They were known to be Jainas and a brief history of theirs and
relation to Koraput region has been placed with logic in one of the chapters (16).
Kalinga Emperor Kharvela in Koraput

Kalinga Emperor Kharvela’s inscription at Bhubaneswar refers to Risi Khibira
and it is identified to present day Risi Khibidi and Sondi Khibidi in Borigumma.
The influence of Kharevela and with relation to Jainism is not known
Eastern Chalukyas in Trikalinga and Jainism
Amma II Vijayaditya VI (A.D. 945-970)
On the death of Chalukya Bhima II, Amma II, his son by Lokambika, ascended
the throne, overstepping his elder step-brother Danarnava, and assumed the name
of Vijayaditya. The Savara chief had a very good relationship as it is seen during
the Yuddhamalla’s period. The Rashtrakutas assisted the Savaras. Amma II is
described as the lord of both Vengi and Kalinga and is known to have made the
grants of lands in Parukonadu vishaya, Yellamandhili Kalinga in Visakhpatnam
district.
After Amma II had ruled for 11 years about A.D. 956, Badapa son of king
Yuddhamalla drove him out of Vengi country. Badapa became king with the help
of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III (A.D. 939-67) (17) Unable to withstand the
advance of the Rashtrakuta invasions, he (Amma II) abandoned the kingdom and
saved himself by timely flight to Kalinga (18).
The events of the last years of the region Amma II after his return from Kalinga
are lost in obscurity. Inscriptions slightly later in date, however, throw some light
on the concluding stage of the reign.
I am of the opinion that Ammaraja II most probably lived in forest claded

Trikalinga part of the Kalinga country and spent his time in spreading the Jainism
in the region. The places like Ammaguda Ammagaon have been named after him?
Amma II, of Eastern Chalukya followed a liberal policy in matters of religion. He

gave liberal gifts to temples and other religious foundations. His personal faith
cannot be deduced from his records. The Jaina ascetics of Nandi
Addakaligacchhas and Kalamkha Saiva monks flourished in his

dominions.(19) It was during the period of Amma II, probably the Jainism took
strong root in Koraput district, particularly in Nowrangpur region, that can be
verified from the places with suffix’ handi’, like Papadahandi, Goriahandi etc.
It is recorded that at Attili in Attilinadu visaya lived a celebrated Jaina muni

Arhanandi who belonged to Addakaligacchhas. Among the lay pupils of
Arhanandi was the queen of Ammaraja II, Chamekamba of the Patavardhani
family (20).
Vimaladitya (A.D.1011-1022) adopted Jainism in late old age. It was due to the
profound influence of Trikala Yogi Siddhantadeva, a teacher of the Desiagana
school of Jainas as his preceptor (21). The Jaina teacher was a Canarese person by
birth and came into Andhra country, apparently at the invitation of king,
Mummadi Bhima.The Jaina teacher resided in Ramathirtham, near Vizinagaram
which appears to be one great Jaina culture and learning centre of that time (22).
Arikesarin III, in Sabbi country
Peddaperappadu plates (23) of Vishamasiddhi and Prabhani plates referring

Arikesarin III, of 996A.D. are of interest to Trikalinga and especially to Nandapur
region. The Arikesarin III‘s plate is pointing to ‘Sabbi country’ and we are of the
opinion that it is the present Subaie in Nandapur. The argument is strengthened
due to its Jaina relevance.
Chhindaka Nagas of Chakrakote

The Nagas or Chhindaka Nagas of Chakrakote ruled the region and South
Kosala and we have identified the Nagavamsi Chakrakote in Koraput block and
the ruins and the namstill stands. The Nagas were ardent followers of Jainism and
Gunda Mahadevi of the family is known from the Narayanpal Inscription 1111
A.D(24) and the description of it is fitting to the Bhagvati temple of Jeypore and
details of the evidences to the effect is given in one of the chapters.
Nandi Puja of Jhodia Poraja is celebrated in the house of Janis, the priest once
in every three years. A detail account of the celebration is given in my last book
book ,’The Lost Jaina Tribes in Trikalinga’..Jahadia’s Nandi and Mail’s Bali and
Raj’s Dashera is as a proverb is known to all in the Jeypore agency of the Raja of
Jeypore.. Nandi celebration is a Jaina celebration as we have mentioned has
survived the time (25). This is a fertility cult of the past where replica of ‘Queen
White Ant’ as sign of fertility is at the center of celebration.
Pengo Porajas are the prajas of Vengi, Eastern Chalukyas and later to the Choda
-Chalukyas Dynasty that commenced from Kulottunga I. The Pengo were Jainas
of the past, like their master E. Chalukyas and they too have maintained the Jani
institution so far. We have described the Bali celebration by Pengo Porajas (26).
The Bali is celebrated by all ‘Desia Loak’ in Koraput district. It is a puja to get
bumper crop and good health and prosperity to all subjects and is also celebrated
once in three years by the Bali Mutha villages though there are significant
variations in celebration interval from tribe to tribe.
Parenga Porajas of Nandapur region were possibly the prajas of Western

Gangas, now living along the Issani Ganga river. The Parenga pujari still
worships the Jaina shrines in the Tentliguda (Umbel) village (27).
Bhumia tribe are said to be the Prajas of Somavamsis of Orissa (28). The Janis
play important role in the Bhumia religious life. A Bhumia Pujari family worships
the Phupugaon Jaina temple in Kundra block of Koraput.
Konda Porajas other wise called Chellia Porajas are prajas of Pandya dynasty
(Pandyas were otherwise known as Chellia) and they also celebrate Nandi and
have the Jani institution (29).
Amarapuram contains a good number of Nishidhi memorials one of which (30)

refers to the teacher Prabhachandar Bhattaraka of Ingalesvara Bali of the Mula
Samgha, etc. Another celebrates the demise of the preceptor Bhavasena Traividy
chakravarti who was a terror to the disputants and belonged to the Mula Samgha,
Sena gana (31).
I am inclined put forth the presence and still continuing the culture of Nisadhi
memorials among Jhodia Porajas, where memorial pillar is constructed for
women members only. Nisadhi are small stone plates placed vertically on the
ground after death of women members only, they can be seen in rows in a village
or it can also be in a given crowded place. I have seen the Nisadhi memorials
close to the Jhodia villages spread all over Koraput block.
Reference
1. Strumpell, Christian (2001) Industrialisation in a 'tribal zone' the Desia of
Koraput and a Hydro-electric Power Plant. Adivasi, Vol. H 40-41, 1: Z, p.71-
81.
2. Pfeffer, Georg, The Scheduled Tribe of Middle India as a unit: Problems of
Internal and External Comparison. In: Georg Pfeffer and Deepak K. Behera
(eds.): Contemporary Society Tribal Studies. Vol. I. Structure and Process.

New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, 1997.
3. Berger, Peter, The Gadaba and the 'non-ST' Desia of Koraput, Orissa. Some
Observations on their Interrelations. In: Pfeffer, George and Deepak K.Behera
(eds.): Contemporary Society Tribal Studies, Vol. V. New Delhi, Concept
publishing Company, 2001 (in print) Parry, Jonathan: Introduction. In:
Jonathan Parry Jan Breman and Karin Kapadia (eds.): The worlds of Indian
industrial Labour. New Delhi, Sage, 1999a.
4. Ibid.
5. Pfeffer, Georg op. cit.
6. Singh, R.B.P., Jainism in Early Medieval Karnataka.
7. E. I. VI, p.36.
8. J.A.I, no. 2, pp.65ff.
9. Dehera may be derived from Sanskrit 'Devagriha.'
10. S. I. I., Vol. IX, pt. I, 115.
11. An. Rep. on S.I. Epigraphy, 1917, Appendix O, No. 42.
12. Ibid., No. 40 and p. 113.
13. Ibid, No. 43.
14. Jawaharlal, G. Jainism in Andhra, p.137.
15. Kornel Das and Gamang Giridhar (2009) Lost Jaina Tribes of Trikalinga.p.88-
100
16. Jawaharlal, G. op.cit p. 137.
17. E.I., XIS, p. 142
18. ARE, Cp. 1 of 1916-17
19. ARE. Cp.11 of 1914-15, E.I.XII,p.16
20. E.I.Vol.VII.p.177
21. ARE. 1918pp.133.p.6
22. ARE. 832 of1918
23. Pedda purappadu Plates of Vismagiddhi, Bharti, Oct. 1983, 1984 and May
1985.
24. Gunda Mahadvi Narayanpal Inscription.E.I.IX.311ff, 161-162.
25. Kornel Das and Gamang Giridhar (2009) Lost Jaina Tribes of Trikalinga.
p.194-209
26. Ibid. p218-240.
27. Ibid. p.241-249.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.p.253-254
30. Ibid.p.120-121
31. Ibid.
TRIBAL PEOPLE OF KORAPUT

The tribal people of Koraput, represent a wide stock of origin, and may have
come down from various regions. They represent Austro-asiatic, Dravidian and
Indo Aryan and mixed origin. They have maintained their own tribe group
identity through various measures social discipline and social orders.
The tribal have code of social discipline also between neighouring tribes and had
prescribed limited accesses with friendly tribes. Marriage between tribes was
totally forbidden, and socially prohibited. Certain marriages with other tribe and
caste were pronounced with strict punishment of ‘out casting’.
The relation limit between tribes was detailed out to the extent that every
individual knew, with whom they can keep relationship till acceptance of water
but not food. Women of all tribes were forbidden to take water and food from
others; even higher caste neighbour Hindus. These sanctions in the other hand
have helped to maintain respect and harmony between tribes and neighbours. The
social order of tribes at village and community level was well empowered to
enforce them. In order to revoke such disciplinary proceedings such as
‘outcasting’ a special person (heredity) was appointed by a cluster of villages of
the tribal community, who could only decide on such issues; still marriages by
tribals among scheduled caste was irrevokable.
These relationship and social laws among tribes of Koraput is still vogue and
respected. However, an indication that a group of tribes are allies or were hostile
to each other can be derived from such an account. This was studied and has been
applied to derive the past relationship, as far as possible.
Koraput tribal culture itself is rich. It is original and has refined in due course of
time; but each one has maintained successfully the cultural identity. One can
easily gause the depth of Koraput tribe culture from its rice genotypes, established
to have 1750 verities but postulated to be more than 2000. Still most of these rice
genetic stands in pure form, even have stood the onslaught of modern rice
genetics, which is ample reflection in rice genetics. Their skill in development,
improving the genetics, conservation of the said rice genetics, and benevolence to
share the knowledge and benefit to all who asked for is amazing.
A strong sentiment to ‘promises’ and friendship in the form ‘moitra’ gives the
depth that these cultures care for others; they are selfless people who share and
love everyone. Hate has never expressed in years of history among them; they
have been accepting and sharing life and living with a word of sympathy and love
to all refugees who continued comming to this land from centuries. Even today,
sufferings to cope up with new modern world order has inflicted pain to the tribals
still never ever they have blamed the government nor the administrators; tolerate
every one and showed high patience to refrain from problems arising due to
uneven development in the region.
These tribal societies have loved to live within themselves and never bothered any
one. Years before no one ever locked their doors when left for forests. Upto 70’s
the Koya households did not lock their house doord. Thefts were unknown, and
stories of their honesty still spoken.
They came in with very many religions like Buddhism, Jainism to start with and
then Hindusim, which was at first, Savism followed by Vaisanavism and entered
into ‘Sakti’ worship. They have witnessed Mohamedan rulers from 15th century
onwards and Christian missionaries from 1865. The ancient Indian religion
flavour in their life, and living still persists and on the whole in their culture.
The tribes have been respecting the belief and religion of others; they never ever
criticize or remark against or in favour of another tribe’s belief and faith; however
they join hands to other neighbour tribe’s festivals or ceremonies and witness the
events most respectfully. One can see in the Gotar celebration of Guttob Gadaba
where all neigbour hood tribe assemble to cheer the crowd on the ‘buffalo looting'
event.
However, they must have come in the past from various places to take refugee on
the hills or as invaders of forests to supply elephants to kings or to occupy
cultivable fertile lands, and even to preach religion in the area. Through the
centuries, they have all settledown for a peaceful co-existing living.
A question that comes to the mind, even I have started this work; who are these
people (tribes) and how they came here. Can the history speak of it? I thus
studied in detail the history and historical happenings around Korput and Bastar
from B.C. to 1250 A.D. and tried to carve out the following relationship and
people’s history.
The history understood to common people is king and dynasty centred, but here
the focus is people and their history with relation to dynasties. People make
history, and kings along with their dynasty in the annals of history because they
leave the records on their names behid,
It has been recorded that there are 51 scheduled tribes inhibiting Koraput
district alone. There is still more to redefine the tribes of Koraput.
1. Bagata
2. Baiga
3. Banjara or Banuari
4. Bathudi
5. Bhottada or Dolada
6. Bhuia or Bhuyan
7. Bhmia
8. Bhumij
9. Binjhal
10. Birhor
11. Bondo Paraja
12. Chenchu
13. Dal
14. Dharua
15. Didayi
16. Gadaba
17. Gandia
18. Gond, Gondo
19. Ho
20. Halva
21. Jatapu
22. Juang
23. Kowar
24. Kharia or Kharian
25. Khond, Kond or kandha including Naguli Kand & Shita Kand.
26. Kissa
27. Kol
28. Kolha
29. Koli including Mahar
30. Konda Dora
31. Kora
32. Korua
33. Kotia
34. Koya
35. Lodha
36. Madia
37. Mahali
38. Matya
39. Mirdhas
40. Munda, Munda lohara or Munda Mahalis
41. Mundari
42. Omanatya
43. Parenga
44. Paroja
45. Pemtia
46. Rajuar
47. Santal
48. Saora, Savar, Saura or Sahora
49. Shabar or Lodha
50. Sounti
51. Tharua
The Kondh, Sabara, Koya, Gadaba, Bhattra, Bhumia and Paroja are the major
tribe groups of Koraput district. The following distribution as denoted does not
count very minor tribes.
United Koraput district - Block wise distribution of scheduled tribe

population
Koraput district
1. Koraput Block (a) Poraja (b) Kondh
2. Semiliguda Block (a) Poraja (b) Kondh (c) Gadaba
(d) Ollar Gadaba, e) Parenga
3. Pottangi Block (a) Kondh (b) Poraja (c) Gadaba
(d) Ollar Gadba (e) Kotia, f) Parenga
4. Nandapur Block (a) Poraja (b) Kondh (c) Kotia (d) Gadaba
(e) Pengo, f) Parenga
5. Lamtaput Block (a) Gadaba (b) Poraja (c) Kondh, d) Parenga
6. Dasmanthpur Block (a) Poraja (b) Kondh
7. Laxmipur Block (a) Kondh (b) Poraja
8. Narayanpatna Block (a) Kondh
9. Bandhugaon Block (a) Kondh
10. Jeypore Block (a) Poraja (b) Bhoi Gadaba (c) Halva/Pentia
(d) Bhattra (e) Omnatya (f) Bhumia
11. Boipariguda Block (a) Bhumia (b) Poraja (c) Dhurva (d) Kondh
12. Kundra Block (a) Bhumia (b) Poraja (c) Bhattra (d) Kondh
(e) Dhurva (f) Pentia/Halva
13. Kotpad Block (a) Bhattra (b) Dhurva (c) Omnatya
14. Borigumma Block (a) Poraja (b) Bhattra (c) Omanatya
(d) Pentia/Halva
Malkangiri district
1. Malkangiri Block (a) Koya (b) Matia (c) Poraja (d) Dhurva
(e) Santala (Refugees)
2. Korukonda Block (a) Koya (b) Matia (c) Bhumia
3. Khairput Block (a) Bondo (b) Gadaba (c) Kondh (d) Didai
4. Kalimela Block (a) Koya (b) Konda dora
5. Kudumulugumma Block (a) Poraja (b) Kondh
6. Podia Block (a) Koya
7. Mathili Block (a) Koya (b) Bondo (c) Poroja (d) Bhumia
(e) Dhurva (g) Halva
Nowrangpur district
1. Nowrangpur Block (a) Bhattra (b) Poraja (c) Pengo
2. Kosagumuda Block (a) Bhattra
3. Nandahandi Block (a) Bhattra (b) Poraja (c) Omanatya
4. Tentulikunti Block (a) Poraja (b) Bhattra (c) Pengo
5. Papadahandi Block (a) Bhattra (b) Poraja (c) Pengo
6. Dabugaon Block (a) Bhattra (b) Poraja
7. Umerkote Block (a) Bhattra
8. Raighar Block (a) Gond
9. Jharigaon Block (a) Bhatra (b) Poraja (c) Gond (d) Kondh
(e) Bhunjia (f) Halva
10. Chandahandi Block (a) Gond (b) Bhunjia
Rayagada district
1. Gunupur Block (a) Kondh (b) Sabara
2. Gudari Block (a) Kondh (b) Sabara (c) Jatapu Dora
3. Ramanaguda Block (a) Sabara (b) Jatapu Dora (c) Kondh
4. Padmapur Block (a) Sabara (b) Kondh (c) Jatapu Dora
5. Chandrapur Block (a) Kondh
6. Bissamcuttack Block (a) Kondh (b) Dongria Kondh
7. Muniguda Block (a) Kondh (b) Dongria Kondh
1. Rayagada Block (a) Kondh (b) Jatapu Dora (c) Konda dora
2. Kashipur Block (a) Kondh (b) Poraja (c) Pengo
3. Kalyansinghpur Block (a) Kondh (b) Dongria Kondh
4. Kolnara Block (a) Kondh
Most of the tribals of Koraput came from other parts of the country. Austr-asiatic
tribes came from east and nort-east, the Dravidian tribes came from south India
and the Indo-aryan came from north direction. They came as the vassals of the
dynasties that invaded and won this land and even stayed back to rule the land. I
have discussed in detail about the Dynasties that invaded and ruled the land of
Koraput in the past in a separate volume. The Chodas invaded Koraput- Bastar in
12th century and ruled by carving out a new state called Paruva desha and they
brought Koyas from Chera ruled Kerala and implanted the population in Eastern
Godavari and Malkangiri. Similarly many tribes came with other dynasty and
setteled here. In the past centuries the dynasties that lost war against anther rival
dynasty was punished by death sentence and if submitted they were designated as
Schedule castes and given meneal jobs like horse caretakers etc. This was seen in
Koraput till recent years. The Madgole Bhupati rulers lost their state to Jeypore
Kings and they bought it from British. The Madgole Bhupatis were allowed to
settle in Jeypore and they were placed under schedule caste designation.
I have given the possible affliation of tribal people of Koraput to Dynasties that
ruled Koraput derved from my studies.
In short it can be as follwing:

Name of the tribe : Affiliation to the Dynasty
2. Bodo or Sodia Poroja : Choda
3. Jodia or Sano Poroja : W. Chalukyas and E. Chalukyas
4. Pengo Poroja : Estern Chalukyas and Chodas (from Kulottunga I)
5. Parenga Poroja : Western Ganga & Nollamba
6. Koloi Poroja : Kalachuris
7. Nangla Poroja : Nagavamsi
8. Bondo : Kadamba; Nagavamsi
9. Didayi : Matsyas
10. Koya : Chera, implanted by Chodas
11. Bhattra : W. Ganga, Vakataka, Mathara
12. Bhumia : Somavamsi
13. Matya : Mathras
14. Sabara : Panduvamsis, E. Ganga
15. Guttob Gadaba : Kadamba, E. Ganga
16. Ollar Gadba : Hoyasala
17. Halwa : Western Chalukyas
18. Konda Poraja/Chellia Poroja : Pallava (Iskabhas)
19. Dongaria Kodh : Nallamba (Chalukyas)
20. Kuttia Kondh : Kottia
21. Desia Kondh : W. Chalukyas, (Chodas)
22. Kottia Poroja : Kottia
23. Dhuruva : Rastrakutta
24. Rellies : Rastrakutta
25. Chandalla : Chandallas
26. Sundis : Chedis

27. Tagra Poroja : Tagra Silahars
28. Omnyat : Karnataka (Basuvia sect)
29. Jogi : Karnataka origin
30. Jangam : Karnataka (Saivites)
31. Jatapur Dora : Chgis ,Jatapu Bhima/Choda
32. Pentias : Kakatya
33. Halwas : W. Chalukyas
34. Paikos : Eastern Ganga
35. Dongira Kondhs : Nollambas, Chalukyas (West),
(Toda area of Tamil Nadu may be)
36. Didayi : Mastyas
37. Matharagouda : Samudraguptas expeditions, Goudos from
Mathura
38. Nandiagouda : Nandas
39. Magadhagouda : Goudos from Magadha (Mayura)
40. Dom : Huna,Vaidumbas
41. Dhulia : (W. Chalukyas)
42. Gond : Gond
Th Austro-Asiatic tribes are Sabara, Gutob Gadaba, and Bondo. The Parenga’s
and Dongria Kondhs can be also classified on physical characteristics to some
extent. They are the oldest inhabitants of the district. The Austro-asiatic tribes
brought the rice cultivation and buffalo culture to the district. The Koyas of the
Gond lines showed the life and living on Mahua tree and cattle based economy.
The Bhattras and Bhumias showed excellency in rainfed rice and least moisture
adoption crops. The great skills of Dongria Kondhs on horticulture base integrated
crop cultivation; the Pengo steep hill cultivation, Konds, Konda Dora, Jatapu
Doras hill cultivation and shift cultivation are remarkable. The Bondo high land
steep jhola rice cultivation is most attractive. The Koyas rice fields with
provisions of fish management is eye catching.
I have given a detail account of the tribes of Koraput and their history with
relation to their affliation or adversary as wittenced by wars or through religious
affiliation.
PORAJA
The Paroja is a pointing to multiethnic groups living in Koraput district, and some
in Kalahandi district of Orissa. They are pronounced as Poroaja (Thurston and
Rangachari, (1909) (1) some write Paraja (Carmichael, 1861) (2), Parajas
(Ramdas, 1936) (3), Poraja (Mohanty, 1990) (4), (Bell, 1945) (5) and Parja
(Elwin 1947) (6).
The term Parja is, as Carmichael (1861) (7) has pointed out, merely a corruption
of a Sanskrit term signifying a subject, it is understood as such by the people
themselves, who use it in contradiction to a free hill-man. ‘Formerly’ ‘says a
tradition that runs through the whole tribe, ‘Rajas and Parjas were brothers, but
the Rajas took the riding horses (for, as the Baranga Parjas put it, sitting still) and
we became carriers of burdens and Parjas’. Further Thurston and Rangachari
loc.cit. continued,’ It is quite certain, in fact, that the term Parja is not a tribal
denomination, but a class denomination, and it may be fitly rendered by the
familiar epithet of ryot (cultivator). I have laid stress on this, because all native
officials and every one that has written about the country (with the above
exception) always talk of the term parja as if it signified a caste.” He further
remarked, ‘the name Poroja seems to be derived from the Oriya, Po, son, and
Raja, i.e., sons of Rajas. There is a tradition that, at the time when the Rajas of
Jeypore rose into prominence at Nandapur, the country was occupied by a number
of tribes, who, return for the protection promised to them, surrendered their rights
to the soil, which they had hitherto occupied absolutely. I am informed that the
Porojas, who asked what thus caste is, use ryot an Poroja as synonymous, saying
we are Porojas, we are ryot people.”
I agree to the views of Carmichael as suggested above and suggest that the name
when prefixed to Poraja name is the name of ruler with whom the tribe was
associated, in other words the said Poraja community were subjects to that
particular dynasty. For example, Pengo porajas were subject of Eastern Chalukys
of Vengi.
Grierson (1906) (8) stated about Parja language as “hither to been considered as
identical with Bhatri. Bhatri has now become form of Oriya. Parja, on the other
hand, is still a dialect of Gondi. The Bhatras are a tribe inhabiting the state of
Bastar in the Central Province.”
The Porojas are not a compact caste, but rather a conglomerate, made up of
several endogamous sections, and speaking a language, which varies according to
locality remarked Thurston and Rangachari loc.cit.
Further, they cited the Poroja classification given by Hayavadana Rao (9), which
is as following:
1. Barang Jhodia, who eat beef and speak Oriya.

2. Pengu Poroja subdivided into those who eat the flesh of the buffalo, and
those who do not. They speak a language, which is said to bear a close
resemblance to Kondhs.
3. Kondhi or Kondi Poroja, who is a section of the Kondhs, eat beef and
the flesh of buffaloes, and speak kodu or kondh.
4. Parengi Poroja, who are a section of the Gadabas. They are sub-divided
into those who eat and do not eat the flesh of buffaloes, and speak a
Gadaba dialect.
5 Bonda, Bunda, or Nanga Poroja, who are like-wise a section of the
Gadabas, call him or herself Bonda Gadaba, and speak a dialect of
Gadaba.
6. Tagra Poroja, who are a section of the Koyas or Koyis and speak Koya,
or, in some places Telugu.
7. Dur Poroja, also, it is said, known as Didayi Poroja, who speak Oriya.
Later Ramdas (1936) (10) classified Porajas as following,
1. Bodo Porajas or Sodia, who do not eat beef

2. Sano Porajas, who eat beef
3. Jodia Porajas, who eat beef.
4. Perang Porajas, who eat beef.
This classification appeared at the time when every other Poroja classified by
Hayavadana Rao were reclassified as independent tribes on the basic of linguistic
and even racial features. The classification of Ramdas is based on a compact
community of Poroja who had some how interconnected by rulers, dynasties,
religion and topography.
Thusu (1965) (11) in his work on Dhurwa of Bastar mentioned the following
groups of Porajas.
1. Jhodia Poraja syn. Tuni Poraja of Jeypore, Kolia Poraja.

2. Bodo Poraja syn. Barenga Poraja, Soida Poraja .The Bodo Poraja do
not eat beef.
3. Mundra Poraja (Brett, 1939) syn. Sodia Pali Poraja(12).
4. Pengo Poraja
5. Nangla Khond, Dongerlia Khond.
6. Dhurwa Poraja, syn. Takra Poraja, Tugara Poraja.
Mohanty (1990) (13) gave the following as the main sections of Poraja found in
southern Orissa. They are
1. Bodo Poraja or Sodi Poraja

2. Bada Jodia Poraja or Pengo Poraja
3. Bareng Jodia Poraja
4. Konda Poroja or Selia (Chhelia) Poroja.
He further opined that broadly the tribe could be divided into two sections such as
Bada Poroja and Sana Poroja. Bodo Poroja comprises the first two groups and rest
others constitute the latter group. He further stated that apart from their respective
cultural differences, the major distinction between both the sub-divisions is that
the Bodo Porojas following the Hindu tradition do not eat beef or buffalo meat
and observe elaborate purificatory rituals even when a cow or buffalo dies in their
households while the Sano Poroja eat the flesh of both these animals.
The Konda Poraja, as has been classified by Bell (1945) (14) and are also known
as Selia or Chelia Poraja is of interest. Mohanty loc.cit called them Chheli
means goat (15), and goat poraja. This in not tenable, and has a past relevant and
significance. The Konda Poraja is found on the east of Nandapur, Pukali center
and extend well on the Sunkhi hills. There are numerous villages in these tall
hills.i.e NH 43 roads.
Thurston and Rangachari loc.cit. (16) identified the following totems among
Barang Jhodias. They are
1. Gidda (vulture)
2. Bagh (tiger)
3. Nag (cobra)
They also noted that Barang Jhodia, Pengu and Kondhi divisions, it is customary
for a man to marry his paternal aunt’s daughter, but cannot claim her as a matter
of right, for the principle of free love is recognized among them. They have even
recorded the existence of Dhangada and Dhangdi basa system, according to
which bachelors and unmarried girls sleep in separate quarters in a village, is in

force among Porojas.
However, my investigations revealed some of these names that also call
themselves Porajas. They are as following-
1. Bodo Poraja syns. Bodo Sodia Poraja, Sodia Poraja and Sodabisia
Poraja
2. Sano Poraja syn. Sano Jhodia.
3. Pengo Poraja syn. Pengu Poraja, Hengo Poraja, Peng Poraja,
Sudo Poraja in Nowrangpur area, Tekri Poraja, Tenkuri Poraja.
Some even classify Mandam or Madang Porajas of Kalahandi in
this group. Girla Poraja, Jaling Porajas.
4. Suleri Porajas syn. Sileru Porajas
5. Konda Porajas syn. Chellia Porajas.
6. Langla Porajas syn. Pengopati, Nangla Khond, Dangerlia
Poroja/Khond, Dakarakond of Kashipur
7. Ghad Khandia Poraja are identified due to ring bearing in single
nostrils only.
8. Kolia Porajas syn. Koloi Poraja or Koloi Gadaba.
9. Barenga Poraja syn. Bodo Poroja of Laxmipur area
10. Jhodia Poraja syn. Jati Poraja, Tuni Poraja of Jeypore.
11. Dhuruwa Poraja syn. Takra Poraja, Tugora Poraja.
12. Parenga Poraja syn. Parengi Poraja
13. I have come across some calling them, Jani Poraja and Bhai Poraja
but could not make out where to place, and this was in Borigumma
area. In Kashipur region one Dakkan Poraja are known, possibly
originated from Deccan. This needs further study.
N.B. I had come across Bisna Sisa family in Nandapur and one Bhai-Bhai
Poraja in Borigumma villages. As for the Bisna Poraja who play vital role in
performing the age old Holpoda celebration of the Nandapur past dynasty is well
documented. (Kornel, 1999) (17). There is mention of Bisnaga King and Bisnaga
city in chronicle of Fernao Nuniz, 1535-37, that is cited by Robert Sewell (1900).
The Bisnaga is referred to Narsymga i.e. Narasingha Raya of Vijayanagar (18).
Nandapur had have fallen in the hands of Vijayanagar Kings in the past.
According to Robert Sewell, Krishana Deva Raya (Bisnag king) of Vijayanagar
was present in Symamdry, the present day Simhanchalam and halted for six
months.(19).He mentions the city of Modogal in the context(20) but is not clear
whether it is the same Modogal of Visakhapatnam(20). However Singh Deo (21)
has wrote,’---------- and marched to Simhadri, and after erecting a pillar of
victory at Pottunur in the very heart of Kalinga country, he performed
Mahadanas------ and thence returned to Vijayanagar (via) Rajahmundry. “(474

of 1919 Madras Epigraphy Report).
The said hill route is located in Konam in Mottu-pradesh. Mottu is known as

Kamba-Mottu in Malkangiri of Jeypore Zamindary. After conquering the hill forts
in Nandapur or Jeypore, Krishna Deva Raya occupied Madgol. Oddadi and
neighbouring forts and posted a stone –slab with an inscription9Now illegible) in
Rayavaram in Sarvasidhi Taluk (Visakhapatnam), in commemoration of his
victory of the Jeypore country. (Vide Sewell’s Antiquities. Vol.I in Rayavaram in
Sarvasidhi Taluk (Visakhapatnam)”.
Reference
1. Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and Tribes of Southern India,
Madras: 1909, Vol.1-7.p.207-222.
2. Carmichael, D.F. (1869) Manual of the District of Vizagapatnam in the
Presidency of Madras, Madras cited by ibid.
3. Ramdas, G., 'Porajas III', Man in India, vol.16, 1936, pp.243-258.
4. Mohanty, S.C., 'Paroja' In: Tribes of Orissa, Harijan, Tribal & Welfare
Department, Govt. of Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1990, pp.221-229.
5. Bell, R.C.S., Orissa District Gazetteer (Koraput), Cuttack, Government
Press, 1945.p.71-77.
6. Elwin, Verrier, The Muria and their Ghotul, Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 1947. p.14-19.
7. Carmichael, D.F. (1869) op.cit
8. Grierson, G.O.M. (1906) Linguistic Survey of India, Vol.I-IV.
9. Hayavadana Rao, C. cited by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and
Tribes of Southern India, Madras: 1909, Vol.1-7.
10. Ramdas, G., op.cit
11. Thusu, K.N. (1965) The Drurwa of Bastar
12. Brett, E.A.de (1939) C.P.Gazetteer-Chhattisgarh Feudatory States (Bastar)
pp.25-70.
13. Mohanty, S.C., op.cit
14. Bell, R.C.S., op.cit
15. Mohanty, S.C., op.cit
16. Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., op.cit.
17. Kornel Das (1999) Tribal Cultural Heritage and Cult. The Gutob Gadaba
Tribe of Orissa. p.5.
18. Sewell, Robert. (1900) A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) London. p.291
19. Ibid.p.319
20. Ibid.p.354 and 355
21. Singh Deo, K.B.Nandapur (A Forsaken Kingdom) Part I.p.6-7
SODIA PORAJA
The Sodia, Sodabissia or Bodo Chodia Poraja as the name implies were the
subjects close to Chodas, thus the name still survives.Ramdas(1936)(1), Thusu
(1965)(2) and Mohanty(1990)(3) have cited Bodo Poraja syn, Sodia Poraja in
their work. The Sodia are Bodo, eldest, or senior, which signified relative status
of Chodas. They have retained savisim cult and ‘Bhogi’ of present day south
Indian Pongal. It is the only tribe of Koraput, which celebrate ‘Bhogi’. Moreover,
physically they are having typical Dravidian sharp features. More research in
future can give a better linkage of the tribe to their roots in Tamil country. In
Dasmanthpur, there is a hill named Tamil Mali, where annually all tribes men
assemble to celebrate festival; moreover a Sodia village named Tamili still
survives in the area. The word Tamili that possibly was carried forward from
Choda period.
Sodia Porajas live in small hamlets in between hills where adequate water from
the springs is available. The tribe follows an elaborate process through religious
ceremonies to identify auspicious site for house construction. This is general but
serious process followed by all tribes in the district.
The preceding chapter amply proves the fact that Chodas had long years of
presence in Koraput-Bastar region. The present distribution of Sodia Poraja can
be taken as the original tract where Chodas once ruled. Amliamguda, Siva temple
is one important Siva temple of Choda period still survives; where a perennial
stream is flowing over the Siva linga is unique.
Sodia Poraja men and women in Amliamguda village

There is one clan among Sodia Poraja, named ‘Phulu’ the word means flower that
can be interpreted as ‘Palvas’ of past incorporated within Sodias fold. The
Chalukya Empire disappeared at the end of the twelfth century and the Chola
tottered at the beginning of the thirteenth.
Sodia porajas are dark complexion, medium height people. Many have curled
hairs. The nose is broad and tip is pointed and old people develop wrinkles. They
are muscular and have strong body. The Sodia have so far retained their cultural
identity and can be called as a homogenous population; they have maintained
their tribal identity and have avoided iner-tribal marriages with strict social
discipline. Most remarkable is the ornaments of aluminum that they still use and
some amount of brass rings that the married ladies adorn at the ear rim in row.
The hair dressing is very specific with some hair clip like functioning iron pin
ornaments at the hair bun is seen. The neck and wrist as well as ankle ornament
are becoming obsolete. Men have sparing beards and mustaches. The men are
mostly with bare body except for a loin cloth when they are in the village and
important men wear some sort of turban on the head when they leave villages.
The women wear saris upto knee length as that of Koraput original fashion. On
the whole they are clean and tidy people keep their homes regularly painted with
different colour soil even give golden soil paints. Every house tries to maintain a
small back yard for regular plantation of vegetable plants. They keep pigs,
poultry, sheep and goat along with cattle and buffaloes for agriculture purpose.
The Sodia porajas are very shy type of people who avoid social contact with out
side world and it is said in past years the communities used to go into forest at the
site of the officials; still they hide in close doors particularly the communities
located at remote villages.
Sodia Poraja traditional dress and ornaments

Bodo Sodia Poraja has similarly the following social divisions.
 Janis.
 Mudli.
 Bhath Bhoie
 Nayak
 Chalan
 Kirsani
 Kirsani Chalan
They have three totem called phulu means Niali Phula or flower, Bagh means
tiger and Nag or Nang means cobra snake. Ramdas (1936) (4) identified Bagh,
Nag, Phula, Goru (cattle) and Matso (fish) to totems for Bodo Porajas
The Sodia Poraja do not eat beef and in Dongar Puja that is celebrated once in
three years in some villages, the buffaloes sacrificed is given to the Doms but they
retain the sheep carcasses so offered; the heads of the sheep are offered to the
Pujari, in such cases it can be the Paiko families of the area who have heredity
rights. In years back they were perfuming purification rites at the death of
cow/cattle at home; by disposing of all earthen cooking utensils and final
purification on tenth day called dasa.This is very normal to some of the non-beef
eater tribes in the region too.
The tribe is fond of Landa, a drink prepared out of ragi or locally called mandia, a
small millet; and Pendum that is prepared from the rice fermentation .The guests
are treated generously with supply of plenty of food, meat and drinks, some time
drunk relatives unable to walk are seen off from the boundary of villages.
Gaon Hundi or Nisani is an important place for village subject where the village
religious institution assembles to give the offerings. This is marked with flat
stones and some erect flat stones lay in one corner of the village, During October
month in one of the Thursday the village celebrate Hundi Puja. It is a collective
village welfare ceremony. They offer one pig, one goat/sheep and generally two
fowls of which one is white and the other is black. New stones are occasionally
added to the shrine, so the Disari of the village gives the auspicious time and the
people collect suitable stone from the near by stream or preferably the river. The
Disari, Jani,Gurumai and the able body persons who have transported the said
selected stones are given one piece of white new cloth and the Jani performs the
rites by offering flowers,milk,puffed rice (lia)in five leaf plates, that is made of
Siadi fresh leaves. The stone is transported on Harda wood only. The Jani and
Gurumai (Bejuni) will draw square jantri by mandia flour on the floor and the said
leaf cups are placed before it in a line. No soru feeding is allowed here but only
rice is cooked for food.
Sodia tribe men can dine together with Rona, Paiko, Gonda, and Matia but not
with Bhattra, Omnyat, Bhumia, Sano Poraja, Gadaba, Kondh and Kottia
Paiko.Sano Poraja do eat food from the hands of Sodia porajas.
The Kondh tribe lives north to Sodia pali, Sano Poraja in south the Gadabas are in
the east and around them are the Paikos and Magadhia Goudas. The Sodiapali is
the area demarcated in Kakrigumma and adjacent as the main concentration of
Sodia Poraja; it along with the Pengo Poraja pati forms the Purvadesa of Rajendra
II as has been discussed. Bell has reffered Sodabissia Poroja in his work. (5)
The Sodias celebrate several festivals and village ceremonies that aim to build a
healthy life with out interference of evils and assure good harvest and pleasant life
(6).
The Chait Parab is the main festival of summer that lasts longer than month in
all around by all people in the Koraput district is very significant. This has a
major part of hunting expedition which lasts for more than a week by excusive
stay in the forest by all men of the village. The celebration is market by ample of
drinks, songs, music and dances.
Then it is followed by the initiation of agriculture through worship of the seeds. It

is called Bihan Puja; it has a family celebration as well as one village collective
ceremony. The village puja is celebrated at the Nissani mundi. They bring one
Gadisha variety fish from the near by stream along with a crab. The fish is
sacrificed but the crab is set free after puja. About two months after the rice
planted starts the Badan Parab where the families collect twigs of about 5 types
of plants and are erected straight in the center of each rice plot; that is to prevent
the rice crop from pest attack. The new harvest eating festival is also called Diali
Parab; and new rice along with other newly harvested vegetables of the year
along with fish is cooks and placed in a bamboo basket. Little wine is also mixed
to the food thus cooked and is fed to cattle in home including the bullocks. It is
some kind of thanks giving to livestock who have assisted for the harvest by
families.
The tribe itself celebrates the Nua khia or first new harvest eating ceremony in
Bhodo month, where they cook new paddy panicle along with ragi, pumpkin and
tagra roots from forest with tamarind and thence the village is allowed to begin
eating the new crops. People do not eat the new crops until the said ceremony is
complete.
The Sodia celebrate Jankar puja like the Konds. In Asadh month they offer
poultry and egg at the Jankar and the other is the Kandula Puja in Phalgun
month. The Pigeon pea is harvested in green for the occasion and is roasted in
where after they are allowed to pick Pigeon pea and cook. The have Semi or
Creeper Beans Puja in their calendar. The Semi is roasted in Bhogi fire and thus
the Bean eating ceremony concludes. These festivals are agriculture related once;
even they do Wild Bottle Gourd puja that is specific to the tribe. Wild Bottle
gourds of at least two shapes were used for decades as the utensils for serving
food and transporting pej or the gruel. This was universal to all tribes of Bastar-
Koraput but is fast replaced with the aluminum and now the brass and steel
utensils. The earthen wares prepared by Komars were the cooking utensils in
early years. Still the Sodia use the Wild Bottle Gourd for the purpose described
after a brief ceremony and offer of poultry in Margasir month.
The crops are harvested and thanks are given to mother earth and the snakes,
frogs etc that have watched the crops for safe harvest, It is called Khola puja.
The Sodia has a special affinity to Ragi crop and after the sowing operation of the
year is over they bring few healthy Ragi plants from their respective fields home
along with live crabs and sacrifice poultry; the crab is left unharmed and is
followed by fish catching in the river or stream near the village to cook and eat
there and then. Thus is end of the family celebration of Mutha Muklaieba. The
Chait Seed ceremony is celebrated collectively by the village at Nissan mundi.
The Pus parab is celebrated in Pus month full moon day with poultry offers.
Young people go around the village calling ‘Chera Chera’ and receive hand full
rice from each of the families that the cook to enjoy a feast. The Pus is delighted
with dance and music.
The Dongar Puja aims at satisfying the upland hill gods for good crops, thus the
buffaloes and sheep are offered; the tribe is environment conscious that the Hills
are unhappy to goats so they are not offered so do the cattle.
References
1. Ramdas, G. 'Porajas III', Man in India, vol.16, 1936, pp.243-258
2. Thusu, K.N. The Druwa of Bastar.
4. Ramdas, G.op.cit.
5. Bell, R.C.S. (1945) Orissa District Gazetteers, Koraput.p.72
6. Kornel Das. (1999)Livestock and Poultry Dynamics in Tribal Life
(Koraput) pp.15-22
PENGO PORAJA
The Pengo are also known as Pengo or Vengo Poraja, Hengo and Pengua.The
tribe has derived its name possibly from the Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas. The
main concentration of Pengo Porajas is Kashipur tehsil, north-east of Nowrangpur
and the bordering Kalahandi district of Orissa. They are also well distributed
along Indravati. The Pengo tract comprises of rugged hills and in plains on level
land. The settlement of Pengo villages are usually developed on open valley,
bottom surrounded by a number of hillocks. The hillocks serve the podu
cultivation land. To be specific, the Pengo tracts comprise the south-western
portion of Kashipur which extend towards the adjacent district of Kalahandi, as
well as covers the neighbouring Tentulikunti, Dasmantpur and Bhairabsingpur.
The Pengo tract here is too remote and more or less hilly. The other area, the
plain area is Borigumma, Nowrangpur and Papadahandi extending to some extent
towards adjacent Dabugam, Kodinga and Kotpad. Some Pengo speaking people
live in contagious district of Bastar in Chhattisgarh, near Jatgiri etc.
According to S.Bhattacharji (1964) the Pengo forms linguistically a distinct
group, quite separate from Kondh groups of the neighbour. (1) It is a separate
Dravidian family language and distinct from various Gondi speaking people. The
Pengos no longer speak their mother tongue (Thusa, 1977) (2). But I found the
older generations still continue to speak their original mother tongue.
Pengo women in Kasipur region

The Pengo Poraja has derived their identity from Eastern Chalukya of Vengi.
E.Chalukya dynasty orgined from Koraput region; the fact has been proved with
facts in my book ‘Dynasty History of United Koraput’.
The Pengo of Nowrangpur area claim they originally came from Tangrimali of
Dasmanthpur to the present habitat. A folk story prevalent among Pengo poraja
speaks of dispute of their prince with his uncle, so the prince along with his
subject came on elephant and settled here living the kingdom to uncle. They
conclude how two swords can remain in one case.
The present distribution of Pengo tribe also gives a fair indication where E.
Chalukya-Chola (Kulottunga I) ruled. Moreover, E. Chalukyas in the beginning
were ‘Jainas’, thus still Pengo have remnants of Jain religion state persisting
in their life and culture. This has been detailed out by Kornel and Gamang
(2009) (3).
The Pengo are classified into patrilineal and patrilocal social groupings. Some of
the clans are named from village of origin, even to the birds. The Khodinga clan
believed to have been derived from one-eyed man.
The tribe was first reported by Thurston and Rangachari (1909) (4) and had
divided in two groups, those who eat the flesh of buffalo and those who do not.
Thusu (1977) gave a detailed study report on phratries and clans of Pengo.
According to him there are 9 phratries and about 75 clans (5). They are
1. Cobra or Nang bonsh
2. Tiger phratry locally called Burke, and sub-groups is based on
different kinds of tigers
3. Tortoise phratry locally called Jeeria or Kacheem bonsh
4. Dog phratry or Nekur bonsh
5. Goat phratry or Bokra bonsh
6. Fox or Kolia bonsh
7. Monkey or Makund bonsh
8. Wild pig or Baria bonsh
The tiger sub-groups are
 Kobdia Bhag (i.e. a very big tiger)
 Bija palia
 Karla palia
 Matian Bhag (i.e. a big tiger)
 Dhani Bhag
 Patar Dakara (i.e. a small tiger) and Parjria.
This can some how include the Leopards, Royal Bengal Tiger and some more.
This is quite interesting to note. I am the opinion that they have taken the Eastern
Chalukya insignia of tiger on the flag or dhwaja.
Pengo women carrying Bali changdi

The classes are:
Aonlia, Bagria, Baplang/Baplia, Bendlag/Bendia, Bisalia, Bodiang/Bodia,
Burjakalia, Chechan, Chikiria, Chotiang/chotia, Dhurkalia/Dhurkalko, Dongeria,
Dumong/Rumig, Handangdang/Sandia, Hanguring/Chindguria, Hatwang/
Gumring/ Gumria, Hirkang, Hobering, Hordolia, Indanpuria, Jabin, Jodaphutia,
Kebolia, Kelating / Keltia, Khodinga, Kadrang / Kodria, Konang, Kosagadia,
Kotrugudia, Kubria, Kumbia / Kurumulia, Kuming, Kuminia / Kunini, Kumling,
Kumulia, Lomting /Longtia, Marlia, Manobaria, Kudak / Murkia, Nagi / Dudh
Nagia/ Nagia / Nagin / Nangla Bissing / Nangla Bissia, Navaganko/ Navogania/
Navagudia, Udring/ Odsia, Orjaria, Panjaria, Patarmandia, Peinkaria,Peinkarunia,
Podapalia/ Podaplang, Poding, Raming / Ramia, Retalli, San Kumilia, Sarapasia,
Satong, Sikria, Sindgurin / Sanjute, Sindia, Sirkang, Songia, Sukria / Hukding,
Sulia, Surja gadia, Tadiplang, Tagia, Tarak-mania, Tarunjang / Tarunjia, Tekring,
Tobapadar, Tokdong, Tokgudang / Tokgudia, Tolpangia, Tonjang / Tolengia,
Tudang, Tuilingia and Urdolia.
The Pengo are medium height thinly built dark complex people and mostly have
curly hair, which confirm to Dravidian features. They are slow to mix up but on
the whole are friendly people. The widow marriage is allowed.
The following are the Pengo village functionaries,

 Naiko - may be Pengo Jani
 Jani
 Ganda
 Sirha
 Muddali
 Pujari(s)
 Naria/Goud - village Goud
The Pengo are also known as ‘Jani’ in many areas. Thusa wrote; ‘the term Jani,
of course, is popularly taken for a priest even among the non-Pengo groups of
Orissa. But, while in the village of Kongu Majhiguda all the Pengo living in the
village is referred as the Jani, in Bhinujiguda/Narsinghpur village(s) they call
themselves, and are known to others, by such distinct terms as the Jani as well as
Muddali. According to the Pengo informants of the latter villages, the Jani (as
elsewhere) act as the priests of the shrines, while the Muddali are entrusted with
the cooking of meals etc. on public ceremonies, festivals etc. In their words the
Jani are the Pujari log while Muddali are the Randhari log. Furthermore, the
Muddali are said to be the ‘elder’ (Bodo) brothers, while the Jani are regarded as
‘younger’ (san) ones”. He further said that the sacred office of the Jani/Pujari are
continuing to function as of old, being hereditary in nature, while the secular
office of the Muddali is given a scant regard in their day-today life.
Dharni Khamb before Balighar Sirha Gadi

Religious functions
The village shrine is an important religious institution. It is to west of the village.
It is generally a piece of stone that is worshiped by Jani as a Thakurani. She is
worshiped on all Tuesdays. ‘Thakurani gudi’ is the important place of most
village functions. Puja is termed ‘seva’.
The most significant and remarkable one is the Bhima. This is represented by a
Sergi tree stump. It is fixed on the ground and stands about 2 to 3 feet tall. It is
under the shade of a tree, specially the large and very old ones and outskirt of the
village. The Bhima, at its proximal head is tied to a bamboo pole fixed close with
a flag on the top. New flag poles are hoasted on Diali when Geta of Cattle (neck
rope) is tied. Just close to it, a small rectangular stone buried that signifies the
‘Dharni’ or the earth god. The Bhima concept is most common and is spread all
through Nowrangpur to the Pengu pati, even in non-Pengo villages. This is also
called ‘Bhima Raja’ shrine. Some refer it as ‘Dharni Khamb’.
Pengo do not celebrate Chait parab, Pus purnima, Sivaratri, Ganesh and Saraswoti
Pujas, in most villages, as do some Koraput tribals.
Pengo Dishari Pengo Sirha in traditional dress
Most well known and important festival celebrated by Pengo tribe is Bali Jatra,
which falls on every 3 year. It is a festival of agriculture where seed is germinated
with puja offerings for better harvest prospectus to its subject. The festival is
followed collectively by 2 to 3 villages, which have common lineage or mati or
Dharni. The Balijatra is celebrated continuously for 9 days in Chaitra month in a
small house called ‘Baliguda’ and ‘Dharni Khamb’. Tamka Dhole, a very large
drum, very specific to the tribe is placed in the corner of the Baliguda. This
belongs to the village, and is played in festivals and marriages.
The main participating functionary in Bali Jatra is called Gurumai, but Pengo call
as Adnat. (6) Is it Adinatha of Jaina pantheon? A Gurumai is male or female, but
Sirha is male and both are to ward off evil and perform puja on behalf of the
village
Thrush remarked: “Similarly, those informants who are aware of the existence of
the Dhurwa (tribe) (and such Pengo informants are few in number) include them
(correctly) within the category of the Poraja. The Dhurwa are believed by such
Pengo informants to occupy a higher status than them in as much as the Pengo
accept cooked food from the hands of the Dhurwa (Poraja). Moreover, while a
few oral traditions are shared in common between the Pengo Poraja and the
Dhurwa, the present position is that not only their respective areas of dominance
lie far apart, but also both these groups constitute distinct linguistic and
endogamous units having practically no social interaction with one another,
excepting perhaps in the marginal areas, where possibly they intermingle,
territorially and culturally”(7).I am of the opinion that the Dhurwa tribal as
mentioned above are the subjects of Rastrakutas, and thus they are placed in
superior position to Eastern Chalukya Pengo.
Pengo Religious Drum Gurumaie on Kasta Doli (Thorn swing)
Pengo History
Pengo history is related to Vengi, Eastern Chalukyas and Chalukyan-Chodas and
there after their allies and vassals like Nagavamsis and others. Eastern Chalukya
presence in Koraput and Bastar is known from inscriptions. Subsequent Chola
invasion on Chakrakote by Virarajendra along with his nephew Rajendra
definitely brings up that Rajendra as prince ruled Purvadesa and may have
established his subjects from Vengi who were later known as Pengo Poraja which
is well illustrated from the following writings.
Nilakanta Sastri wrote, "At the time of his father death and the forcible seizure of
the Vengi throne by Vijaditya mentioned in the Ryali plates, Kulottunga, or
Rajendra, as he was then known, must have been a youth in his teens. For
considering he lived on to have a long rule of fifty years from A.D. 1070, it is
hardly likely that about A.D. 1062 he was more than twenty years of age. His
earliest Tamil inscriptions record certain facts that seem to indicate how Rajendra
engaged himself when he was thus kept out of his inheritance. If this view is
correct, we must conclude that Rajendra spent the best part of the period A.D.
1063-70 in the region of the modern Bastar state, and possibly even carved out for
himself a small dominion beyond it in the Purvadesa, even if he did not gain
complete control over the Chakrakuta state and annex parts of the Purvadesa to
it, as his inscriptions imply." (8)
Triumukkudal inscription implies an important fact that the Vengi region was
under the hold of the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Vengi ruler Vijaditya VII was
under subordinate position to W. Chalukyas.
Tirumukkudal record, Virarajendra corresponding to 1069 A.D., further describes
the advances of the Chola army close to the city of Vijayawada, which caused the
armies of the enemies to drink the water of the Godavari. On the banks of
Krishna, in a decisive battle Virarajendra inflicted a crushing defeat on the
Western Chalukya (9).
After this the Chola army and Virarajendra marched across Kalinga upto
Mahandragiri Mountain and then beyond to Chakrokottam (or Chakrakutam).
Virarajendra then bestowed free Vengi on Vijayditya (10).
As per literary work Vikramanakadeva Charita of Bilahan; Vengi and
Chakrakotam were conquered by Vikramaditya VI, during the time his father
Somesvara I was ruling. The Chola Virarajendra and Kulottunga I marched into
Chakrakutam region and defeated Vikramditya VI. Hereafter Virarajendra gave
his daughter to Vikramaditya VI and new relationship with the two major
dynasties established. (11).This history is around Chakrakote.
The Pengo folk stories in Nowrangpur area villages speak their prince left his
country to his uncle and came down here on an elephant. Then they say how two
swords can stay in one case? This is the story of Rajendra of E.Chalukya who
came to present day Koraput and carved Purvadesa. This is how Pengo Poraja of
Vengi came down here with Rajendra and Eastern Chalukyas. Moreover, I am
inclined to believe that Rajendra (Kulottunga I) had attraction for this region
because his E. Chalukya dynasty origined from here.
Reference
1. Bhattacharya, S. (1964) Linguist, Central India Station of Nagpur,
Anthropological Survey of India cited by Thusu, K.N. (1977) in The Pengo
Porajas of Koraput. Anthropological Survey of India, Calcutta page V.
2. Thusa, K.N (1977) The Pengo Porajas of Koraput, Anthropological Survey
of India, Calcutta
7. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K (1909) Castes and Tribes of Southern India,
Madras.
8 Sastri, K.A.N. The Cholas II, University of Madras p. 291 - 292.
9. Triumkkudal inscription, cited by M.Krishna Kumari in The Rules of The
Chalukya - Cholas in Andhradesa.p.13-14
10. EI XXIX. pp. 57-71.
11. EI XXI. pp. 232-332. & Ibid, IX, p. 179, n. 1 and 2; ARE, No.125 of 1900.
PURVADESA
Kulottunga I (Rajendra Chola) in Koraput-Bastar, 1069 A.D.
Rajendra Chola has been described as the conqueror of Purvadesam, Gangai and
Kadram, which is reflected in several inscriptions of his reign and of the reign of
his successors. An inscription of Virarajendra from Ramnad district refers to his
father who conquered Purvadesh, Gangai and Kadram (1). The Purvadesam has
been the most distant conquests of Rajendra, thus on this assumption Venkayya
had suggested it to be Vengi country (2). However, it has been identified that
Purvadesam to be east of Maikal range (3) and roughly corresponding to South
Koshala country. Nilakanta Sastri gave the above account.
At the time of his father’s demise, uncle Vijayaditya forcibly seized the throne of
Vengi and Kulottunga or Rajendra, as he was then known who was in his teens
was left out. His earliest Tamil inscription records certain facts that indicate how
Rajendra engaged himself when he was thus kept out of his inheritance. The
records of his second year state that, with the aid only of strength of his arms and
his swords, he overcame the treachery of his enemies, captured many herds of
elephants, levied tributes from the Nagavamsi king, Dharavars of Chakrakuta, and
gently raised the earth resembling the lotus expecting the rise of the sun for
blooming, as Visnu raised the Earth from the ocean in his boar incarnation, and
started her, to her great pleasure under the shade of his parasol (4). His records
soon came to describe these achievements as belonging to the period of his
ilangp-paruvam, “When he was still heir-apparent (5).Nilakanta Sastri wrote, “if
this view is correct, we must conclude that Rajendra spent the best part of the
period A.D. 1063-70 in the region of the modern Bastar state, and possible even
carved out for himself a small dominion beyond it in the Purvadesa, even if he did
not gain complete control over the Charkrakuta state and annex parts of the
Purvadesa to it, as his inscription imply.”
The records of Virarajendra state that, in the last years of his rule, Virarajendra
marched upto Chakrakote. It can thus be assumed that possible Kulottunga I
followed Virarajendra in his expedition to north. The reason why they conquered
Chakrakote is not clear. In the literary work of Vikramadevacharita, Bilahana
states that Vikramaditya VI had conquered Vengi and Chakrakote during the
lifetime of his father Somesvara I. Possibly with the intention of regaining the
countries, Cholas reconquered and met Chalukya forces at Chakrakote and
defeated them (6).
The following observation of P. Gopal clearly indicates the fact that Purvadesa
ruled by Rajendra was different than Chakrakote country.
He further wrote, “However, that Vikramaditya and Vira Rajendra met on the
battlefield near Chakrakuta appears to be correct. Soon after 1065 A.D., when
Vira Rajendra extended invitation to deferred Vengi which he had determined to
conquer, Vikramaditya must have proceeded there. The Chola records mention
the defeat of the Chalukya generals and also Jananatha of Dhara. It is silent of
Vikramaditya. At this period of time Rajendra (future Kulottunga I) was ruling
Purvadesa, close to Chakrakote (12).”
There are also references to Purvadesh in many literatures, including Western

Ganga inscriptions, which are detailed out in the later chapters.
The earliest record so far known is grant by the second ruler of the line, Madhava-
Varman I, the son of Konkani-Varman, recorded in the Sakarakota plates and
relating to a brahmadeya (gift to Bramhanas) in the Paru-Vishya (7). The next
genuine record as found in the Penukonda Plates of Madava-Varman II, the
grandson of Madhava I, referring to a brahmadeya in Paruvi-vishya (8). As per
Sastri the “Paru and Paruv are clearly variants of the same name, and are
represented by modern Pairgi, seven miles north of Hindupur in the Anantapur
district (9).”Sastri further wrote with reference to Gangas,”The earliest rulers of
the line, MadhavavarmanI, the son of Konkani-varman, recorded in the
Sasanakota Plates and relating to a branch brhmadeya ( gift to Brahmanas) in the
Paru-vishaya (10). The next genuine record is found in Penukonda plates of
Madhva-varman II, the grandson of Madhava I, referring to a brhmadeya in Pruvi-
vishaya (11)
The local inhabitants of Koraput call Tamilians by name, ‘Arua’ or ‘Parua’. The
Parua is also the other name of ‘Doves’. If we take the later word and meaning,
paruvadesa means country of ‘doves’, peaceful non-violent country. The Arua or
Paruva can also be the ‘Tamil Country’.
The other references to Puruva-desh are
Gaudi language used in Purva-desh, i.e. the eastern country. (12). Bhaiksuki that
was the writing of the Budha (i.e. the Buddhists) used in Udunpur in Purvadesa.
(13)
It implies thus that Purvadesha was in the present undivided Koraput district of
Orissa and some area contiguous in the Bastar district. The Pengo porajas were
known subjects of Chalukyas of Vengi and Sodia porajas were that of Chodas. In
the context of Rajendra II (future Kulottunga I) who hailed from Chalukyas of

Vengi royal family and Choda being his mother’s family, and was later adapted
into Choda ruling family had the opportune of ruling; the area originally inhabit
by Pengo porajas as well as the Sodia porajas. The Pengo region was called Pengo
Patti and that of Sodias was Sodia Pali; when both joined together it was the
Purvadeasa of Rajendra II in Koraput-Bastar region of the past.
Reference
1. A.S.I., 1911-12 p.172 n.1

2. Fleet Gupta Inscriptions p.192 n.1; E.I. ix. p.283. S.I.I., iii p. 110 of
1908
3. S.I.I. III 64-7, as per Hiralal, EI. IX p.179 n. 1& 2.
4. S.I.I., III p. 132
5. S.I.I. III, 68
6. E.I., Vol XXI, p.232-33, Ibid, Vol IX, p.179, n. 1& 2, ARE No. 125
of 1900
7. E.I. XXIV, 234-8
8. Ibid XIV, 331-6.
9. Sastri, K.A.N. Gangas; in Majumdar,R.C. and Alter, A.S. (Edi.) The
Vakataka-Gupta Ages, p.248
10. E.I.XXIV, p., 234-9.
11. E.I.XIV, p.331-6
12. Sachu, Alberuni’s India, Vlo. I, P. 173.
13. Bhaiksuki that was the writing of the Budha (i.e. the Buddhists) used
in Udunpur in Purvadesa.
ANCHOLAGUMMA
Ancholagumma is a fairly large village is located in Tentulikhunti block of

Nowrangpur in the district of Koraput. It is well known all around due to its large
archeological remains. I am of the opinion that the village was founded by
Rajendra Chola deva who was known in his prasastis as Ko-Parakesarivarman
alias Udaiyar Sri-Rajendra-Chola-deva.the Cholas (1) and the name justifies them
as well. It was the Ko-Chola-gumma of the past and is now known as Un-Chola-
gumma. We presume from the temple and ponds and other archeological findings
that it was the former headquarters of the Chola Purvadesha of Rajendra I and
Kulottunga I who ruled for about seven years as a prince ruler during their
expedition of the east and invasion of Chakrakote.The fact that Rajendra I had
conquered Chakrakote on his way to Ganges supports the hypothesis of
Ancholagumma being the former headquarters of Rajenra I and later of
Kulottunga I as prince.
Ancholagumma Bodo-bondho Siva Linga on the bunds of Bodo-bondho
Siva with Bull, typical Choda Silahara Jimtavahahana, with Garuda?

sculpture, Chitrakuta
At the entrance to the village Ancholagumma, the first street is the Pujari sahi that
has the ancient Siva temple having’ Panchamukha linga’. I have come across two
more Panchamukha Siva temples in Koraput district; one is in Jeypore, the other
is in Kalyana Singapur.
Ancholagumma has many ponds; but the twin pond located in the middle of the
village is of significance. The stone paved large pond is called Bodo-bondho and
may have been used by the royalty in the past, Over the bund of the pond has an
ancient Siva linga made up of Black granite reminds of the past history. The other
pond besides it is called Khajuribandha.
One kilometer to the north of Ancholagumma is the village Chitrakuta, it is also

known as Beriguda gaon. The village is historically significant and is close to
River Indravati.The villagers report frequent unearth of swords and other weapons
during tillering of the fields or during construction of new houses. The large sized
ancient bricks as found in Podagada are also frequently noticed. The village has a
beautiful carved Siva with standing bull behind along with another idol of warrior
holding a child is still being worshiped in the village. The Siva idol is a beautiful
granite piece and can be ascribed to Cholas. The warrior may be a Chola king or a
Chalukya and very similar bust is seen in another village of Umerkote. The same
village has a small pond and the villagers point out and say in good olden days the
village was celebrating Chandana jatra that was mostly followed by Eastern
Ganga kings.
From Ancholagumma one can go to eastern direction and reach to Mengra

Patraput. It is an old village of Paikos, Sundis, Gonds and the Pengo etc. This
village to its northern end has one large jodi, one Siva temple and two more
village deities. The north road leads to Podagada at Timanpur. As usual this is a
raised flat ground now, there are trees, one small place with small stones raised
and worshiped with a tantric pitha with animal sacrifice. Weekly twice worship is
given here. The Jharigumma hill is visible to its east. This is also called
‘Nitanipur’. Over the Jharigumma hill is one broken fort, the entrance door still
there. It is worshiped annually and is called ‘Devipitha Godapadarani’. This is
having a good population of Pengo.
The Pengo now identify into Jhoria, some call themselves ‘Mudli’ and some
‘Jani’. There are inter marriages, but of less frequency. The Jani and Mudli are
slowly segregating and do not like to be called Poraja also, and feel superior to
Pengo.
References
1. S.I.I., Tirumalai Inscriptions. P.94-99.

2. Sastri,K.A. Nilakanta., The Colas,p.206-08
ANCHALA
The village is located on the Borigumma-Nowrangpur roadside. It is postulated to

be fund by Cholas, thus is named as An-Chola or Anchala as is called now.
Before entering the said village there is a small hill, flat on the top, without
stones, and slopping with a comfortable gradient. The top of the hill is a flat
circular area connected with flat land behind. This hill is called ‘Manda Kupli’.
There is one stone pillar of about three to four feet standing erect at its centre; this
has been encountered as Siva linga but actually not. Before it the villagers have
placed one small ‘brusha’. It is surrounded with 4 broken walls. The bricks are
large size as seen in the ancient city of Podagada and elsewhere in the district.
To the east of the Manda Kupli under low and deep ingredient lies the Anchola
village, it has one large street going down like in gradient fall and then makes a
loop and appears back. ‘Halva or Pentia tribe’ mainly inhabitat the village. To
the south and south-east, of the village there are twin ponds. One close to the
village is called ‘Bodo Bandha’; another close to Kupli is called ‘Mati Bandha’.
There is large granite ‘Siva linga’ at the Bado- Bandha. This is styled like that of
the south India. There is Bodo Dangar hill to its south and ‘Bhalu pahada’ to its
northwest end. The north and northeast one ‘jodi’ is flowing with perennial
water.
The hills of Bhairab Singhpur and Kumuli area are prominently visible from the
Manda Kupli to its east and in between are the plain paddy lands. The Kupli is in
the centre of a large patch of plain land and villages. The scenery is so beautiful
that one cannot leave the top place of the Manda Kupli so easily. It is most
charming. The Anchola people can walk down to village Dubli, then Mundaguda,
Murja and then to Kathargada.
‘Manda Kupli’ top in Anchala village A Brusha in Manda Kupli
Anchala village Siva temple Brushas Anchala village Siva temple Brusha, side
view
Anchala village Siva Linga Dorsal view of Brusha in Anchala. Manda Kupli Pillar?
A warrior King is worshipped in between Papdahandia and Umerkote Villages.

Name not known
The Manda Kupli reminds of “the Kondapadumatis’. They were subordinate to

the Chalukyas of Vengi and later on to the Chalukya-Cholas. They had secured an
important military success over the Kalinga and Telugu Chodas. Manda I , was a
subordinate of the Kulottunga I.(1) Manda II…… was a military officer who on
behalf of Velanti Rajendra Choda appears to have fought a battle with the Gangas
of Kalinga (2).I am of the opinion that the Manda Kupli may have been named
after Manda, the military officer as said above.
References
1. Yasodha Devi cited 327 of 1932-33

2. A.R.1915,part II para 54
GUMMA AND HISTORY
The Chola invaded Chakrakote and ruled the area; later carved a kingdom in the
area named Purva-desha which was ruled by prince Kulottunga I for 7 years of his
stay.
I am inclined to place the hypothesis that Cholas ruled all localities that has
‘Gumma’ at pre and postfix in Koraput, Gajapati and Phulbani districts of Orissa.
Thus, the possible entry of Chola army was from Godavari by crossing over
Sileru river and ruled Kudumulu Gumma of Balimela region and it extended to
Kotapad-Borigumma, Anchala. Anchala Gumma in Tentulikhunti close to
Papdahandi (Nawarangpur) and then on the Eastern Ghat the ‘Gumma’ village of
Rayagada region well within the Kashipur circle only. Further it extended to
Kakrigumma. There is existence of another Gumma block in the present Gajapati
district, which is also close to another Kashipur. I think after successful invasion
of Mahendragiri, Chola King Virachoda established principality close in Kalinga
country. The said area has archeological, nomenclature and historical evidence
along with its Dravidian subjects. It seems Semiliguda-Patangi-Nandapore did not
come under Chola dominion of Purvadesha.
Desia-Kondhs of Laxmipur area, on hills once in 3 years celebrate ‘Gumma puja’.

It is in Magaha month. Gumma is a stone, standing erect like ‘Linga’. It can also
be derived that Gumma is a ‘Siva linga on hills’. The Borigumma had innumerous
Siva temples with a special type of Siva lingas, with deep in the soil still exist.
These lingas are cylindrical and area about 2 to 3 ft. tall and most of it is inside
soil. It is the same for all villages with suffix Gumma.
The Chodas were close to Sodia Porajas where as the Chalukya of Vengi as well
as the Chalukya-Chodas was closely allied to Pengo Porajas of Koraput. The
Kondhs and Koyas came from South India to the district along with Chodas and
settled here. The Kondhs did change their alliance between Chodas and
Chalukyas along with the subordinate dynasty rulers who ruled the region
subsequently. The Koyas and Madias of Bastar came in the trains of Rajendra
Choda and settled here.
JHODIA
The word ‘Jhodia’ is well known to Historians. Many different tribes in Bastar-
Orissa region do identify themselves with the name Jhodia and Jhorias. But clarity
on Jhodia is lacking.
Jhodia is possibly relevant to a region and also to a group of tribe possibly
inhabitated in that region in early times and thus carry forward the name.
Hislop says “In Bastar, the Madias are also called Jhorias, probably from Jhodi, a
brook” (1)
Dalton derived the word Maria from the Gondi term from a tree, mara, says the
‘Maria’ are also called Jhoria, from ‘Jhodi’, a brook (2). The word Jhoria is found
as the name of the wilder sub-divisions of several tribes in the Central Provinces,
and there is a section of the Poroja of Orissa called Jhoria (3).
Elwin wrote, “I visited some Jhoria villages in Koraput district in 1944. They are
attractive people, but they bear no resemblance to the Bastar Jhoria” (4).
The villages in Bastar and Koraput area, mostly of forest and hill locations are
always along the flow of perennial water called Jhori or Jhodi. The best such
locations are distributed at present with hill Kondhs and Malis in Koraput district.
This is certainly the most ideal situation to locate a village. The vegetable grower,
Malis are always located in such localities, under the hills. This is an advantage
they have in comparison to their neighbours. This may be one reason, how the
terminology of ‘Jhodia’ has come to being.
Jhoria Muria
Glasfurd to whom he described as ‘Jhoorias’, he says (para 86) “The Jhoorias are
found principally in the north-western parts about Narayenpoor and Purtabpore,
and extended towards Kakeir (Kanker); they are a numerous class, and subsist
partly by cultivation and partly by hunting, and on the fruits of the forest. Their
dress resembles that of the following caste, the Marias, with whom they may be
said to constitute about a third or more of the population of the Bustar
dependency, and whom they resemble in customs and appearance”.(5)
I am tending to believe that Jhodia are some way a syn. of name of Western
Chalukyas. The Jeypore region was also known as Jharakhanda and in 18th
century was known as Jhodia Jeypore. Kings of Jeypore state were using title of
Jhadakhand raja. The Jharkhanda, newly formed State in central India has lot of
Jain religion and Western Chalukyas invaded this region in the past.
Grigson wrote, “By Marias he (Glasfurd) meant primarily those whom this book
terms the Bison-horn Marias, from whom he rightly distinguished the Marias of
the Abhujmar mountains, whom he designated ‘Marees’. His remarks on Jhorias
are fairly true if is borne in mind that it is the Abhujmar Marias whom they
resemble, not the Bison-horn, and that he is wrong in extending this country to
include north Antagarh around Parotabpur as well as the country around
Narainpur. The name Jhorias is not as the country around Narainpur. The name
Jhorias is not ordinarily used in conversation, since all Koitor in Bastar who have
raised them socially above the Muria standard now days call themselves Murias.
Here it is revived as a convenient term for that very distinct type of ‘Muria’ living
around Narainpur and Benur, and the lower valley of the Gudra from a little north
of Chhota Dongar to the Indrawati. It strictly speaking applies to the inhabitants
of the parganas of Jhoria and Ghat Jhorian; but almost all of Ghat Jhorian was
depopulated when the bulk of the pargana was included in the Matla Forest
Reserve. I should now define as Jhoria Murias or Jhorias the Koitor inhabiting
the south of the Kolur pargana, the Ghat Jhorian, Jhorian, Baragaon, Narainpur,
Dugal, Kurangal and Benur parganas, the plains villages of the Chhota Dongar
pargana of Antagarh, and the Mardapal pargana of Kondagaon, which lies to the
east of the Chhota Dongar pargana. On the ethnographic map all Murias have
been shown by the letter D, and the Jhorias by the letter G; in my view the Jhorias
are really Marias who have descended from the hills and come into contact with
Koitor from the north, the ‘Murias’ of northern Bastar.”(6)
Elwin wrote, “Unfortunately the word ‘Jhoria’ is no longer in use, for it would
have been a convenient term to describe this distinctive and delightful people. At
the present time, some eighty years after Glasfurd wrote, the Muria of Partabpur
do not seem to be properly classed with the ‘Jhoria’, nor showed the world
‘Naryanpur’ be used in this connexion. Both in the Partabpur Tahsil and the
immediate vicinity of Naryanpur, alien influence has been too strong; the
characteristic signs of the Jhoria are there, but they are sadly weakened. At the
present time, there are Jhoria living in the Ghat Jhorian, Jhorian, Baragaon,
Narayanpur (except near the town), Dugal and Karangal Paraganas, the west of
the Benur Pargana, the east or plains area of the Chota Dongar Pargana and the
Mardapal, Chalka and a few villages of the Sonawal and Bamni Pargana in the
Kondagaon Tahsil.”(7)
The word Jhodia in Koraput by Jhodia or Sano Porajas signifies to mean a type of
tree, which belongs to the Ficus genera and belongs to specie called Jhodia (Ficus
infectoria). Every Jhodia village has a Nissanmundi, the sacred place with few
pieces of flat stones laid vertically and few flat; and invariably they plant a Ficus
infectoria or Jhodi tree at its end. The Jhodi tree concept and holiness to the
Jhodia tribe is same as Hindus adorn to Ficus religiosa (Batagacha) and Ficus
pipal (Pippal gacha). The Jhodi tree has oozing of milk like Ficus genera. The
leaves are dark green stay thus round the year. During February, it sheds its
leaves, and quickly within a week the tree is full with tender green leaves again.
The fruit is like the shape and size of Ficus religiosa but is bright yellow in
colour. The chicken of the village eat the ripen berries fallen over the floor. I
believe due to the religious attachment of the Jhodi tree the said tribal group of
Porojas is known as Jhodia Poroja. The Jhodia tree is the ‘Kevala tree’ of Jain
Tirthankars.
Jhadesvana: Jhadesvana is identical with Jhade of Kasikhandam, said to have
been subdued by Allada’s son Vema. It means a great forest. Even at the present
day the rulers of the Jeypore estate are known as Jhadkhand-padashahs, the lord
of Jhadkhand. It has been a little of the kings of Nandapura, Kommaji Somanatha,
the protégé of Dhanamjaya Dhatraja, King of Parvatipuram, states, in his work
Vichitra Ramayana, that his patron obtained royal honors from Vikramadeva
Gajapati (of the 19th century), the Jhadkhand-padushah of Nandapur. Jhadesavana
or Jhadkhand is identical in the ancient Mahakantara ruled by Vyaghraraja who is
referred to in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta (8).
This Jhada comprise the modern talukas of Parvatipuram and Babbili and at least
a great portion, if not whole, of the Jeypore state. It is said that Nandapuram in the
Pottangi taluk was the ancient capital of Jeypore, and the name of the dynasty
which ruled over it was Silavamsa. Nandapuresa, who is said to have been
defeated by Allaya Vema in the Sivalilavilasam, was therefore the king of Jhada
(Jhadesavana) and belonged to the Silavamsa’. The existence of the dynasty is
known only from six or seven – records which registered gifts of its member in
two holy places, one at Simhachalam and the other at Srikuramam. It was the king
of Jhadesvana or Nandapura who was defeated by Allada Reddi and his son,
Vema Reddi. (9)
As seen from the above in other words, it can also be concluded that the Porajas
inhabited in Jhadesvana has derived the name Jhodia along with their past ruler.
JHODIA PORAJA OF KORAPUT
The Bodo and Sano Porajas physically closely resemble to each other. They are
distinct from Austro-Asiatic people like Gadaba and Sabara. Strikingly they differ
from neighboring Kondhs.
In some populations of Jhodia Porajas they have somewhat light skin complexion
but generally they are all dark skin complexion people. The population shows
homogenous physical features.
Jhodia men Jhodia women
They are medium in height. The head is long. The nose is broad but sharp at the
tip. The men’s chest is hairless. The beards and mustaches are like mongoloid
pattern. The hair on the head is straight but curly types are also met. The elderly
people show wrinkles in face, near eyes and sometimes at forehead. The women
are slim and sleek. The thigh and calf are well developed. The women are
attractive with bright large eyes and smiling. The innocent smiling woman is
captivating and elderly women are full of love. They are warm people to friends
and relatives.
Mohanty (1990)(10) have recorded exogamous totemic septs (clans) such as Bagh
(Tiger), Kachhim (Tortoise), Bokada (Goat), Netam (Dog), Gohi (Lizard), Pandki
(Dove), Bedia, Moria, Sodria, Haikaria, Chemia and so on. They highly respect
their respective totemic species and observe taboo The Jhodia Poroja have the
following divisions in their society based on duties (11), which were allocated
since ancient period when the tribe group started developing.
They are:
 Jani
 Mudli
 Bhalodi or Bhoie
 Kirsani
 Narangi, some claim,
 Karanjia
 Bodonayak
 Nayak
 Pujari
.
They live in Koraput hills that includes the northern end of Koraput block, with
contagious to Kakrigumma of Laxmipur block. The main concentration village is
Naranga, Karta, Alnamundi, Anchalguda, Bhatriguda, Doliambo, Lenduruguda,
Tolomali, Kusaguda, Jholajaniguda, Puki, Tamili, Bilanseel, Podaieput,
Bekanigal, Chottaguda Bandaguda, Lalgeda, Aktaguda, Barguda, Sukataput,
Mujang, Bakdaguda, Khajariput, Bhilaput, Podagad, Punjiseel, Litiguda,
Bodomaliguda, Chakali, Mainamal, Bariguda, Purimund, Batseel, Dengajaniguda
Khajariput, and Bhilaput etc.
Jhodia villages do exist in plains of Jeypore. I know personally several of them

are married in Jhodia community on the uphill of Kolab Dam and vice versa.
There is another large concentration of Jhodia Porojas around Kashipur region of

present Rayagada district. This group proudly identifies, as Jhodia Poraja and now
they are fighting for their Schedule Tribe status. The Porojas are approved
Scheduled Tribe but not as Jhodia Poroja.
Jhodia village Sodor with stone plates Jhodia houses and a street
The Jhodia Poroja of Girli area, Damanthpur call them Barang Poroja and don’t
like to be referred as Jhodia Porojas. There is some settlement of Barang Poroja
north of Nandapur region and contiguous to Padua. Thurston and Rangachari

loc.cit. referred them as Barang Jhodia Porojas and have described few
interesting notes on them. (12)
However, both Ulaka (1965) (13) and Mohanty (1990) (14) have placed argument
that accounting the economic status the Poroja are divided into two sections, as
Bodo and Sano Poroja. The former group claims higher position in social ranking
over the later. This is no more valid after this study.
‘Jainis’ to celebrate Nandi puja Dhemsa dance of Jhodia women
The Jhodia construct village on an elevated place and close to water point. The
settlement pattern in the village is as a rule independent of any kind of status or
position. The regular streets are narrow, based on availability of space and land;
mostly paved with stones to facilitate the regular flow of rain water. The houses
are constructed as wall to wall close to each other in a row and the space in front
forms the street. Generally it can be two rows of houses having a common street
but one-line houses forming a street in front is also not uncommon. Behind the
house there is little space which serves the cattle byres and sheep-goat close
sheds. However, pig sty is built under the veranda with wooden planks or even at
a corner if a small space is available. This is to make sure that pigs are protected
from predators. The houses are made up mud wall, but now a day they use bricks
and roof is thatched with rice straw or forest grass lay over bamboo frame. The
roof slants in gradient equally on both the sides that is efficient to drain rainwater.
Now days the roof is due to asbestos, tile or tin sheets.
The housing pattern indicates that Poraja are very individualistic in family life but
live in single community structure.
The village has comparatively large number of dogs moving open. The tribe has
special affinity to dogs and so finds a responsible place in Nandipuja celebration,
which is strange. The usual site in a Poraja village is free moving dogs, pigs and
poultry in streets and if it is winter season then kids and lambs are around.
Village Institutions
Ulaka (1976) (15) wrote, “there are mainly two important places in each Poraja
village. One is known as Berana Munda and the other Nisani Munda. A
constellation of some circular stone slabs lying at the center of the village is called
Berana Munda. The Poraja denote this place as Mandu Dand, which lies in front
of the house of village Headman. The people of the village gather at Berana
Munda or village assembly and discuss matters relating to the village and the
festival observed in the village. The village sanctuary in which the deity called
Hundi debata is installed is called Nisani Munda. It is made up of stone slabs and
encircled by Menhers, which are fixed erect on the ground round the shrine.
Hundidevta consists of an earthen pot and a chopping tool made up iron and an
iron pole, which is fixed, into the ground ever since the village was established.
The iron pole is kept fixed and undisturbed in its original position. But the earthen
pot and iron chopper are replaced with new once thrice in a year, once in the
month of Srabana), and once during any ‘Nuakhia’ (new harvest eating)
ceremony or just before Chaita Paraba, and finally at the end of the year in
accompaniment with proper rituals and ceremonies. The main element of the
ritual complex consists of offering to the deity of animals such as fowls, goat and
pig which are sacrificed with the help of the new iron chopper.”
The other village institution that is special to the tribe is dormitory for unmarried
youths, the boy’s dormitory is called Dhangda – Basaghar and for young ladies is
Dhangadi-Basaghar. All adolescent unmarried boys’ and young women, sleep in
their respective dormitory, but girls sleep under the supervision of an elderly
widow. Divorced and young widows also join the dormitory. On the onset of
evening the young people come together and play drums and dance in front of the
dormitory (Berana Munda) and then retire to sleep. This event is very common in
all seasons except rains. The Porajas love to sing songs and skilled to make
poetry. A question and answer type of song competition (Laga Gita) with one
another in a group of young men and women is common to the tribe.
Social Structure
The administrative structure of Jhodia Poraja village consists of

 Jani
 Muduli
 Disari
 Gunia
 Gurumai and
 Bhatanayaka
Jani is the hereditary village priest. The eldest son of the Janis takes over the
position when it is vacant. He is also the custodian of the village welfare and
responsible for village based religious ceremonies. They are very responsible
people and act patiently in a team. The team organization is set up on common
understanding arrived by the community. Muduli is another village chief. He is in
charge of all affairs concerning village and community. He is the leader and the
center to all villages’ activities. The Muduli is also hereditary position.
Chalan is a responsible person who acts as per the guidance of by Jani and
Muduli and peruses the community, to follow or implement as the case may be.
Disari is the chief diagnostic personnel who prevents the evil spirits and harm
there of to village subjects. He can work for other villages on request. They work
for such issues at family level also. Disari predicts auspicious dates and times for
village community celebrations and social functions to families.
Gunia is a sorcerer and also medicine person. They utter mantras to relive evil
spirit, pain on subjects, even work on the advice of Disari. He tries to cure the
illness by herbal medicine. But I have also seen the Disari doing same practices.
They even work on sick patients and trickily show them how they have removed
bones, glass etc, from the body of patients. They charge some amount of fees,
rice, chicken and wine etc. to the patients for their services.
Gurumai is an elderly women priest, most have jolted hair and people pay
respects with fear. They perform ‘Bat Viva’ an elaborate ceremony. The patient
and his family reach out skirt of the village and wait at the junction of roads. She
does the marriage of the evil spirit of the patient or village with another, a good
spirit, and thus orders them to leave the patient and make promise that they shall
not disturb the village subject and allow peace to prevail. The Gurumai also take
up small puja assignment in homes of the families. The Gurumai can be more
than one in a village. They are important in Nandi Puja performance of Jhadia
Porajas. People respect her but some kind of fear is seen. Many men do not like
that their wives to be Gurumai. I have seen in one Nandi, a Jhodia person beating
his wife to refrain her joining the group of Gurumai, but she defied him.
Memorial pillars for women in Jhodia Poraja Famous Dhemsa Dance of Jhodias
Hill puja of Jhodia Porajas ‘Bat Viva’ ceremony swing
Bhatanayak: a cluster of village may have one Bhatanayak. The office of

Bhatanayak is only to induct those members of the community who were debarred
by the respective community and declared out caste. When a person is out caste it
implies to all members of his or her family.
Outcasting is due to marriage in another caste or tribe, beaten by Domb caste

person, bitten by dogs, or injury by tiger, maggot wound on the body etc.
The Bhatnaik readmits the person into the community by performing purification
rites. In addition to the cost of rites the outcastee has to contribute one pig, a goat,
fowls, rice and some cash, which is spent for a village feast. All village people
join and work together for the feast.
The following steps are followed in purification rites. The Bhatnayak takes the
outcaste to a river or stream as available close to the village. The head of the
person is clean shaved. There after Bhatnayak sprinkles cow dung diluted water
over him, and bathes him in the river water. After that, the person is asked to
touch a hot gold ring with his tongue. This ritual finally allows the persons him
readmittance into the caste and society.
The Bhatnayak first eats the feast food and all follow him. A five rupee is placed
underneath the leaf plate on which food is served to Bhatnayak. This money is a
gift to Bhatnayak.
In turn Bhatnayak receives one piece of new clothe, ten rupees, one kg each of
rice and ragi from the concerned person for his religious services.
Moda dhangada: In poraja villages there are hereditary position to families who
are allowed to perform certain last rites to community members and they are four
such members. They join together and remove the dead person from the house
and later they do all that skills required to burn or otherwise bury the dead.
Reference
1. Hislop, Stephen (1866) aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces, R.

Temple ed. Nagpur.
2. Dalton, E.T. (1872) Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, Calcutta.
3. Bose, P.N. Chattisgar: Noted on its tribes, sects and castes.JASB,
Vol.LIX9 1890).Part I, p.283 (cited by Verrier Elwin in Muria and their
Ghotul, p.15) & G.Ramdas.Porojas.Man in India. Vol.XI.p.247.
4. Elwin V. (1954) The Muria and their Ghotul.Oxford University
Press.p.14-19.
5. Glasfurd, C.L.R. (1862) Report on the Dependency of Bustar.
6. Grigson, W.V.The Maria Gonds of Bastar, Oxford University Press.p. 44-
47.
7. Elwin, V. (1954) Tribal Myths of Orissa. Oxford University Press.
8. Fleet’s Gupta Inscription.p.7, 1, 19.
9. Sharma, M.Somasekhar (1933) History of the Reddi Kingdoms. Trinethra
Publications, Srisailam. p.137.
11. Kornel Das. (1999)Livestock and Poultry Dynamics in Tribal Life
(Koraput) pp.15-22
Madras: 1909, Vol.1-7, Poroja p 207-222.
13 Ulaka Rama Chandra (1976). The Social Life of the Paraja. Adibasi. Vol
XVI, No.2, July 1976. p. 21-32.
15. Ulaka Rama Chandra (1976). op.cit.
Background and History behind Jhodia Porajas

We are of the opinion that the Jhodia is one of the oldest cultures of Koraput and
may have come through the time along with Sabaras. Russell and Hiralal are of
the opinion that the Parjas ( of Bastar) appear to represent the oldest Gond settlers
who were subdued by later immigration of the rest.(1) Glassfurd (1862) had
indicated two main concentration of Tugara and Parja in Bastar State (2).Brett
(1909)said, ‘The two sub-tribes of the Parja or Dhurwa, namely,Peng and
Mundra, removed to Jeypore( included under Koraput district of Orissa)(3)”.This
statement is also confirmed by Russell and Hiralal(1916) who mention that out of
three divisions of the Parja tribes, only Tagra or Thankar is found in Bastar(4). He
was of the opinion that the Parja is the oldest inhabitants of Bastar and later others
replaced their territory. The other part of the history may have a linkage to
Ikshvakus in Koraput and may have associated for long time with Western
Chalukyas. The Western Chalukyas with whom the title insignia Jhodia must have
traveled with history. It may have traversed through Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj,
Keonjhar and Bastar settled in Trikalinga region of past. It must have also seen
the good days with Eastern Chalukya and then went along with Nolambos and
Western Gangas and some how settled peacefully for some period along with
Eastern Gangas. It did not go well with Chodas and preferred the title Sano Poraja
and until Kulottunga I reigned. Along the historical settings of Jhodia Porajas,
Jainism persistently remained and still glimpses of it continue after centuries.
Good people as they are often referred timid for goodness live and dance and sing
the life and live peacefully; gentle civilized with plentiful of humanity with great
poetry with them. They have enriched the name, civilisation, and Koraput.
References
1. Russell, R.V. and Hiralal. Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of
India.Vol.III.p.62
2. Glassfurd, C.L.R. (1862) Report on the Dependency of Bustar, Tribes and
Castes.
3. Brett, E.A.de. C.P. Gazetteer- Chhattisgarh Feudatory States (Bastar)
pp.25-70.
4. Russell, R.V. and Hiralal. Ibid.
KONDH
The Kondhs are one of the largest tribal groups in Orissa. There are
about 400,000 kuvi speaking Kondhs distributed on the hills of
northern Koraput district; but it is interesting to note that Kondhs are found all
through the district.. They have been spelled as Kond, Khond, Khand or Kondh,
and Kandha. The word Kondh has come from the word Konda, means hills in
Telugu. MacPherson (1863)(1), Campbell (1864)(2), Thurston and Rangachari
(1908)(3) Bell (1945)(4), Niggemeyer (1964)(5), Banerjee (1969)(6), Boal
(1982)(7) and Patanaik et al. (1982)(8) have reported most aspects of Kondh life
and living. In recent years Jena et al. (2006) have described in detail the Kuttia
Kondh in their title ‘Forest Tribes of Orissa,Vol.2’(9).
The Kondh tribe as a whole can be classified under the following headings:
 Maliah Kondhs live in Phulbani and Ganjam districts. They speak Kui a
Dravidian language.
 Kuttia Kondhs dwell in remote hills in the extreme south-west of
Phulbani district and continue westward and descends to Ambadola of
Rayagada and Bisamcuttack.
 Dongria Kondhs inhibit the steep hills of the Niyamgiri Range of
northwest Koraput district bordering Kalahandi.
 Kuvi Kondhs villages spread over the hills and valleys of north Koraput
district.
 Desia Kondhs are said to be migrant groups of Maliah Kondhs. Local
population of non-tribes influences them. They are found mainly below
the Eastern Ghats and the costal plains.
Jena et al. (2002) wrote, ‘The Dongria Kondh live in mountain villages in higher
altitudes and they move down for marketing and for attending office jobs. The
Kuttia Kondh inhabits the foot hills and the Desia Kondh are plains men.’(10).
Some Observations on Kondhs

The Kondhs believe their spiritual traditions as the foundation to their survival
and development. McPherson in 18th Century gave a detail account of Khonds
religious activities with reference to Meriah (human sacrifice) investigation and
prevention. The first contact to Kondhs by British was in 1835, whilst engaged in
military operations for the reduction of the Zamindary of Goomsur, in Ganjam
district.
Kondh lady with her traditional ornaments
Elwin (1954) remarked ‘Deep in every Kond heart’ is the belief in the sacred and
fertilizing power of human blood, and it is of course, for their practice of human
sacrifices that they have become known throughout the anthropological world.
There is extensive literature, ranging over a century, on the subject. Although the
practice has long since been stopped officially, there can be little doubt that such
sacrifices do sometimes occur, and a perusal of the stories collected will show
how strongly Konds remain attached to them. Today, the usual substitute for a
human being is a buffalo, which is called by the old name Meriah and in some of
the remote villages; old human skulls are still used when the animal is offered to
the Earth Goddess.”(11)
Boal (1982) wrote, “Kondh relationship to their land is far more than economic.
This will be seen more clearly regarding the central rite of the Meriah/Kedu
(human/buffalo) sacrifice offered to the Earth Godess.
This attitude has a direct result upon land tenure procedures. For instance, when
new ground is broken, even a small hill-plot, eggs as a fertility symbol are offered
to the hill Gods and as year succeeds years, an ear of grain set aside from the
previous crop is offered. This is distinct from offerings made to ancestor spirits
who constantly accompany one on such work-occasions.”(12)
Kondh Society
In general it can be said that Kondhs are simple, straightforward, believe in

community sharing traditions, courageous and hard working people.
Desia Kondhs of Laxmipur
Each group is further divided into a number of exogamous lineages like Jakasika,
Hauka, Prska and Kadraka etc. Lineage names are prefixed to their own name.
The Kondhs have been living in most unyielding hilly terrains for centuries. After
the most arduous clearing of forest during ‘podu’ by all family members exposed
to sun, rain, light and air, away from shadowing trees, these slope lands yield food
through crops.
The Kondh people are very well built, and their body attracts visitors. They take
time to be friendly with outside people. The women equally work hard like men
in gathering food and additional house care etc. The women do not take active
part with men in group discussions, but stay as listeners and little away from the
place of discussion.
Desia Kondh men, Chkrakote Desia Kondh women in Eastern Ghats
Desia Kondhs and History
The villages with suffix ‘kona’ are found in large number particularly in
Rayagada region of Koraput district. They are Rapukona, Raiekona, Phulakona,
Hapukona, Khalkona, Riveilkona, Chatikona and Khalkona etc. It also comes to
the mind that this region was ruled by Kona dynasty of south, may be one branch
of the dynasty retained their presence here. So it can also be said that Kondhs of
the region were once the subjects of Konas.
The fact can be corroborated to the following pages of history of Kona Haihaya
dynasty,
Haihayas of Konamandala
The Haihayas of Kona held sway over Konamandala the deltaic region of river
Godavari from the last quarter of the 11th century A.D. The Haihayas trace
themselves from Kartavira belonging to Khtriya cast (13). The earliest Kona
dynasty king Kirtiraja Haihaya vamsa (14) is referred in history. As per
Pithapuram inscription Mummadi Bhima I is referred as the first ruler of Haihayas
after Kartavirya (15).
Mammadi had two sons Venna and Rajaparendu I. As these chiefs were ruling
Konammandala or Konarashtra, they were known as Haihayas of Kona or Kona
Haihayas.
As per Velpur record dated 1108 A.D., Kota Bhimaraja was credited with
conquest of Kalinga, whom he subordinated to Rajendra Choda (16). Probably
Kona Potaraja attained the title Vengindra and the Vengi 1000 villages for his
meritorious military services in the Kalinga campaign for Kulottunga I. (17).
Probably Kulottunga conferred on him a small principality round about Rakuduru
as a record for his services and this explains Rekame being called a mahishi.
Probably Rakuduru was his capital (18). The present author believes it can be
present day Rapukona, a village situated in Koraput district, from where a hill
road leads to Narayanapatna and then to Bobili, The area was boundary to past
Kalinga.
After Kalinga campaign, Kulottunga I confirmed the insignia of royality to

Velanti Cholas and Haihayas of Konamandala. (19)
There were some Haihaya princes connected with the Chalukyas, the
Rashtrakutas, and the Gangas of Kalinga and the many subsidiary dynasties in
Vengi. The common bonds Sahasrarjuna and lordship over Mahishmati. (20)
The Political contains of South Kalinga and Vengi in the 11th century
with relation to Haihayas
In the second half of the 11th century A.D. South India was divided between the
Gangas in the east, the Chalukyas in the north and the Cholas in the south. The
Ganga rulers were Vijrahasta V (A.D. 1038-1070) Devendravarman Rajaraja I
(A.D. 1070-1078) and Anantavarman Choda Ganga (A.D. 1078-1146),
Somesvara II (1068-1076 A.D.) and Vikramaditya VI (A.D. 1076-1126). The
Chola and Chalukya Kingdoms were united in A.D. 1070 when Rajendra I of the
Chalukyas of Vengi, succeeded to the Chola throne on the death of Adhirajendra
I, under the name of Kulottunga I.(21)
With Kulottunga’s accession, Vengi was naturally included in the Chola Empire
and remained an important viceroyalty throughout his reign. While Kulottunga
was busy in the south, Yasah Kranadeva of the Haihayas of Tripuri invaded the
kingdom of Vengi and he defeated Vijayaditya VII. On the death of Vijayaditya
after ruling for fifteen years, Kulottunga appointed his own sons one after another
as Viceroys of Vengi-Rajeraja Mummadichoda (A.D. 1076-1077) Virachoda
(1078-1088), Rajrarajachoda Ganga (1084-1089), Virachoda Ganga (1084-1089),

Virachoda for second time (1089-1093) and Vikrama Chola (A.D.1093-1118)(22)
During last years of Kulottunga II, the Haihayas of Konasima (deltaic region)
tried to extend their dominions. They became the feudatories of Chalukyas of
Kalyani, and soon after departure of the W.Chalukyan armies, the Haihayas of
Kondmandala tried to rule their regions independently (23).
After 1165 A.D. peaceful relation existed between the Velanadus and Kona
Haihayas, who were subordinate to Chodas. Rebellions in Godavari Delta were
completely quelled by Velanti Chiefs, as a result Haihayas lost much of their
military strength. After this Velanti Chief attained glorious victory and subjugated
the Chalukyas of Pithapur and South Kalinga. (24).
Haihayas of Kona and Haihayas of Palnad, and Kota chiefs of Dharnikote present
the unique feature of the dual kingship in Andhra country, viz. two kings ruling
same country, to safe guard Andhradesa territory, from invasion due to Chalukyas
of Kalyani and Gangas of Kalinga, and the families of Chodas of Velanti,
Haihayas of Kona, Kota chief of Dhranikote who were the feudatories. (25)
Keeping in mind the above, I am inclined to put the Kondhs living in the plains of
Bisamcuttack extending up to Rapukona (Laxmipur region) down to Bobli region
of Andhra Pradesh as the past subjects of Konas. The region as per political
history and geographical demarcation falls into the Kona region. Chalukya of
Kalyani had their presence in Kalyana Singapur of Koraput as can be seen from
political history records mentioned in the present work and the geography
pertaining to it.
KUTTIA KONDH
The Kuttia Konds were born in Saphaganna-Kariya (Elwin) (26). This is in
Baliguda block of Phulbani district in Orissa
Apart from the Kuttia or Kottia Kondh, there are other distinct communities in
Koraput who bear the title of Kottia Dora, Kottia Poraja and Kottia Paiko.
The village headman in Kuttia Kondh community is called Samtha and the Chief
priest is the Jani. The Bariko and Bara are the raito or large landholding farmers
of the village who join to form the village committee.
Kuttia Kondh men

The position of the Jani is next to secular headman, and he is responsible for
ceremonies conducted on the village land. Banerjee (1969), had given a list of
family deities worshipped by Kuvi Kondhs, of which Amadei and Gangadei are
principal and Miniaka clan Janis are hereditary owners (27). The Amadei is
postulated to be the Amba of Jaina which is coming all along Kondh life and
culture.
Bali-jatra is observed in April-May to seek the blessings of the god of thunder for
a bumper crop. The response of the deity is determined by observing the growth
of the maize plant during the days of the festival. The religious and social set up
indicates the Kuttia/Kuvi Kondhs had Jaina influence. There is tradition to believe
that the Kotas as the Jaina kings or Jaina kinglets of Amaravati remarked Yashoda
Devi but she opined it be a mis-statement (28). However from the present reports
I stand to the remarks cited by former authors that Kota were Jaina Kings and the
tinge of Jaina culture is till to be seen in the present Kuttia Kondhs.
The Kuttia Konds might have derived their name and identity from Kota dynasty
of South.
Kota dynasty
As per Yashoda Devi, the Kotas who ruled between A.D. 1100-1270 owed
allegiance to the Chalukyan Cholas in the beginning and to the Kakatiyas towards
the end. They held an important place in South India of the times and Vengi in
particular. (29)
Velpur inscription Bhimas’s Kalinga conquest was achieved by A.D. 1108. This
must have occurred when he participated in the first Kalinga war against
Anantavarman Chodaganga undertaken by Vikramchola in A.D. 1909, the Chola
viceroy of Vengi in the reign of Kulottunga I. The Choda to whom Bhima claims
to have made the king of Kalinga a subordinate refers to either Kulottunga I or
Vikramachola. The fact is attested by Bhima in Kota records (30) as well as some
Ganga records at Draksharama (31). Thus Kota Bhima owed allegiance to the
Chola emperor Kulottunga and loyally served his master and distinguished
himself in the Kalinga war along with many other local rulers in Vengi. His
assistance to the Cholas in subduing the Kalinga may be a reference to his part in
the first or the second war (32). Nothing is known of any events in the latter part
of his reign.
Thus based on the above fact I am inclined to put forth the hypothesis that present
day Kotia Konds of Koraput – Phulbani region are subject to Kota Bhima and had
carved a small country for themselves.
The Kotas and the Haihayas were political allies (33), so Desia Kondhs and Kuttia
Kondhs living in close border to each other can be explained as being past allies.
There is also the possibility of Kota relationship or ruling around Nandapur,

Koraput. The very fact that there are Kotiapaiko and Kotia poraja in the vicinity
of Nandapur, the former Capital of Suriavamsi kings of Jeypore; and the road
junction leading to Malkangiri is till known as Kota junction.
Reference
1. MacPherson, S. Charles. (1841)An Account of the Religion of the Kondhs
in Orissa, Report by Agent for suppression of Meriah Sacrifice and
Female Infanticide in the Hill Tracts of Orissa’, London: Royal Asiatic
Society, , pp.216-274. 1863
2. Campbell, John. (1864) ‘A personal narrative of thirteen years’ service
among the wild tribes of Kondistan, for the suppression of Human
Sacrifice’, London
3. Thurston E. and Rangachari, K. Castes and Tribes of Southern India,
Madras: 1909, Vol. 1-7.
4. Bell, R.C.S. Orissa District Gazetteer (Koraput), Cuttack, Government
Press, 1945.
5. Niggemeyer, Hermann. (1964) Kuttia Kond : Dschungel - Bauern in
Orissa, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universitat, Frankfurt-am-main.
6. Banerjee, Sukumar. (1969) Ethnographic study of the Kuvi-Kondha.
Anthropological survey of India, Government of India, Calcutta-13.
6. Devi, Yashoda. The History of Andhra Country (1000-1500 A.D.)p.77 &
E.I. IV No.10.p.89 11. 49-50. 148
7. Boal, M.Barbara. (1982) The Kondhs: Human Sacrifice and Religious
Change.
8. Pattnaik, N and Das Patnaik, P.S. (1982) The Kondh of
Orissa.Tribal Harijan Research-cum-Training Institute.
9. Jena, K.Mihir; Pathi Padmini, Dash Jagganath, Patnaik, K.Kamala
and Seeland Klaus. (2002) Forest Tribes of Orissa.Vol.I. The Dongaria
Kondh.
10. Jena, K.Mihir, Pathi Padmini, Patnaik, K.Kamala and Seeland Klaus.
(2006) Forest Tribes of Orissa.Vol.II. The Kuttia Kondh.
11. Elwin Verrier. Speciemens of the Oral Literature of Middle India( Tribal
Myths of Orissa).London.
12. Boal, M. Barbara. op.cit.
13. E.I. No.10, V.6, p.89
14. S.I.I.Vol.IV, 1011.
15. E.I. Vol.IV, No.10.p.89&S.I.I., IV.1161.

16. Ibid.Vol.X, No.64.
17. S.I.I.Vol.IV, No.662
18. Devi Yashoda. op.cit.p.77 & S.I.I., IV, 1011.
19. Krishna Kumari, M. The Rule of the Chalukya-Cholas in
Andhradesa. p.43.
20. Devi Yashoda. op.cit.p.77-117.
21. Sastri, K.A.Nilakanta.The Colas, p.285
22. Devi Yashoda. op.cit.p.76.
23. S.I.I. Vol.IV, No.1150; Ibid. Vol.VI, No.175.
24. S.I.I. Vol.X, No.173.
25. Devi Yashoda. op.cit.p.75-176
26. Elwin Verrier., op.cit.
27. Banerjee, Sukumar. op.cit.
28. Devi Yashoda. op.cit.p149.
29. Devi Yashoda. The History of Andhra Country (1000-1500). p.148
30. 567 of 1925.
31. Devi Yashoda. op.cit, p.151
32. Sasatri, K.A.N. The Colas, II, I.p.38.
33. Devi Yashoda. op.cit. p.155.
DONGRIA KONDH
Dongria Kondhs are a group of Konds found in Bissam Cuttack, Muniguda, and
Kalyan Singpur of Koraput district as well as in Bishwanathpur in Kalahandi
district. They are hill dwellers and the area of their dwelling is called Niyamgiri
hill range. It is between 1200 ft to 4,900 ft above sea level. They speak Kuvi.
The word ‘Dongar’ means hills. They are basically shift cultivators and skilled
fruit tree raisers also. They are altogether about 10,000 in number and of which
about 6,493 are found in Rayagada area.
Dongria men hair style like women
A good amount of work on Dongria Kondhs is due to Nayak (1989) (1), Das
Patnaik et.al (1990) (2), Sahu (1992) (3) and Jena et.al (2002) (4). There are
several works on Kondhs as usual, but not special to Dongrias, in the early
studies.
The smallest social unit is family, next comes the lineage, which may be either
Bismaghi Boinso or Mandal Boinso. Besides it there are clans, Wadaka, Kadraka,
Pushika, Huika, Toika, Wangesika, Sikoka, Jakeshika, Nundruka, Nisika,
Kutruka, Prashka, Meloka, Kandika, Tarika, Merika, Naraka, Palaka, Otaka,
Prishka, Ongelika, Wanjelika and Piska. A particular clan from all the villages in
a region forms a mutha. The bondages of lineage, gotra and mutha is strong, and
play important role in all matters of their socio-cultural, economic and religious
activities. In other words, the whole Dongria country that is hills; and the entire
area is divided into various Muthas (Fatri) as per social order. Thus the ‘mutha’ is
the fundamental feature of social organisation of the past and still continues to be.
The distinct feature among Dongrias is that both men and women keep long hairs,
tied at the back in a bun. The men wear a loincloth and a special scarf; whereas
women wear a sari of three pieces. The men and women have pierced noses to
wear small rings. Their horticulture way of earning livelihood is a special feature
of the tribe, compared to other tribes of Koraput.
Women are considered to be main working force thus a man if he can afford can
have two or three wives. The right to divorce is bestowed over both the spouse.
Widow re-marriage is allowed. The traditional council in Dongria villages for
social justice is called ‘runda’. ‘Jani’ heads it. The Dongrias had in former days
the Meriah sacrifice, where a ‘mutha’ used to organise a human sacrifice,
periodically; it is now replaced with buffalo sacrifice.
The Jani worships the earth goddess, where as Pujari worships others. A peculiar
relationship of Dongria and Dom, a scheduled caste member exists; even the
former is the exploiter and moneylender. The Doms act as the messenger of the
community to the outside world.
Typical dress and ornaments of Dongria ladies
The hills are divided and demarcated to each mutha boundary. Individual
families thus treat the hills as agricultural plots. These are enjoyed as heredity
right and subsequently when partition of family takes place it also get sub-plotted.
As per the tradition, the Dongria Kondhs claim to Niyam Raja royal ancestry and
individually they feel proud of their royal origin, thus never go for wage
earning(5). The Dongrias have co-operative labour (Punda-Buti). Besides his
family members, the village people join him for cutting trees, cleaning trees,
weeding and harvesting the sweden. The workers who are such employed are
provided with food and are paid few rupees per day for the labour they have
contributed. The employer also joins such activities when called for. The scope
of village dormitory and village community work force is available.
The Kondhs in general are very skilled people collectively in diverting hill springs
both to difficult terrains for irrigation as well as for drinking water purposes to the
village, whenever available.
The Dongria men as well as women are knowledgeable of agriculture, plant

biodiversity along with its characteristics and suitability to market.
The magico-religious practices and beliefs are associated with plantation in

Dongaria society.
The Dongria are straight forward, but egoistic people. They usually do not pluck
fruits for sale, which is considered to be a lower peoples’ job. The Dombs thus
take the advantage.
Oral Traditions and History

Oral Traditions of Dongaria Kondh has been detailed out by Jena et al. (6.). It is
the myth of Niyamraja, Niyamgiri, and Naktivali which recounts the tale of
Niyamraja, the well-loved king of the Dongaria Kondh and ruler of their habitat
comprising a hill range named after him.(7)
They further continued,’Niyamraja soon became familiar with earthly matters and
carried out his duties and responsibilities as king with sincerity, and, in monthly
visits, he reported to dharma devata regarding the people’s condition. He
developed a deep friendship with Sijimadi, a hill king in the Kalyansinghpur area,
and once invited to visit him.’(8)
I am of the opinion that Sijimadi of the folklore as said by Jena et al. refers to
Someswara I of W. Chalukya who as per our hypothesis established Kalyana
Singpur after the battle of Chakrakote. The Niyamraja referred here is the
Nolambo king.
The Madivala inscription (9) of Nitimarga-Permandi speaks the relationship of
Western Ganga and the Nolambadhiraja of Pallava family. The said inscription
speaks ‘Nitimarga-Permandi was ruling over the earth (by) governing Gongavadi-
96,000 and when the illustrious of the Pallava family, the lord of the goddess
wealth and the goddess earth. Nolambdhraja, who was entitled to the band of the
five instruments, was governing Ganga-6000.’
It is very clear from the above inscription that Gangavadi-96000 is the Western
Ganga kingdom and the Ganga-6000 is other than Gangavadi. This can be the
region in Kalinga or Tri-kalinga. I presume the Dongria Kondhs are the subject
of Western Ganga and Pallava king Nolambadhiraja thus so long they are carrying
the rice variety known by the name Mahisar and Sarna Mahisar ( Kornel ,2006)
(10) and remnants of Jainism(Kornel and Gammang,2009).(11)
Further the inscription of Jinnahalli (12) of Satyvakya-Permmanadi says,’
Maciga, the son of Ereyangappa, the basic pillar of the Ganga family, the lord of
the Ganga lineage and worthy of the crown of Madivarma, fought on the border
of Guttiya-Ganga, in the battle of Turundavolal, against Nolabadhiraja and died”.
The place Turundavolal may be the present Trinalvalli of Rayagada close to
Niamgiri hill range.
Jena et al. (loc cit.) wrote "Jani Punja: it is a priest group and from this group a
person is selected as the religious head or priest of the village. Besides the
religious role, the priest or Jani has also considerable influence on most of the
political decisions. The major political problems emerge as a dissatisfaction of the
deities and nobody else other than the Jani is specialized to deal with such
matters. However, the post of the Jani is hereditary and he is practically
considered as the religious and secular head of the village."(13)
Jena et al. (loc cit.) further wrote "Streams are also ascribed a life (jella) and a
soul (jiu), which is given to them by Gangi, the water goddess. It is she who
controls the stream's life and soul. In the Dongaria conception of the birth of
streams, the creation of jadi (streams) is related to gangi penu." (14)This
philosophy pertains to Jainism.
Bali Jatra (Sand festival)

The Bali is celebrated by Dongaria Kondhs. The fact that they have 'Janis' village
priest concept like many other Koraput tribals, I am inclined to place them as
Jaina practioners of the past. And still they are carrying the remnants of the lost
religion. This occasional festival is held, if at all, in March/April, when the first
shower of rain is anticipated. It is an annual event in some villages, whereas in
others it is celebrated every two or three years, depending on the financial status
of the villagers. It is an agricultural festival that precedes sowing, and is meant to
appease several evil spirits associated with shifting cultivation, in the hope that
they do not harm the crops and thus undo the labour invested during the whole
year. It is feared that when such spirits are dissatisfied, they also harm those
engaged in agricultural activities. (15)
The tribe use mini umbrellas prepared out of coloured threads which is stamped at
puja sites. This is an age old cultural practice among Jainas and Buddhism (16).
Men in Dongria Kondh community grow long hairs and dress hair like their
women and also use nostril and ear lobe ornaments, which is most peculiar to the
tribe only.
It can well be explained with the following remarks of Hiuen Tsang about year
641 A.D on Maharastra ruled by Pulakesin, ‘if a general lose a battle, they do not
inflict punishment, but present him with women’s clothes and so he is driven to
seek death for himself. (17) On the other hand they would pursue an enemy when
he turned to flee, but would not kill a person who submitted.’ So, it can be
concluded that whole Dongria Kondh community might have renounced war and
aggression; instead men preferred to live and dressed like women to avoid
aggression on their community. The other possibility may be that they were
‘Jainas’ of the past (as evident from remnants of past Jaina culture in their
present culture) so they renounced war and invasions; adopted non-violence even
preferred to be dressed as women.
Reference
1. Nayak, P.K. (1989) Blood, Women and Territory: An Analysis of Clan

Feuds of Dongria Kondhs, Reliance Publishing House, New Delhi.
2. Das Patnaik, P.S. and Mohanty, B.B. (1990) Dongria Kondhs of Orissa -
Then and Now. Adibasi Vol. XXX: 223, p. 28-41.
3. Sahu, A.C. (1992) Shifting cultivation to Horticulture - A case study of the
Dongria Kondh Development Agency (Kurli), Chatikona. Adivasi
Vol.XXXII:1, p.30-41.
4. Jena, Mihir Kumar, Padmini Pathi, Jagganath Dash, Kamala K. Patnaik and
Klaus Seeland 2002, The Dongaria Kondh, Vol. I, Forest Tribes of Orissa.
5. Das Patnaik and Mohanty, B.B. op.cit
Klaus Seeland (2002). op.cit
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.p.162
9. E.C., Vol.X, KL 79
10, Kornel Das (2006) Tribal Crop-Livestock Systems in South-East India.p.46
11. Kornel Das and Gamang, Giridhar (2009) Lost Jaina Tribe of Tri-kalinga
12. E.C.Vol.IV, Hg.110
Klaus Seeland (2002). op.cit
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Panigrahi, K.C. Chronology of the Bhauma-Karas and the Somavamsis of
Orissa.p.56.
17 Sircar, D.C., The Chalukyas:in The Classical Age. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
p.239.
Note: The Dongaria Kondhs are also known as Mahisi Kondhs locally. The
buffaloes are called Mahisi in local dialects, so may be as the Dongria
have very close affinity to buffaloes in their life and living they are
addressed so. The other may be explained as following from pages of
history.
Hanumantha Rao (1) has given a detail account on historical notes
pertaining Mahisamandala. The same is reproduced here. “After the
Third Council, Asoka dispatched missionaries to different parts of India
and to distant lands to spread the Gospel of peace and non-violence. The
Mahavamsa lists out the lands and persons sent to them. Mahisamandala
received Mahadeva-bhikku. Different scholars identify Mahisamandala
differently with Mysore (K.A.N. Sastri (ed.) Nandas and Mauryas, p.216),
Mahismatipura (Romila Thapar, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas,
P.47) and with Maisolia (I.K.Sarma, op.cit., p.70). The word Mysore is of
late origin and it is doubtful whether Mysore or Mahismatipura ever
became good centers of Buddhism. On the other hand, Maisolia received
its name from the river Krsna (=black=masi) whereas Mahisamandala
derived its name from the tribe Mahisakas who lived in it. Moreover, the
region about the mouths of the Krsna is known to native and foreign
literatures (Indian Serpent Lore, p.34; I.H.Q., vii, p.639), The Siamese
Work, Phra Pal’hom-J.A.S.B. xviii, pt.2, p.82) as the land of the Nagas.
The Mahavamsa says the Mahadeva who had been sent to Mahisamandala
had a large following even in Pallava-bogga which was at the mouths of
the Krsna and is therefore identical with modern Paland. The Mahavamsa
thus suggests that the above two regions were contiguous. One of the
early Brahmi inscriptions of Guntupalli (A.P.A.S No.3) gives a certain
Mahameghavahana Srisada the title Kalinga-Mahiskadhipati and thus
makes Kalinga and Mahiaka close to one another. The evidence of
Mahavamsa and the Guntupalli record helps us in locating
Mahisamandala between Pallavabogga and Kalinga. Interestingly in the
excavations at Kondapur coins of Mahiska kings have been discovered.
(I.H.Q. xxii, p.145) Mahisamandala can therefore be satisfactorily
identified with the Nalgonda-Medak region, which answers well the
descriptions of it by Mahavamsa and the Guntapalli record.”
Further it was recorded by the same author that Mahisa (Mahisamandala) and
Kalinga were famous for textiles.
Reference
1. Hanumanth Rao, B.S.L. Religion in Andhra, p. 19 and 62

KALYAN SINGPUR
At Kalyan Singpur, close to Rayagada of Koraput, a cave temple is of
archeological interest. The hill is called Devagiri. The hill top has damaged stone
carved inscriptions, which was recorded by George Swell but could not decipher.
Devagiri
This is an unique single stone hill located close to Kalyan singpur, 48 Kms from
Rayagada and 158 Kms from Koraput. The hill rises to height of 120.2 meters and
is flat on the top and thus giving a shape like an egg. The top floor has perennial
pools of water and is known as Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, Bhagabati, and
Indradyaumna. There is a cave on the top, in the shape of an open jaw and a Siva
linga is housed in it. At present there is a small collection of different deities like
Siva linga, Vishnu and others placed safely in the cave.
As per historical accounts, the predecessors of the Yadavas of Devagiri ruled over
a country comprising Khandesh, Nasik, and Ahmadnagar Districts in the Bombay
State, as vassals of the Rastrakutas of Manyakheta and the Chalukyas of Kalyana
for more than three hundred years. The founder of this feudatory family was
Dridhaprahara, who is said to have been the son of Subahu, king of
Dvaravatipura, modern Dwaraka, in Kathiawar. Dridhaprahara flourished in the
first half of the ninth century A.D., and established his capital at
Chandradityapura, modern Chandor, in the Nasik District. His son and successor
Seunachandra I founded a city called Seunapura and also gave the name Seuna-
desa or Sevuna-desa to his kingdom after his son. It was situated on the confines
of Dandaka, and included Devagiri, Seunachandra are referred to as the Sevunas
in their own inscriptions as well as in those of their neighbours. A remote
successor of Seunachandra was Karna, whose son Bhillama V was the first
independent king of the dynasty (1).The geography as described above and its
linkage to Dandaka makes it surer that the Devagiri of Kalyansingpur has
relationship to said Yadavas.
D.C. Ganguly wrote, “Western Chalukya King, Somesvara I and his feudatory,
the Kakatya Prola, raided Kosala, and conquered Chakrakota, in the Bastar district
after defeating a king of Naga dynasty. It is unlikely that he came into clash with
Virarajendra and Rajendra Chola I at Chakrakota. Prola claims to have defeated a
chief named Bhadranga (?) Kadaparti, and killed Gonna, the chief of Purakuta.
Vijrahasta V, king of Kalinga, suffered defeat at the hands of Somesvara I. (2).”
Other way, as there is ample evidence which circle around Chakarakota in all
possible way it is a confirmed fact that Kalyana branch of Western Chalukya had
presence in present Koraput. So I conclude the present Kalyan Singpur derives its
name from Kalyana branch of W.Chalukya and Simha refers to Jayasimha II.
But in later period, Vikrama Chola in his short region of 1118 to 1133 A.D. freed
the Southern Andhradesa from the yoke of the Chalukyas of Kalyani and E.
Gangas of Kalinga with the support of his Andhra feudatories.(3)
Gopal, B.R. mentions,” Even from the time of Chalukya Somesvara I, regions
adjoining the Vengi country like Koollipake-7000 were under the control of
Chalukyas. The Kolanupaka inscription (4) dated 1077 AD states that
Mahandalesvara Sankaganda was governing Kollipaka-7000 division.”(5).This is
also indicative of Kalyan singpur of Koraput.
Reference
1. Ganguly, D.C. (1989) The Yadavas of Devagiri. The Struggle for Empire.
The History and Culture of Indian People. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay,
p.185.
2. Ganguly, D.C. (1989) Later Chalukyas and Kalachuries of Kalyana. The
Struggle for Empire. The History and Culture of Indian People. Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, p.172.
3. Kumari, Krishna.The rule of the Chalukya-Chola in Andhradesa. P-56.
4. A.R.I.E.1961-62, App. B, No.84.
5. Gopal.B.R. The Chalukyas of Kalyana and Kalachuris, Prasaranga Karnatak
University, Dharward.p-263.
DEVAGIRI REMAINS
View from Devagiri Hills
Devagiri Hill, Kalyan Singpur,Rayagada Flat top of Devagiri Hills

Hills in the shape of Siva Linga is believed Tanks over Devagiri

to be behind the name Devagiri
Tank over the Devagiri Hill

Brusava over Devagiri
Old Bricks Brusava over Devagiri
Brusavas over Devagiri Brusava over Devagiri

Brusava over Devagiri Brusava over Devagiri
Unidenfied Images
Brusavas over Devagiri
Ganesha Image not identifiable

Akapada Siva? Ganesha
Visnu Visnu
Kalyan Singpur Siva Temple images
Ganesha in Kalyan Singpur Siva Temple Pair of Feet in Narayanpur Siva

Temple
Siva Lingas in Devagiri Siva Lingas in Devagiri
Convex forehead of Brusa in Narayanpur (may be Karnataka origin)

Sivalinga in Narayanpur Pair of Feet in Narayanpur Siva Temple

PENTIA OR HALBA
Comparatively small group of tribe are known as Holuva, Halaba or Halba was
reported by Thurston and Rangachari, 1909(1). Halba are found in south of
Raipur, Kanker and Bastar of Chhattisagrh and have spread to Bhandara and
Berar also into Koraput in Orissa. (2)
Grierson wrote, ‘Linguistic survey also point out to the fact that the Halba are an
aboriginal tribe, who have adapted Hinduism and an Aryan language. Their
dialect is a mixture of Uriya, Chhattisgarhi and Marathi. (3)’ There is another
saying prevalent where it is said that the Halbas came along with one Raja of
Jaganath in Orissa to Bastar and then to Kanker Sihawa jungles. The king was
suffering from leprosy. He was cured of the disease and became the first king of
Kanker, thus the Halbas continued to be the household servants to the family till
today (4). Grigson is of the opinion that that the Halba villagers seem to be the
descendants of the old garrisons of Paik militia. To this day the Halba admit
outsiders into their community, while the modern Hindu immigrants commonly
take women of the country. The Halbas are thus a mixture, probably, of foreign
and aboriginal blood (5). The language is the lingua franka of Bastar, whether
classed as a dialect Marathi with Grierson or of the Eastern Hindi with Sten
Know, is at all events an Aryan dialect, and principal agent in modification of the
aboriginal habits and thought; at the 1936 census it was found that 207 per mille
of the 262,988 Bastaris speaking Gondi dialect as their mother tongue also spoke
Halbi (6).
Gilder was of the opinion that they originally belong to Telugu country and came
along with the Rajas of Bastar from Warngal.The word ‘Halbar or Halbam in
Canarse is ‘old one or ancient’ or primitive inhabitants.Halbi dialect contains
traces of Canarese (7).
As per Administrative records Pentia and Halba are classified as separate tribes.
The Halbas of Jeypore region call themselves Pentia where as the Halbas in
Mathli region, border to Bastar call themselves as Halba. According to Mr. C.
Hayavadana Rao (1909) cited by Thurston et al.(8) that the Pentias had migrated
from Bastar and settled at Pentikonna near Potangi of Koraput district, thence are
known as Pentia or Pentiya or Pentikonaya. They lost a war and were in
Malkangiri of Dasmanthpurin Koraput. This fact is still acknowledged by the
tribe. This is possibly the Pentia were involved in Chakrakote invasion of Western
Chalukyas and then they were together with the Naga dynasty of Bastar. A large
population of the tribe is still found in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh; whereas
in Orissa largest concentration of the population is in Koraput district followed by
Mayurbhanj, Kalahandi and Keonjhar districts. The Pentias say that in early olden
days at Malkangiri, which is in north of Koraput and they lost a war (with whom
they do not know) then migrated to Jeypore plains. The Pottangi hill Mohaprabhu
is the main worship place for Pentias is claimed. There are villages of Pentia near
Bastar border close to Mathili and surprising that Jeypore belts Pentia have no
relationship with each other.
However, for all practical purposes for Halba and Pentias of Koraput we have
used the term’Halba’. There are two concentrations of Halba in Koraput district
viz. Jeypore – Borigumma –and Salmi are of Mathli. It is interesting to note that
both group live separate and there is no relationship whatever. The Salami Halbas
are closer to Bastar Halbas.
I am of the opinion that Halba tribe are from the Halavur branch of Banavasi tract
and are related to Western Chalukyas and came through present Maharastra
region with invading army in medieval period. The Anchola village of
Borigumma has the Halba concentration and it is my opinion that Western
Chalukays captured the same village from Chodas.
Halba family, in Kundra block, Koraput

The Halba are Aryan stock, fair looking people and well built and comparatively
tall. At present their main occupation is cultivation, in Koraput district. They are
reputed for good manners and give thinking to all matters around and quickly
adopt new technologies.
Broadly the Halbas in Central Province were classified as Bastarha,

Chhattisgarhia, and Marethia; the last ones were seen in Bhandara of Maharastra.
The last two divisions of Halba do intermarry but not the Bastarha. The Bastarha
have Purait or Nekha and Surait or Nayak. The former is the superior in rank (9).
Halbas have territorial and titular names and many totemestic names and they
are: Ghsorpatia (a horse), Kawalia (lotus), Auria (tamarind), Lendia (a tree), Gohi
(lizard), Makjur (a peacock), and Bhringraj (a black bird). The Bastar totemistic
groupa are known as Barags and Thok (10).
The Halba tribe in Koraput (in Jeypore) has the following bonso or clans:
 Bareng,
 Mudli,
 Nago,
 Dalaie ,
 Sunakaria,
 Kaktia,
 Uparia,
 Soam,
 Khamaria,
 Dhangundia,
 Makad,
The Mudli and Dalaie are ‘bhaiea loak’ thus no marriage takes place between
them. So also Dhangundia and Makad; and Khamaria and Dhangundia are ‘bhaiea
loak’.
In Dashera procession of the king of Bastar, a Halba carries the sacred umbrella
of the king over him and another walks along with a naked sword. Thus Halbas
retained important position in the administration of Bastar. During the reign of
Raja Daryao Deo, about 240 years back the Halbas revolted against him and many
hundreds of Halbas were thrown into the Bastar waterfall (11)
Halbas in Raipur are Kabirpanthi but in Bastar are more of Uriya cultural
influence is that recorded by former authors. They were excellent solider and
served to Rajas of Kanker, Bastar and other Rajputs in the past (12).
They can ‘Pani Chibae’ which means can drink water from Bhumia, Bhattra,
Omnyat and Goudos and Brahmins; but the women cannot from any other caste
even from Brahmins also. In Bastar they equate themselves to Brahmins in status.
The Halba a priests some times serve the Anga clan-gods of Muria tribe and the
caste has its won Anga similar to those of the Murias. The Murias speak Halbi as
their second language.
Reference
1. Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and Tribes of Southern

India, Madras: 1909, pp.1-7.
2. Russell, R.V. and Hira Lal. Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces
of India. Vol.III.p.182-204
3. Grierson, G. Linguistic Survey, Vol.VII.p.331
4. Ibid. Jaganath. p.183.
5. Grigson, Sir Wilfrid. The Maria Gonds of Bastar.p.6.
6. Ibid.
7. Glider, G.K. Methodist Episcopal Mission of Raipur cited by Russell et al.
8. Hayavadana Rao, C, ‘The Gonds of Eastern Ghats’, In: Thurston, E.,
‘Caste and Tribes of Southern India’, Madras: vol.1-7, 1907-9.
9. Russell, R.V. and Hira Lal. op.cit.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
GOND
The Gonds are the most eminent tribal community that inhabits the largest
mountainous tracts of central and southern India known as Gondwanaland. It
includes the Satpura plateau and sections of the south and west. There is,
however, no district or state in Central India that does not contain some Gonds.
The population of Gonds in Orissa according to 1991 Census is 7, 01,139 or 9.97
per cent of the total tribal population of the state and is next to Kondhs in number.
Of the total Gond population majority are in Kalahandi, Koraput, Sambalpur and
Balangir followed by Sundargarh, Kendujhar, Dhenknal and Phulbani districts in
Orissa.
Gond women (Photo: Jaganath Chauhan)
Mohapatra wrote, “The generic term ‘Gond’ encompasses several endogamous

and linguistically distinct groups. The derivation of the term ‘Gond’ is uncertain.
The Gonds are neither racially, culturally nor linguistically a homogeneous group.
The cultural, material and physical differences are so great that one wonders why
they should be grouped under the same tribe. They call themselves Gond or
Koitur” (1).
Furer-Haimendorf had classified Koya tribe to be Gonds (3).The Gond

population of Bastar, Raipur and Durg Districts Chhattisgarh as well as the
undivided Kalahandi, Koraput, Bolangir, Ganjam and Phulbani districts of
Orissa, and the entire Gond population of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
constitute the southern Gonds of India. These Gonds differ in both language and
custom from those living in the northern region. (4)
The Gonds of Kalahandi and Koraput Districts along with Chhattisgarh boarder
villages are primitive in respect of having their distinctive dress, habits and
culture. The Pannabeda mutha in north of Nowrangpur has high concentration of
Gonds in Koraput district. They speak ‘Gondi’ a dialect belonging to the
Dravidian family. The acculturated Gonds live in villages inhabited by other
castes and tribes. They especially live together with the Bhattra, Kondha and
others.
Gonds are very individualistic and bold in their opinion and are egoistic people
and demand respect. They are progressive agriculturists in the Raighar region of
Nowrangpur. They adapt themselves to the advance of civilization with out
loosing their primitive virtues has been observed. They still part of their
livelihood from forest. Gonds believe their origin to four brother phratrires.
Gonds worship Bara Deo or Badiyal Deo as their supreme god along with the
Earth god, Dharti mata. On the whole The Gond society is more so Hinduised.
History of Gonds
The term ‘Raj Gond’ is considered to have been derived from the princely status
that the Gonds enjoyed for a long period as the rulers and chieftains of the famous
Gondwana, with Chanda as the principal seat of Gond rule, and Manikgarh,
Sirpur and Utnoor as vassals, where ruins today stand witness to the once
flourishing Gond rule. The term ‘Raj Gond’ is also attributed to the racial
admixture due to the impact of the Rajput rulers who sometimes entered into
affinal relationships with the Gonds and migrated to these tracts between the 11th
and 15th centuries. (5)
R.V. Rusell- theory of a Gond incursion into Madhya Pradesh from the south
between the 9th and 13th century A.D. (6) This probably goes too far says Furer-
Haimendrof (1979) and is not supported by ethnological evidence; in solving the
language problem it is not even necessary to assume a wholesale migration of all
the Gonds from Dravidian lands south of the Godavari to Madhya Pradesh and the
hill tracts of Bastar. (7)
Thus he proposed that most probably it seems that the Muria Gonds, with their
close culture and racial affinities to the Austro-asiatic Gadabas of Orissa, were
subject to a change of language than that they emigrated from distant parts of
south India.
Grigson (1938) said, ‘Early history of the Gonds is scarce and not until Muslim
times do Gond States figure in contemporary chronicles of the work of historians.
Ancient and medival times of larger part of the Gond country east of Berar
remained a land of vast forests and poor communication. There is scant
information from few foreign travelers, the Buddhist exaggerated ‘wildness’
found in their relics of the period. In Chanda district, neighbour to Bastar district
for instance. Bhandaknear the Wardha river seem to have been a centre of
Buddhism and various authorities identify this place with the old Kosala capital
visited in the 7th century by Hiuen Tsang (Beal, 1906).(8)
The Gonds came under Muslim rule from14th century; by 1749 A.D. Raghoji
Bhonsle of Berar conquered Chanda. Russell (1908) described Gonds under
Maratha rule. The Gonds were driven to take refugee in the inaccessible high
lands, where the Marathas continued to pillage and harass them, until they
obtained an acknowledgement of their supremacy and the promise of an annual
tribute under such treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilization
and became the real treacherous savages depicted by travelers of this period. (9)
References
1. Mohapatra, P.K. Gond: Tribes of Orissa.Bhubaneswar. p.135-140.

2. Ibid.p.135
3. Furer-Haimendrof .Gond in Andhra Pradesh
4. Ibid.
5. Mohapatra, P.K. Ibid.p.135
6. Russell, R.V.and Hiralal. (1916) The Tribes and Castes of Central
Provinces of India. Vol.I4.
7. Furer-Haimendrof .Ibid
8. Sir Grigson, Wilferd (1938) The Maria Gonds of Bastar. p..
9. Russell, R.V. and Hiralal .Ibid.
BHATTRA TRIBE
he Bhattra tribe is are also known as Bhottada, Bottada, and Dholado, as denoted
in several literature. Stuart (1891) wrote, ‘Bhattadas are a class of Oriya
cultivators and labourers speaking Muria or Lucia, otherwise known as Basturia,
dialect of Oriya’ (1). Taylor (1891) said, “The caste is the same as Muria. But
whether identical or distinct, it seems clear that both are sub-divisions of the Great
tribe.”(2) The Great tribe refers to Gonds.
Bhattra couple
The language is classified as Indo-Aryan. Bell (1945) said, ‘Bhottodas are the
typical agricultural caste of Nowrangpur and north Jeypore’ (3), but Nowrangpur
and Kotapad is the region of concentration for the tribes. The tribe is also found in
Kalahandi (Orissa) and east of Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh. To be more
specific of Bhattra tribe distribution, it starts from Nuagaon that is 6 to 7 Kms.
from Borigumma extending into Kotpad, Kodinga, Kosagumada, Papdahandi,
Umerkote and Jhorigaon of United Koraput district in Orissa.They are 117, 297 in
Chhattisgarh and 247, 710 in Orissa as per 1981 census report. The Bhattras
though are living here from centuries but as known from their folklore, through
possible linkage verification and literature that they have come here from south.
As per Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao (1909), “‘there is a current tradition that the caste
originally dwelt at Barthagada, and immigrated to Vizagapatam long ago. It is
vaguely mentioned that Barthagada was situated towards and beyond Bastar, near
which place there are still to be found people of this caste, with whom those living
in Vizagapatam Agency Bhattra and Murias living together long ago. Bhattra
claims to have origined from Orangel (Warangal) (4).Elwin wrote, “In Warangal
lived the Bhattra caste; in these days there were no Murias. After a time the
Bhattras decided to leave Warangal and only five Pengu Parojas were left
there……
A tradition has it that they are immigrants from Bastar and this is very likely to be
truth as inscriptions show that the Bastar kings ruled over most of the 2,000 foot
plateau in the eleventh century A.D. It is not impossible that the name of the tribe
is connected with that of the State” (5).
The author had investigated at Warangal, about the existence of Bhattra tribe.
They still exist and are known as Raj Bhattras and have produced many eminent
educationists, administrators and leaders in varied fields. So it can be confidently
being said that Bhattras originally migrated from Warangal to Bastar and Jeypore.
The evidence to the fact is that the folk stories of Bhattra origin relate to
Warangal.
Bhattra women in traditional dress Bhattra lady with rain season dress
Bell loc.cit said, ‘They are accepted as being within the Hindu fold, stand high in
the social scale and wear the sacred thread; permission to use that was bough by
their ancestors from the Raja of Jeypore. Their origin is a matter of some doubt.
They all speak corrupt form of Oriya and not even a vestige of a tribal dialect
survives. Bhattra tribe has traveled through ages, and thus many dynasties and
religion. However, it cannot be ruled out they have retained Oriya culture which
is very ancient.”(6)
The tribe is divided into endogamous divisions, styling themselves Bodo and
Sano, of whom the former claim to be a purer descent, and into exogamous
totemistic subdivisions. Thurston et.al (1909) cited Hayavadana Rao who said,
“The caste is divided into three endogamous divisions, viz.
1. Bodo, or genuine Bottadas; the same are also presently known as Pita
Bhattra.
 Madhya, descendants of Bottada men and non-Bottada women;
(Sargimundi)
 Sanno, (Batamundi, Masnimara or Pita Bhattra who are derogatively
called Muria Bhattra) who are descendants of Madhya men and non-
Madhi women. The Bodos do not inter -dine with the other two sections,
but males of these do eat with Bodo.
 Sarkar and Dasgupta (1996) classified Bhattras in three major divisions, I)
Ambit Bhattra (ii) Sargimundi and (iii) Batamundi Masnimara from his
studies in Bastar district (7).
These divisions are important in respect to social status and marriage endogamy
besides these they have no other connotations in social-ritual differentiation.
The Bodos have various exogamous septs or bonsa or clans, which are as follows:
Kochimo - Tortoise
Bhag - Tiger
Goyi - Lizard (Varanus)
Nag - Cobra
Kukuro - Dog
Makado - Monkey
Cheli - Goat
Onka - Wild Gourd
The Bhattras are very well built and medium height, the complexion varies from
light skin to dark. The head is round, slightly broad nose, and on the whole they
are very attractive people. The women are attractive, equally well built and
strong. They are pleasant and friendly people too.
The villages are very neatly maintained so also the houses. The houses have
generally a large area around with mud wall boundary. They are reputed
cultivators under low moisture conditions. Rice and ragi are staple food of the
tribe.
Cross-cousin marriages are common, adult marriages are practiced, and spouses
are generally acquired through negotiations. They pay bride price and either
spouse has right to divorce, widows and divorcees are allowed to remarry.
Bhattra women play an important role in agriculture, religious rituals and socio-
activities, in addition to their regular domestic activities.
A traditional community council headed by a Bhat Naik settles the community

disputes. Adultery, rape, divorces out of traditional norms and theft are the
punishable offences and punishment is imposed in the form of cash fine, social
boycott and excommunication. They have family and village deities and Pujari
performs all rituals.
Several years back, they were keeping pigs in front of the house, but now have
totally discontinued it. They say that keeping pig in front of the house made the
Mohammedan rulers to stay away from entering their houses. This may be their
memory of the past in Warangel Mohammedan invasion.
Bhattra claim to be superior in rank to Omnatya and Bhumia with whom the men
can dine except in social functions. Bhattra women are forbidden from even
drinking water from any other tribe including the higher caste Brahmin and Karan
houses.
Bhattras and History

The locality where the tribe is presently in majority, both in Bastar and Koraput
has centuries of documented history; where Nalas were the ruler and then it
passed hands to Vaktakas, followed by Western Ganga?, Eastern Ganga, Western
Chalukyas, Eastern Chalukyas, Chodas, Nagavamsis and Telugu Choda.
Vakataks, a Brahmin dynasty ruled the land after Nalas; so the word Bhattras may
be more akin to Vakatakas. The tribe has custom of bearing sacred thread like
Brahmins. Eastern Gangas are known to have come out from this region and later
carved Kalinga country to rule.
The other side of the evidence suggests that from the fact that the tribe claim of
Orangel (Warngal in Andhra Pradesh) migratition seems to be significant, in the
sense that they were ruling Raj Bhattras and later due to famine and Muslim
invasions they came here by crossing over Godavari river. It cannot be ruled out
that they were South Kalinga subjects of Eastern Gangas, their language that is
Oriya collaborates the fact and were living in the South. Pita Bhattras are referred
in by Rajaguru (8), the relation between present Pita Bhattras and Pita Bhktas
dynasty of Orissa cannot be ruled out.
The word Bhattra seems to be of great significance and honour in the past as
many ruler families adorned it. At this state, the relationship of word Bhattra to
Western Ganga and Bhattra tribe of Bastar-Koraput cannot be related but cannot
be ruled out. The following Dynasties used the Bhattra title,
While the Western Gangas illustrious Konguni-maharajadhiraja, the great lord,
Sivamarabhatara was ruling over the entire world……… (9)
Sivasakati-Bhattra, while under the religious charity of Arakutti, got the temple
constructed and etc. (10)
In 9th century, as per inscription of Velurpalaiyam plates of the sixth year of
Nandivarman III, affirms that an early Pallava king of great fame seized the
insignia of royalty together with the daughter of the Naga King. The Pallava king
adopted the additional title of Bhattarka.
Pallava dynasty ruled, village headman was called mutuda, or alderman, a title
that does not occur elsewhere but still exists in Koraput region. The Bhattras
celebrate Bali in regular 12 years cycle. The titles of the tribe are seen with the
Jaina saints in Jaina literature and with the Western Ganga Kings.
The Eastern Chalukya Kings were also using the title as known from the name of
Vijayadittya- bhattarakchi (11)
There were many from the Jaina Sanghas who were using the Bhattra title amply
seen in literature.
Patel with reference to Nalas wrote, “ There are some controversies about the
interpretation of ‘Bhatas’ which finds mention in the Keasaribeda plates of
Arthapati(12), Rithapur grant of Bhavadattavarman (13) and Podagadastone
inscription of Skandavarman (14) where their entry to the donated villages or
agraharas has been forbidden. ‘Chatas and Bhatas’ which find frequent mention in
the contemporary records, are often translated as regular and irregular soldiers.
Vogel (15) interprets them as head of Pargana. ------- In the Sailodbhava records
Bhatas is used in the sense of soldiers. (16) In the Nala records very probably
‘Bhata” stands for soldiers” (17).
I am of the opinion that the Bhatas as called were soldiers of Vakataka dynasty,
thus they were forbidden of entry into the Nala agraharas, because of their enmity
as denoted above. The Bhattra as a community found in the periphery of past Nala
dynasty may be the Bhata of the said reference.
Reference
1. Stuart, H.A. 1891 quoted by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and
Tribes of Southern India, Madras: 1909, Vol. 1-7.
2. Taylor, Rev.W. 'Catalogue Raisonns' of Oriental Manuscripts, 1862. (In
Book 1891)
Press, 1945
4. Hayavadana Rao, C, 'The Gonds of Eastern Ghats', In: Thurston, E., 'Caste
and Tribes of Southern India', Madras: Vol.1-7,
1907-9.
5. Elwin, V. (1947). The Muria and their Ghotul. Oxford University Press.
6. Thurston, E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and Tribes of Southern India,
vol.l-7, Madras: 1909.
7. Sarkar,A and Dasgupta, S. (1996) Spectrum of Tribal Bastar. Agam Kala
Prakashan, Delhi. p.51-57.
8. Rajaguru, S.N. Bhagawan Mahavira and Jainism in Kalinga. Buddism and
Jainism. pp. 159-165.
9. Remesh, K.V (1984) Inscription of Western Ganga. No.81. Madigere
Inscription of Sivamara p.269, p.394 and p.464.
10. Ibid.p.394.
11. E.I.V.p.128. Bezvada Plate of Bhima I.
12. Line 5—(Abhata Pravesa Sarvakara Visarjitah).
13. Line 13—(Abhata Pravesa Avaha)
14. Line 8--- (Apravesyam Bhataischedam)
15. Vogel Antiquities of Chanda State p.132.
16. Behera S.C. Rise and fall of the Sailodbhavas. p.128
17. Patel, C.B. Dynastic History of Nalas. p.137-138
NALA DYNASTY IN KORAPUT
The Nalas ruled in Kantara-Kosal region in 4th-5th centuries. They claim to be

descent from the Nishadha king Nala of the epic fame (1). Vayu-Purana and
Brahmanda- Purana also support it. According to Matsya purana and Hari
Vamsha, they belonged to the solar dynasty; but the Mahabharat narrates that they
were of the lunar race. According to Rajaguru, 1958 the reigning period of Nala
kings may be assigned to the 5th and 6th century A.D. and had continued till the
Sarvhapuriyans and the Panduvamsi got supremacy over Madhyabharat (2).
Nalas ruled over the land between river Wian Ganga in the west to the Indravati
in the south and from the Eastern Ghats in the east to the Mekala region in the
north. This territory was known to be the Nalas dominion, when they went at the
height to the power but their original country was confined to the modern Koraput
district of Orissa and part of Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, may be a part of
Kalahandi District of Orissa also (3). G.Ramdas has identified Pushkari i.e.
modern Podagada in Umerkote of Koraput district in Orissa as the capital of
Nalas (4) but Altekar did not agree to the proposal, on the other hand N.K.Sahu
supported the findings of Ramdas.Thus it is reasonable to say that the Nalas ruled
over the Koraput District in the 5th and 6th century A.D. and this was the
Nalavadi Visaya referred in the Kurnool- grant (5) of the Western Chalukya king
Vikramaditya I who owned about the middle of the 7th century A.D. We learnt
from the Rithapur plates (6) of Bhavadattavarman, that afterwards he transferred
his capital from Pushkari to Nandivardhana. The reason for the transfer is known
from the Podagadh stone inscription where it is stated that owing to some trouble
initiated by external enemies of the Nalas with Skanadavarman son of Bhavadatta,
the town of Pushkari was desolated but was again restored to the normal position
(7). It does not mention the enemy in clear terms.
Some scholar also inclined to suggest that Nandivardan was the capital of Nala as
stated above. It may be better to state that Nandivardan was the capital town of
Vakataka kings of Berar as known from Puna copper Plate inscriptions of
Prabhavati Gupta of her regional year 13 and the Rithapur inscription of
Bhavadattavarman only indicates that the Nala king had succeeded in occupying
the Vakataka capital for some time and started struggle between Nalas and
Vakatakas (8). Hiralal has identified the Nandivardan with Nagavardan 13 miles
north of Nagpur, but as has been also stated that Nandapur 34 mile north of
Nagpur may be the old Nandivardan (9).
The genealogy of the Nala kings was workout by several authors including P.L.
Misra, (10) S.N. Rajaguru, (11) N.K. Sahu (12) and G. Ramdas (13) from the
valuable stone inscriptions and copper plate grants. The Kesharibeda plates of
Arthapati was edited by G. Ramdas and re-edited by D.C. Sircar (14). The
Rithapur plates (15) by Bhabadattavarman was edited by Y.R. Gupte and the
Podagada stone inspiration of Skandavarman son of Bhabadutta was edited by
C.R. Krishnamacharalu (16) and also prior to him D. R. Bhandarakar and Raja
Bhadur Hiralal had reported the inspirations in their report (17). The 32 gold coins
of 3 Nala kings were added by S.N. Rajaguru (18) and later Miss Tripathy (19)
gave her observations. However there have been doubts with the genealogy of the
Nala king. It has not yet been satisfactorily worked out.
The work of P.L. Misra (20) is inclined to take king Mahendra of Kosala referred
to in the Allahabad pillar Inscription as a Nala king. His argument that King
Mahandraditya who issued Khairtal hoard of gold coins is identical with king
Mahendra of Allahabad pillar Inscription (21), is based on a guess work and his
suggestion that the name Mahendravarman sounds well with some of the Nala
rulers as Bhavadattavarman, Skandavarman, etc is unwarranted was the opinion
of N.K.Sahu (22).
Chronological account of Nala Kings

According to S.N. Rajaguru (23) that the Chronological account of the institutions
of the Nalas is to be ascertained with the help of the writers named in as Chulla.
In addition to the name of Arthapati and Bhavadattavarman of Edenga hoard; Sri

Nasdanaraja and Stambha are known from revese coins and it is Varaharaj with
the help of the Bhita seal and the gold coins of Bastar (24). The genealogy of the
Nala Kings is prepared by Rajaguru is as following,
Vrishdhvaja (of the Bhita-seal)
Varaharaja (of the gold coins)
Arthapati (Kesaribeda plate)
Bhavattavarman
Bhavadatta (Rithapur plate)
Skandavarman (Podagadh stone inscription)
Prthviraja
Viruparaja
Vilasatunga (Rajim stone inscription)
Rajaguru has placed Arthapati as earlier than Bhavadattavarman; but the

Rithapur inscription leaves no doubt that Arthapati was a son and successor of
Bhavadattavarman. The genealogy of Nala King has been given by N.K.
Sahu (25) that is as follows:
Brsabhadhvaja (Cir-400 A.D.) of Bhita-seal
Varaharaja (Upto Cir- 440 A.D.) of the gold coin
Bhavadattavarman (Upto- 440-465 A.D.)
Arthapatiraja (Cir 465-475 A.D.) Kesaribeda Plates of Arthapti
Skandavarman (Cir- 475 to 500 A.D.) Podagadh stone inscription
Prthviraja
Viruparaja
Vilasatunga (Cir- 700 A.D.) Rajim stone inscription

The chronological account of the inscriptions of the Nalas is ascertained through

the writer’s name in Kesaribeda plate inscription as Chulla, he styles as
Rahasyadhikrta while in another Rithapur plate inscription he is called
Rahasiniyukta (26).
In addition to the name of Arthapati and Bhavadattavarman of Kesaribeda and

Rithapur plates respectively, we get another name from their gold-coins. It is
Varaharaja. With the help of Bhita-seal and gold-coins of Bastar, Rajaguru gave
below a list of the Nala Kings: (27)
The Nalas rose to prominence that their capital was at Pushkari (28) in the modern
Umerkote Taluk of the district of Koraput.
Nala Dynasty Inscriptions, Copper plates and Numismatics

evidence
The Nala dynasty and the chronological of the Nala kings are derived from the
following inscriptions, inscriptions and numismatic evidences and are given as
following.
Numismatics and Nalas

There are four coin hoards so far recorded, which is attributed to Nalas and their
findings are as following:
Edenga hoard of 32 gold coins of the Nala rulers in Kondagaon of Bastar

district
In 1939, a hoard of 32 gold coins of the Nala rulers was discovered in Kondagaon
of Bastar district. The office of the E.C. Hyde, ICS, and Administrator Bastar
State recovered; V.V. Mirashi has edited them). The coins were perfect and
round. They were made up of thin sheet of gold. They are single die coins with
design and legends embossed in relief on the obverse and the reverse is blank.
Mirashi has divided into two groups according to size. The large coins were 10
number measures from 20 to 21 mm diameter and weight 19.7 to 24.6 gms each.
The small ones numbering twenty-two are about 15mm in diameter and they
weigh about 7.5 gms each. The small ones are numbering twenty-two. The
obverse is divided into two parts by horizontal lines, one to three in number. In
the upper half, a humped bull (Nandi) and crescent are seen. In the lower half is
possibly the legend of the issuer. The figure of the bull is seen beautifully executed
on the coins of Bhavdatta varman (29).
Coins of Srivaraha (Varaharaja)

There were thirty-two coins, of those twenty-nine coins belong to Varaharaja.
They were classified by Mirashi (30); who showed to have 1st group of six larger
coins based on device and legend. The obverse contains a circle of dots along the
edge with humped bull facing left towards the crescent down below the horizontal
line; the legend ‘Sri Varaharaja’ is inscribed in the box-headed character of 5th
century A.D. In the other type, inside a circle of dots a couchant bull faces right
with the crescent above its back. Below, the legend it reads ‘Srivaraha’
Coin of Bhavadattaraja
There is one coin of larger variety contains the legend ‘Bhavadatarajasya’ in box-
headed character. Other things of the coin are as above (31).
Coins of Arthapati
This hoard contains two coins; they are of two varieties in larger size of the king
Arthapati (32). On the obverse, there is a circle of dots. Inside the circle along the
edge, a couchant humped bull faces right with the crescent in front. Down below
is the legend ‘Sri Arthapatirajasya’ in box-headed character. In the other variety
the crescent is behind the bull.
According to Mirashi, (33) the coins of ‘Varaha’ appear to be the earliest and that
of Arthapati is the latest. He also doubts if these coins were meant for circulation
and they may be token plaques.
We know about Skandavarman from the grants and his father Arthapati, who had
also issued the Kesaribeda grant. They belong to Nala dynasty.
The name of Bhavadatta is also found in the rock inscription of Skandavarman,

who is apparently his second son. However, as yet due is no mention of the name
of ‘Varaha’ in epigraphic records. Mirashi and Sahu (34) accept him as a Nala
ruler on the evidence of paleography, and he seems to be the predecessor of
Bhavadatta (35).
Kulia Hoard of Gold Coins

A hoard of thirty gold coins was discovered at the village of Kulia in Durg district
of Madhya Pradesh in 1977. It contains twenty-five coins of ‘Mahendraditya’ and
five coins of Nala rulers. The Collector, Durg (36) had collected and lodged the
gold coins in M.G.R. Museum, Raipur. However, B.C. Jain and L.S. Nigam have
published the findings of the said coins (37).
Of the five Nala coins as mentioned, two belong to Bhavadatta and one to
Arthapati, who are also known from the Edenga hoard and the epigraphs. The rest
two coins of this hoard introduce to two new rulers ‘Sri Nandanaraj’ and
‘Stambha’ they are identified as Nala rulers by Jain (38) and Nigam (39). We also
find reference to one ‘Sri Nanda’ in the Palai and Gandibera (40) hoards of copper
coins, which experts identify with ‘Sri Nandanaraja’ of this gold coin hoard.
Coins of Bhavadatta
There are two round shaped gold coins with diameter and weight of 21 mm and
1.775 gm., respectively. They are divided into two parts by horizontal lines. On
the obverse, inside a circle of dots, as usual on the upper half, a couchant bull is
facing right with the crescent behind it. In the lower half, there is the legend ‘Sri
Bhavadattarajasya’ in the box-headed character of Brahmi. The reverse of the
coin is blank.
Coin of Arthapati
The obverse is same as above the legend reads ‘Sri Arthapatirajasya’. It weighs-
1.565 gm. and has diameter of 20mm.
Coin of Nandanaraja
The coins are of gold. The diameter is 20 mm. and weighs 1.310 gm. The obverse
is divided into two parts by horizontal lines. A circle of dots, which runs along the
edge; in the upper half a couchant humped bull faces, left with six dots behind it.
In the front of the bull, crescent is shown. The lower half the legend in box-
headed character reads ‘Sri Nandanaraja’.
Coin of Stambha
The coin is made of gold, and has 16 mm. diameters and weighs 0.720 gms. The
obverse is as above. In front of the bull there is a symbol and the legend reads
‘Stambha’ in the box-headed character of Brahmi.
For the first time, Nandaraja and Stambha are known from these gold coins and
they belong to the Nala dynasty (41). They may be assigned to the period after
Skandavarman.
Copper Plates and Inscriptions and Nala Genealogy

In addition to the above, the discovery of 32 gold coins issued by Varaharaja, Sri
Arthapatiraja and Bhavadattavarman discovered from Edenga, the village in
Kondagaon Tahsil of Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh adds to the earlier

discoveries. (42)
The copper plates are:
1. Rithapur plates of king Bhvadatta verman (43)

2. Kesaribeda plates of king Arthapati (44)
The stone inscriptions are:
1. Podagada inscriptions of Skanda Varman (45)

2. Rajim inscriptions of Vilasatunga (46)
Rithapur Plates of Bhavattavarman
The donor of the plates was Bhavattavarman, title of the plate was Maharaja,
place of issue was Nandivardhana, topography refereed was Kadamvagiri
(village) and issuing officers were Paddopadhyay’s son Voppadeva and second
name was Rahsyadhikruta Chulla. Y.R. Gupte edited the plate. It was in Sanskrit
(47).
The find place of the plates was the village of Rithapur in the Morsi Taluk of the
Amaravati District of Maharastra. These plates along with another set of plates of
Vakataka queen Prabavatigupta were brought to the ‘Bharata Itihasa Samsodhaka
Mandala’, Poona by Mahanya Dattaraja.
It measured 7.3/11” x 3.5” in coverage. The ring and the seal are missing. The
editor is of the view that on the paleographical the record may be assigned to the
later half of the 5th century A.D.
The following few line translations from Y.R.Gupte is given as below.
(Lines 1-21) Perfection has been attained! Hail! From Nandivardhana. The
illustrious Maharaja Bhavattavarman, whose banner bears the Tripataka (hand
with three fingers stretched out or whose banner consists of three pennons) who is
born in the lineage of the Nala kings,..............
(Lines 21-26) This copper plate charter, which in the abode of the virtue of
increasing the sacred fame of his father and mother, has been caused to be made
by the illustrious Maharaja Arthapati Bhattarka, who has been favored by the
kindness of respectable people, so that..........
Kesaribeda grant of Maharaja Arthapati Bhattaraka

The inscription was secured by G.Ramdas through Assistant Dewan of the former
Jaypur Zamindary, Koraput district in 1944 from the village of Kesaribeda of
Umarkote Thana of the Koraput district. He had published a small account of
Nalas in the Telugu journal “Bharati’ of June, 1944.
The inscription was edited by G. Ramdas (48) and later D.C. Sircar re-edited and
published (49).
The plate’s donor was Arthapati; Titles were Sri Maharaja, Bhattaraka,
Tripatakdhvaja, Nalasrpatikul unvaya and Mahesvarmah-
asenatisrshtarjayvibhava. The place of issue was Pushkari. The topography was
Keselaka Grama (village).
Ramdas writes. “Compared with Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman (50) those

of our plates appear to be at least a century later.” He further wrote, “before the
age of the Vishnukundins the royal charters were written with three lines each of
the face. It may be taken that the charters with four lines on each of the face were
of the times subsequent to A.D. 350, the east year of Samudragupta’s Champion.”
The said inscription was engraved by Rahasyadhikrta Chaulla.
The find spot of the grant plates is full of ancient ruins. The plates were found
stung to a copper ring. According to G. Ramdas the circumference and ring as
described are 7.4” and 2’. The plates measured 7.5” long and 1.5” wide. The
corners have been trimmed and rounded off. The plates with the ring weighed
43.75 tolas ( gms) and the ring alone weighed 6.75 tolas ( gms). First face of the
1st plate is blank, the 2nd and 3rd are inscribed on both sides and set contains 14
lines of inscription (51).
The letters used are scooped out variety of the box headed character of Central
Indian script prevalent in 5th/6th Century A.D. The language of the character is
Sanskrit and has been composed both prose and verse direction.
The Keselaka Grama of the inscription has been identified by G. Ramdas with
present Kesaribeda village, the find spot of the grant. The place of issue of the
grant is Pushkari, which has been identified with present Podagada, revenue
village Bhandariguda in Dabugaon Tahsil, formerly Umerkote Thana in
Nowarangpur Sub-division of Koraput district (52).
According to the grant Maharaja Arthapati donated Keseleka Gram to

Durggarayya, Ravirayya and Ravidaarayya.
Podagada Stone inscription of Skandavarman, son of Bhavadatta

The donor of the inscription was Skandavarman; topography was Pushkari
(town). C.R. Krishnamacharlu edited the inscription (53).The inscription was
discovered in 1922 by G. Venkoba Rao, Asst. Superintendent of Archaeology,
Madras.
Podagada is a village in the Umarkote Police Station in the Koraput district of
Orissa. The place is very close to Bastar district.
The inscription still stands, at its find. It consists of thirteen versus and most of
them are composed in Anushtup-Chhanda in Sanskrit.
Rajim stone inscription of Vilasatunga

The donor of the inscription was Vilastunga. It is in Sanskrit poetry. There are 29
verses. V.V. Mirashi had edited the inscription (54), but before him D.R.
Bhandarkar had placed it to be of 8th century. Rai Bahadur Hiralal had also
reported the inscription.
The inscription consists of three stones, and is found at the left side of the
Mandapa of Rajivlochana temple at Rajim, which is about 28 kms. from Raipur
(Chhattisgarh).
The learned editor writes, “Verses 10-12 are devoted to the glorification, equally
conventional, of Prithiviraja’s son Viruparaja. Versus 14th mentions Vilastunga
who was probably a son of Viruparaja. On paleoecological grounds Cunningham
says that it belongs to not later than 8th century A.D (55) However Mirashi places
it to about A.D. 700.
Podagada stone inscriptions

The Southern Archeological Circle, Madras lead by C.R.Krishnamacharlu and
G.Venkoba Rao During 1922 discovered Podagada stone inscriptions and later
edited the inscriptions. The inscription is still found lying on a hill on Podagada in
Revenue village Bhandariguda, Dabugaon Tehsil of Koraput district and it
contains 12 to 13 verses written in Sanskrit.
The inscription speaks of king Skandavarman son of Bhavadatta of the Nala

family, who re-established the city of Pushkari and made the gift of a holding and
some money in the shape of ‘Bhrudaksina’ for feeding Brahmins and the
destitute. It described the establishment of foot print (padmaula) of Lord Vishnu,
for which the king made the grant. It was made in his 12th regal year on the 27th
day of Baisakha. The inscription was written by Janturadasa son of Chauli.
According to Krishnamacharalu the inscription belongs to later half of the 5th

century A.D. Pushkari is identified with modern Podagada, which is full of
antiquarian remains and ruins (56).
G. Ramdas opines that Pushkari may be identical with the famous Puskara Tirtha
of the Mahabharata (57) but S.N. Rajaguru did not agree to this view. It is stated
by H.N. Sukla that the village Pushynel located in Bijapur Tahasil of Bastar
District is correct form to place Pushkara (58) and representing the Nala capital
city, which is without a solid basis. It is not out of place to identify Podagada now
a forelone desolated place was once very prosperous and populated town and has
been inclined to identify with Pushkari, the old capital of Nala which is opined by
G. Ramdas, N.K. Sahu and S.N. Rajaguru.
The Nala Rulers

Vyghraraja
In the middle of the 4th century A.D Samudragupta led his South Indian
campaign; Vyghraraja, the Nala king was the ruler of Mahakantara and was
defeated. (59).
Vindyavedhana
There is no definite evidence as to which Nala king ruled Kantara after

Vyghraraja; however on a seal discovered from village Bhita, near North
Allahabad that is belived to have been carried in the train of Bhavadattavarman’s
pilgrimage to Prayaga as known from his grant.
S.N. Rajaguru (60) has pointed out that one of the seals found at Bhita belongs to
an early king of the Nala family. The seal in question contains the following
legend-:
‘Sri Vindhyavevane mahasvara mahasenati srstarajasya Brsahvajasya

Gautamiputrasya..............’ The appellation Mahesvara mahasenatisrsta rajasya’ is
without doubt a conventional expression found in the records of the Nala kings. In
the copper plate inscriptions of the Nalas the conventional epithets run as follows:
Mahamahesvara mahasenatisrsta
Rajya vibhavah Nalanrpavamsa
Prasutah tripatakadhvajah etc’.
For the use of similar epithets Brsabhadhvaja might be taken to be belonging to

the Nala family. The seal in question has been described by Marshall to the 3rd.
or 4th century A.D. and in view of it characters being similar to those of the
Mathara and Salankayana chaters it may be attributed to about 400 A.D. The
discovery of the seal at Bhita near modern Allahabad seems to be concluded that
Brsadhvaja was a ruler of the region, but the metronymic expression-
Gautamiputrasya- indicates that he belonged to a south Indian family .His seal
might have gone over to Bhita in the train of Bhavdattavarman’s campaign
against Nandivardhana and his march from the latter place to Prayaga where he
donated grants to Brahmanas. If Brsabhadhvaja is regarded as a Nala king and his
metronymic appellation are taken into consideration his territory may be assigned
to the Bastar-Koraput area rather than to the Brita-Allahabad region. (61).
Varaharaja
He is possibly the next Nala ruler after Vindyavedhana, who is known from his
gold Edenga gold coin finds from Bastar district. Out of the 32 gold coins, as
many as 29 belong to Varaharaja, one to Bhavadattavarn\mana and two to
Arthapati. (62)
……………The Vakataka rulers felt the growing strength of Nalas. They had
acquired sovereignty over Koraput-Bastar region possibly since the time of
Pravarasena I, who flourished during earlier period of 4th century A.D. (63). The
Nalas attained position through consolidation where Vakataka Empire was under
the regency of queen Prabhavatigupta (390-410 A.D.) and Nala king Varaharaja
proclaimed independence and rose to great prominence.
Bhavadattavarman
It is very likely that Bavadattavarman was successor to Varaharaja.He is called

Bhavadattaraja in his coins; in the Rithapur copperplates (64); is known as
Bhavadattavarman and in Podagada Stone inscription as Bhavadatta (65).
The conflict between Vakatakas and Nalas started during the rule of
Narendrasena, son and successor of Pravarasena II and the Nala king who fought
against Vakataka rulers, is known to be Bhavadattavarman.
Bhavadattavarman defeated Vakatakas and marched as far as their imperial

capital Nandivardhana and eventually occupied. Narendrasena forced retreat from
his capital. It is believed that the Traikutakas of Southern Gujarat was hard
pressing him, thus he could not stand to the aggression of Nalas. Sometime after
this victory Bhavadattavarman left for holy Prayaga on pilgrimage where he
donated a village named Kadambagiri for acquiring blessing on himself and his
queen to Matradhyaryya of the Parasara gotra and his eight sons named Devrayya,
Devadattaryya, Kumaradttarayya, Viradattaraya, Vasudattaryya, Gauridattaryya,
Dhruvadattaryya and Durggadattaryya. This grant was made in the 11th regal year
of king Bhavadattavarman. It so appears that Bhavadattavarman had occupied the
capital Nandivardan about the middle of the 5th century A.D. It is clearly known
form the Rithapur Copper Plate grant that Bhavadattavarman occupied the heart
of Vakataka empire uptill end of his rule.
He ruled an extensive area including Kosala and Kantara extending from Koraput
to Berar (66)
Arthapatiraja
Bhavadattavarman was succeeded by his son, Mahajaja Arthapati.Rajaguru (67)

had placed Arthapati earlier to Bhavadattavarman but D.C. Sirkar (68) was of the
opinion that he ruled after Skandavarman.It is clear from Rithapur plates that
Arthapatiraja was the son and successor of Bhavadattavarman.
Arthapatiraja had to suffer serious consequences as the hands of Prthvisena II,

son and successor of Narendrasena. The Balaghat Plate (69) of Pritvisena reveals
the fact that this monarch rescued the fortunes of his family twice and the records
however do not reveal as who the enemy was defeated by him. It is no doubt that
they are the Nalas and king Arthapatiraja and the Traikutaka king Dharasena.
Arthapatiraja faced crushing defeat under the hands of Prithvisena II and Nalas
were expelled out of Vakataka dominion.
The Kesaribeda Copper plate grant was made by Arthapati may after be his defeat
from Nandivarman. The said grant was issued from his headquarters Pushkari
donating the village Keselaka in favour of Durggarajya, Ravirayya and
Ravidattarayya all belong to the Kautsva gotra.
Prithvishna II seems to have marched against the Nala capital as a measure of

retaliation and devastated Pushkari town. Arthapatviraja was killed in the battle
some time about 475 A.D.
At present at Podagada Pushkari there are six sati stones placed on a strategic
location. The local folk story runs that six princes were killed in a battle. This is
possibly that out of 8 sons of Arthpatiraja 6 sons lost their life. The folk stories
continue to tell the pathetic end of king and queen during the war on Pushkari.
They point out to a close by hill with thick forest where the king and his family
members were hiding and unfortunately a pet parrot started telling that king and
queen are hiding. Taking the clue from the parrot, the enemy searched for the king
and his family who were then slained to death. This folklore still exists in pathetic
poetry form in Podagada village, and retreated by tribals.
Skandavanman
Skandavanman ascended the Nala throne after the death of his brother king
Arthpati Maharaja. He continued struggle with his enemies. The Vakatakas
succeed in repulsing the attacks due to Nalas and Traikutakas but were unable to
smash their power. The Traikutakas king Vyaghrasena, the successor of
Dharasena remained as powerful threat to Vakatakas. The other side, Nala king
Skandavarman struck back the Vakatakas from his territory. He restored and
repopulated his capital Pushkari. His rock inscription was discovered from
Podagada and is still in place. The final destruction of the city took place towards
the close of the reign of Skandavarman about the year 500 A.D.
Skandavarman was a contemporary of the Vakataka emperor Harisena of the

Basim branch. The Ajanta inscription (70) reveals that Harisena had extended his
supremacy and rule over Gujarat, Malawa, South Kosala, Andhra and Kuntala.
This indicates that he had smashed the rules of Traikutakas and Skandavarman,
and later sometime about 500 A.D. Skandavarman lost his kingdom to Vakatakas.
This was the final blow, which effectively broke down the Nalas in Koraput-
Bastar.
The subsequent history of Nalas is not eventful. The Chalukya king Kirtivarman
(566-598 A.D.) as described in the Aihole inscriptions as the night of doom to the
Nalas (71). J.K. Sahu (72) mentions that a branch of Nala family migrated to the
south and settled on the bank of Tungabhadra. There the Chalukya king
Kiritivarman as said above subdued them.
Subsequently, Vikramaditya I, the Western Chalukya monarch gave a crushing

blow on them about the middle of the 7th century A.D. (73).
We are inclined to believe that all the above events look place at Pushkari region
only. This has been discussed with evidence in the proceeding chapters on
Western Chalukya and Eastern Chalukays in Trikalinga and Kalinga.
It is needful to speak that after defeat of the Nala king Skandavarman,

Sarbhapuriyas rule was established in Kosala and part of the Nala kingdom in
Kantara region the Eastern Gangas ruled which from that time came to be known
as Trikalinga country (74).
Another branch of the Nalas appears to have remained back in Western Kosala.
An inscription of this branch is found on a slab of stone in the Mandapa of
Rajivalochana temple at Rajim as stated above. The inscription is undated, but on
paleographic grounds, it may be placed about 8th-9th century A.D. The
inscription has faced erosion. It contains the names of three rulers, Prthviraja,
Viruparaja and Villastunga in lines 7, 9, and 11 respectively. Their relationship in
not known. If it is to be taken as a royal record, as per J.K. Sahu this branch of
Nala family ruled over small principality in the upper Mohanadi valley as
feudatories of the Panduvamsi Kings in 8th-9th century A.D.(75)
Pandipathar copper plate inscription (76) Aska in Ganjam, reveals that a family of
Nala was ruling during first half of 10 th century A.D. over Khindarisinga
Mandala. The capital as mentioned was Bhimpur, which is identified with
Bhimanagara of Ganjam. It is about 925 A.D. The donor king Bhimasena
assumed imperial title Maharajadhiraja, which is indicative that he acknowledged
nominal allegiance to his Bhauma overlord. Khindarisinga constituted the small
estates of Ganjam. They were Dharakota, Saragada, Badagada and Soroda.
Archeological Remains of Nalas
Podagada
The Nala strong hold was located on the hill fort, now called Podagada, which
means burnt fort. Podagada is located at the distance of 23 kms. from Umerkote
(Via Dhodra) and geometrically from Umerkote at a distance of 12 Kms. to its
south. Podagada constitute a part of the revenue village Bhandariguda. Previously
it was Umerkote Tahasil and at present it is a part of Dabugaon Tahasil. The
ancient township was instituted on the left bank of Rivulet Singasari which joins
the river Bhaskel near Nandpur in its hay days the city seems to have remained
between the river valley Singasari and Nangi as evident from the part. The river
Nangi flows 6 kms. to the north of Podagada and it is the Bhansagaon near
Dhodra. Both these rivulets have originated from the hilly and forest region of
Podagada, which is located at 2000’ altitude. Moreover the Podagada hill contains
the remnants of forts and the rocky inscription rise to a high of 3043’. The hilly
part of its strategy location resembles to the olden days fort locations for military
purpose.
Late G. Ramdas, (77) the historian and academician of repute from Koraput
district, visited Podagada during 1948, and have given vivid survey account. He
further viewed the antiquity of the place to the Epic and Purina age and was of
the opinion that ‘Pushkari’ mentioned in Nala inscriptions was pointing to the
famous Puskara Tirtha of Mahabharata’. The site of Podagada rock inscriptions is
located amidst a formidable hill fort located on the top of the hill. There are still
remains of brick and stone sculptures, parts of broken pillars, pottery and
terracottas and bangles on the hill fort lying scattered here and there. Ramdas
reported the discovery of an ancient stronghold of kings. There are traces of
staircase built of stone slabs, leading to the fort from the ground. Traces of the
gateway are also seen that leads to the top of the hill, which is a flat surface and
quite broad. There are pottery, pieces of tile and burnt bricks lying scattered.
There are a number of stones bearing holes, which are apparently meant for some
short of indoor game. Similar holes are seen in the Vijayanagar Empire ruins in
the south. These holes when closely examined have metal casting.
Ramdas had reported a stone with the impression of the foot-print which was
believed by him to be the original foot-print of Vishnu installed in the temples as
warranted in the inscription of Sakndavarman. But at present this stone is missing
from Podagada (78). But I have found the same footprint safe in Padagada and is
now called ‘Gangaram’ by local people.
The meaning of the word ‘Padamula’ is not very clear. Krishnamacharlu the
editor of the epigraph has translated it as sanctuary and Rajaguru supported him
(79). Some other scholars have identified it as temple. It seems to mean a ‘Vishnu
Vihar’, which the king established with adequate arrangement for its maintenance
and of which Vishnu was the presiding deity (80). In this connection G. Ramdas
(81) said that he had noticed a stone slab, two feet in diameter with a slight
depended depression of the man’s right foot. The foot print itself is about 12”
long and its worn out condition together with the eroded stone gave the
impression to him that it belong to the same age as the epigraph on the rocky hill.
Probably it was the footprint of Vishnu, which was by Skandavarman. At
Bolangir district of Orissa in Ranipur-Jharial there are very many sets of
footprints in the temple complex, which were worshipped in esteemed reverence.
It can also be of Buddhist relevance.
Ranipur-Jharial was a ‘Tirtha’ with a beginning in 4th /5th Century A.D. and was
within the Nala domain (82). Thus the ‘Padamula’ described in the grant might be
really a foot-print of Vishnu, which was established in Vishnu Vihar as is evident
from the donating of holdings along with immense ‘bhuridaksina’ for feeding the
destitute and inmates. N.K. Sahu opined, ‘the foot print symbolises the dwarf
incarnation of Vishnu and it appears that the idea of divine incarnation was
popular in the Nala kingdom” (83).
According to Patel (1990) who visited the area in 1985, who made a systematic
exploration and study of the extent antiquities and relics, which impresses and
beyond any doubt that Pushkari was a big flourishing city extended over the
valleys of the twin rivulets Nangi and Singari in the Podagoda plateau. He has
described as follows:
“The formidable stronghold, as gleamed from the ruins was located on the hill and
his presently called Podagada i.e. burnt fort suggesting its destruction by fire and
sword of the enemies. The entrance or simhadvara to the fort was from the
southern side, where we find brickbats and fragments of stone and burnt brick
pillars and doorjambs. The bricks measure 8 x 4 x 2” and the doorjamb contain
floral designs. A flight of steps leads to the stone slab containing the promulgation
of Skandavarman at a height about 40 feet from ground level. Here we find
remnants of an elaborate and massive gateway. G. Ramdas thinks that the colossal
stone pillar supported the arch. Remnants of only one pillar are found and the
local people say that elephants were tied to it in remote antiquity. The design of
the pillar however, suggests that instead of arches the pillars supported a corbelled
gateway, here was the 2nd gateway to the fort proper. Probably a temple was
located here as well, as is evident from the pillar inscription and the ruins of the
place. Another set of staircase spreads on to a height of 20 feet up to a flat
surface, where traces of pottery, brickbats, floors and tiles are visible indicating
the existence of some residential complex. From this plain ground a flight of steps
now in utter ruins runs to the east down to the valley, where there were wells and
source of water. To its west and north there is another extensive flat surface with
ruins of pottery, tile, rammed floor, bricks and rubble wall. In one corner there
exists an iron sword together with a few other iron implements such as nails,
small trident and hooks and at present the local folks worship them. In the north
and west the flat rock surface ends in precipitous fall perhaps a stone rubble wall
had been constructed on these sides and the broken bricks walls represent the
remnants of the fort palace complex. The pattern of this hill stronghold was very
much alike to the yadava fort of Daulatabad. From this place one can have a clear
view of the surrounding area for miles. Even now old vestiges may be seen
spreading over the place, giving the impression of the one time bustling Pushkari
city. A moat was encircling the whole formidable fortification the traces of which
is distinctly visible even now and was being connected with the Singari flowing
nearby. A pond exists near the southern entrance to the fort. In the north, beyond
the moat another mountain is there, which was very probably used as the
watchtower. At present at the foot of this hill stone sculptures of Bhairava,
Hanumana, Uma-mahesvara and Ganesa were lying in a thatched cottage together
with a heap of broken terracotta’s of horses, elephants, a horse rider and various
divinities.
To the east of Podagada hill on the valley of the rivulet that connects the moat and
the river Singari near the present village of Bhandariguda we find extensive ruins
of a township in the shape of pottery, brick bats, broken pieces of terracottas and
wax bangles, tiles terracotta balls, beads of clay and semiprecious stone. The
depressions running in straight lines amidst the ruins suggest the existence of road
and streets.
To the west, not very far from the fortification, a broken brick temple near two
ancient tanks may be seen. Krisnamacharlu identifies the temple as a Siva Shrine.
The roof has fallen and the walls and entrance have dilapidated and the entire
complex is in utter ruin. To us it appeared that originally the temple was two
chambered. From the study of the extent sculptures in its vicinity, it is probable to
think that it was a Siva temple. It was originally built on a brick and stone
platform as evident from its ruins. At present in the sanctum we find a Bhairava
image and a lingam along with a Vrisabha. In front of the temple, the figures of
Vrisava, Ganesa, worshipper couples, and memorial Sati pillars are found. In one
of the later pillars, a warrior riding a horse and piercing a wild animal with a long
spear has been depicted.
To the north of this place at a distance of 1 km, we find another group of

memorial pillars. Apart from these antiquities we find here pottery, brickbats,
terracotta figures and balls, broken pieces of tile, beads of semi-previous stones
and clay terracotta bangles, stone missiles and traces of houses, Vihara and places
in profusion.
This archaeological evidence is duly corroborated by epigraphic references. The
Podagada stone inscription of Skandavarman, which is still standing on the hill
fort in solitary splendor, speaks in laudable term that the king had restored and
repopulated the city; apparently he seemed to have adorned the city with palatial
buildings and residential sectors and fortification. The epigraph also states that he
established the Padamula of Vishnu, which very probably indicates a Vihar of
Vishnu to which a satra was also attached. In other Nala records we find reference
to gardens and it is probable that Pushkari was also adorned with gardens and
orchards.
With the exuberance of religious institutions, satras, residential sectors, palaces

and fortification, Pushkari appears to have been a bustling city of opulence as the
seat of administration of the glorious Nala dynasty.”(84)
Kesaribeda Village
This Keselaka or present Kesaribeda is located at a distance of 25 Km. to the

north-west of Pushkari i.e. Podagada near the river Tel. G. Ramdas visited the site
in 1944 reported the existence of 5 mounds of rubble pieces of bricks and a tank
of 100 yards square. According to Patel (1985) it is about 3 mounds containing
pottery, brickbats, and pieces of terracotta bangles and stone pieces. Every year
this place is being cleared more and more for cultivation. The present township
has grown up all round the ruined village complex,. There is a village called
Andhri very near to the spot, which probably retains the memory of Arthapati,
who donated the village. (85)
Ramdas made a trial excavation in one of the mounds and exposed a room 8’ x 4’
rectangular and build of walls 2 ft. thick Floor paved with bricks was also brought
to light. Inside the structure was found a beautiful carved Vishnu image. Another
mound near the tank yielded a room with walls 2’ height. Patel (1985) noticed
two more ponds and many sculptures of Vishnu and Siva, now enshrined in small
new temples. Their shape and carving they appeared to be the same age of that
copper grants. The ruins spreading over a quite large area with tanks indicate that
Kesaribeda was small town having temples and residential sectors. There is an old
tank nearby. It is very old and can be ascribed to Nala period (86).
In one of the Nala inscriptions that were discovered at Podagada it was dated in
the 12th regal year of the king whose name seems to be Skandavaraman although
the reading of the first part of it is beyond doubt. The king is described as the son
king Bhavadatta of the Nala family, who is probably the same as
Bhavadattavarman of the Rithapur grant. Skandavarman is said to have recovered
the last royal fortune of his family and to have re-established the destroyed and
deserted city of Pushkari. The city appears to have been situated in the Podagada
region and probably was the capital of the Nala kings. The inscriptions also refer
to the construction of a shrine (Padamula of Vishnu by Skandavarman may be at
Podagada).
Religion and Archeology evidence

Some village, places as per inscriptions and coin findings in Nala ruled country.
The Kesaribeda grant of Maharaja Arthapati Bhattaraka records the donation of

the village ‘Keselaka’ to three Brahmins of Kaustsasa Gotra in his 7th regal
year.Keselaka Grama of the inscription has been identified with present
Kesaribeda village, the find spot of the grant.
The place of issue of the grant is Pushkari, has been identified with present
Podagada, now the recover village Bhandariguda in Dabugaon Tahasil, Umarkote
of Koraput district.
Patel (1990) proposed some of his views to identify the geographical locations as
mentioned in the Nala records. The rivulet ‘Nangi’ which flows round Podagoda
North-east direction is possibly of Nala relevance. The Bhandariguda seems to
have derived its name from Bhavadatta, Nala king mentioned in the Rithapur
grant and Podagada stone inscription of his son Skandavarman. (87)
A village named ‘Andhi’ two kms. from Kesaribeda village may have derived its
name from king Arthpati. Rithapur grant has identified Kadambagiri Grama to
village Kalamba in Yeotmal Taluka of Maharastra by Y.R. Gupte (88). However,
L.K. Panda (89) has located Kadambagiri somewhere in Koraput district, where
the first Saiva acharya of Siddhanta system was a resident. This view is based on
Rajaguru’s (90) suggestion that Kadambagiri, found mention in the inscription
discovered inside the Jagannath temple complex of Puri is identical with
Kadambaguha, the ancient Siva centre of the Mattamayura sect. The grant records
donations made by the king of Kadambagiri, Jayantaraja of Matsya dynasty, who
ruled in Koraput region during medieval period. However this view has been
contradictory on various grounds.
Krishamacharlu during 1922 visited Podagada and described the vast

archeological wealth of this area. G. Ramdas visited in 1943 the said areas and
remarked, “in almost all or in the vicinity of every village in this praganas
(Podagada area) are found the vestiges of ancient civilization that was ramped
here in the obscure antiquity.” (91)
There are small wholes whose rims are made up of metal can be seen over the flat
stone, This was some kind of table for a game which is similar to that of forts seen
during Vijayanagar Empire. To its east, leads few steps to the valley where there
were wells for water supply. There is one large stone with flat surface and has
small heaps of ruins of pottery, tiles, bricks and rubble wall.
To the north, at a distance of 1 km. we find another group of memorial pillars. It

has bricks, terracotta figure, broken tiles etc.
At present, the local inhabitants have constructed a small temple where they have
collected Hanumana, Umaparbati idols and also Bahirava for worship.
Art and Architecture and Remnants of Nalas in Podagada

The hill fort of Podagada has been placed to 4th-5th century A.D. Nala rules. The
brick bats, pottery traces, broken stair cases beautifully cut rock plates with well
structured Sanskrit letters. It is Skandavarman whose fort stands at the centre of
the ancient town amidst ruins
Panel of Siva Parvati: Siva Parvati is in Yadava position. Siva is holding a

‘bilavafala’ in his right hand embracing Parvati in left hand. Parvati is holding
Sivalinga in her left hand and ‘Ketaki’ flower in her right hand. Karikaya is
placed to the right of Siva. Karikaya is with his peacock. This is small amount of
evasion to the sculpture.
Saivashrine: At the south-west of Podagada hill at about half km a Saiva shrine

exists. It has twin old tanks and numerous sculptures are scattered. The Sivalinga
and Saktipitha are missing. The shrine has a small mandapa in front, which is
uncovered.
Sculptures of the ruined temples and numerous stone sculptures are lying under a
tree. They are Vrusabha, Gangesa, Linga, and Siva-Parvati.
A large Yaksa has been discovered from the site and is now finds a puja place in a
newly constructed temple. It is worshiped as Hanuman.
Satipillars: The Satipillars are common in Nandapur, Narayanapatna,

Papadahandi and also Podagada. The Sati commitment existed in Koraput district.
The Sati Nadi of Jeypore in one such ancient names as well as Sati Khalo of
Nararyanapatna still stand. The epigraphic evidence speaks that Nala rulers were
ruled out due to fight between them and Vakatakas. The Sati pillars do justify
their existence at Puskar.
Vishnu sculptures: Apart from discoveries of G. Ramdas in 1944 at Podagada

area, he reported about the find of a number of images of Bhairava, Uma-
Mahesvara and Vishnu. They were beautifully executed and had assigned to Nala
period.
At Kesaribeda, Ramdas discovered a superb standing Vishnu image. He wrote,

‘the face of the image is beardless and the mouth and the eyes are smiling. The
smiling appears dancing on the lips. The cheeks are dimpled and made the
impression more enchanting’. Now this image is missing.
I am inclined to believe Keselaka to be the Keskal town of Bastar, which is about

110km from Podagada. At about 4 to 5 kms close to Keskal have ruins of Chaitias
housing Sivalinga and Vishnu shrines. This was a recent finding and excavation
by Bastar authorities. Further work will be required.
Reference
1. Pargiter, D.K.A, p.51.

2. Rajaguru, S.N. (1958) Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol.I, Part II, p.109 ff.
3. Rao Krishna, B.V. E.I XIX pp. 100-104.
4. Ramdas, G. J.B.R.S.Vol.XXXIV, p.33-42
5. I.B.B.R.A.S. XVI, pp.225-235.
6. Gupte, Y.R. E.I. XIX, p.100-104.
7. E.I. XXI, p.153-157.
8. E.I. XIX, p.100-104.
9. Hiralal inscription of C.P. and Berar, Second edition, p.112.
10. Misra, P.L. Political History of Chhatisgarh p.16
11. Sahu, N.K (1962) The Nalas, OHRJ, Vol. XI, (2) p. 31 40.
12. Sahu, N.K op.cit.
13. Ramdas, G. J.B.R.S. Vol. XXXIV, Pts. i & ii, p.33-42.
14. Sircar, D.C. E.I.XXVIII, p.12-16.
15. E.I. XIX, p.100-104.
16. E.I. XXI, p153-157.
17. Bhandarkar, D.R. In Cousen’s Progress Report of A.S.W.I. 1903-104,
p.46
18. Rajaguru, S.N. Inscription of Orissa, Vol. I, Part-II, p.109ff
19. Tripathy, S.A Note on the coins of Nagas of Chakrakotta. O.H.R.J.XXIX;
4.p.49-
65
20. Misra, P.L. op. cit.
21. Sahu, N.K. O.H.R.J. Vol.. XI, No.2 p.81 ff
22. Ibid.
23. Rajaguru, S.N. op. cit.
24. J.N.S.I., Vol. I, pp.29-35.
25. Rajaguru, S.N. op. cit
26. Sahu, N.K. OHRJ, Vol. XI, Vol.2, p.36.
27. Rajaguru, S.N. op. cit.
28. Ramdas, G. op.cit.
29. J.N.S.I. Vol.I, pp.29-35.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. J.N.S.I. Vol. I, pp. 29-30.
35. Sahu, N.K. op. cit. pp.506-519.
36. J.N.S.I.Vol I-II, pp.108-110.
37. Pracha Pratibha, Vol.V, Vol.I, pp.69-74.
38. Ibid.
39. Pracha Pratibha, Vol.V, Vol.I, pp.69-74
40. OHRJ, Vol.XXIX, Vol.II-III, pp.54-55.
41. Prachya Pratibha, Ibid.
42. J.B.R.S. XXXIV, pt. I Vol. II, p.19.
43. E.I. XIX, p.100-104.
44. JBRS XXXIV, pt. i & ii, p33-42.
45. E.I, XXI, p153-7f
46. E.I. XXVI, p.49-58f
47. E.I. XXI, p.103-7f
48. I.B.R.S., Vol. XXXIV, p.33-42.
49. E.I.XXVIII, p.12-16
51. JBRS, Vol. XXI, Pts. i & ii, p.33-42
52. Ibid
53. Krishnamacharlu, C.R. E.I.XXI, p.153-7ff
54. Mirashi, V.V. Rajim Stone Inscription
55 A.S.I.R.Vol.XVII, p.7
56 Krishnamacharlu, C.R op.cit
57 Ramdas, G. op.cit.
58. Sukhla, H.N.Prachin Bastar, pp.36-40
59. Sahu, N.K. op.cit; C.I.I. pp.6f line19-20
60 Rajaguru, S.N. op.cit
61 Ibid.
62 J.N.S.I.Vol I-II, pp.108-110.
63 E.I. XXI, p.103-7f
64 Ibid.
65 Ibid.
66 Sahu, J.P. Comparative History and Culture of Orissa: Minor Dynasty. p.
136
67 Rajaguru, S.N. op.cit.
68 Sircar, D.C. op.cit. (E.I.XIX, pp100ff)
69 Balaghat Plate of Prithivisena E.I.IV, pp67ff
70. E.I.XXVI, 137ff; Hyd.Ar.S.No.14
71 E.I.VI.p.1
72. Ibid.
73. J.B.B.R.S. Vol. XVI, pp.255 ff

74. Jirjingi Plate of Indravarman (537A.D.)
75. E.I.XXVI, pp49ff
76 O.H.R.JPt.182, pp.79f.Vol.XI:2
77 Ramdas, G.op.cit.
78 Ibid.
79. Rajaguru, S.N. op.cit
80 Ibid.
81. E.I., Vol. XXIV, pp. 153-157.
82. Patel, C.B. Dynastic History of Nalas p.82-83.
83. Sahu,N.K.op.cit.
84. Patel, C.B. op.cit., p.158-169.
85. Sahu, N.K. op. Cit., p.518.
85. Ibid.
86. Ramdas, G.op.cit.
87 Patel, C.B. op.cit, p.161-163
88. Gupte, Y.R. E.I., Vol.XIX, p.102.
89. Panda L.K., Savisimmi Orissa, 1985,
90. Rajaguru, S.N. Inscription of Orissa, Vol.IV, p351
NALA REMAINS IN PODAGADA
Top of the Nala fort
Hills on East of Nala Fort

Nala Stone Inscription Podagada

Entrance vertical stone where elephant
used to be tied
Collection of Nala Period Images in

the Siva Temple, Podagada. Sati Stone Podagada.
Remains of Podagada
Remains of Podagada in the Forest

Top of Podagada Fort Narrow Passage to Hill Fort
Podagada Pond Nala Vishnu Paduka, Podagada

Ganesha Durga
Hanumana ? Siva Linga
Un identified Image Siva & Parvati
Un identified Image Siva & Parvati ?

Un identified Image Durga
Siva & Parvati Images Old Bricks on the Fort

SABARA TRIBE
S
abara is an ancient known tribe of India. Sabara tribe has a long history that
traveled with time from Ramayana to modern time. The tribe has been spelt
in various literature, epic and authors as Saora, Soara, Sabar, Shabar,
Sour, Sar, Sayar, Suir, Sahar, Soria, Swiri, Siwir, Surris and Saura etc. Sabara are
also referred as Boyas in some literature. They are Austro-Asiatic in origin.
Sabara men by Thurston et al. 1909
Sabar tribe inhibit in Koraput-Ganjam (Gunupur and Paralakhemundi region) and

Western Orissa. This work is dealing mainly the Sabaras of Gunupur region.
Thurston and Rangachari (1909) (1) have given a vivid account of the tribe. Roy
(1927) (2), Ramamurti (1931) (3) and Sitapati (1938)( (4) have given separately
the grammar of the tribes’ language and culture in detail followed by Dasgupta
(1938)(5)and others. Elwin (1955) (6) studied and reported the religious belief of
the tribe in great detail, Patnaik (1963) (7), Panda (1965) (8), and Mohapatro
(1965) (9) gave an account of the tribe in present day context; and Bhupinder
Singh (1984) (10) discussed the political leadership of the Sabara tribe. In recent
years, Giridhar Gamang (2008) has detailed out the history of Sabara tribe in
India. (11).
Elwin (1955) gave a detail account of Sabara tribe of Koraput in his study. We
have taken the following classification of Sabaras in Koraput from his studies.
They are:
 Lombo Lanjhia are the Hill Sabaras.
 The Jati Sabaras are a branch of Hill Sabaras who do not take beef.
 Arsi Sabaras wear loin cloth and are Hill Sabaras.
 Jadu Sabaras live on the tops of hills of Serango. They claim equal to Jati
Sabaras, but later group do not agree.
 Kindal or Takala Sabaras are basket makers.
 Kumbit Sabaras are potters.
Hill Sabaras of Ganjam and Koraput districts of Orissa

Verrier Elwin loc.cit calls the Hill Sabaras of the Agency Tracts of the Ganjam
and Koraput districts of Orissa as Sabaras. They may be further defined by
territory and by culture. A Sabara is some one calling himself by this name and
living within a rough rectangle above the Vamsadhara River; one side of the
rectangle stretches north from the Agency boundary near Parlakimidi for about
forty miles; another runs east from Gunupur for twenty. The most typical of these
Sabaras live in the Gumma and Serango Muttas (sub-divisions) of the Ganjam
district, and in the villages within ten miles of Pottasingi in Koraput. To the north
through Peddakimidi and Chinnakimidi are other Sabara villages, which gradually
change their character as they approach the country of the Konds (12).
The Hill Sabaras are called Lombo Lanjhia Sabaras by their Oriya neighbours in
reference to the long-tailed loin-cloth which they wear. Ramamurti writes that
this nickname is resented by Sabaras (13). But Verrier Elwin writes that some
Sabaras are proud of being called Lanjhia, which they take to be synonymous
with ‘hillman’ (14).
Further Elwin (15) continues, Lombo Lanjhia is the only single term, which
covers all the Hill Sabaras as distinct from the plains Sabaras of the Kampu or
Sudda type. The Hill Sabaras themselves use a variety of names for the different
sections of their tribe. The most important branch calls itself Jati. Jati is not a
Sabara word, but an Oriya one which these Sabaras have borrowed to show that
they are the real thing, the true caste (jati), pure in blood, custom and religion.
The only characteristic, however, that distinguishes them from other Hill Sabaras
is that officially they do not eat beef. Another group is called Arsi Sabaras. Arsi
means monkey, but the name has no totemic reference and the only reason for it
seems to be the curious affinity which many Sabaras have for monkeys, and
perhaps the long-tailed cloth. The Arsi Sabaras eat monkeys, but so do most of
the others. Some of the Arsis weave cloth and are only Hill Sabaras who do so.
Sabara family
The Jadu Sabaras live on the tops of hills and in the wilder tracts north of
Serango. There is little difference between Jadu Sabaras and the Jati Sabaras, for
they claim that they do not eat beef. But Jati Sabaras insist that this untrue and
that both the Jadu and Arsi Sabaras have no real reverence for the cow and are
therefore inferior.
The Kindal and Takala Sabaras are basket-makers. They also do general
bamboo work, weaving mats and winnowing-fans and making brooms. At Karja
ceremonies the Kindals ceremonially exchange mats and baskets for a share in the
rice and meat of the feast.
The Kumbit Sabaras are potters. The Gontaras work in bell-metal and brass.
The Luaras are blacksmiths: they do not smelt iron and there little forges can only
handle the roughest work.
The different groups are vaguely endogamous. But nobody thinks very much of it
if a Jati Sabara marries an Arsi or a Jadu. The barriers between the cultivating
and occupational groups are a little stronger, yet an elopement between a Kumbit
and a Jadu is not taken very seriously and is forgiven after the payment of a small
fine. It is said that members of priests’ families have to be more careful: a Jati
Buyya cannot marry an Arsi Buyya or Jadu Buyya, still less-for example-a
Kumbit Poroja.
Sabara in Koraput has two center of influence; one is the Ganjam –Gunupur, the
other us western-Orissa-Chattisgarh. The later ones were the Panduvamsi dynasty
related who came to Jeypore – Nowrangpur – Malkangiri and had ‘Budhist’
religion. The archeological finding round by me at Pakanaguda, which is close to
Kathargad of Muran, and Indravati configuration proves it.
Sabara Tribe and Distribution
It is beyond doubt the Sabara tribe is an ancient tribe. The persistence with which
the name recurs of and on suggests that Sabara tribe were an important and widely
scattered tribe through out India. The confusion about the name is explained due
to the fact that from the earliest period the Sabaras were divided into different
sections; and many of them have lost their language and have been assimilated in
culture and religion of their neighbours.
Cunningham continues, “There seems good reason to believe that the Savaras
were formerly the dominant branch of the great Kolarian family, and that their
power lasted down to a comparatively late period, when they were pushed aside
by other Kolarian tribes in the north and east, and by the Gonds in the south’ (16).
B.C.Mazumdar is of the same opinion: ‘All the Kolarians are but branches of the
Sabara people’ (17). S.C.Roy agrees and refers to the fact that the Kolarian
Santals are called Savaras by the Male Paharias (18). Khageswar Mohapatra gave
the Munda language-speaking tribals in Orissa as Soara, Gorum, Gotaha, Gutob
Gadaba, Bondo (Remo), Kharia, Juang, Korku, Santali, Mundari, Bir Hoare, Ho
and Karwa. His classification was based on South, Central and North Munda
speaking regions (19). These Munda language-speaking tribes also belong to the
ancient leaders; Soara and thus the above mentioned Orissan tribes are all related
to each other and also to Soara. The Parna-Savaras mentioned by Varaha Mihira
(about A.D.550) are supposed to be the leaf-clad Juangs, another tribe of the same
group, though they may equally well be the leaf-clad Sabaras (20).”
SabaraSabara
Vitebsky (21) (1993) studied of Koraput
settlement and said, “Above all, their (Sora)
on the hill
linguistic connections lie ultimately with the south east Asia. Linguists classify
the Sora language as belonging to the Munda group, which includes some other
Indian ‘tribal’ languages such as Mundari, Ho, Santal and Bondo; while they
consider this group itself to be a branch of the Austro-Asiatic family which
includes Mon-khmer languages such as Cambodian, as well as many of the
languages of the interior of the Malay peninsula and of the Montgnard peoples of
Vietnam (22 & 23). Though there are historical uncertainties, this suggests that
such peoples from an ancient stratum of the population across tropical Asia who
in such country have been surrounded and dispossessed by larger, settled rice-
growing population.”
Cunningham writes; “that in early times, where the name of the Savara is used, it
probably covers all the different divisions of the Kols, as they are now called,
including Kurkus and Bhils in the west, with Santals and Bhuiyas, Mundas and
Hos, Bhumij and Juangs in the east. In later times, when Somadeva wrote the
Katha Sarit Sagara, the name of Savara is used as synonymous with Pulinda and
Bhilla, and, therefore, means only a man of an aboriginal tribe, of whom the
writer knew nothing except by hearsay.”(24).
The Sabara tribe and inscriptions

Anantavarma Choda Ganga in Korni copper plate grant speaks that
Karmavarna, the founder of the Kalinga Ganga dynasty, defeated and killed the
previous ruler Sabaraditiya, a Sabara Chief somewhere to the east of Mount
Mahendra, about A.D.720 (25). The Udayendiram plates in Pallava King
Nandivarman Pallavamalla, is said to have defeated the Sabara King Udayana and
captured his banner is reported. This was about A.D.736 (26).
Sabara farmer ploughing paddy field

The only inscription, from the area by the Hill Sabaras is occurs in the
Kurmesvara temple at Sri-Kurmam in the Srikakulam district. This records that
the famous Vaisnava scholar Narahari-tirtha had protected the people of Kalinga
and defended the temple against an attack by the wild Sabaras (27). This was
some time in the latter part of the thirteenth century. This may be the solidarity
given by Eastern Gangas to Savaras of Kalinga.
Sabaras and Haihaya dynasty and Gonds of Balaghat and Bhandarai
Cunningham writes; "the whole of the plain country of Chhattisgarh formerly

belonged to the Haihaya princes, while the hilly districts of Balaghat and
Bhandara were occupied by the Gonds. The jungle districts to the north and east
of the Mahanadi river would appear to have been occupied by the Baigas and
Sabaras. Then the Haihayas, following the course of the Narbada, first displaced
the Sabaras in Mandla (where the Baigas still remain) and the Gonds in Balaghat,
and extended their sway over the plain of Chhattisgarh. But the Sabaras and
Gonds must still have held all the more jungle tracts to the south-east and south-
west as tributaries of the Haihayas, until in the lapse of time the Gonds conquered
Mandla from the degenerate Haihayas and greatly extended their kingdom. That
the domination of the Haihayas on the Narbada cannot lay claim to a greater
antiquity than the middle of the third century A.D."(28)
Sabara tribesmen of Kalinga and Eastern Chalukyas
The Sabara are mentioned throughout in the inscriptions of Eastern Chalukyan

inscriptions. Eastern Chalukyas, the Vengi country was located to the south of
Kalinga, and many wars and conflicts appeared from time to time between two
mighty powers. The traditional Sabara country was located in Kalinga as well as
in south Kalinga which extended into the Eastern hills.
B.Venkatakrishna Rao (29) writes; "Yuddhamalla had actually brought in the

Rashtrakuta armies and those of others to install him on the throne. The other
allies who rendered him assistance in this civil war against his successors appear
to be Ayyapa, lord of the Nalambas and Ereyapa, king of the Western Ganga and
other Rashtrakuta feudatories of the south and lastly the feudatory Sabara
Chieftains of the Andhra country (30), who these Sabara feudatory chiefs were, it
is difficult to guess. They were probably a tribe of the northern region ruling in
the Kalinga country which was an appendage in the empire of the Eastern
Chalukyas about this time or it might be that the commanders of the Eastern
Ganga king, Vijrahasta I (AD 895-939) were contemptuously called the Sabara
Chieftains by the proud Eastern Chalukyas'.
He further continued, "Vajrahasta I (AD 896-940) of Eastern Ganga was a
contemporary of Chalukya Bhima I, Kollabhiganda, Ammaraja I and lived down
to the middle of the reign of Chalukya Bhima II. He appears to have been a
powerful tributary king in the empire of Chalukya Bhima I but to have rebelled
immediately after his death, against his successor Kollabhiganda, taking

advantage of the death of Chalukya Bhima I and the sudden revival of the
hostilities with the Rashtrakuta king, Nityavarsha-Indra IV. (AD 912-917). But
this revolt proved disastrous to Kalinga once again. Kollabhiganda, as we have
seen before, invaded Kalinga and conquered Vajrahasta I in a most decisive battle
and captured his innumerable elephants, horses and chariots (AD 917).
Vajrahasta I, never after this ignoble defeat, attempted again to rebel or to
withhold his usual tributes to the Eastern Chalukya sovereign. Even though he
was on the throne for six months, he is stated to have reigned over the wild
country of Trikalinga for a short period of eleven months, and claimed to have
reigned over the whole of the Vengimahamandala together with the kingdom of
Trikalinga. Vajrahasta I would appear to have taken up the case of Yoddhamalla
II, who succeeded Vikramaditya II or Bhimaraja, and fought against his rivals,
notably, Chalukya Bhima II; for king Yuddhamalla II was characterized as having
divided the kingdom between himself and the Sabara chieftains and the Vallabha
commanders, by Chalukya Bhima II.
The defeat of Vajrahasta I against Chalukyan of Vengi, gave the Sabara tribes
important role for Eastern Gangas. It is said that Eastern Chalukya saying with
prideful laughter, the Eastern Gangas as Sabara chieftains. Thus it can be clearly
said that Sabara chieftains were the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga. In later course of
time, to weaken the Eastern Gangas divided the Kalinga under the Sabara
chieftains (who they were not known) and Vallabhas and himself. (30)
It is quite evident from the titles of the chieftain of Sabara societies a hereditary
position as it is today still post-fix to the name 'Gamang', which is derived from
their alliance as well as partners of administration of Kalingas, during Eastern
Ganga ruling.
Moreover, the Sabara have continued to be in the history of Kalinga both in the
plains as well as in Hill country and also south Kosala. To this date in almost all-
important towns of Orissa having ancient historical relevance has one street of
Sabara called 'Sabara Sahi’; take it in Bhubaneswar, Puri, Jeypore, Bhairaba
Singpur, and everywhere. All the ruling dynasties in Orissa had to take their
assistance and thus a place for them in the capital, since Kharavella.
Sabaras in Dakshina-Koshala, Kalinga-Kongoda
King Hastivarman was ruling Kalinga; the other side in Dakshina Kosala it was
Mahasiva Tivaradev of Pandu dynasty that was ruling. They were feudatory chief
of Mahasudevaraja of Sarabhapura. The Rajim and Baloda plates indicate that
Mahasiva Tivaradeva used the title of ‘Sakala Koshaladhipati’ (31), and was
Vishnu worshipper so had the pithlet of Paramavaisnava. The above grants of
Tivardeva of Pandu dynasty were issued from Siripur, which is about 78 kms
from Raipur towards Sambalpur. The Pandu dynasty referred to Udayana
belonged to Sabara lineage (32).
Buddha terracotta in Siripur, Raipur Buddha terracotta in Pakkanaguda
It is brought to notice by historians that if Udayana of the Siripur inscription is

identical with the Sabara king of the same name of the aforesaid king
Nandivarman, then it is presume that another Sabara king Sabaradity who was
said to have been defeated on the peak of Mahendra by the first Eastern Ganga
king, Kamarnava may have had some relation with Udayana and also the Pandu
dynasty king of Dakshina Kosala. Pulindasena, a great chief of Kalinga-Janta
(33) and a devout worshipper of Svayambhu may also be linked with the same
Sabara-lineage. His successor was taken by the court-poets of the Sailodbhava
kings as belonging to the Ksatriya race, Sailodbhava by name.
Kharavela, the Kalinga Emperor and Sabaras
N. K. Sahu wrote,” Last but not the least in the social structure were the Sudras
who were of great help to the cultivators in the farms, to the traders in the field of
trade and to the artisans in the factories. They worked hard as labourers to
augment production and prosperity of the country with bare but regular
subsistence. The aboriginal people in the hilly regions were probably classed
among the Sudras and they constituted important elements in the army of Kalinga.
The Sabaras and the Pulindas fought valiantly in the army of Kalinga at the
Kuruksetra battle, while the Atavi people fought for the defence of Kalinga into
his famous Kalinga war of Asoka. The Hathigumpha inscription reveals that
Kharavela organised the military resources of the territory of the Vidyadharas and
with the help of the army of that land crushed the Rathikas and the Bhojakas in
his 4th regnal year (34).”
Of recent, at Paknagudda village which has a sizable population of Sabara and

Bhumia tribe, close to Kathargada of undivided Koraput district; during
reconstruction of a Siva temple over the old one, they found underneath some
images in stones and in terracotta; which is suggesting Budhism and its link to
Siripur of Raipur in Chhattisgarh; because similar Budha terracotta was
discovered from Siripur and is now in Ghansidas Museum of Raipur. There is no
difference between two findings.
So, it can be concluded that the Panduvamsi of South Kosala extended upto
Kathargad and Bhairab Singpur in Koraput district. A village of Sabara close to
Bhairabasingpur now called Padagada also is relevant to the above observation.
The river Saberi in Malkangiri also of Dandakaranya fame relevance does point
out to Sabara tribe relevance in Bastar and Koraput region. There is small Sabara
village, south of Jeypore town, Sabara villages in Govindapalli hills and many
near Laxmipur region.
Sabaras and Panduvamsis

Tivara, who was a parama-vaishnava, was the son of king Nanna (called
Nannadeva, Nannesvara and Nanna-rajadhiraja), grandson of king Indrabala, and
great-grandom of king Udayana who may be assigned to the last quarter of the
fifth century. King Udayana of the Pandava family is mentioned in a rock
inscription at Kalanjar (35) in the Banda District of U.P. as an ancient king of
that region. He is usually identified with a Sabara king of the same name who was
defeated by a general of the Pallava king Nandi-varman (eighth century). This
theory, based on the supposed later date of the Panduvamsis, ignores the fact that
Sabara Udayana, who was defeated at Nelveli (Tinnevelly), was probably the
ruler of a territory in the far South. However, I believe to identify Nelveli of
Rayagada in Koraput district.
During the reign of Vishnuvardhana III, a Nishada king named Prithivivyaghra,

who had let loose a horse for performing the Asvamedha sacrifice, seems to have
occupied the southern part of the Eastern Chalukya dominions about the northern
fringe of the Nellore District. In the Udayendiram Grant of the Pallava king
Nandivarman II of Kanchi, his general Udayachandra claims to have defeated the
Nishada king and, having driven him out of the vishaya or territory of Vishnuraja
(i.e. Vishnuvardhana III), annexed it to his master’s dominions.(36)
Nilakanta Sastri wrote, “The able Pallava general Udayacandra, who encountered
the Pandya forces in many battles, raised the siege of Nandigrama, behaded
Chitramaya, and thus made the Pallava throne secure for his monarch. He also
delt with other enemies of Pallavamalla like the Sabara king Udayana and the
Nishada Chieftain Prithvivyghra who were probably acting in collusion with the
Chalukya, Vikramaditya II.” (37)
Reference
1. Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Madras:
1909, Vol.1-7.
2. Roy, S.N., ‘The Savaras of Orissa’, Man in India, Vol.7, 1927, pp.287
3. Ramamurti, G.V., A Manual of the Sora (Savara) Language, Madras: 1931.
4. Sitapati, G.V., ‘The Soras and their country’, Journal of Andhra Historical
Research Society, vol.12, 1938, pp.57f.
5. Dasgupta, C.C., ‘Human Sacrifices and the Sabaras of Orissa’, Man, vol.38,
no.15, 1938.
6. Elwin Verrier(1955)., The Religion of an Indian Tribe, Geoffrey Cumberlege,
Oxford University Press, Bombay, p-4
7. Patnaik, U.N., ‘The Sabara of Ganjam Hills’, Adibasi, Vol.5, no.1, 1963, pp.
6-13
8. Panda, J.K., ‘Changing Sabara culture’, Adibasi,Vol.7, no.1, 1965, pp.17f.
9. Mohapatro, M, ‘A study of the Socio-political organization of the SA-A-RA’,
Adibasi, Vol.7, no. 1, 1965, pp.57-59.
10. Singh, Bhupinder, The Sabara Highlander Leadership and Development. New
Delhi: Somaiya Publication Pvt. Ltd., 1984.
11. Gamang, Giridhar (2008) Sabara Tribe in Indian History.
12. Elwin Verrier (1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe, Geoffrey Cumberlege ,
Oxford University Press, Bombay, p-4
13. Ramamurti, G.V.(1931) A Manual of the Soara (or Savara) Language, Madras
14. Elwin Verrier (1955) The Religion of an Indian Tribe, Geoffrey Cumberlege,
Oxford University Press, Bombay, p.8
15. Ibid, p 8-10
16. Cunningham, A (1884). ‘Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces & lower
Gangetic Doab in 1881-82’. Archeological Survey of India, Vol.XVII
(Calcutta) p.139
17. Mazumdar, B.C.(1927) The Aborigines of the Highlands of Central India,

Calcutta, p1-13
18. Roy, S.C. (1912) The Mundas and their country, Calcutta pp.52f
19. Khageswar Mohapatra., Tribal languages of Orissa.In Tribes of Orissa. p.49-
58.
20. Brihad Samita, Vol XIV, 10-22 and Cunningham, A., op.cit. p.128
22. Vitebsky, Piers (1993) Dialogues with the Dead. Cambridge University Press,
U.K.
22. Ibid
23. .Pinnow, H.J.(1959) Versuch einer histroischen Laut lehre der Kharia-
Sprache, Weesbaden’ OHO Harra Siewitz
24. Zide,N.H. ed(1966) Studies on comparative Austroasiatic linguistics, The
Hague,Mounton
25. Kroni Plates of Chodagangadeva,J.A.H.R.S.I,p.100
26. I.A.VIII, pp.278-9; Sef; XXIII, p.188
27. South Indian Inscriptions, Vol.V.No.1312, E.I.Vol.VII.pp.266-8
28. Cunningham, A,(1884) Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces and lower
Gangetic Doaba in 1881-82,ASI,Vol.XVII,p.81
29. Venkatakrishna Rao, B. (1973) History of the Chalukyas of Vengi (610-1210
A.D.)p.261.
30. Ibid.
31. Baloda plates, E.I.Vol.VII, p.102 and Rajim plates, C.I.I.; Vol.III.
32. A.S.R, Vol.XVII, pp.25-26
33. E.I. Vol.XXI, pp.124-26
34. Sahu, N.K. Kharavela.p108.
35. Ajay, Mitra Shastri. Inscription of the Sarabhapuriyas, Paduvamsins and
Somavamsins.Vol.I, p.133
36. S.I.I.Vol.II, p.360
37. Nilakanta, K.A.Sastri., A History of South India.p.155.
JATAPU PORAJA OR DORA

The Jatapu are defined in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as “a civilized section
of the Khonds, who speak Khond on the hills and Telugu on the plains, and are
now practically a distinct caste; remarked Thurston and Rangachari (1909) (1).
They remarked further, “They consider themselves superior to those Khonds who
still eat beef and snakes, and have taken to some of the ways of the castes of the
plain.”(2).
The note on Jatapu by Thurston et.al. (loc. cit.) was taken from reports of C.
Hayavadana Rao, who mentions that name Jatapu is popularly believed to be an
abbreviated form of Konda Jatapu Doralu, or the lords of the Kond caste(3). The
chiefs of Palligonda Zamindari is said to have come from Jatapus. They are
divided into a number of septs as(4)
Jatapu couple on Sunki Hills
 Thortika or Thoyika – a species of wild fowl.

 Kadrika, who revere another species of fowl.
 Mamdangi, who revere the bull or cow
 Addaku, who revere to addaku (Bauhinia race-mosa) is the siadi creeper
 Konda Gorre, who revere a certain breed of sheep
 Navali Fitta, who revere the peacock
 Arika, who revere the arika (Paspalum scrobiculatum) a type of jungle
grass
 Other septs recorded in Census report, 1901 are
 Kolaka (arrow), Kutraki (wild goat) and Vinka (White ant, termites).
They are most numerous in Gunupur and Rayagada talukas and extend into the
EasternGahats near Salur of Andhra Pradesh. The villages are located on the hill
tops, and mostly prefer podu cultivation.
Recent years, many studies on Jatapu culture, society, genetics have come from
research scholars of Andhra Pradesh University, Visakhapatnam.
The Jatapu perform ancestral sradha annually also like Gadbas once in twenty
years or so.
The caste goddess is Jakara Devata, who is propitiated with sacrifices of pigs,
sheep, and buffalos. When crop is gathered she is offered the first fruit.
The caste headman is Nayak or Samanthi, and is assisted by the Jani, or caste
priest, who officiates at ceremonials and summons council meeting was remarked
by C. Hayavadana Rao (5).
Ragi and millets form the staple food. Now-a-days they mostly sale firewood to
plains men for their livelihood. The forest around is thus fast degrading and soil
erosion is resulting to poor agriculture. These hills have good bamboo forests.
One can say Jatapus are facing poverty from environment degradation and lack of
efficient skills to earn livelihood.
Jatapu Doras and History
I am of the opinion that the Jatapu Doras are the followers of Telugu Choda
Chief, Jata Choda Bhima. A brief account of the history related to is given as
following.
Nilakanta Sastri wrote,” In Vengi, Darnava had a short and troubled rule for 3
years, at the end of which he was slain in battle (973 A.D.) by the Telugu Choda
chief, Jata-Choda Bhima, probably grandson of Chalukya Bhima II. Darnava’s
son sought refugee in exile while Jata-Choda Bhima ruled the Vengi kindom for
27 years (973 – 1000), the period described as an interregnum in later E.Chalukya
inscriptions. Bhima imposed his sovereignty on the on the Eastern Gangas of
Kalinga and the Vaidumbas. He waged war against Rajraja I. Jata-Choda Bhima
was defeated and taken prisoner.”(6)
Reference
1. Thurston, E, and Rangachari (1909) Castes and Tribes of Southern India.

p.453-54.
2. Ibid.
3. Hayavadana, Rao, C cited by Thuston, E, and Rangachari (1909)
p.453-54.
4. Thuston, E, and Rangachari (1909). op.cit.
5. Hayavadana, Rao, C. op.cit.
6. Sastri, K.A.Nilakanta. A History of South India.p.181.
MATIA TRIBE OF KORAPUT
The Mattiyas as a tribe has been mentioned by Thurston and Rangachari (1909) as
per the Madras Census Report, 1871 and 1901. They further wrote that the name
denotes workers in mud (matti) and in Ganjam they are apparently earth-workers
and labourers. (1) The Matia is a small group of tribe with its main concentration
in Salmi area of Mathili and Govindapalli in Koraput district of Orissa. The north
boundary constitute the ghats of Govindapalli and Saptadhara river; and south is
Pangam river of Mathili ;east region opens to plains of Balimela and Chitrakonda
area and the western boundary is the banks of Saberi river. The Matia villages in
Mathili region are located on the plain and fertile lands. The forest is abundant
with old and large sal trees standing. Well-known Matia villages are Sindhiguda,
Kiango, Bhainsghat, Katrapall, Udiagiri, Bara, Sangumma, Tentligan, Luler,
Ambaguda, Govindapalli, Kanarbeda, Barabeda, Kopra, Serapalli, Talpader,
Baradura and Kenduguda and Mudguli. The Matias are also living in small
numbers in other villages along with Gadaba, Bhumia, Halva and Sabara and
other tribes. They are in close contact with Koyas and Halva tribes living close to
Saberi river. They claim Udaigiri and Salmi as their‘Mundagaon’ or village of
origin. The Salmi is the block headquarter and an important village of the area.
The Matia tribe claim that they have come from down south, and through
Tarlakota region, which is near Malkangiri. It can well be that the Matias have
come from the southern Kalinga region years and years back to this region.
Matia tribe men in Mathili region

The Matia village’s households are haphazardly located with large space around.
Houses are connected through narrow walking path. Most houses are large, well
maintained, and clean and invariably has verandah. Some houses have an
attached small working house, where women cook, do all house hold jobs.
The Matia partake food and water from Halva, Dhakad, Bhumia, Bramhin,
Karana, Paiko and Rana, but not from Gadaba, Poraja, Dom, Bhattra, Koya,
Bondo; and not conclusive about Dura or Dora. They consider Kuttia to be
Ranas.
The Matia tribes’ men are egoistic, self-respect demanding and war like people.
They are clear and frank about their opinion. They are now-a-days giving their
identify as Bhumia; because they feel it is respected term to use and be known.
They have thus come up in all government records as Bhumia. In the other hand
the Bhumia do not want to associate themselves with Matias and look lower status
to them. The Matias look Koyas little lower in status.
It is a distinct men oriented and dominant society, though the women have all
rights to equally work in family raising and economic pursuits still they do not
come forward unlike Bhumia and Sano Poraja to talk and express their views
frankly when a visitor comes to the village.
Matia tribe family members
The Matia can well be termed as Dravidian-austric people from the features. The
men are well built and of medium height. The nose is slightly broad with sharp
tip, lips are thin, and wrinkles in old person do appear. The hair is curly and long.
The jaws are thin and prominent. The skin is mostly dark in comparison among
men and women have fair skin. The women are thin and sleek, sharp features of
nose, thin lips, long face. The men (old) have nose rings at right nares. The
women have nose rings and at the nasal septum. They have the usual Koraput
tribal hairstyle.
The Matia society is well over in its tribal entity and unity. The following are the
Matia village officials:
Nayak: This is a hereditary post and is the headman of the village community in
the tribe. Some times the Nayak train the young man, who is known as Dhangda
Nayak. He may be his son. All disputes pertaining to the village as well the
visitors from the Government. and other places coming to the village goes
through the institution of Nayak.
Gaon Guru: This is a special post, which acts like the Disari like other
neighbouring tribes and remains in charge of 20-25 villages of Matia. This is a
very serious position because he looks after the welfare and wealth and prosperity
of the Matia tribe in the area.
Bhat Nayak: This is a hereditary post. He administers re-entry rites to the

outcaste person or the family. He also goes to the village in such disputes to settle
the issues pertaining to outcasting. His decision is final.
Pujari: It is next to the Nayak in the village and also it is a hereditary post. He is
welcome first with time, star and astrology to their standard. The Pujari remains
in charge of the village deity and other deities responsible for prosperity, wealth
and harvest of the village. He is respected. The Pujari will do the village
Thakurani puja. Mother earth puja during Chaitra and Diali; conducts Chaitra
dian puja, with prospective seeds collected from village households for better
prosperity and harvest.
Challan: The Challan is another person who comes from the poor background
and assists meeting of Nayak and other village officials by inviting the persons.
Now-a-days there is another post called Village Nayak, who is elected by the
panchayat democracy.
The Matia have the following phratries:

Phratries Clan
Nag (snake) Peda, Poti, Pirendae, Kopal
Bhag (tiger) Budbadi, Odi, Patka
Surya (sun)
Kachim (tortoise)
I could not get the clans for Surya and Kachim, which need further investigation.
As per C. Hayavadana Rao cited by Thurston et al. the Mattiya had at least four
septs, named, Bhag, Nag, Cheli, and Kochchimo.(2)
Matia Tribe and History

The clan ‘Odi’ signifies relationship to Oddras. They still carry the folklore that
they came from south end of undivided Koraput, Tarlakota region (Malkangiri).
They continue to carry with them the Maduguli (Madgul) and Udiagiri and Salmi
village names with them and continue the possession of riverbed, plain and fertile
lands in Mathili area. This is quite indicative of their relationship with Mathara
dynasty of Kalinga, who ruled South Kalinga during 4th to 6th century. The
name Mathili had also appeared in relation to ‘Mathars’. The Mathara dynasty
lost to Sri Ram Kasyapas; they thus probably pushed these Matharas who came to
Koraput and lived their life in the banks of Sabari and called themselves Mathias
or Matias. They still have the egoistic attitude, vigour and velour of war like
people in all activities of life and men are dominant in the society; still carry with
them the Gaon Guru institution that is not found among any tribes in Koraput
district.
An important dynasty in South Kalinga, the Matsyas ruled over the Matyadesa i.e.
Oddadivishaya (A.D.1200-1470) with capital at Oddadi, 16 miles from
Anakapalle in Vizagapatnam district for a period of two and half centuries from
about A.D. 1200 to 1470. Their ancestry goes back to the 5th century A.D. The
Matsyas had their own crest seal and coinage and two Matsyas i.e. double fish
was their emblem.(3) They may have had some connection with the Pandyas is
postulated by Yashoda Devi; whose emblem was also fish. (4). This gives a
strong basis that Matias have come from Oddadivishaya to the present place; may
have been displaced by Matsya Dynasty.
References
1. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K. (1909) Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Madras:
1909, Vol.1-7. P.49-51.
2. Rao, Hayavadana, C. cited by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and Tribes of
Southern India, Madras: 1909, Vol.1-7.
3. Yashoda Devi. The History of Andhra Country: The Dynasties in South Kalinga. p.307
4. Sastri, K.A, Nilakanta. The Pandyan Kingdom. pp.11, 15.
KOYA OF MALKANGIRI
The Koyas live in the Malkangiri area of Koraput district, and even in
neighbouring Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh though in same or different
names. They speak a distinct Dravidian dialect, and many Kerala officers serving
in Dandakaranya Project were of the opinion that the language is close to
Malayalam. Koya tribe, call themselves ‘Koyiee’. Taylor, 1862(1); Cain,
1876(2); Thurston and Rangachari, 1909(3), Grigson, 1938(4), Bell, 1945(5) have
dealt the Koya society in one or another context. Kornel (2006) has extensively
studied and reported the Koya tribe of Malkangiri, Orissa and changes in socio-
culture up till 2001(6).
Koya marksman
Origin of Koyas as from Folklores
Most folk stories of Koyas are due to Elwin (1954) (7) and he wrote,’ When men
were first born, they lived on an island in the middle of the sea. But soon they
increased in number and had no rooms to live. So Deur made boats and took them
across the sea to another land. This may be the Arabian ocean islands where the
Koya Muslims of modern day live.’
Another story indicates that after the Koyas came down, the Doms, Paikas and
Brahmins came and it grew to a big village. It is indicative that the Koyas were
the first reach Malkangiri and other caste and tribes followed them.
Koya women in traditional costume and hair style
Another story says that soon after men were created, the different caste went to
live separately. Then children were born and men increased in number. The first
men died and only the new men were left. They tilled the land and raised crops
for food; for a long time they ate and drank happily. Then one day in the south
country there was a great famine, which lasted 7 years. The stores of grains
exhausted and there was no such great privation that many killed and ate one
another. This story gives the glimpses as to why Koyas came from south to
present locations.
Koya Society
Koyas of Malkangiri have the phratries named Madkami, Madhi, Sodi, Padiami
and Kawasi.
They are good-looking people. They are tall and have perfect physique. They
have sharp nose, thin lips, broad shoulders and their muscular body attracts
visitors. The women are sleek and smooth with well-built. Men use Bison-horn
head dress during marriage and festival dances and are typical to the tribe.
‘Menhir’ or Memorial pillar are constructed inside the village by wealthy Koya
families on the name of the dead, generally a male member; it is an elaborate
process with complex ceremonies where a simple wooden pillar or tall flat stone
is placed in upright position.
The rice gruel and maize or ragi gruel forms the bulk of the food along with
available vegetables or animal products.
Koyas are mostly plain land slash and burn cultivators also well known rice
farmers in the area.
Koya Menhir inside the village Wooden Menhir in Tamasa village
They followed primitive rice cultivator methods and gradually adapting modern
techniques of farming from neighbouring Bangladesh refugees.
The Koya economy stands around the Mahua tree. The flowers of Mahua are
carefully collected; the fruit of Mahua called ‘tolo’ is used for oil extraction by
indigenous methods. The tolo oil is used for both cooking and hair dressing.
Surplus is sold. Mohapatra (1992) was of the opinion that the Koya economy
centers on cattle wealth. (8)
History and Koya of Malkangiri, Orissa
The Koya relation to medieval dynasties has been difficult subject. I am of

opinion that Koyas have relation to Chodas who implanted them in the present
Malkangiri and E.Godavari. They were originally subjects of ‘Chera’ dynasty in

Kerala who had lost war to Chodas.
The neighbour, Bison-horn Marias of Bastar has one of the phratry named
‘Chera’, (Grigson) (9). The relationship can support our hypothesis of ‘Chera’
relocation by Chodas. Rajendra I (A.D. 1012 – 1044) as per Tirumalai inscription,
in 1018 A.D. deprived the Chera ruler also of his crown. (10). Under Rajaraja I
and his successors, the Chola rule extended over the bulk of Chera country. The
country revolted during the troubles preceding the accession of Kulottunga I
whose conquest of and establishment of military colonies in South Chera country
have been noticed above. (11)
R. Sathianathaier wrote, “The next military effort of Rajendra was the expedition
of Eastern India, which was entrusted to his general. Crossing the Godavari and
passing through Bastar and Orissa, the Chola army reached Western Bengal;
defeated two rulers…………. and returned home.”(12)
Here, I am inclined to believe Rajendra I’s army passed through Knodakamberu
area of Malkangiri, Bondo hills to Jeypore – Bastar valley. It is possible that in
the similar vein I am placing Bison horn Maria or Madias to be the subjects of
Chodas in Bastar; where as Murias and Raj Murias to be the subjects of Western
Chalukyas. According to S.R. Nema the route of the army of Rajendra Chola
march was through Jeypore, Kalahandi and Patna region for the conquest of
Yayatinagar, which was the capital of Indrarath. (13)
Koya Traditional Marriage Snake Dance (Photo: S.B.Saxena)
Reference
1. Taylor, Rev.W. ‘Catalogue Raisonns’ of Oriental Manuscripts, 1862.

2. Cain,J.Rev.(1876) The Koi, a Southern Tribe of Gond. Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society, Bengal, Vol.13,1881,p.410f.
3. Thurston E. and Rangachari, K. Castes and Tribes of Southern India,
Madras: 1909, Vol. 1-7.
4. Grigson, W.V. The Maria Gonds of Bastar. Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 1938.
Press,
6. Kornel Das (2006). Tribal Culture – Koya Tribe in Transition, A.P.H.
Publishing Corporation, New Delhi
7. Elwin,V. Speciemens of the Oral Literature of Middle India( Tribal Myths
of Orissa).London.
8. Mohapatra, C.R., ‘Podu: An ecological Hazard’, Adibasi, vol.32, no. 1,
1992, pp 20-29.
9. Grigson, W.V. op.cit.p.306-7

10. Tirmalai Inscription of Rajendra CholaI, S.I.I.,Vol.I,pp98-99 ff.
11. Sastri,K.Nilakanta. A History of South India.p.200.
12. Sathianathaier, R. The Cholas. In The Struggle for Empire. Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan., p.238.
13. Nema, S.R. Political History of the Somavamsi kings of South Kosala and
Orissa, 1978, p.220 cited by Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo in Cultural Profile
of South Kosala.p.197
KONDA PORAJA OR CHELLIA PORAJA

Bell (1945) had showed existence of Konda Poroja on hills of Koraput. The
Konda Poraja are also known as Chellia Poroja. The Chelli means ‘goat’ thus the
community does not like the title as respectable and prefer to be called as Konda
Poroja. (Mohanty, 1990) (2). I have only come across few persons of Konda
Poraja community who admit as Chellia Poroja.
Pillai (1890) had translated Kalingattu-Parni from original Tamil to English with
possible explanation and has mentioned the word Chelias, as the Pandyas. (3) It
may thus be reasonably be derived that the Konda or Chellia Poraja of Koraput
were the people of the past Pandya dynasty.
Konda Poraja Family
The Konda Porajas are distributed in Sonbaie Panchayat, Pukali Panchyat

extending to Pottangi and Nandapur blocks. The Konda Poraja villages are
located on hills (Eastern Ghat) most concentration is around Pukali and then
extending into Sunki; in the later area the villages are located around steep and
tall hills. Some important villages of Konda Poraja are Badaguda, Dayanaykguda,
Sisaguda, Pukali and Phatu etc.
The Konda Poraja is from Dravidian stock and speaks a language of their own.
They have medium height, thinly built, dark complexion people. The tribe has
sharp nose, thin lip and straight hair. In general they are slow to take friends in,
but are cheerful and friendly people.
The ornaments is changing along time scale and show outside influence. The
women wear nose rings in both ears and nasal septum, which is typical. The
elderly of the tribe still wear’ olden day Chellia ornaments. They are wrist, arm,
ankle and neck ornaments made up of aluminum; however except for wrist and
neck ornaments others have become obsolete. Younger generation has retained
nose ornaments but wrist metal armlets have been replaced with glass bangles.
The ankle and arm ornaments that were common in the past have become
obsolete.
The villages are locating on upland surrounded by mango and tamarind trees.
Entry to the villages is generally through bunds of paddy fields.
Konda Poraja Gurumaie
House walls are made up of mud, and roof is thatched with jungle grass or paddy
straw. Houses are small with two rooms and they face each other leaving a narrow
street in between. Generally, the streets are paved with stones. Houses where
enough space is available, they have boundary walls made up of small stone
layers that stand 3 to 4 feet high. Generally, villages are surrounded by paddy
fields, and where streams available, they are effectively used for irrigation.
The tribe has the following phratries; they are
 Hantal – Nag (cobra snake)

 Khora – Sun
 Khilo – Bag or tiger
 Dhusuri – Nag
 Pangi – a type of bird
 Burudi – Gunta log
Some claim Gumel and are also Hantal as separate phratry.

The Village has the following traditional community members who look into day
to day issues.
The Nayak is the chief of the village, mostly hereditary in succession but can be
elected if required.
Sisa is village pujari who generally have jolted long hair, and perform puja in the
village Gudi. The Gudi is a small isolated place in the village with stone slabs,
where village deity lives and takes care of welfare of the village subjects.
Members can be more than one; they are selected on the basis of their
landholdings.
Gurumai can be a nuke or a lady, preferably elderly one. They have jolted hairs
on most cases and are important in assisting the Bali ceremony and the Bat Viva
to remove the evil spirits from sick patients.
The Chellias celebrate the following festivals:
Mudni Parab: It is celebrated in Pond month (November-December), where the

village celebrates the first harvest of some forest grass that is used to thatch the
houses and is an important component in the life of the hill tribe.
Villages offer a swine, which is a sign of high fertility. After the said ceremony
the men then go to forest and bring shoulder loads of tightly bundled Somme
grass.
Bodo Parab: Bodo means ‘eldest’. The Bodo Parab is also known as Semi Parab;
where Semi or beans are harvested for the first time and the village people are
allowed to eat beans thereafter.
As the name implies it is the most important village parab that is celebrated by all
households under the leadership of Village Nayak and Sisa.
Pus Parab: Pus parab is an important tribal festival of Koraput. The village
celebrates Pus by paying their thanks to cattle and buffaloes for their contribution
in agriculture. Rice, vegetables cooked are offered to them. Pus is both family and
village celebration. The village Herdsmen gets their New Year contract award in a
meeting called by the village members. Nayak heads the committee.
Chait Parab: The Chait Parab is universal for all tribes of Koraput all subjects of
the village from all caste and tribe groups join the celebration. The process
followed in Chait Parab is more or less the same for all. The Chait Parab lasts for
9 days with other hunting expeditious, stretching it all to a month long festivity.
The Parab is celebrated during peak summer (March-April), a kind of preparation

to get into new calendar of the year starting with agriculture.
Suana Puja: In the month of Asadha (June-July) small millet (Suana) of short
duration is harvested. They are dried on large flat dry stones carefully, because
the rains are also at peak during the period. The suana is the first crop of the New
Year agriculture cycle of hill Chellia Poraja. The families get relief from
temporary food scarcity at home.
They mix pumpkin; tamarind, rice and sauna and cook for the puja and pray for
good food harvest for all.
Bali Puja: The Chellias celebrate Balipuja in Chandaka village; it lasts for 15
days and is celebrated annually.
The Rona, Poraja and Dora tribes also join the Bali celebration with Chellias.
Chellia Poraja or Konda Poraja and History
They are prominent community of Eastern –Ghat and Nandapur region. The
history is silent with reference to Konda Poraja/Chellia Poraja. But from my
studies I believe that the Chellia Poraja are extension of the Porajas living around
Sileru river of Malkangiri, During the construction of Balimella Dam over the
River Sileru, few idols of Hindu deities were unearthed and they are still
conserved in the find village. It gives the impression of Southern dynasty. As the
Western Chalukya camped in Koraput-Bastar region followed by immediate
incursion of Chodas to the said region “Chakrakote war”; it can well be postulated
that the Pandyas also had occupied some land around the Sileru River extending
into the Nandapur and Salur ghats. There in no hard historical evidence to this
effect as of now. The Pandya soldiers and Generals were engaged in Kalinga war
by Kulottunga I as is evident from records.Nilakanta Sastri wrote, “A vassal of
the Cola Emperor from the distant south, the Pandya King Parantaka, took part in
the war( refers to Kalinga war) and assisted Vikramacola. The inscription of
Parantaka Pandya (4) like those of the Vikramacola,state that Kulam of the
Telunga Bhima was captured and that South Kalinga was subdued”(5) He again
continued,” The valiant Pallva Chieftain, Karunakara Tondaiman, lord of the
Vandai, offered to carry out the emperor’s order and was accepted.” (6). This
Kalinga war was against Ananta Chodaganga.So it can well be concluded that
there was presence of Pandya King himself and Pallava Chieftains of Tamilnadu
in the context of Kalinga wars and there is strong possibility that they have
rehabilitated their population after loss to Cholas in hills of Trikalinga.
The earlier Pandyas were Jainas and Kun Pandya converted to Saiva by Saint
Sambandar. The Chellia Poraja had a strong pointer being Jainas of the past as
seen from their present rituals and ceremonies (Kornel and Gamang, 2010) (7)
The Pandya King Maravarman Rajasimha I had conflict with Pallava King Nandi-
varman Pallavamalla. . Pandyas conquered the Kaveri region and lay siege
Nandipura and the Pallavas were rescued by their great general Udyachandra. (8).
In future the historians need to see the relevance of Nandapur in Trikalinga to
Nandipura siege by Pandyas.The fact is becoming still stronger due to the
presence of Palliva Jaina temple in Nandapur close to Koraput town.
It can be seen from the Tirumalai Inscriptions that was translated by Prof.
Hultzsch (9) as pointed out in earlier chapters, remarked that the
Maduraimandalam to be different than the capital of Pandya kings, Madura. I am
of the opinion that the Maduraimandalam in the context of Rajendra Chola I is the
Pandya king ruled mandala in Koraput- Bastar; that implies the reasonable
connection to Chelia Poraja and Pandy dynasty.Nilakanta Sastri with reference to
Kalinga War wrote,’ A vassal of the Cola Empire from the distant south, the
Pandya King Parantaka, took part in this war and assisted Vikrama Cola. The
inscription of Parantaka Pandya (10) like those of the Vikrama Cola state that
Kulam of the Telunga Bhima was captured and that South Kalingam was
subdued.”(11)
As per Yashoda Devi ,’An important dynasty in South Kalinga, the Matsyas
ruled over the Matyadesa i.e. Oddadivishaya (A.D.1200-1470) with capital at
Oddadi, 16 miles from Anakapalle in Vizagapatnam district for a period of two
and half centuries from about A.D. 1200 to 1470. Their ancestry goes back to the
5th century A.D. The Matsyas had their own crest seal and coinage and two
Matsyas i.e. double fish was their emblem.(12) .They may have had some
connection with the Pandyas is postulated by Yashoda Devi; whose emblem was
also fish. (13).
There is another aspect Sircar mentions that there war rivalry between the Pandya
and Kalinga factions in the Ceylonese court. (14).
References

Press, 1945.
2. Mohanty, S.C., 'Paroja' In: Tribes of Orissa, Harijan, Tribal &
Welfare Department, Govt. of Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1990, pp.221-229.
3. Pillai, V.Kanakasabhai (1890) The Kalingattu-Parani. I.A., p.333.
4. T.A.S.,I,p.22,I.8 cited by K.A.Nilakanta Sastri.The Colas p.321
5. Sastri, K.A, Nilakanta The Colas.,p.338
6. Ibid. p.322
7. Kornel Das and Gamang, Giridhar (2010) Lost Jaina Tribes of Trikalinga.
p.237.
8. Santhianathaier, R., Dynasties of South India: The Pallavas. In The
Classical Age. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.p.267-268.
9. E.I.IX, p.232
10. T.A.S., I, p.22, 1.8
11. Sastri, K.A, Nilakanta. The Cola I. p.338
13. Yashoda Devi. The History of Andhra Country: The Dynasties in
South Kalinga. p.307
14. Sircar, D.C. Ceylon. In The Struggle for Empire. Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan.p.261.
Konda Poraja women in traditional ornaments

BALIMELLA DAM ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS
Ganesha Lord Visnu (damaged)
Saptamatrik
Unidentified
Brusa
Top Lord Visnu
Siva Parvati
Siva Parvati
Lord Visnu
N.B.The Balimella photographs were due to Sri Bahubalenra Raju of Jeypore

BONDO
The Bondos are known to themselves as ‘Remo’; are a small tribe about
5,000persons and are classified as Austro-Asiatic. May (1873)(1) Henderson
(1911)(2), Thurston and Rangachari (1909)(3), Furer - Haimendorf (1945)(4),
Elwin (1950)(5), Das, (1956)(6)and Patnaik et al., (1989) )(7) gave a good
account of the Bondos. The work of Elwin is detailed one. He had taken
considerable efforts and dedication to study the tribe; as the tribe is well known
for their hostile behaviour.
Bondo tribe women in traditional dress

Bondo Hills
Elwin (1950) has geographically classified the Bondo settlement in three groups.
They are Bara-jangar group, the Gadaba group and the plains group. Jangar or
Bodajangar is one of the names of Mundlipada, or Serayen, the capital of the
Bondo country, which is one of a group of twelve villages, the bara-jangar, from
which the Bondo country is sometimes called Bara-jangar-des. It is in Mundlipada
that the Bondo race came into being; it is about this village and its grooves that
the most ancient and is subsidized and supported in his position by the Maharaja
(of Jeypore State). The Naiko has under his jurisdiction Mundlipada itself,
Krisanipada, Tulaguram, Bandapada, Bandiguda, Basupada, Salanpada,
Gokurupada, Pinnajangar, Kichchipoda, Dattipada and the low-country
Pandraguda, each with its own Naiko who owes him allegiance and must bring
him tribute three times a year.
These twelve villages are said to be the original Bondo settlements; some say that
each was founded by one of twelve brothers. Among them there is a certain
degree of cultural homogeneity. Their citizens, and only they, attend the worship
of Pat Khanda Mahaprabhu; they are the most devoted to the Maharaja. Yet
although the oldest of the villages, their comparative proximity to the Mundaguda
bazaar and the Mattili police station has caused a certain modernization of ideas,
definitely ‘in advance’, if that is the right word, of the outlook of Andrahal and
Dumripada. The villages outside the bara-jangar group look on it with some
derision, and call the people Didayi Bondos, a little that is indignantly rejected.
But Didayi influence is certainly stronger than Gadaba in this part, and the gibe
has some point. The Bara-jangar Bondos do not usually make mats or baskets.
The ‘Gadaba’ group of villages includes Andrahal, Dumiripada, Katamguda,

Antamguda, and to some extent Bodoballe and Bodapada. These are the most
‘difficult’ and the most attractive of the Bondo villages. They have come under
Gadaba influence, which has modified their language – their vocabulary differs in
many respects from that of the Bara-jangar villages – taught them to make mats
and baskets, and given them the name of Gutob Remo, or Gadaba Bondo. This
group of Bondos does not acknowledge the authority of the Naiko of Mundlipada;
it has no interest in the cult of Pat Khanda Mahaprabhu; and it may even keep its
festivals on different dates.
Bondo hunters in Annual Hunt Ceremony

The third group comprises the plains villages to which I (Elwin) have already
referred. The Bondos here have been in close contact with large numbers of low-
caste Hindus for years. (8)
Bondo life and Society
The Bondo live on top hills, and express that sea was coming so their ancestors
did so (Elwin, 1950). (9)
Elwin (1950) wrote, “The Bondo is a difficult person and his is a hard unyielding
country. He has brought to a higher degree of efficiency the technique of keeping
himself to himself.” They have thus retained their distinct socio-culture features.
(10)
The Bondos have been distinguished due to their distinct dress, particularly
among the females where every one has shaven head. Women wear a small
coloured hand woven ‘skirt’.
Bondo women marketing Forest produce Bondo young men fun drinking
The Bondos are an endogamous community divided into two totemic clans
(bonso), namely Ontal (cobra snake) and Killo (tiger). These are further divided
into a number of exogamous lineages (Kuda). They are
 Bodonaik,
 Challan,
 Dangra-Majhi,
 Dora,
 Jigri,
 Kirsani,
 Mandhara,
 Mundli and
 Sisa.
The members of the Kuda are related through a common mythical descent and
remain together under a common leader and magico-religious head.
The youth dormitories play an important role in the selection of wife. When a
boy puts a brass ring on the forefinger of the girl of his choice and the girl accepts
it, he gives his final consent then the marriage negotiations are further pushed.
Bondo are unique culturally, temperamentally due to their isolation on hills.
Mr. C. A. Henderson states, “Their people (Bonda) live in the western portion of
Malkangiri taluk, along the edge of the hills, probably penetrating some distance
into them. The elder men are not in any way distinguishable from their
neighbours. Young unmarried men, however, tie a strip of Palmyra leaf round
their heads in the same way as the women of their own tribe, or of the Gadabas.
The women are very distinctly dressed. They all shave their heads once in a
month or so and faster a little fillet, made of beats or plaited grass, round them.
The neck and chest are covered with a mass of ornaments, by which the breasts
are almost concealed. These consist, for the most part, of bead necklaces, but they
have also one or more very heavy brass necklaces, but they have also one or more
very heavy brass necklace of various designs, some being merely collections of
rings on a connecting circlet, some massive hinged devices tied together at the
end with string. They wear also small ear-studs of led. Apart from these
ornaments, they are naked to the waist. Round the loins, a small thick cloth is
worn; this is woven from the fiber of the rings (Oriya sitkodai gotsho). This cloth
measures about two feet by eight inches, and is of thick texture like gunny and
variously coloured. Owing to its exiguity, its wearers are compelled, for
decency’s sake, to sit on their heels with their knees together, instead of squatting
in the ordinary native posture. This little cloth is supported round the waist by a
thread, or light chain of tin and beads, but not totally confined thereby. The upper
edge of the cloth behind is free from the chain, and bulges out, exposing the upper
portion of the buttocks, the thread or chain lying in the small of the back. It is
noted by Mr. Sandell that, ‘the cloth at present used is of comparatively recent
introduction, and seems to be a slight infringement of the taboo. The original
cloth and supporting string were undoubtedly made of jungle fiber, and the
modern colouring is brought about with cotton threads. Similarly, the Bonda
Poroja necklaces of cheap beads, blue and white, must be modern, and most
obviously so the fragments of tin that they work into their chains. The women are
said to wear cloths in their houses, but to leave them off when they go outside. It
seems that the taboo is directed against appearing in public fully clothed, and not
against wearing decent sized clothes, as such. The party was mostly unmarried
girls, but one of them had been married for a year, when not posing for the
camera, or dancing, she tied a small piece of cloth round her neck, so as to hang
over the shoulders. This, as far as I could make out, was not because she was
married, but simply because she was more shy than the rest.”
The wife is always much older in age than the husband. The Bondo are generally
monogamous. Divorce is allowed from both sides, widow re-marriage is
permissible.”(11)
The nuclear type of family is the rule. The women play various roles in social,
economic and religious affairs.
Elwin wrote, “work is shared by men and women, but the women labour more,
and for longer hours in addition to work in the field or cleaning, they have to fetch
water and cook and care for the children and whenever they are free they must be
at the loom”.(12)
Origin of Bondo tribe and Folklores
There are several folklore still living with Bondo, tribe which point out to ‘sea’
relation. They question is how come Bondo, an isolated tribe know Sea. Another
story say, Mahalaxmi grew frightened, for she went back to her hill and prepared
to run away to the country by the sea. She felt very angry with them and kicked
the roots right away into the sea.’
Another story speaks of one Soma Bodnaik who was born long ago on Bali Hill.
(13)
As said above Bondos are known among themselves as ‘Remo’; there is also
another Austro-Asiatic tribe, ‘Ramo’ in Arunachal Pradesh. (14) However, except
for both Remo Bondos and Ramo tribe of Arunachal Pradesh closely resemble
physically but no known relationship can be derived at this stage.
The other one can be that they originally immigrated from Banda Acehe of
Indonesia can be postulated, because in one of the folk stories recorded by Elwin
speak that sea can wash them so they are making house on the top of the hill. Is it
they have come down due to Sunami?
Some former authors have expressed their opinion that Bondos are offshoot of
Gadaba tribe; some authors write them as brother tribe of Gadaba and Parenga
Poroja (Henderson, 1911) (15). Similar view expressed by Thurston and
Rangachari (1909) (16). But deny this relationship.
Furer-Haimendorf pointed out that the languages of the Bondos and Gadabas,
though of the same family, are so different that they do not mutually
understandable. Bondo tribes, however, he adds, recognize a fundamental
relationship, partake of each other’s food, and on rare occasions even intermarry.
In spite of many divergences in material, possessions social customs and
individual religious beliefs, and a certain difference in appearance accentuated by
dress and ornaments; there seems to persist among Gadabas and Bondos a similar
cultural atmosphere and we can hardly doubt that they are both representatives of
ancient Austro-Asiatic culture. (17)
The north-east the Bondo country merges into that of the Gadaba and the Bondo
of this area sometimes called Gutob Bondo or San (little) Gadaba. (18)
They employ services of Gadaba Dissari Shamans. They are many Gadaba words
(Furer-Haimendrof) (19).
Elwin (1950) wrote, ‘the origin and affiliation of the Bondos are obscure. But we
may accept the possibility that they are members of a group of very old Austro-
Asiatic tribes which at some remote date look shelter in the wild Jeypore-Hills,
when they came, there is no evidence to say, although most of their affinities are
with the north-east, nor can we tell how they feared during the centuries they must
have lived in their present home. There are no records, no remains, and even the
Bondos own legends seem to me to be of comparatively recent date. But there is
very reason to support that the Bondos have changed very little during their long
history and in them we have a chance of studying a type of character and its
material expression that may be millennia old. Furer-Haimendorf, in fact,
suggests that the Bondos belong, ‘not only in language but also in culture, to that
large group of Austro-Asiatic peoples who in Neolithic times developed and
advanced and complex culture characterized as it seems by the shouldered-stone
cult, rice cultivation on terraced and irrigated fields, the art of weaving, the
keeping of cattle for purposes of slaughter and sacrifice, and the erection of
megalithic monuments in the shape of menhirs, stone-circles and dolmens. It is
the culture which to some extent still survives among such Austro-Asiatic peoples
as the Gadabas, Saoras, Mundas and Khasis and has close affinities to the
Austronesian civilizations of the Malayan Archipelago.’(20)
There is some oral evidence that Bondo tribe was much closely affiliated to
Queen named Nnagladevi. I assume her to be the famous queen mother of
Somesvara I of Nagavamasi dynasty. This has no inscription base. If it is true then
Bondos had joined hands with Somesvara in invading the Vengi Country. But I
was surprised to find the Tirumalai inscription which mentions about the brave
fighters of Mudira-bada which as per the topography mentioned is very close to
present Bondo Hills and the detail is given as following
Rajendra Chola ruled from 1012 to 1044 A.D. He is known for his great military
expeditions. During the second phase of the campaign his army marched through
Kalinga and Odda to the Ganges and Rajendra himself advanced to the Godavari
and beyond to protect the rear of his army(21) .The same transactions have been
described in the Tirumalai Inscriptions, the translation by Prof.Hultzsch
(22)stands as follows: It is stated that “; Sakkara-kottam (belonging to)
Vikrama-Vira; Madura-mandalam with the fort of Mudira-bada; Namanaik-
konam, which is surrounded by dense groves; Panchappalli (belonging to)
Vengilai-Viraj the good Masuni-desa, where leaves and fruits are green; the large
heap of family-treasures, together with many (other) treasures, (which he carried
away) after having, in a fight which took place in the hall (at) Adinagar, (a city),
which is famous for its unceasing abundance; Odda-vishaya, whose copious
waters are difficult to approach; the good Kosalai-nadu, where Brahmanas
assemble; Dandabutti (i.e., Danda-bhukti), in whose gardens bees abound, (and
which he acquired) after having destroyed Dharmapala in a hot battle;
Takkannaladam (i.e. Dakshina-Lata), whose fame reaches all directions, (and
which he occupied) after having forcibly attacked Ranasura; Vangala-desa, where
the rain does not last (long), and from which Goundachandra, having lost his
fortune, fled; elephants of rare strength (which he took away) after having been
pleased to frighten in a hot battle Mahapala of Sangu-Kottam(?), which touches
the sea; the treasures of women(?); Uttiralandam (i.e., Uttara-Lata) on the great
sea of pearls; and the Ganga, whose waters sprinkle tirthas on the burning sand:-
Sakkarakkottam has been identified with Cakrakotya which finds mention in a

Nagavamsi copper plate grant from Bastar dated A.D.1065, and its modern
representative is probably Citrakuta or Citrakota, 8 miles from Rajapura where the
copper plate were found. Rajapura, the capital of Bastar, is itself 22 miles north-
west of Jagadalpur, on the bank of the Indravati river .Sakkarakkottam and the
places that follow up to Masuni-desam have thus to be sought in the territory

contiguous to the Vengi Kingdom to the north-west of it. Masunidesam literally
means the land of the snakes; the king of the Chindaka family represented by the
Rajapura plates, called themselves Naga-vamso-dbhava (born of the cobra race),
and Bhagavati-pura-varesvara (lord of Bhagavati, the best of the cities); in a later
stone inscription of Saka 1140, one of them is called Sri-bhujagavara-bhusana-
maharayuler the maharaja who was the ornament of the race of the best of
serpents. It is perfectly reasonable to support that Masuni-desam is meant the
land ruled by these kings. On this assumption, Maduraimandalam,
Namanikkonam and Pasncapalli must be sought in the same region and held to
be parts of Masunidesam. It may be noted that Chakrakota is itself called a
mandala like Madurai-mandalam, and that the donor of the Rajapura plates is
called Madhurantaka. (23)
I fully agree to this argument and identify Madurai-mandalam with the fort of
Mudirabada, to the present day Mudlipada located on the Bondo Hills of
Khairput block in Koraput district of Orissa. The Mudlipada is still the head
village to Bondo tribe Chief. The Bondo tribe villages are located on top of hills,
scattered over on a chain of hills, that which has been described in the Tirumalai
inscription as Madura-mandala whose forts (bore) banners ( which touched) the
clouds. The Bondo tribes men still carry bows and arrows and are known for their
ill temper and people fear for their high homicide rate and lethal bowman ship.
The description that Madura-mandalam whose forts (bore) banners (which
touched) the clouds; fully justifies the ground reality of Bondo hills.
There is evince that Konda Dora and Bondos had a ferocious war where the later
lost and moved eastwards (Elwin, 1954) (24).It may be concluded that there was
Rajendra I‘s army and Konda Doras may be allies in the invasion.
Reference
1. May, J.A. (1873) Notes on the Bondas of Jaypur.The Indian Antiquary,
Vol II.p.236.
2. Henderson C.A, quoted by J.C. Monoly, Census India, Vol.12, no.1, 1911,
p.164.
Madras: 1909, pp.207-222.
4. Furer-Haimendorf, C.Von, ‘Megalithic Ritual among the Gadabas and
Bondos of Orissa’, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol.9, 1943,
pp.149-78.
5. Elwin, Verrier, (1950). Bondo Highlanders, Bombay: Oxford University

Press,
6. Das Patnaik, P.S. and Mohanty B.B, ‘Dongria Kondh of Orissa - Then &
Now’, Adibasi, vol.30, no.2, 1990, p.28-41..II.p.236.
7. Patnaik, N.Chowdhury, B.and Das Patnaik, P.S.The Bondos and their
response to Development. Tribal & Harijan Research cum Training
Institute, Bhubaneswar.
8. Elwin, Verrier op.cit.p.4-7.
9. Ibid.p.1-4.
10. Ibid.
11. Henderson, C.A. cited by Thurston et al. op.citp.207-222.
12. Elwin, V. op.cit
13. Ibid.p.1-4.
14. Dhasmana, M.M. The Ramos of Arunachal. Concept Publishing Co., New
Delhi.
15. Henderson, C.A. cited by Thurston and Rangachari, K.op cit.p.218-219.
16. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K. op.cit.
17. Furer-Haimendorf, C.Von, op.cit.
18. Ibid
19. Ibid.
20. Elwin, V. op.cit
21. Sastri, K.A, Nilakanta, The Colas.p.206-09
22. E.I.IX, p-232
23. S.I.I. Inscription at Tirumalai near Polur.p.94-99
24. Elwin, V. (1954) Speciemens of the Oral Literature of Middle India
(Tribal Myths of Orissa).London.
BONDO DOWN HILLS ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS
Memorial Stone to a Warrior, Khairput Old Kudumulugumma Warrior
Religious Snake slab, Kudumulugumma Religious Snake slab

Sati Stone, Khairput
Old Siva temple ruins in Kudumulugumma

GUTOB GADABA
The Gutob tribe main concentration is at Lamatapat, Nandapur and Semiliguda
blocks of Koraput district. They still adhere to their old culture values like
celebration of Gotar ceremony and eat beef; where as the Gutob Gadaba tribe in
Jeypore, Kundra and Koraput block like to differentiate themselves as Bodo
Gadaba or Bhoie or Gadba.
Gutob Gadaba Women Gutob Gadaba men and children
Gadaba or Gadba tribe is a primitive Austro-Asiatic tribe. They live in Koraput

and Kalahandi districts of Orissa, also in Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts
of Andhra Pradesh. Ramdas (1931) (1), Furer-Haimendrof (1943) (2), Bell
(1945)(3), Bhattacharya (1957)(4), Thusu and Jha (1972)(5) and Roychoudhury
(1989)(6) have classified the tribe in various ways. Kornel (1999c) (7) had
detailed out studies on Gutob Gadaba of Koraput. They have been classified
under Austro-Asiatic group. Thurston and Rangachari (1909) (8) first classified
Gadaba tribe under the following sections. They are:
1. Bodo or Gutob
2. Parenga
3. Otaro
4. Kaththiri or Kaththara
5. Kapu
The Bodo Gadaba are known as Gutob Gadaba on the hills and are called ‘Bohie
Gadaba’ in plains of Jeypore because of their former position as palanquin bearers
to Jeypore Zamindars.
The Gadabas are cheerful and friendly people, mostly fair complexion, medium
height, well built, muscular men attract the by-passers, so also the Gadaba women
who are equally well built and strong. In old age numerous facial wrinkles do
appear.
Similarly, no more are their large ear rings adorn women or Kerang around the
head and their original home made Kerang clothes to be seen. They dress like any
other people around.
Gutob women weaving on Gutob Gadabas in ‘Gotar’

traditional loom Ceremony
The buffaloes are being used as religious beast of burden in ceremonies like
Jenkar and Gotar. They eat beef and flesh of other livestock and poultry, whereas
the Bohie Gadabas of Jeypore have come in contact with the officials, various
other people serving the Zamindars of Jeypore for a century thus their culture and
life has been influenced in total. They do not eat beef any more; feel offended if
this question is asked.
The Gutob Gadaba tribe is well known for its Gotar celebration. It is an elaborate
ceremony where the family members of dead prepare passage of the sole of the
dead to the other world on buffaloes as vehicle. The similar concept is also seen
among tribes of Indonesia. They have striking similarity in the process of
celebration, where a large number of buffaloes are offered as gotar buffaloes to
the dead as well as for the grand feast of relatives and friends. It is wild feast with
drinks and dance. The proud family opens a healthy buffalo for the crowd
assembled in the gotar ground and the young men run mad with axes and knives
to capture the running buffaloe amidst crowd for its life. The buffaloe can be
captured alive or dead by any group in the crowd and then it belongs to them.
This act looks like a battle field and even people receive serious injuries and even
deaths are known. It appears as if the savage act of cattle theft long known among
pastoral communities of past has reappears alive. (9)
Apart from carrying out domestic chores, the women participate in economic
activities, particularly in agriculture. They do take decision in all spheres of
family life.
Guttas: Another family of petty chiefs living in this area, who gained some
prominence in the history of Karnataka in the 11-12th century A.D., lent their
support to Jainism. These were the Guttas of Guttal. This is gathered from an
inscription found at Gutti in the Haveri taluk. The epigraph, dated in A.D. 1162,
refers to the rule of the Mahamandalesvra Vikramadityarasa of the Gutta house
and registers a gift of land made by him to the temple of Parsvanatha constructed
by Ketisetti. The record also mentions two teachers, Somesvara Pandita and
Maladharideva of the Pustaka gachchha. (10) This is the only word that has close
resemblance to the word Gutob.
Origin as of Folk stories

Elwin (11) had reported in detail the folk lores of Gadaba tribe and they are cited
here. There were twelve Gadaba brothers living on the Surawali Mountain.
Gutob Gadaba Traditional Dress and Ornaments

They had no proper food to eat, but she-goat fed them with its milk. The other
story goes “twelve Gadaba brothers were born in the Godavari region, when they
grew up they came to Jeypore in search of wives. Then the eleven brothers said to
the eldest brother, ‘Now you have a wife and children, you stay here’. The
children of the Asurin were real Gadabas. The eldest brother later took another
wife and her children were Parenga tribe. We say now that we are children of the
same father, but sons of different mother.” Another reference speaks, ‘the twelve
Gadaba brothers were born on the banks of Godavari river,’ and another folk story
depict, ‘a merchant had a very lovely daughter. One day he took his daughter and
bullocks to Nandapur and camped there. Form there two were born the Gadabas
and Parenga, the Gadabas is the elder and the Parenga is the young brother.’ The
above folk story prevalent among Gadaba has a commonality that they came over
from Godavari.
Sodor in Gutob Gadaba Village
History and Gutob Gadaba Tribe
Kornel (2006) had recorded ‘Gangaridae’ clan among Gutob Gadaba tribe of
Koraput. (12). But Measthenes, early Greek writer referred to a territory called
Ganaridum, Calingarum Regia and further wrote that river Ganges formed the
Eastern boundary of it (13). Pliney gave a comprehensive account of Kalinga by
dividing that territory into three regions, viz. Ganarides Calingae, Macco-
Calingae and Calingae (14). Pliny also suggested that the Cape Calingae
identified by Yule with Point Godavari, at the month of the same river (15).The
particular area of Bengal that was inhabited by the Gangaridae is indicated not
only by the ‘Periplus of Erythraean Sea ( Circa 80 A.D.) but very definitely also
by the ‘Geography of Ptolemy’ (Circa 145 A.D.) (16)
Further the following literature cited does speak on Gongaridae. They have
explained the relationship of the word to people, region and country.
As per D.C.Sircar, the Chinese versions where these authors have subscribed,
Kiu-kia-t’o-na, which supposes an original Gogardana, the second translates you-
hi, ‘Bull-joy’ which restores Gonandana, the third referes you-ts’ oie, ‘Bull-
compress’, that is, Gomardara,(17). However, ‘Makarasankranti’ is also
celebrated in the Srikakulam district and most part of Andhra with religious Bull
worship and is called ‘Gangaradiae’ in Telugu
D.C. Sircar wrote, “The people called Gangariae are usually located in Bengal.
They therefore represented one of the various tribal elements constituting the so-
called Pracya people. The separate mention of the Gangaridae and the Prasu (who
apparently included the Gangaridae) indicates the importance of the former
among different elements of the Pracya people under the Nandas (who may have
belonged to that tribe) in the fourth century B.C. The name Gangaridae is
sometime taken as a Greek corruption of Sanskrit Ganga-rastra, Ganga-radha or
Ganga-hradaya.”(18)
Early Greco-Roman writers represent the emperors of the Nanda dynasty of

Magadha as the rulers of the Prasu and the Gangaridae and speak of Palibothra
(i.e. Pataliputra) near modern Patna, Bihar. (19). Early European writers
sometimes represent the people of the south Bengal (Gangaridae) as a branch of
the Kalinga people. (20)
Gadabas were very close proximity to the Rajas of Nandapur and Jeypore. They
were the official palanquin bearers of the Rajas, so you find Gadaba villages are
still located on all pathways out of Jeypore. They are also seen in Salur,
Visakhapatnam etc. As the new roads came into existence, that diminished the
role of Gadabas as palanquin bearers and instead the horses became important.
The anguished Gadabas thus made the horses and donkey as untouchables and a
taboo. It can be said from the above relationship with Jeypore Raja family that the
Gadabas are most trjustworthy and faithful people. It is still true to the tribe.
I have not come across in other reference that shed light on Gutob Gadaba with
regards to their history. However it can safely be said that they are the lost tribe of
Kalinga (Gangaridae) who came down to Trikalinga and are still living peacefully
in Koraput district. They had some kind of affiliation to Eastern Ganga that is
derived because of their close proximity in linguistic sense to Sabaras; as Sabaras
were close tribe to the Eastern Gangas in the past.
The Eastern Gangas of Kalinganagara traced their descent from the Western
Gangas who claimed belong to Ikshvaku family; perhaps of Nagrjunikonda .The
founder of the Western Ganga line was Kongunivarman or Madhava I who
probably ruled 300-400 A.D. with his capital at Kolar. Durnvita (540-600)
conquered Punnad (South Mysore) and Kongudesa and maintained friendly
relation with Chalukyas. However, the Kukkanur plate of Marasimha I during
968-69 indicates the presence of Western Gangas in Dhavala visaya and
Gangapati-(21). The marriage between Santikara I of Bhauma king of Orissa and
Tribhuvana Mahadevi, daughter of Rajamalla I of Western Ganga dynasty of
Mysore, who ruled from 817-835 A.D. Prior to this inscription the relationship of
Bhauma Kings and Western Gangas, is well established.
Moreever in the preeceeding chapter of Parenga Poraja we have mentioned that

the Parengas are the subjects of Western Ganga and also it is mentioned and
acclaimed that the Gutob Gadaba claim to be the elder brother of Parnga and both
admit this factor; thus we can safly conclude that the Gadabas are Eastern Ganga
subjects and may have relation to the Western Ganga in Koraput and the Parenga
are Western Ganga. The Eastern Ganga and Western Ganga had common linkage
and origin and they are from two brothers.I have not gone deep nto the history of
Kadamba in Orissa and that needs attention with regards to Gadabas in future.
References
1. Ramadas, G., ‘The Gadabas’, Man in India, Vol.11, 1931 pp.160-173.
2. Furer-Haimendorf, C.Von, ‘Megalithic Ritual among the Gadabas and
Bondos of Orissa’, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol.9, 1943,
pp.149-78.
Press, 1945
4. Bhattacharya, S., Ollari - A Dravidian Speech, Memoir No.3, Calcutta:
Anthropology Survey of India, 1957.
5. Thusu, Kidar Nath and Jha Makan, Ollar Gadaba of Koraput, Calcutta:
Anthropological Survey of India, 1972.
6. Roychoudhury, A.K. Different Stocks.Genetics. pp.22-26.
7. Kornel Das, Tribal cultural heritage and cult – Gutob Gadaba Tribe of
Orissa, Bhubaneswar, Orissa: Modern Book Depot, 1999c.
Madras: 1909, pp.1.
9. Kornel Das., op.cit.p.61-72
10. An. Rep. (op cit.), No. 51

11. Elwin, Verrier. Specimens of the Oral literature of Middle India (Tribal
Myths of Orissa)
12. Kornel Das op.cit.31-37.
13. McCrindle, Ancient India p.137
14. Pliny, Natural History, Vol. II, pp. 42-44.
15. McCrindle, Ibid, p.144.
16. Sircar, D.C. Geography of Ancient and Medieval India.p.214
17. Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India. p. 265
18 Ibid. pp213-224ff.
19. Ibid p. 168
20. Pliny, History. Nat., VI.21ff
21. Kukkanur Plates of Marasimha II (968-69 A.D.) A.R. Ep. 1969-70, No. A5.
PARENGA TRIBE
The tribe is referred in literature as Parenga, Peranga and Parenga poraja by
authors.Hayavadana Rao first reported on Parenga poraja of Koraput(Thurston
and Rangachari,1909) (1).They are austro-asiatic. The women are beautiful with
fair yellow skin. The face is long, prominent lip, long small black eyes; well build
body of women, muscular men. When grow old wrinkles in the face gradually
appear. They are medium height, war like people but gentle and well behaved are
intelligent.
Parenga couple
The women now days prefer to wear long saris which is longer than porajas and is
well below the knee; but couple of years back like Gadaba women they were also
using Kerang woven clothes from home.
They believe they have comedown to the present habitat through Jolaput area.
They are distributed in the following Gram panchayats of Nandapur; as well as
have extended into Arku valley of Andhra Pradesh.
- Badel, Belaput, Otunda, Thuba, Paroja bodopodor, Hikmiput, Bheja and
Kularsingh.
The Parenga villages are Kularsingh, Ourda, Bodela, Bodpoda, Rasel Bodopoda,
Poroja bodopoda, Hatunda, Samalai, Arngi, Tapgonda, Horgond, Attavi (near
Jolaput), Honyirpent (Thuba jar), Kanti, Tintur, Khijorba, Petal, Raising, Magsel,
Bodliguda, Bheja, Koraiput, Godiput, Musli, Silpondi and Jantaput etc
Villages are mostly located on highlands and preferably on foothills, which

imparts good drainage of rainwater. Most village streets and house front yards
have pavement of stone slabs.
Parenga houses are small cozy, like any other neighboring tribe. Walls are clay
paste layered, and most houses have two rooms with a single entry door with no
windows. The spacious raised veranda serves multi purpose need of the
households and guests. Men idle and gossip in leisure over the veranda where as
women does the core work of preparing grains, grinding ragi and sauna etc.
Underneath it lays pig stye with strong door to save them from predation. Poultry
in most cases is housed here. Some households also make small bamboo fence
around for their privacy space. Families dry harvested grains in the open space
before the veranda and it then serve the space for evening dance. Almost all
houses have spacious boundary wall made up of small stone layers that stands
about three to four feet in height. Cattle byre is located before the house but is
little to the corner.
The Parengas have the following phratry:
Khilo - Bagho or Tiger

Nag - Cobra snake
Khora - Sun
Golari - Hanumankad or Indian Langur
The Parenga tribe has the following clans:
Mudli, Sisa, Kirsani, and Gamel – they come under Bagh or Khilo
Daten, Pujari – they come under Nag
Majhi and Rungda – they come under Golari
Hanjole or Ongole – they come under Sun or Surya or Khora
Jaina Temple remains in Parenga village, Umbel Jaina Temple, Umbel
The village has the following social divisions and they are:
 Nayak is the chief of the village and is a hereditary position

 Pujari may or may not hereditary, can be elected to perform village
regular pujas and offerings.
 Disari does the cerimonies to satisfiy the evil spirits and diseases there
from.
 Gurumaie plays vital role in bali celebration and does the BatViva of evil
spirits for families on request.
 Bodo roito are those with large land holdings.
 Dang gamel dhangda is the village appointed annual village livestock
herd grazer
 Chalan is the person acts as messenger.
 Sisa/Jani does the puja also.
They go for major promise offers to get child, relief from diseases etc. to
Kendupada.They go to Simanchal temple , near Visakhapatnam on pilgrimage
also.
Festivals
Parenga tribe observes the following festivals. They are:
Bali celebration: They celebrate Bali continuously three years and discontinue
for 3 years. The Bali celebration lasts for 12 days. The celebration is like any
other tribe of Koraput (Kornel and Gamang, 2010) (2).
Asadha jatra: They go to Jeypore to pull the ‘ Jaganath Rath’, each house
contribute five rupees to purchase a goat which they sacrifice before leaving
village and join at Jeypore.
Bandapan jatra: Maize, and Biri, a pulse are very significant in the puja. Pig/
poultry are offered in puja. Nisamandi sapling where wanted is placed with an
animal sacrifice.
Dasara puja: Mund dhoni of Raja ghar. This has again relevance to Jeypore King
who was well known and proud to celebrate Dashara puja and was compared to
Mysore. Otherwise it is the month when the tribe celebrates New Year harvested
food to eat in a ceremony. Pumpkin, new rice, tamarind, saru forms the bulk food
in the day of puja.
Diali parab: Podh mar jatra or Cheliimara jatra. The name signifies sacrifice of
buffalo bullock and or goat. The Diali celebration is mostly a celebration of
significance to Schedule caste, though Parenga do celebrate.
Halajatra of Phagun: where cattle are worshiped for the services they have
rendered in crop production to the community. They claim to celebrate mundo
holopoda first at ‘Perta village’ and take the family to join the Nandapur or
Jeypore holopada. The ‘mundo’ means origin or main. This signifies the
importance of Perta village to the tribe.
Chaitra parab: The chait parab is long duration festival, where village sacrifices
a goat, and seed setting for New Year’s starts, after a brief ceremony. The chait
parab celebration is similar to Guttob Gadaba, described by Kornel 1999 (3).
Bodo Mahaprabhu, Bramhana devata, village puja. Bichoh / Bindu concept is
prevalent in some village. They utter the name of Ganga raja and use thread
woven tiny umbrellas made up of bamboo is used in puja and K.C.Panigrahi (4)
has shown the use of such umbrella in puja as symbol of Jaina and Buddhist
culture.
Whole Parenga villages celebrate Pusa parab during Hindu calendar Pausha
month full moon. The village Gouda or cattle grazer takes the lead in the
celebration. A thanks giving ceremony to livestock is given for their hard labour
in the family endeavour to grow crops for food. Cooked newly harvested food of
rice, ragi, suana, alsi, rat meat, dongar siadi, seed, nangal kasda, pit kanda, fish,
biri, jhudung, rice bean and pendum - Khicdi feed is prepared to feed large
ruminants in every family. Pitha or bread from rice are tied to the neck of each
large ruminant, that is picked by village children and enjoy. It follows with events
of contracting the cattle grazer etc. Pus parab is an elaborate affair to the village,
which runs for nine days like the Gadaba celebration. The village pujari brings the
Mahaprabhu and is being worshipped by a group of Pujaris and members from the
village and in the evening the village people assemble at the puja site to witness
the different processions taken out to honour the Mahaprabhu. It is more of a
fertility concept. The detail celebration has been given by Kornel, 1999 (5)
Cher Chera, is a part of the celebration, where children go door to door and
collect rice and ragi to make grand feast. They each holding a stick and go around
the village dancing and shouting ‘Cher Chera’ and enjoy the full moon night. I
was also a part of these parties in my childhood, but I never knew why they call
‘Cher Chera’. Now presume it is possibly the Chola victory on ‘Cheras’ and
from them and their follower tribes have been continuing the victory till today.
These people have good sense of poetry.
Parengas are debarred of ‘Ragi beer’. This is possibly for food security reasons.
Sorubhaie concept is prevalent; panjiabhaie concept is not well defined. The

concept of Sourbahie and Panjiabhaie in Gutoba Gadaba has been detailed out by
Kornel (1999) (6).
Parenga Poraja and Peramandi Kings of West Gangas

The Parenga tribe may be the past subjects of Western Ganga and possibly have
derived their tribe name from Permandi title of Western Gangas and continued
being called Peranga or Parenga.
The Parenga tribe villages are located around a small river called Issani Ganga or
Gangeshani in Nandapur region and possibly the river had derived its name from
the ruling Western Gangas. This is a sacred river and is called Dakhina Kasi
(Southern Benares)
The Parenga Poraja tribe and Guttob Gadaba tribe live close by villages; and
Guttob consider superior to Parenga Poraja, and the fact is admitted by both
tribes. Both tribes share festivals; similar culture and language also are from
Austro-Asiatic stock.
Satyavakya Kongunivarma Nolambakul-antaka Permmanadi was also known as
Guttiya-Ganga (7). The Guttob name of Gadaba tribe may have come from
Guttiya-Ganga.
The Western Ganga king were bearing the title of Dharma-maharajadhiraja, lord
of Kovalapura, master of Nandigiri, the illustrious Satyavakya-Kongunivarma
Permandi or Eregangadeva who ever meditating at the feet of the god Arhat.(8)
This is evident from several Western Ganga inscriptions.
Western Ganga presence in Koraput-Bastar region is postulated to be there for the
following reasons and facts.
1. Kukkanur plates (9) of Marasimha II (968-69 A.D.) indicate in one of the
verse that:
"His fame had incessantly spread in all the eight quarters as far as the rivers
of Mandakini and Kalinda (verse 43); moreover, he was constantly
worshipping the Lord Jina and …………."
River Mandakini is the present River Indravati, which has origin and flowing
through present Koraput district, and then join Godavari river after passing
through Bastar district of Chhattisgarh.
The plate is with reference to Western Ganga ruling Dhavala visaya and
Gangapati - 96,000.
2. The presence of Nolambo rulers in Nandapur region of Koraput is established
beyond doubt. Kabbanahalli inscription (10) for Satyavakya - Nolambak-
ulantaka-Permandi (A.D. 972-73) denoted, 'When the illustrious
Kongaunivarmma was ruling over the 96,000 country after annihilating all
Nolambas'.
Nitmiarga Ereganga, western Ganga King routed the army of the Vallabha
(the Rastrakuta emperor, of Amoghavarsa I), (814-80 A.D.).Ereganga was a
great devotee of the Jina. (11)
His son Satyavakya- Racamalla II succeeded him. A claim is made for him that he
had got the better of such an array of rulers as those of Vanga, Paundra, Magadha,
Kosala, Kalinga, Andhra and Damila in the battle of Samiya. (12)
His younger brother, Buttuga defeated Mahendra (probably the Nolambo-Pallava
ruler of that name) in battles fought at Biriyuru, Sururu, and Samiya. (The Sururu
may be prevent day Saluru and Samiya may be present day Chamiya). Besides, he
is also described as having defeated the Kongas (probably the rulers of the Konga
country in northern Tamilnadu was pleaded by Ramesh 1984 (13)) and to have
captured their elephants.
The above facts prove that Nolambo were vassals of Western Ganga. The Konga
referred is different than Konga; we are inclined to put the fact that Umerkote-
Raighar region is known as Kavai-Konga. Dhavala visaya was contiguous to this
region. The relevance can be drawn in future.
1. There is a village, close to Jholaput in Nandapur-Padua region named
'Erenga'. The village has an ancient shrine of 'Adinath', Jain deity. It is
proposed that Erenga name may be due to from Nitimarga Ereganga, king of
Western Gangas.Nitimarga-kongunivarman alias Eregangadeva who ever
meditating at the feet of the god Arhat (14).
2. The other reference is the part played by Ereyanga in the war against
Kulottunga has been noticed in the inscription of his grandson Narasimha
which calls him the strong arm of the Chalukya Kings and ascribed to him
victories won against Malepas (mountain chiefs), Chakrakuta, Kalinga and
Dhara, besides his success against Cholas (15)
3. The major river in Nandapur is Kolaba. There is also one large village of
Jhodia Poraja named Kolaba, on the banks of Kolaba river. The relevance of
Kolaba name may be as followings,
Kadalur Grant (16) of Marasimha (962 A.D.) indicates that "of the king
Jayaduttaranga (i.e. Butuga II), the queen was Kallabba, daughter of
Simhavarman of the Chalukya family to them was born the king Satyavkya
Marasimha, the brother of the king Marula (verse 34)".
So Kollaba river and village may have been named after Western Ganga
queen Kallaba.
4. There are four inscriptions due to Western Gangas that denote Paruvi visaya.
They come from 4th century A.D. to 799-800 A.D. inscriptions (17). We are
inclined to take Paruvi-visaya as the same Paruva-desa, which was ruled by
Kulottunga I, as a prince for 7 years in Koraput-Bastar occupation.
The reference of Paruva visaya comes from the following inscriptions of Western
Gangas.
1. Sansanakota Plates of Madhavavarman, year I (18)
2. Bendiganahalli Plates of Vijaya-Krishnavarman, Year I (19)
3. Penukonda Plates of Madhava II Simhavarman (20)
4. Kottimba grant of Yuvaraja Marasimha, Year III., (21)
The Jain temple remnants in Umbel and Tentliput in Nandapur region is still
worshiped by Parenga Pujari since time unknown strengthens the ruling of
Western Gangas in the region.
Kukkanur Plates of Marasimha II of W. Ganga has at Verse 60 that speaks,
"To that Kalaparyya-bhatta was given by Kundanasami, the moon in the
ocean of the Ganga family, who was unequalled in beauty, calmness,
intelligence and prosperity, who was the follower of Butuga, etc., on the
occasion of Uttarayana-Samcranti in the cyclic to the west of year Vibhava
in Saka 890, the village of Addavurage, situated to the north of Kukkanura
agrahar and Rajapura - agrahara in Dhavala - visaya after obtaining it from
her younger brother Ganga - Kandarppa ( i.e Marasimha) where he was
ruling over the entire Dhavala - Visaya and Gangapati - 96,000" (22)
The above verse, reference to Dhavala - Visaya points to Kalahandi - North
Koraput ( Nabarangpur ) region. The place Rajapura can be the one in
Umerkote region or may be of Chhattisgarh. The Kukkanura may be the
present Koksora of Kalahandi district in Orissa.
The last lines which speaks Marasimha ruled entire Dhavala - Visya and
Gangapati - 96,000, means both were contagious patch. The Dhavala visya
later was in S.Kosala and the Koraput ( Nabarangpur region ) to be the
Gangapati.
Reference
1. Rao Hayavadana, C cited by Thurston, E and Rangachari, K. Castes and

Tribes of Southern India.Madras, 1909. p.209
.2. Kornel, Das and Gamang, Giridhar. Lost Jaina Tribes in Trikalinga 2010.,
.p.202
3. Kornel Das.Tribal Cultural Heritage and Cult- Gutob Gadaba of
Orissa.p.80-83
4. Panigrahi, K.C. Chronology of the Bhauma-Karas and Somavamis of
Orissa.p.56-57
5. Kornel Das. op.cit.p.73-79
6. Kornel Das. op.cit. p.31-37
7. Ramesh, K. V. Inscriptions of the Western Gangas p. 429,456 and 511f E.
C., Vol..IV, Ch.134 & No.94 Anchavadi Inscription p301-302
8. EC, Vol.XIV. YI, 88; Ep.Carn. Vol.IV (Revised) YI, 183 and Krishnapur
Inscription No.122 p381-82.
9. Kukkanur Plates of Marasimha II (968-69 A.D.) A.R. Ep. 1969-70, No.
A5.
10. Rice, B.L. EC, Vol. XII, pp. 103.

11. Inscription of the Western Gangas.p.lxi.
12. Kerchalli Plates of Nitimagra Erenga p. Ibid. No.113, Keregodi-
Rangapura plates, p 340-49.
13. Kadalur Grant of Marasimha ARISE, 1934-35) No. A.23, G.S.Gai: EI,
XXXVI, 97-100, ad 100-101, 104-105 and 108-09.
14. Kerehalli plate’s p.377; Inscriptions of the Western Gangas.
15. EC.VII, SH, X 64; V. BI. 58; also A.K. 177 on the Malwa campaign.
Taken from Murari Krishna (1977) The Chalukyas of Kalyani. Concept
Publishing Co., Delhi. p.130.
16. Kadalur grant, No. 139 in Inscriptions of the Western Gangas; EI,
XXXVI, p 97-109.
17. Inscriptions of the Western Gangas, Bendiganahalli plates, p.15-18 &
Mys.Arch Rep1914-15 & No.8 Penukonda plates,p.26-29;EI,XIV,p331-
40.
18. Sansanakota plates of Madhvavarman in Inscriptions of the Western
Gangas, p. 1-3.
19. Bendiganhalli plates, op. cit.
20. Penukonda plates of Madhava II, op.cit.
21. Kottimba grant of Marasimha Inscriptions of the Western Gangas. p.206-
16.
22. Kukkanur plates of Marsimha II, op .cit.
DHURWAS IN KORAPUT
The report on the Dependency of Bustar by Capt. Glasfurd, the then Deputy
Commissioner of Sironcha (1862) was the first person on record, who has
mentioned about Tugara and Parja.(1) Brett (1909) said, “the two sub-tribes of the
Parja or Dhurwas, namely Peng and Mundra, removed to Jeypore ‘now in
Koraput district.’(2) Russell and Hiralal (1916) mentioned that out of three
divisions of Parja tribes, only Tagara or Thakara is found in Bastar. (3)Thusu
(1965) has extensively studied the Dhurwa tribe of Bastar and opined that Tugara
(Tagara) or Takra (Thakara) albeit Parja, none of them would prefer to be known
at present by any other term than that of the Dhurwa. (4)
Dhurwa women and children Dhurwa man
The word Tagra means ‘basket’.
The Dhurwa group consciousness is reinforced by their speaking a common

language which has been called Parji (Burrow and Bhattachary, 1958) (5). This
language is independent member of the Dravidian linguistic family, closely
related to the two languages spoken by the Ollar and Koya tribes of Koraput.
Dhurwa are found in Bastar and extends into Koraput district of Orissa. Thusu
(loc. cit.) said, ‘The Dhurwa occupy, at present, the central -eastern portion of the
Bastar district, but they are also found to overflow in some directions beyond the
Kolab-Saberi river in the contagious district of Koraput (Orissa). The Dhurwas

tract in Bastar extends towards the north from the (old capital) village of Bastar
and stretches below the river Indrawati across the Kanger Reserve forest right up
to Sukma in the south-thus covering roughly a distance of 80 miles road.’(6)
Almost all Dhurwa villages in Bastar as well as in the-adjacent parts of Koraput
(Orissa) are referred by the Dhurwas by distinct term of their own as against the
official designation has been mentioned by Thusa (loc. cit) (7), they are like,
Bandapal is called Kidia-nand
Barkapl is called Venk-nand
Ellangnar is called Elub-nand
Kodripal is called Kotro-palli etc.
The post fix word ‘nand’ means country in Tamil and Telugu. On the whole
Dhurwa are well built handsome, medium to tall, muscular body people. The
complexion is mixed. The Koraput Dhruwa tribe of Gupteswar region, since 2004
are recognized as Scheduled Tribe members in Orissa state.
The following cleans are found among Dhurwas (Thusu loc. cit.)(8)
Nags - Cobras
Da (Bhag) - Tiger
Kovva (Kacheem) - Tortoise
Bokara - Goat
Konda(Gaunr) - Bison
Rami - A bird
The Dhurwa men almost except for loin-cloth-cum-waist cloth (Kangru) remain
bare-bodied. The Kangrai is a white cloth with brown border and is even called as
‘dhoti’. The decorated Kangrai is used for dance and special occasions. Dhurwa
men while going out of village wear a turban called peta. Now-a-days shirts are
common.
The Dhurwa women wear cotton saris called ganda or dhoti. The Mahar, caste
people prepare and sale ganda.
Necklaces (Kandil) made up of coloured beads is common to men and women;
bracelets made up of brass and ‘German silver’ called cindup, men use one
bracelet and women wear two in either arms. Spiral shaped rings, often form
aluminum alloy locally prepared is the finger rings (vat) and by men and women.
Most Dhurwas women wear the brass or German silver anklets (pedil) in both the
anklets, which arches over the ankle bones. Armlets called boutale is held arms.
The wrist is filled with glass bangles. Some young women use circular shaped ear
rings at lobes, which are made up of silver. Women keep bamboo or wooden
combs in their hair. Both men and women wear the amulets (Chakar or Kardoli)
round their necks or arms made up of copper or alloy. The women tattoo body.
The mother is secluded after delivery, on 7th day. She smears the house with cow
dung paste and takes bath and there after by a brief ceremony is followed to allow
her to resume daily work at home.
They believe in rebirth of deceased elderly people, which is confirmed by means
of peeking of a chicken in the name of the deceased once from the hands of the
new born is prevalent. The name giving ceremony is preformed after fortnight or
so of the birth of the child. In some cases, the hair cutting ceremony of the
newborn is performed on that day.
History and Dhurwa tribe

Brett (1909) has noted a local tradition which is still current in Bastar. It runs, e.g.
Peeta Bhatras, Kusiria Rawats etc. accompanied the Raja of Bastar (Chakibans ?),
perhaps, as retainers when he migrated from Warangal. (9)
According to Russell and Hiralal (loc. cit) (10), the Parjas were the original
(Gond) inhabitants and rulers of the country (of Bastar), while Grigson (1938) has
shown that a Paraja priest would often be required to arbitrate in boundary
disputes in the Bastar villages, which indicated that that they were the original
settlers who had been displaced by latter immigrants. (11)
The history of Dhurwas has two dimensions, one when you see them as ‘Tagara
Poraja’ the other one when you look them as Dhurwa. The later points out to
Rastrakutta, where Dhurwa played most significant role as mentioned earlier in
ruling the country of South Kosala.
Mahalakshmi of Nandapur
But when ‘Tagara Poroja’ is considered the following history is seen behind the
term. I am of the opinion that the Tagara poraja are the subjects of Silaharas of
Konkan. They were the feudatories to Rastrakutas and have later derived their
identity as Dhurwa from the Rastrakuta king Dhruva. The Silaharas ruled from
the city Tagra and had the title Tagarapua-varadhisvara.(12) Mahalakshmi was
their tutelary deity.Accordind to an epigraphic record the Silaharas family were
descendent from Jimtavahahana, the lord of the Vidyadharas,son of Jiutaketu,
who gave his life to Garuda.(13). As per records, the first of these dynasties,
founded about the middle of the ninth century; and the third Silahara family was
founded in the tenth century A.D. by Jatiga with his capital in Karhad.
History speaks of Silas or Silavamsa of Nandapur in the present Koraput district

of Orissa that ruled 1350 to 1430 A.D. It is not clear whether these two dynasties
Silahra
Silahara Jimtavahahana, with Garuda? Near Ancholagumma
and Sila have any relationship. The Silas are said to be the originators of past
Jeypore State as per Yashoda Devi (14). They acknowledged the suzerainty of the
Gangas of Kalinga. They had contracted alliances of marriage with Matsyas and
the Pallavas. In about middle of the 15th century the Silavamsa got merged into
the Jeypore dynasty of which Nandapur continued to be the capital.
In the last quarter of the sixth century A.D. the Sailodbhavas were ruling in
Kongoda, a kingdom that extended from the Chilika Lake to Mahendragiri and
reached the west to the hills that form the western boundary of the Kalahandi
state.
Majumdar (15) wrote, “In conclusion reference may be made to hypotheses

usually assumed about the Sailodbhava dynasty. A copper-plate grant found at
Ragholi in Balaghat district, Madhya Pradesh, gives a short account of a royal
family called Sailavamsa founded by Srivardhana I. His son Prithu-vardhana
overran the country of the Gujaras. In his family was born Samvardhana, one of
whose sons conquered Paundra (N.Bengal) and another took Kasi.----------.Rai
Bahadur Hiralal who edited the grant (16), thinks that this Sailavamsa is most
probably identical with the Sailadbhavas. He also suggested that the Sailavamsa
was a branch of the Gangavamsa. Both these conjectures are plausible, but cannot
be definitely proved.
It has also been suggested that the Sailendra dynasty, which established a
powerful empire in the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago in the eight
century A.D., and probably migrated from Kalinga, was connected with the Sailas
or Sailadbhavas (17). But this, too, must be regarded as a mere hypothesis lacking
definite evidence,”
N.B. The Nandapur of Koraput district was once the capital of Silavamsis
followed by Sankara dynasty. A deity, Laxmi is located close the stream
called Isani Ganga is worshipped by locals annually and is taken in
procession round Nandapur and is forbidden to be taken through the
streets of Konda Doras.Laxmi in Nadapur may have the relation to
Silaharas of South; future work will be needed.
References
1. Glasfurd, C.L.R. 1862 Report on the Dependency of Bustar.
2. Brett, E.A.de. C.P. Gazetteer-Chhattisgarh Feudatory States (Bastar), p.
25-70.
3. Russell, R.V. and Hiralal 1916. The Tribes and Castes of Central
Provinces of India., Vol.IV, p.372.
4. Thusu, Kidar Nath., The Dhurwa of Bastar.Anthropological Survey of
India. Calcutta.
5. Burrow, T. and Bhattacharya, S. The Parji Language-A Dravidian
Language of Bastar
6. Thusu, Kidar Nath. op.cit.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Brett, E.A.de. op.cit
10. Russell, R.V. and Hiralal. op.cit.p.6-15.
11. Sir Grigson, Wilferd. The Maria Gonds of Bastar.
12. Majumdar, S.C.The Silaharas: In The Struggle for Empire, Bharatiya

Vidya Bhavan.
13. E.I. III.p.292
14. Devi, Yashoda. The Dynasties o in South Kalinga: in The History of
Andhra Country. p.332
15. Majumdar, R.C. Orissa: in The Classical Age. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p,
146-147
16. E.I .IX. 41
17. Majumdar, R.C. Suvarnadvipa, I.p.226.
OLLAR GADABA
Gadaba tribe has played significant role in the services of Jeypore Zamindars and
considered most faithful. Thurston and Rangachari (1909) (1) divide the (Gadba)
tribe into five sections, namely, (i) Bodo or Gutob, (ii) Parenga, (iii) Otaro, (iv)
Kathathiri or Kaththara, and (v) Kapu. According to them, the last two sections
were found by them to be settled in the plains, originally belonged to the Bodo
(Gutob) and Ollaro Gadba, having migrated from the hills. The Ollar Gadaba are
also called Hallari and Ollari.
Furer-Haimendorf (1943) (2) wrote, “The Bodo Gadba living in the vicinity of the
Dudma Falls of the Machkund River are distinct from the Olla(r) Gadba of the
Lamtaput and Nandapur areas.”
Ollar Gadaba Women
Bell (1945) (3) has revised the old editions of the District Gazetteer. However, he
has noted three sub-divisions of the Gadba in the district of Koraput, namely, the
Bodo, San and Ollaro. He has further mentioned that other types (of the Gadba)
are found in small numbers inhabiting the fringe of the ghats in Vizagapatnam
district from Salur southward to Naraspatam. The Ollaro Gadbas are described by
him to be a small community, who speak a Dravidian language, but to all outward
appearances they are similar to other Mundari-speaking Gadbas, whose own name
for themselves is Gotub.
Some of the important Ollari villages are Kudili, Jamuguda, Beriameta,
Girliguda, Marla, Bhitra, Durgigogla, Putapadu, Godaghati, Suparigudaand
Pondei etc. Thusu and Jha have shown that the two linguistically related groups of
people, namely, the Dhurwa and the Ollar Gadaba, overlap and inter-mingle
territorially. Thus, the whole stretch of territory appears to form continuous tract
which starts from Ralliguda, encompasses Pottangi,
Nandapur,Semiliguda,Lamtaput,extends beyond Salmi, Mohappadar etc., into the
districts of Bastar.
The houses are built on the lower slopes of the hill range. A separate place with
stone plates assembled are called Sodar is available for meeting place to all
villages.
Ollar have the following phratry (4),
Phratry in Oriya and English Clan names
Durka Bagh or Tiger Muriatil,Manji,Saratil,Segakor,Konya,Leya and

Lenja
Ontal Nung or Cobra snake Guga, Pombul,
Meen Matsya or Fish Khota, Mundagadia,Khodria,Korrekor
Kisavale Gish or Valture Khosratil, Supaktil, Supia, Durla, Servatia,
Jani
Ilij Bhalu or Bear Supratil
Kora Sun Tharub, Nandi, Chimetka, Sakia
The village committee has Naiko who is village head, Palas is the hereditary
religious head and Disari performs evil and disease treatments. The other
members are Begunis and chief Raitas.
They celebrate Pus Parab, Kalin-vate Kegintam in the harvesting floor, Nandi
Vate, Chait Parab. However, Bat Viba and Sani puja is performed to treat
diseases.
Thusu and Jha (1969) wrote, the Ollar Gadaba believe that all persons possess the
soul, locally called jive. It cannot be seen by eyes but finally departs from the
body when the person dies (5)
They perform ‘Nandi Vate’. It has Nandi Bhoji or feast and Nandi Nanch
(Danu). In Gugaguda the Nandi Vate was performed by Mundagaria Sanyasi.
The Sanyasi word has tinge of Jaina culture. It seems Jhodia Poraja Nandi is
reflected in life and culture of Ollar Gadaba and is in changing mode due to
influence of other religions. Kornel and Gamang (2010) (6) have described Ollar
Gadaba as Jainas of the past, based on the fact that they still continue to have;
Jani’ institution and follow Nandi puja like Jhodias. They have still a pujari
named ‘Palas’ is also indicative that the Ollar Gutob had linkages to Pallava
dynasty’. The tribe has derived its name Ollar or Hollar from Haihayas and we
have placed them with the Panchadharala, because the present distribution of the
tribe is as per the political history of the said Haihayas but not to other Haihayas
like Kona etc.
Ollar Gadaba and History
The Haihayas of Panchadharala A.D. 1200-1043
The Haihayas of Panchadharala ruled as a defecto independent power during the

13th and 14th centuries over the Simhachalam and Panchadharala regions in South
Kalinga.The dynasty consisted of five kings who called themselves lords of
Mahishmati and claimed descent from Arjuna Kartavirya. The name Kona is
prefixed to the names of its rulers, but the connection between these Haihayas and
those of Konamandala in the north and in the south the Haihayas of
Panchadharala, played a rather significant role in the history of south India for one
and half centuries. The political achievements of these rulers were remarkable and
at one time their kingdom extended over the entire Madhyadesa from the
Vindhyas to the ocean i.e. Bay of Bengal. (7)
Choda I. A.D. 1242-1300
Choda I was the ruler of the Kona Haihaya kingdom of Panchadharala and it is
not known how he come to be in possession of a kingdom. Probably he served the
Ganga emperors and secured the kingdom as a reward, or taking advantage of the
lack of control by the Gangas over southern Kalinga, carved out a kingdom for
himself independent of the Ganga authority.(8)
His inscription dated A.D. 1442 at Simhachalam (9) and the Panchadharala pillar
inscription of Choda III (10) are the only material for Choda I’s reign. In the
former Choda is mentioned as Kona Chodaraju born in Sahasrabahavama or
Kartaviranvaya, belonging to Atreya Gotra and a man of great prowess.
Yashoda Devi further remarked, “In extending and consolidating his kingdom, as
a result of aggressive warfare, Choda I came in to conflict with the chieftains of
the hill tribes on the north and west of his kingdom-in the region forming the
boundary of Kalinga and Bastar area beyond. Choda’s title

Manniyakshmapalamrigaventakara means hunter of the mrigas i.e. (here) manne
chiefs. (11) Who exactly these Manne chiefs were the inscription does not
specify. But no doubt they were the hill chiefs on the Kalingam border who gave
no end of trouble from time to time to the Ganga emperors, the local rulers in
south Kalinga and the rulers inVengi by constant incursions into their kingdoms.
So Choda I hunted them out of Kalinga, which appears to have been an important
achievement for it was on the results of this, his kingdom extended up to the
Vindhyas in the north and west (12).”
Probably Choda maintained friendly relations with other rulers in Kalinga – the
Chalukyas, the Natsyas, the Silvamsis and others. As for his relations with the
Ganga emperors, it is not known what exactly the position was. Choda did not
date his only record in Ganga era or regnal year of the Ganga emperors.(13)
References
1. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K (1909) Castes and Tribes of Southern

India. p. 242-252
2. Furer-Haimendorf, C.Von (1943). Megalithic Rituals among the Gadabas
and Bondos of Orissa.J.R.A.S.,VolIX.p.149
3. Bell,R.C.S.(1945) Orissa District Gazetteer, Koraput
4. Thusu,K and Jha,M (1969) Ollar Gadaba of Koraput.p.53-60
5. Thusu, K and Jha, M. op.cit. .p.102.
6. Kornel Das and Gamang, Giridhar (2010) The Lost Jaina Tribes of
Trikalinga.
7. Devi, Yashoda. The History of Andhra Country.p.92
8. Devi, Yashoda. op.cit p.93
9. S.I.I. VI 1181:365-XIVof 1899.
10. E.I.XIX No.25:210 of 1899:S.I.I. VI 657
11. E.I. XIX No 25 p.159 V4.11 21 &22
12. Ibid. V3 11 16-17
13. Devi, Yashoda. op.cit p.94
BHUMIA TRIBE
The Bhumia tribe is mainly concentrated in Jeypore subdivision, mostly in

Jeypore, Kundra, Boipariguda, Ramgiri, Mathili blocks and a small number also
in Nowrangpur subdivision. The population of Bhumia tribe is about one lakh in
number.
They speak Oriya; unlike Bhottodas they do not enjoy high position in the social
scale but the fact is denied in many quarters.
Thurston and Rangachari (1909) said, “The Bhumias are an Oriya caste of hill
cultivators, found in Jeypore Zamindari. According to a tradition, they were the
first to cultivate the land on the hills. In the Central Provinces (i.e. present
Madhya Pradesh) they are said to be known as Baigas, concerning whom Captain
Ward (1870) writes that the decision of the Baiga in a boundary dispute is almost
always accepted as final, and, from this right as children of the soil and arbiters of
the land belong to each village, they are said to have derived their title of Bhumia,
the Sanskrit bhumi meaning the earth”. (1)
Bhumia lady in a village in Boipariguda, Koraput
Thurston and Rangachari continue to say. “For the following note I am indebted
to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The Bhumias have septs, e.g., bhag (tiger) and naga
(cobra). A man can claim his paternal aunt’s daughter in marriage. The marriage
ceremonial is much the same among the Bottadas. The jhotta tonk (presents)
consist of liquor, rice, a sheep or fowl, and cloths for the parents of the bride. A
pandal (booth), made of poles of the sorgi tree, is erected in front of the
bridegroom’s house and a Disari officiates. The remarriage of widows is
permitted and a younger brother usually marries his elder brother’s widow. If man
divorces his wife, it is customary for him to give her a rupee and a new cloth in
compensation. The dead are burned, and pollution lasts for nine days. On the tenth
day a ceremonial bath is taken, and a feast, with copious supplies of liquor, is
held. In parts of the Central Provinces the dead are buried, and two or three flat
stones are set up over the grave”. (2)
At present the main concentration of Bhumias; are the plain lands of Ramgiri,
Baipariguda, Jeypore, and Mathili, part of Malkangiri, Nowrangpur and Kotpad.
During British administration the Bhumias had revolted against the oppression of
Doms at Ramgiri and Baipariguda area.
Russel and Rai Bahadur (1975 reprint) (3) Bharia, Bharia-Bhumia described them
as a Dravidian tribe numbering about 50,000 people and residing principally in
the Jubbalpur (present Jabalpur) district, which contain half of the total number.
The other place where they found is in Chhindwara and Bilaspur. The proper
name of the tribe is Bharia, but they are often called Bharia-Bhumia, because
many of them hold the office of Bhumia or priest of the village gods and of the
lower castes in Jubbalpur and the Bharia prefer the designation of Bhumia as
being more responsible.
Bhumia priest performing puja

Bell (1945) said, ‘they do not possess traditions regarding the country from which
they migrated to Jeypore, nor the time when their migration took place, but
maintain that they are sons of the soil’.(4)
Peace loving people have produced the great son like Sri Laxmana Naik who
sacrificed his life in gallows in fight to end the British rule of India. They wear
thread like Brahmins and worship Birkhomba god, 2 km from Baipariguda.
The Bhumia divide them as Bodo and Sano groups, the Sano Bhumia are also
known as Buri Bhumia or Matia who mostly live in Ramgiri and north of
Malkangiri including Kudumulgumma. Now-a-days, couple of marriage between
both Sano and Bodo Bhumias does take place, which some years back was
forbidden.
The Bhumia are tall dark complexioned thinly built people, considered handsome
men and beautiful women by neighbouring tribes. They are hard working settled
agriculturists. On the whole, they are quite intelligent and wise people, who show
cool behaviour. They show a very highly collective and disciplined behaviour in
their society and pursuance towards living.
The Bodo Bhumias have the following bonso or clan and are:
Nag - Cobra snake

Bagh - Tiger and
Surya - Sun
Among the Nag bonso the sub-clans are Kakalpadia, Ratalia, Kaudia, Boliputia,
Sandaepadia, Gundlia, Dorapatia, Jurjia, Minorbalia, Kendu, Kotia, Rampuria,
Chandrapadia, Digapuria, Karlia, Masia, Serkia, Bergia, Giuria, Kandki, Pujari,
Majhi, Sa no Majhi, Kandli, Mahalia, Udalbadia, Balia, Sindia, Bodopadia,
Bagdiria etc.
Generally in a village, families of one Bonso only reside and marriage in inter-
bonso or clan is allowed but not in intra-clan.
The Bhumia ladies have a good say in family decisions and take active part in
meetings and express boldly their opinion. They control the expenditure part of
the home, and take care of the poultry, home vegetable garden and livestock
Bhumia women in white cloth on way to attend the

10th day death ceremony of a relative
The Bhumia are hard working agriculturists. They do well in dry land cultivation.
The ragi and rice are the staple food. They are good in rice farming. They grow
kandulo(Cajanus cajanus) and khedjona(Sorghum) in their fields. The backyard
farming is well maintained by women. Fruit trees form a larger part of living,
particularly the jackfruit.
They prefer sheep, poultry and duck; however, goat,cattle and buffaloes are there
in the system.
They quickly follow and adjust new development in agriculture sector. The
personal hygiene is well maintained, even the village hygiene.
Bhumia and History

Bhumia claim to have come from Bhubaneswar in the past. They do not have any
other support to describe their allegiance to any dynasty at present. In Kundra
block, particularly the tribe has good presence; the Goriahandi, Phupugaon
villages have Jaina temples of the past and Bhumia are the priest. The Pujari
family of the Goriahandi narrated to me that their ancestors would live without
cloth in caves of near by Phampuni. The village Phampuni was an important place
for Jains, may be Buddhist and now Sakti. There is a Durga idol lying in close by
forest. Phampuni is now populated with Kurumas who were past subjects of
Kuruma branch of Sweata Gangas of Kalinga and have migrated from Ganjam.
Bhumia are closer to Somavamsis rulers and I am of the opinion that the relation
that the tribe is placing to Bhubaneswar is very close to the hypothesis. They were
originally Jains and later took to Savism and adapted Visnu cult as can be seen
from a old Bhumia settlement in Goriahandi, located on the bank of Kolab and is
closer to Phampuni village.
References
1909, Vol.1-7.
2. Ibid.
3. Russel, R.V. and Rai Bahadur Hira Lal. The Tribes and castes of Central
Provinces of India, Four Volumes, London.
4. Bell, R.C.S., Orissa District Gazetteer (Koraput), Cuttack, Government Press,
1945
BHUMIA VILLAGE – GORIAHANDI, KUNDRA,

KORAPUT
Visnu Temple, Goriahandi

Visnu, Goriahandi
Gaja-Laxmi, door of the Jaina temple,

Phupugaon
Tirthankara Jaina, Goriahandi
Unfinished Lion, Goriahandi
Siva Parbati, Siva temple,

Goriahandi
Siva linga, Goriahandi

JAINA TEMPLE BHUMIA PHUPUGAON, KUNDRA
Mahavira Jaina shrine, Phupugaon, Kundra
KATHARAGADA ORISSAN ARCHAEOLOGY
Bhairaba
Gaja Kesari
Tandava Siva Maheswara and Parvati
An Elephant
Devi Durga
Siva and Parvati Siva and Parvati
Ganesha
Siva linga
Siva linga
Uma and Parvati

Buddha in Pakkanaguda near Kathargada
RAMAGIRI
Ramagiri is located close to Baipariguda block in Koraput district of Orissa.It is

extended with range of hills on the banks of the river Kolab, which flows from
Nandapur down and meets the Indravati, before it joins the Godavari
river.Ramagiri hill range has numerous caves discovered and waiting to be
explored. The caves of Gupteswar is famous for its Siva linga that stands 5 feet
high of stalagmite formation .People from Bastar and Orissa come together on
Sivaratri day to celebrate.Boipariguda has the large concentration of Bhumia tribe
that extend into Ramagiri and Mathili; where as the Matias are the majority in
Mathili-Govindapalli area contagious to the Bhumias.However the Ramagiri,
towards the Gupteswar has a large concentration of Dhuruva tribe that extend
deep into Bastar district.
Jawaharlal (1) wrote, “Ugraditya was pontiff of the Desigana, Pustaka gacchha,
Pansogavalli-sakha of the Mula-sangha in the line of Kundakunda in Jaina
organization. His guru was Srinandin and Lalitakiriti-Acharya was his colleague.
He lived at Mount Ramagiri and studied the science. This Ramagiri has been
rightly identified with the hill of Ramatirtham in the Vizianagaram district by
J.P.Jain, (2) for; the modern Ramatirtham still contains Jaina caves, temples, etc.”
He further wrote,’ like other Jaina preceptors, Ugraditya was reputed for his
learing. He is the author of the Kalyanakaraka, a complete and original treatise on
the science of medicine. It will be seen from a perusal of his Kalyanakaraka that
Ugraditya was well acquainted with most of the earlier literature, both Jaina and
non-Jaina, on the subject (3). Curiously we are informed in his work that ‘by
order of his guru, Srinandin, whose feet were worshipped by Vishnuraja
Paramesvara, Ugraditya wrote his work, Kalyanakaraka for the good of mankind,
on the beautiful hill of Ramagiri… which was situated in the level plains of Vengi
in the Trikalinga country (4).It is further learnt from the Hithita adhyaya (i.e. the
extra chapter) of his work that he “delivered the discourse on the uselessness of
meat diet in the court of Sri-nripatungavallabha Maharajaadhiraja which was
adorned by many learned men and doctors”. Now scholars are agreed in
identifying the Vishnuraja Paramesvara with the famous Eastern Chalukya
monarch of Vengi, Vishnuvardhana IV (A.D. 762-99), and Nripatungavllabha
with the Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I (A.D.815-77). Ugraditya thus seems to
have lived in circa A.D.770-840. (5) It is not unreasonable to suppose that
Ugraditya, having completed his work sometime in the last quarter of the 8th
century A.D., visited Manyakheta and delivered his illuminating discourse in the
court of Amoghavarsha I about A.D. 830-40, or still earlier. Thus, Ugraditya,
being proficient in medicine and a staunch follower of the Jaina faith, must have
succeeded in weaning away the people from meat eating by his admonitory
discourses”.
Ramatirtham
The Ramagiri as mentioned above has been identified with Ramatirtham,
particularly by historian of Andhra Pradesh.
Ramatirtham is in the Vijayanagaram taluk of the same district. It is situated at a
distance of 16 kms. from the town of Vizianagaram and can be reached by bus
only. It still contains caves and numerous Jaina images on the hill. It is interesting
to recall that ‘Ugraditya, the author of Kalyanakaraka studied the science under
his guru, Sri Nandin at Mount Ramagiri. By order of Sri Nandin, whose feet were
worshipped by Sri Vishnuraja Paramesvara, Ugraditya wrote his Kalayanakarka
for the good of mankind, on beautiful hill of Ramagiri that was adorned with
many Jaina caves, temples, etc. and was situated in the level plains of Vengi in the
country of Trikalinga(6). J.P. Jain has rightly identified this Ramagiri, (7) with
the modern Ramatirtham and the Vishnuraja Paramesvara with Vishnuvardhana
IV (A.D.762-99). Thus Ramagiri (modern Ramatirtham) had become an
important center for Jaina literary activities were remarked by Dr. Jawaharlal (8).
He wrote,” Further, it is equally interesting to learn from an inscription engraved
on the wall of the Durgapancha cave that Vimaladitya’s (A.D.1011-22) religious
guru Trikalayogi Siddhantadeva of the Desi gana paid homage to Ramakonda
with great devotion. It testifies to the eminence of Ramatirtham as a sacred resort
of the Jaina religion then. It is further evident from other records that the place
was an influential center of the faith from early times and a holy abode of
pilgrimage for its followers. No doubt, at first Ramatirtham was stronghold of
Buddhism during the early centuries of Christian era. For, numerous Buddhist
remains have been unearthed here (9). It may not be wrong to assume that Jainism
might have captured this place during the days of the decline of the Buddhist
creed and converted it into a stronghold of its own during the heydays of the
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Still we can see the caves with Tirthankara images,
and a large number of Jaina sculptures there”.
Ajay M. Shastry (10) wrote “According to the Masulipatam plates of Amma I
(918-925 A.D.), his predecessor Vijayaditya IV (918 A.D.) ruled over the
Vengimandala together with the Tri-Kalinga forest (Vengi-mandalam Tri-
Kalingatavi-yuktam (11). Likewise, the Kolavaram plates of Chalukya-Bhima II
that Vikramaditya II (sometime after 925 A.D.) held sway over both Vengi-
mandala and Tri-Kalinga, (sa-Tri-Kalingam Vengi-mandalam) (12). The inclusion
of Tri-Kalinga, obviously a part thereof, in the Vengi Chalukya kingdom finds
support from some literary evidence also. The following stanza in the colophon of
the medieval medical text entitled Kalyana-karaka by one Ugradityacarya states
that the work was composed at Ramagiri which is described as adorned with
structural as well as rock-cut temples and situated in the Tri-Kalinga country
which was under the Vengi ruler:
Vinga-Isa-Tri-Kalinga-desa-janana-prastutya-san-utkata-
Prodyad=vrksa-lata-vitana-nirataih siddhais=ca vidyadharaih /
Sarve mandira-kandar-opama-guha-caity-alay-alamkrte
Ramye Ramagirv-idam viracitam sastram hitam praninam//(13)
This Ramagiri is apparently different from modern Ramtek near Nagpur that is
generally believed to represent the Ramagiri mentioned in the opening stanza of
Kalidasa’s Megha-duta (Purva-megha, verse 1). We (Ajaya M. Sashtri) propose
to identify it with the homonymous locality situated in the Koraput District of
Orissa bordering the Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh which alone would
satisfy the description. The assumption of the title Tri-kalingadhipati by the
Somavamsins, who also called themselves Kosal-endra or ‘Lord of Kosala’,
would show that Tri-Kalinga must have abutted on or must have been very close
to South Kosala. It must be remembered in this connection that the Panduvamsins,
who were lineal ancestors of the Somavamsins, also ruled over South Kosala and
when under pressure from other powers they were forced to shift eastward and
southward, they naturally moved towards the Kalahandi-Koraput-Bastar region.
For some time they could have continued to hold a part of Kosal together with the
adjoining area. And lastly, the assumption of this title by some later members of
the Kalachuri dynasty as well as the continuation of its use by the later Eastern
Gangas would show that it was a bone of contention among them as well as the
Somavamsins and the Eastern Chalukyas. Therefore, the region of Tri-Kalinga or
a part of it must have been situated not very far from their territories. Any
identification of Tri-Kalinga must satisfy this condition.
While considering the question of the location of Tri-Kalinga, the fact that in
ancient times natural barriers like mountains, rivers and seas played an important
role seems to have been ignored (14). Taking into consideration the above-
mentioned political facts together with the geographical factors, we may conclude
that the region comprising the Three Kalingas had three distinct geographical
features: (i) Eastern Ghats dividing Kalinga region into Western and Eastern
parts; (ii) the Mahanadi and the Godavari forming the northern and southern
borders of Western Kalinga; and (iii) the Indravati dividing the Western Kalinga
into North and South Kalinga, North Kalinga between the Indravati and the
Mahanadi and South Kalinga, North Kalinga between the Godavari and the
Indravati. With this geographical overview we may attempt to locate the Three
Kalingas as follows: (a) South-Kalinga, bordered on the west and north-west by
the Indravati, on the south by the Godavari and on the east by the Eastern Ghats,
comprised southern portion of Koraput together with a considerable part of Bastar
and a small region of north-west Srikakulam; (b) North Kalinga bordered on the
north and west by the Mahanadi and on the south and east by the Eastern Ghats,
consisted of northern Koraput and the adjoining south-eastern region of
Kalahandi; and (c) East Kalinga-bordered the west by the Eastern Ghats, on the
south by Godavari till it meets the Bay of Bengal, on the north by the Mahanadi
where it empties into the Bay of Bengal and on the east by the Bay of Bengal –
includes the whole of eastern Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam together with the
whole of Ganjam.
The above is only a very rough indication of the areas comprised in the Three
Kalingas, and it is impossible in the present state of disinformation to be more
precise. Perhaps none of the kings who assumed the title Tri-Kaling-adhipati
controlled at any time of their rule the whole of Tri-Kalinga; but even capture of a
part of its, temporary or permanent, was thought enough to justify the assumption
of this title. This was true of the Somavamsins also as they could control only a
part of Orissan region of Tri-Kalinga adjacent to South Kosala, viz., Koraput-
Kalahandi-Bastar (15).”
Based on the findings of Ajay Shastry I am inclined to locate Ramagiri of Koraput

to be the place in Tri- Kalinga where Ugraditya lived.
Location of Ramagiri of Kalidasa

The location of Ramigiri as mentioned in Meghaduta has been the subject for
research for several years and thus a good number of papers have been accounted
so far; and they have been discussed in the following paragraphs.
H.H.Wilson in 1843 translated Meghdutam to English and the first stanza runs as,
I ’Where Ramagiri's cool, dark woods extend,
And those pure streams, where Sita bathed, descend; (16)
The above is the first stanza of the Meghaduta composed by Kalidasa in Sanskrit,
and it mentions clearly the place called ‘Ramagiri’.The Ramagiri region is
considered most sacred because Lord Rama with Sita and Lakhmana during their
long period of vanabasa had spent most time in the said area. Since long there
are standing controversies over the identification of Ramagiri of Meghaduta fame
and different sites have been proposed by various historians and research scholars.
K.D.Bajpai wrote, “The location of Ramagiri of Kalidas has been discussed for a
long time past and several localities have been identified with it. V.V. Mirashi,
followed by other scholars, has put forth the claim of Ramtek near Nagpur for its
identification with Ramagiri. Sundarlal Tripathi and some others located in the
Koraput district of Orissa. There are still others who have tried to put Ramagiri
elsewhere (17).”
Lord Rama’s Feet in Pujariguda, Ramagiri in Koraput district
An Epic, Puranic and Historical setting of Dandakaranya has been reported by

Sundarlal Tripathy. (18) He has reviewed Godavari river from all puranic, epic
and literature sources and the location of Panchavati is forwarded to be at the
configuration of Godavari and ---- at Bhadrachalam.This is in reference to Lord
Rama, Sita and Lahmana banavasa in Dandakaranya. He has cited the views of
eminent research scholars and historians as to the location of Panchavati.
He has also taken into account the Balmiki’s puranic notes and then has seen it
from the Kalidasa’s kabyas to find the geographical locations as described for
Dandakaranya, more so for Panchavati and Ramagiri etc.
Kalidasa has described Ramagiri in Meghaduta and that gives a clear description
of its geographical and physical account. Sunderlal Tripathy has identified
Ramagiri of Dandakaranya close to Bastar-Koraput boarder and on the bank of
Kolab or the river Savari as it was known; has given enough of evidences from all
source possible including the published literatures in detail to ascertain that

Ramagiri of Koraput-Bastar is the one that Kalidasa has mentioned in Meghaduta.
He has defined the geographical sway in Dandakaranya like Ramagiri and
Panchavati and placed the different place components in logical sequence with its
present name and given its present location in Dandakaranya as has been narrated
in the Meghaduta (19).
Map of Dandakaranya – Chitrakuta showing path of Meghaduta of Kalidasa as per

Sundarlal Tripathy
Bajpai differed in locating the Ramagiri as has been pointed out by Sunderlal and
wrote, “The regional geography in the Meghaduta of Kalidasa is chiefly
concerned with the vast area of the present Madhya Pradesh. In the return journey
of Rama from Lanka to Ayodhya, as described in the Raghuvamsa (canto XIII),
also a large area of Madhya Pradesh is covered. Kalidasa takes unusual delight in
describing the beauty of nature and the lively life of the people inhabiting the long
stretch of land in this State from Ramagiri in the east to Dasapura in the west
(Meghaduta, I, 14-47). Dasapura was the ancient name of Mandsaur in the
extreme north-west of Madhya Pradesh (17).”The following observations of
Bajpai are showing his view that Ramagiri can be identified with Rangarh in the
Surguja District of Madhya Pradesh. (20)
As regards the location of Ramagiri, it is more plausible to identify it with the

hillock of Ramagarh in the Surguja district of Madhya Pradesh than with any
other site was the opinion of Bajpai. The internal evidence, particularly from the
Meghaduta, supports this identification. The hillock of Ramagarh, with the
panoramic beauty around, tallies with its enchanting description given by
Kalidasa in verses 1-4, 12 and 14 of the Meghaduta (21)
Further in Canto XII of Meghaduta it is mentioned,
“Short be thy farewell to this hill addressed; This hill with Rama's holy feet
impressed;”(22)
Sircar wrote,” The poet Kalidasa (c.A.D.400) describes in Raghuvamsa, canto X,

how Vishnu, lying on the great serpent in the ocean of milk, with Lakhsmi
rubbing his feet, was born as Dasaratha’s son for Ravana’s destruction, while the
Vakataka queen Pravavatigupta (5th Century A.D.), the atyanta-vhagvad-bhaka
daughter of Chandragupta II, was worshipper of Bhagabata Rama-grisvamin (
literally , the lord of Ramagiri) , who seems to be no other than Rama,son of
Dasaratha. The suggestion is supported by the reference in Kalidasa’s Meghaduta
to the foot prints of Raghupati (Rama Dasarathi) on the Ramagiri. (23)”
I have discovered a pair of feet on a stone plate in Ramagiri in the village of

Pujariguda village (in Revenu record) that is worshipped locally. It is the lone pair
of Feet in the region and is quite different in shape than that has been reported
from various sites of Koraput district by Kornel and Gamang, 2009. The Rama
Navami is celebrated on the Ninth day of Chaitra month but at Pujariguda
thousands of devotees from all around villages and Bastar assemble here on tenth
day night of the chaitra and a great festival and puja is organized here. It is the
custom of Jeypore State that all festivals and puja are celebrated one day after the
official puja of festival at the Palace in Jeypore. In front of the Jeypore Palace a
large Rama temple exists and one Sita Devi, queen of the family had built it in
1901-10. Thus instead of Rama navami the puja is celebrated on tenth day. This
celebration is very ancient and now people only remember the Chatra Dasami
puja and forgotten Rama. The Pujariguda is also known as Pujariput locally. In
the same village lies the ruins of a fort that was built by Mohammedan rulers of
South who had occupied the Ramagiri region and the Jeypore Kings had taken
back the control after the defeat of the Mohammedan rulers. This ruins are known
as Tikrigada. The erect stones and grave yard in the fort gives the indication that it
was a Muslim ruler’s Fort. This has amounted to some loss of archaeology in the
region is the local opinion.
The following from Meghaduta gives glimpses of Ramagiri.

The gentle breeze shall fan thy stately way,
In sportive wreathes the Crane around thee play;
pleased on thy left the Chataka, along
pursue thy path, and cheer it with his song;
And when thy thunders soothe the parching earth'
And showers, expected, raise her mushroom birth;
The swans for Mount Kailasa shall prepare,
And track thy course attendant through the air. (24)
Ramagiri of Meghaduta is bound by geographical details as described by

Kalidasa. The description of Ramagiri as per Meghaduta still holds good to the
Ramagiri in Dandakaranya. Kalidasa pointed out to the outburst of ‘Slindhara’
and it still continues in Sravana month in the region that is Sal forest red soil belt
and this is called Sravana Chatu locally. Kalidasa mentions- Twabanamalikhia
pranayakupitam dhaturagaha silaimatyaman’. It means the hill is made up of
‘dhatu’ and is made up of geru. The colour of Ramagiri hill is geru, pinkish
shade. Ramagiri has been described. (25)
On to the travel of cloud messenger in Meghatuda it refers to Chitrakuta on way

from Ramagiri to Amarakuta and it runs as following described in Meghaduta.
Next bending downwards from thy lofty flight,

On Chitrakuta's humbler peak alight;
O'er the tall hill thy weariness forego,
And quenching rain-drops on its flames bestow;
For speedy fruits are certain to await
Assistance yielded to the good and great. (26)
Temple having the Feet of Lord Mohammedan fort ruins

Rama, Pujariguda, Ramagiri (Tikrigada), Pujariguda,
Ramagiri
In Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa speaks of Pampasalil, Godavari river, Mandakarimuni
Panchapsar, Saravanga ashram etc. including Chitrakuta waterfall and description
of Nisara sundar parisfuta. It becomes clear from Raghuvamsa that the river
Mandakini and Chitrakuta are in Dandakaranya.Mandakini is the present day
Indravati river. (27)
This was one of the basis that Sunderlal Tripathy made use of to prove his
hypothesis that Ramagiri in Dandakaranya is the relevant place that Kalidasa used
in his Meghaduta.
Eastward, where various gems, with blending ray,
In Indra's bow o'er yonder hillock play,
And on thy shadowy form such radiance shed,
As peacock's plumes around a Krishna spread,
Direct thy course: to Malas smiling ground,
Where fragment tillage breathes the fields around;
Thy fertile gifts, which looks of love reward,
Where bright-eyed peasants tread the verdant sward.
Thence sailing north, and veering to the west,
On Amrakuta's lofty ridges rest;
Oft have thy showers the mountain's flames allayed,
Then fear not wearied to demand it's aid. (28)
From Ramagiri, Kalidasa takes his cloud messenger to the north, then a little back
to the south-west and again to the north to reach Amrakuta. The cloud passes over
the fertile low land of the Mala region before reaching the heights of Amarakuta.
In the region of Mala was situated the chief town of (south) Kosala, from where
Kauslya, the mother of Rama, hailed.
Bajpai again wrote, “The hill of Amarakuta and apparently the northern fringe of
the river valley of Reva (Narmada) are described in no less than 6 verses
(Meghaduta, I, 17 to 22). During its early course, the river is split up into several
branches. This is described by the poet as ‘spread on the uneven Vindhyan hill
like the streaks on an elephant’s body (Meghaduta, I, 19). It may be pointed out
here that the cloud of Kalidasa is never asked by the poet to cross the river Rava
(Normada) to reach Dasarna. While describing another big river Surabhitanaya
(modern Chambal) in the Meghaduta (I, 47), Kalidasa clearly uses the word
uttirya having crossed, which is not the case with the Nramada. In the latter case,
the cloud has to go, for sometime, along the course of the river from Amarkantak
onwards. This fact also goes against the identification of Ramagiri with Ramtek.
In order to reach Dasarna from Ramtek, the river Reva has to be crossed.
The description of Amrakuta by the poet tallies very well with the high-peaked
Amarkantak and its beautiful natural environment. The direction from Amrakuta
to the Dasarna janapada and its capital Vidisa is given almost straight to the west,
and hence the poet for reaching that area suggests no change of direction. From
Vidisa to Ujjain a diversion, vakrah pantha (Meghaduta, I, 27), is suggested.
After Ujjain to Alaka the route is to the north, and hence no diversion is hinted at.
(29)”
Previously a few scholars like K.B. Pathak, M. Venkataramayya and V.K.

Paranjape, identified Ramgarh with the Ramagiri of Kalidasa. The present author
(Bajpai) has surveyed the area from Ramagarh in the Surguja district to the
Tripuri-Bheraghat region in the Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh. He (Bajpai)
has also studied the sites of the Koraput area in Orissa and the ancient remains at
Ramtek near Nagpur. The chief reasons which go against the identification of
Ramagiri of Kalidas with the site of the Koraput district or with Ramtek are
briefly given below (30)
(A) There are several sites known as Ramagiri in Orissa, including the one in
the Koraput district on the bank of the river Khonlab supposed to be the
ancient Sabari river). The existence of a Chitrakuta (apart from the one in
the Banda-panna districts) in the Koraput district and that of Panchavati
(on the confluence of the rivers Godavari and Indravati (ancient
Mandakini) can also not be doubted. But the site on the Khonlab river
does not indicate any archaeological potentiality to warrant its
identification with Ramagiri of Kalidasa. At the same time, the internal
evidence, as found in the Meghaduta giving the geography of the land
from Ramagiri to Vidisa does not tally if we identify the above site with
the Ramagiri of Kalidasa.
(B) As regards Ramtek near Nagpur, there is no doubt that during the
Vakataka Gupta Age it had become quite famous as a religious center. The
art-relics that have been discovered in and around Ramtek bear eloquent
testimony to the development of architecture and art, of a high order, in
Ramtek during the Vakataka Age. But the identification of Ramtek with
Ramagiri does not seem to be possible due to the following reasons:
(i) The description of Ramagiri, as found in the above work of

Kalidasa, does not tally with Ramtek, The flora and fauna of the
area to the north of Ramtek are also quite different from those
described by the poet.
(ii) Had the forest area of the Chhindwara-Narashinghpur districts

been familiar to the poet, he would have mentioned at least its
lower region in his other work, the Raghuvamsa. In canto XIII of
that work Kalidasa describes the return journey of Rama from
Lanka to Ayodhia. The poet would have certainly mentioned
Ramagiri (if it was Ramtek), where Rama had stayed with Sita and
Lakshmana. No such description is, however, noticed in that work,
whereas the asramas of several Rishis, Panchavati and the river
Mandakini (present Indravati of Bastar) has been mentioned by the
poet. Ramtek falls almost on the direct route from Sri Lanka and
South India to Ayodhya.
It is concluded that the findings of Sunderlal Tripathy (31) that the Ramagiri of
Kalidasa described in the Meghaduta is located in Koraput district of Orissa close
to the Gupteswara Cave Sivalinga Temple and is right on the boarder of Bastar
district in Chhattisgarh State and is located in the Dandakaranya. Ample of
evidences related to that described in Meghaduta has been cited and the present
author have discovered a pair of Feet, as have been mentioned in Meghaduta as
the foot prints of Lord Rama, still being worshiped in Pujariguda in Ramagiri
vicinity adds to the argument.
Ajay Mitra Shastri have identified the same Ramagiri where Acharya Ugraditya, a
Jaina Guru wrote Kalyanakaraka, a treatise on medicines in 7th Century A.D.
This Chapter is dedicated to the fond memory of Late Sri Sunderlal Tripathy of
Jagdalpur, Bastar district for his life dedicated to people of Bastar, their culture
and heritage, more especially to the Tribals. His contribution to Dandakaranya
history and especially the papers like ‘Meghaduta Described Ramagiri and its
Geography Review’ and inferences as well as the paper on ‘Dandaka, Chitrakut-

Chakrakuta and Bastar-Koraput’ will remain as inspiration to future generation.
Largest Siva Linga, Another Siva Linga,

Gupteswara, Ramagiri Ramagiri Caves
Reference
1. Jawaharlal, G.Jainism in Andhra. p.130
2. Ramagiri of Ugraditya’s Kalyankaraka, PIHC, Nagpur session. 1950.
Pp.127-33.
3. MAR 1922, p.23, See Kalyanakaraka, published in sakhiram Nemichandra
Series No. 129.
4. Ibid, and also see J.P. Jain. The Jaina Sources of Ancient India. p.205.
5. J.P. Jain, op.cit. p.206
6. Ibid. p. 206
7. A.S.I, A.R, 1910-11, pp.78-87.
8. Jawaharlal, G. op.cit. p.91.
9. Rea, A.R.A.S.I., 1910-11, p.75, PI. VLIII, No.20
10. Ajay Mitra Shastri Inscriptions of Sarbhapuryas, Panduvamsins and
Somavamsins, part I,.pp.183-185.
11. E. I., V, 113, text-line 17.
12. S.I.I. I, 43. The Arumbaka grant of Bdapa states that Ammaraja II (945-
970 A.D.) at first ruled over the Vengi-desa joined with Tri-Kalinga,
But later left for Kalinga where he ruled for fourteen year (EI, xix,
137). This has been taken as an evidence of a distinction between Tri-
Kalinga and Kalinga (ibid. xxiii, 69); but here Tri-Kalinga may refer to
the forest portion of the country while Kalinga may refer to the coastal
region.
13. Cited by Nathuram Premi in his Jaina Sahitya aura Itihasa, second edition,
447, fn.1.
14. Even in these days of scientific and technological progress when many of
the natural hurdles have been overcome their role in dividing the areas is not
insignificant.
15. The following stanza met with in a manuscript of the Brahamnda Purna
deposited in the Orissa State Museum defines Kalinga and Tri-Kalinga
respectively as (i) the land between the Rsikulya and Jhanajavati and (ii)
that between the Jhanjavati and Vedavati.
Riskulyam samsadya yavad Jhanjavati nadi /,

Kalingadesa prakhyato desana garhitas-tada //
Jhanjavati samasadya yavad Vedavati nadi /,
Trikalingeti vikhyato ..…. //.
The dependability of these stanzas is not beyond doubt; they contain

grammatical errors and the last eight syllables of the second stanza are lost.
They may represent the narrow definitions prevalent at the time the
manuscript was copied, viz., during the late medieval period. Anyway, not
much significance can be attached to these stanzas, particularly, as
they go against the unimpeachable epigraphic evidence.
Hiralal Shukla, Pracina Bastar 79-86; S. Tripathy, “Royal Titles of

Trikalingadhipati and Samasta-Gondramadhipati of the Early Medieval
Orissan Epigraphs’, OHRJ, XXXI, Nos. 2-4, 143-151.
16. Wilson, H.H. (1843) Meghdutam (a English Translation of Kalidasa’s
Meghaduta)
http://www.google.co.in/search?q=%28Cloud+Messenger%29+by+Kalidas
a+%28Translated+from+Sanskrit+by+H.+H.+Wilson%2C+1843%29&btn
G=Search&hl=en&sa=2
17. Bajpai, K.D. in Ajay Mitra Sashtri, Ed., The Age of the Vakatakas.
Publication Herman Publishing House, New Delhi-28. p.85-91
18. Tripathy, Sunderlal. Dandak, Chitrakuta-Chakrakote and Bastar-Koraput.
p.72-124.
19. Ibid.
20. Bajpai, K.D. op.cit.
21 Ibid.
22. Wilson, H.H. (1843).op.cit.
23. Sircar, D.C. Vaishnavism: The Avatars of Vishnu (from Kalidasa’s
Meghaduta, St.15): In Classical Age. p.422
24. Wilson, H.H. (1843).op.cit

25. Tripathy, Sunderlal. (1974) Meghaduta Barnita Ramagiri ki Bhogalic
Punarvichar (in Hindi). ANC.IND. History and Archaeology, Sagar
University, (Madhya Pradesh) p.1-38.
26. Wilson, H.H. (1843).op.cit
27. Tripathy, Sunderlal. Dandak, Chitrakuta-Chakrakote and Bastar-Koraput.
p.72-124.
28. Wilson, H.H. (1843).op.cit.
29. Bajpai, K.D. in Ajay Mitra Sashtri, Ed., Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Sircar, D.C.Vaishnavism: The Avatars of Vishnu (from Kalidasa’s
Meghduta, St. 15.) In Classical Age.
GAD BODRA AND NARAYANPAL REMAINS IN

BASTAR
Indrabati river bank, Gad Bodra Gad Bodra and temple
Mahavira, Narayanpal, Bastar Parsvanatha, Gad Bodra

Ganesha, Gad Bodra Visnu, Gad Bodra
Tantric Sakti pitha, Gad Bodra Unidentified image, Gad Bodra

Narayana Temple, Narayanpal, Bastar
Narayana, Narayanpal Temple Narayanpal Inscription

No.49- Narayanpal Stone Inscription of Gunda Mahadevi.
The Saka Year 1033

By Hira Lal, B.A., M.R.A.S., Nagpur.
Naryanpal is a village 23 mile north-west of Jagdalpur, the capital of the Bastar

feudatory state attached to the Chhattisgarh Division of the Central Provinces. It
is situated on the right bank of the “splendidly picturesque” Indravati, one of
those minor rivers of India than which none is more interesting. (1) It “traverses
the most untrodden regions of the peninsula. Here in the deepest recesses of the
wild forests which cover the Mardian hills, is the home of the Gond races-one of
the aboriginal Dravidian peoples, whose origin is indistinct; a people who still
erect rude stone monuments and use stone implements, unwitting of the
procession of the centuries and the advance of civilization to their borders.” And
yet the very place which has with any of the civilized provinces of those times. At
least such seems to be the irresistible conclusion from the discovery of the
antiquarian remains left by the forgotten Nagavamsi kings of that little known
state. Narayanpal is one of those places which enjoyed celebrity in their times, a
place to which “people of various countries restored,” and which instead of
having a long row of wooden peg gods, which now adorn the village turf,
possessed the temple of Narayana, and “the basket of the gems of knowledge”
which no doubt the residents duly picked up. The Indravati was to Bastar what the
Narmada has been to India, the separating boundary between the Aryan and the
Dravidian peoples.
Our inscription being found in Narayanpal on the north bank of the river is
therefore in Sanskrit characters. Its discovery is due to the efforts of Rai Bahadur
panda Baijanath, B.A., who kindly sent me five impressions. Another impression
has since been prepared by Mr. Venkoba Rao of the Madras Archeological
Survey. I have made use of all these materials for my edition. The inscription is
engraved on a stone slab, standing near the temple of Narayana, to which it
belongs. In this temple there is still an exquisite image of Narayana, 2’high.
Above the ground the slab measures 7’ 4” x 2’ 3”, and the writing covers a space
5/ 9” x 2/ 2”, including the imprecatory figures and the additions to be referred to
presently, but leaving out the top Sri Maha. The original inscription apparently
contained only 35 lines, beginning with Svasti Sahasra-phanamani and ending
with mamagala maha-sri, underneath which the usual imprecatory figures of a
cow and a calf, the dagger and shield, the sun and moon and the Siva linga, the
meanings of which I have elsewhere explained, were carved.
The language of the inscription is Sanskrit prose, except the two imprecatory
verses in lines 33 to 35, and the characters as stated before are Nagari. They are
boldly written but the size is not uniform throughout. While in the top line Sri-
maha, they are as big as 21/2”, the average size in the first four lines is 1 5/8”.
The inscription records the grant of the village Narayanapura to the god
Narayana and some land near the Kharjuri tank to the god Lokesvara, and it is
dated in the Saka year 1033 on Wednesday, the full moon day of the Karttika
month in the Khara samvatsara, corresponding to the 18th October 1111 A.D. The
donor was Gunda Mahadevi, the chief queen of the maharaja Dharvarsha, the
mother of Somesvaradeva and the grandmother of Kanharadeva, who was then
ruling after the death of his father, as stated in line 17. The dynasty claims to be
Nagavamsi of the Kasyapa gotra and to have a tiger with a calf as their crest and
to be the lords of Bogavati, the best of cities. There can be little doubt that it was
connected with the Sinda family of Yelburga. The birudas of the two are
strikingly similar. The Sindas also claim to be Nagavamsodbhava, born of the
race of the Naga (cobra), and the lords of Bhogavati, which city is a mythical
place in the nether world. The discoveries hitherto made show the existence of the
rule of the family at the diagonally opposite corners of this state, viz. south-west
and northeast. I feel confident that if we could “explore the serpent city well,” We
should find at least a replica of it somewhere is the Nisam’s dominions in a
position intermediate between these two points. The Ramayana seems to confirm
this, for Rama’s route to Lanka lay between the two and passed through
Bhogavati.
Text.
Sri Maha.
1. Om1 Svasti sahasra(sra)-phanamani-kirapa-nikar-avabha {su).
2. ra-Nagavams-odbhava-Bhogavati-puravar-esvara-sa-
3. vasta-vyaghra-lamchhana-Kasya (sya)pa-gotra-prakati-krita-
4. vijaya-ghoshana-lavdha(bdha)-visva-visvambhara-paramesvara-para-
5. mabhattaraka-Mahesvara-charana-kamja-kimjalka-pumja-pimjarita-
bhramarayamana-satya-Harischam-
6. dra-sa(sa)ran-agata-vajra-pamjara-srimad-rajabhushapa-maharaja-
Dharavarshadeva-pad[a]-
7. nam pattamahadevi jagad-eka-mata sa(sa)sana-patta-dara nama namats(to)
Gam-
8. ga-jala-[dhau]ta-parama-pavitra-krit-ottamamgi-Dharavarsha-mahesvar-
Arddhangi-pa-
9. [rthi]vemdra-kul-amgana Parvvati-bhasura charu-bha[gira]thi parama-
pativarta
10. chara(ru)-Aramdhuti(Arumdhati) Saujanya-Sarasva(sva)ti-sa(sa)ranagata-

rakshamani va(ba)madhu-chintamani
11. sauviney-abhina[v]a-Savitri ksha m-odara-dharitri srimad-G[u]nda-
mahadevi a-
12. sam putra-namna sahasra-phan[a]-mani-kirana-nikar-ava[bha]sura-
Nagavams-o2-
13. dbhava-Bhogavati-pura[var-esva]ra-savatsa-vyaghra-lam[chha]na-
ka[sya](sya)pa-gotra-prka-
14. ti-krita-[vija]ya-ghoshana-[lavdha](bdha)-visva-v[I]svambhara-
paramesvara paramabhatta-
15. raka-Mahesvara-charna-kamja-kimjalka-pumja-pimjarita-
bhramarayamana-sa-
16. tya-Harischamdra-sa(sa)ran-agata-vajra-pa[m*]jara-prati[ganda]2 –
bhairava-srimad-raya-
17. bhushana-maharaja-Somesvaradeva(ve) sva(sva)r-ggate tesham putrasya
asam nap[tuh]
18. samsta-rajavali-vi[rajyama]na-[sr]imad-vira-Kanharadevasya kalyana-
vijaya-ra-
19. jye Saka-nripa-kal-atite dasa-sata-trayat[ri]ms-adhike3 Khara-samvatsare
Kartti-
20. ka-paurnnamasyam vuddha(budha)-va[re] samsara-samudr-o[t*]tarana-
taramdaya jn[a*]na-ratna-karamda-
21. ya svargg-arggal-odghatana-karaya srima[n-N]arayana-devaya srimad-
Gundamahad[e]vya
22. sakalam=a[n] ityam=adhruvam=asa(sa)svatam drishtava svargg-arggal-
odghatan-arthe Narayanapuro
23. nama gramo nana-desiya-jan-[a]kirnnas=chamdr-arkka-sthity-udadhi-
kalam yavat
24. pradattah tatha sri-Lokesvaradevaya Kharjuriva(ba)madha-samipastha
bhumih pradatta
25. Srimat-pregada Adityamapenna4 bhattanayaka Prontiyo5 karana6
[Ku]driyama-
26. Virama nayaka Somana nayaka Ramanakasana nayaka M[a]raya bhamdari
27. Aitana sadhu Vakomaraya Etesham bhu[mih] akarena pradatta [Sa]-
7
mara-sreshthi
28. Chha[dru] vamaua8 sreshthi Ghughi Sridhara sadhu Nanu kosa[ja]
Pala[su] Padmasi-
29. nivira mali Goi[m]dapratra9 tail[I]ka [Ja]sadhavala vavu(babu) Milapi
navejanam [du]
30. pala[ghi]ka sa[mri]darana Dhavala m[a]niya[sthi] sri-V [a]sadeva
etair=[griha-ve]-
31. taka-r[u]peuna sriman-Narayana-deva-padeshu sada sth[a] tavyam karam

cha datavyam
32. sri(i)mat-pamdita-Purushottamaya grama-nilaya-nada-sarvva-va(ba)dha-
pariharena chamdr-a-
33. rka-kalam pradatta Savadattam paradattam va yo
hared9reta0=vasumdhara[m] [ *] sa vishthayam kri-
34. mi(mir) [bhu]tva kulajai[h] saha sidati I Tadaganam sahasre (sre)na
as(as)-
35. na cha [I*] ge(ga)vam koti-pradanena bhumi-hartta na su(su) dhyati II
Mangala maha sri
36. a. Suradhara Ranaviraya Bhumi pradatta
37. a. Skarena.
36. b. Adhikari Chhadrukasya bhumi akarena
37. b. data KK Brahmau [jha}kasya bhumi data sasa(sasa)-
38. b. nam akarena Ma[ha]ndaka-
39. b. sya tatha [Kanharasai]
40. b. Nagak[u]la[madhva]ra e-
41. b. tesham bhumi aka-
42. b. rena data pri(pri)thuna
39. c. Bhattara
40. c. ka Bhava.
41. c. [de] vaya
42. c. bhumi akarena data
43. d. Savsti Sri-Dharana-mahadevi-[varyya] sarvva-va[dha]-pariharena
aka(re)-
44. d. ua bhumi data deva-sri-Narayanasy=arthe Mahanaka Devadasa
45. d. [Jaggati] kk Sadhu Himasutta de[dunanita ?] Lakhmana Chaudhri
46. d. [sri]-Dharana-mahade bhumi [dataru ara sri de sasana datta9] bhumi
data k akarena
Reference:
1. Expressed by a symbol
2. Perhaps –danda-
3. Read Saka-nripa-kal-atite dasa-state trayasteri
4. Perhaps Adityamayena
5. Perhaps Kuttiyamavirma
6. Perhaps Kagarametti
1. Expresseed by a symbol
2. Perhaps – danda-
3. Read Saka-nripa-kal-atite dasa-sate tryastri

4. Perhaps Adityamayenna
5. Perhaps Kuttiyamavirama
6. Perhaps Kagarametti
7. Perhaps Chhadd bradhmana
8. Probably Govindapatra [or Govindaputra.-S.K.]
9. This perhaps stands for data akarena sri-sasana-devya dattd.
(Lines 1-6) Hail. The patta-mahadevi of the Maharaja Dharavarshadeva, who

was born of the Nagavamsa, resplendent with the mass of rays of thousand hood-
jewels; who was the lord of Bhogavati, the best of towns; whose crest was tiger
with a calf; who was of the whole earth; the Paramesvara, Paramabhattaraka; who
was like a bee rendered yellow by the collection of pollen of the lotus feet of
Mahesvara; who was a Harischandra in truthfulness; who was an adamantine cage
(of safe reguge) to those who sought his protection, a glorious ornament among
kings;
(LI. 7-11) (she who was) the only mother of the world, called the turbaned queen
consort (chief consort); whose head was wholly sanctified by being washed in the
water of the Ganges; who was (as it were) half the body of Dharavarsha (just as
Paravati is half the body of) Mahesvara; a noble lady of royal birth; resplendent
(like) Parvati; beautiful (like) the Ganges; who was exceedingly devoted to her
husband; a lovely Arundhati, a Sarasvati of goodness; an amulet for those who
sought her protection; a magical gem to her relatives; a new Savitri of good
breeding; capable of liberal support like the earth (was) Gunda-mahadevi.
(LI.12-17). After the Maharaja Somesvaradeva, who was known as her son; who
was born of the Nagavamsa, resplendent with the mass of rays of thousand hood
jewels; who was the lord of Bhogavati, the best of towns; whose crest was a tiger
with a calf; who was of the Kasyapa gotra; who had made his shout of victory
universally known; who had acquired the whole earth; the Paramesvara,
Paramabhattaraka; who was a Harischandra in truthfulness; who was an
adamantine cage (of safe refuge) to those who sought his protection; who was
terrible to the refractory (or, rivals), a glorious ornament amongst kings,
(LI. 17-24) had gone to heaven; in the auspicious and victorious reign of his son,
and her grandson, the illustrious hero Kanharadeva, resplendent in the row of all
kings, when (the year) ten hundred increased by thirty-three of the eara of the
Saka king had expired, in the Khara samavatsara, on the day of full moon of
Karttika, on a Wednesday, the village Narayanapura, full of people come from
various countries, was given by the illustrious Gunda-mahadevi for so long as
the moon, the sun, the earth, and the ocean endure, to the glorious god Narayana,
who is a very for crossing the ocean of transmigration, who is a basket (full) of
the gems of knowledge, who opens the bolt of heaven’s (door), seeing that
everything is transient, unsteady and inconstant, in order to open the bolt of
heaven’s (door). Likewise the land near the Kharjuribandha-tank was given to
the glorious god Lokesvara.
(LI.25-33) The illustrious minister Adityma Penna, the bhattandyaka Proutiyo,

the Karna Kudriyam Virama1, the nayaka Somana, the nayaka Ramanakasana, the
nayaka Maraya, the bhandari Aitana, the sadhu Vakomarya. The land of these was
given revenue free. The sereshthin Samara, the brahmana Chhadru, the sreshthin
Ghughi, the sadhu Sridhara, the kosaja (cocoon producer) Nanu, the mali Palasu
Padmasinivira, the oilman Govinda-patra, the babu Jasadhavala, Milapi . . . . the
glorious Vasudeva : these should always remain at the feet of the glorious
Narayana as grihavetakas, and the tribute should be paid to the illustrious pandit
Purushottama. The land has been given free from all obstructions incumbent on
the village, the nilaya, and the nada, for so long a time as moon and sun endure.
(Here follow two imprecatory verses.)
L.35. (Let) great happiness (attend). Hail.

Li. 36a-37a. Land is given to the sutradhara Ranavira, free from taxes
LI, 36b-42b) The land of the adhikarin Chhadruka is given, free from taxes. (Also)
that of Brahamaujaka as a grant, free from taxes. The land of Mahandaka,
Kanharasai, and Nagakulamdhvara is given, free from taxes.
Li.39c-42c). To bhattarka Bhavadeva land is given free from taxes.
LI. 43d-46d) Hail. The illustrious Dharana-Mahadevi gave land for the sake of
the god, the illustrious Narayana free from all obstructions, and free from taxes.
(Witnesses are) Mahanaka, Devadasa, Jaggati, the sadhu Himasutta . . . . .
Lakhmapna, Chaudhari. The land was given by the illustrious Dharana-
Mahadevi free from taxes. The land was given by the queen consort free from
taxes.
Kornel and Gamang (2010) are of the opinion that the above descrition is close to
Narayana Temple complex located in Jeypore, Koraput instread of Bastar as
suggested by Hira Lal.There are two Khajuribandha in united Koraput
district,one is at Ancholagumma and the other is at Jeypore.Locally the word
bandha mens pond.Close on the western bund of Khajuribandha still stands the
famous Lokesvara Shiva Temple.About 500 yards from the place, to the west is
the Narayana Temple Complex with Bhagavati Temple located in it. (2)
Reference
1. Narayanapal Stone Inscription of Gunda Mahadevi.No. 49. E.I. Vol.IX.,
311 ff, 161-162.
2. Kornel Das and Gamang, Giridhar (2010) Lost Jaina Tribes of Trikalinga.
.p.269
NARAYANA TEMPLE, JEYPORE
Bhagabati in Narayana temple complex., Jeypore Ganesha in Lokanatha Siva

Temple, Jeypore
Lokeswara Siva Temple and in front Khajuribandha, Jeypore Kartikeswara in

Lokeswara temple
Unidentified person with Siva Linga, Lokeswara temple. Images not

identified, Lokeswara temple
KOLOIE POROJA
They believe that they are offspring’s of Parenga men with other castes. They
came down through Andhra Pradesh to the present habitat. In Jolaput area, still a
large number of Koloie poraja live. They identify relationship to Gadaba, Parenga
Poraja even to Bondo tribes and describe their relationship as belonging to
brotherhood. They are considered lower rank to Poraja tribe. They consider Pengo
as most superior; they know Kashipur Pengo and another Hill Pengo called
‘Saunar Pingo’ as superior one.
Koloie Poraja family
They have bonso named Khilo, Goleri (hanuman) Sukri (cattle), Pangi (ducks),
Hantal (tiger), Hanu, Darli, Kantari, Koda, Sagri, Bhalu (Tingudi) Bagha, etc.
They are a small population in Koraput, especially live in Badel and Hikimput
Gram Panchayats. The important villages are Badel, Pangiputa, Musvi, Sagara,
Kumiput, Chauput, Kochana, Porta, Gagdapondi, Jantaput, Mahipaliput,
Bodipondi, Gulpondi, Patropndi, Gaudoput, Hikimput, Lenjing, Mudliput, and
Badel komra.
Koloie are medium to tall in height. Their skin complexion varies. Some are very
dark, some very fair skin like Gadaba feature, and wrinkles in some. It can be
concluded that it is a mixed race. The Koloie are intelligent, do analysis well.
They are war like people
The soil is sandy loam. They are poor cultivators. Koloie are very traditional
society, fear to live in forests. The Koloie Poraja possibly the prajas of Kalachuri
rulers, who had invaded Bastar-Koraput region.
Kalachuris of Ratnapur (1) and invasion of Chakrakota and South

Kosala
Kalingaraja, a remote lineage to Kokalla I, founder of Kalachuri of Tripuri,
conquered South Kosala and established his capital at Tummana, modern Tuman
of Bilaspur district in Madhya Pradesh during early 11th century (2). His son
Kamalaraja helped his overlord Gangeyadeva in conquering Utkala (3) He was
succeeded by grandson Ratnaraja, then grandson Prithivideva and the great
grandson Jajalladeva I succeeded him in A.D. 1114 who became independent
from Kalachuris of Tripuri when they began to decline. He took Somesvara I, the
Naga king of Chakrakota (Bastar), who had occupied a part of Dakshina-Kosala
(4). He invaded Orissa and defeated Bhujavala, the Chief of Suvarnapura now
Sonepur. He claims have received tributes (5) from the chiefs of the ‘mandalas’ of
Dakshina-Kosala, Dandakapura, Nadavali and Kukkuta , Khimidi of present
Ganjam district, Orissa.
Jajalladeva was succeeded by his son Ratnadeva II before A.D. 1126. He had
repulsed an attack of Anantavarman Chodaganga (6) and Ratnadeva II before
A.D. 1128 and 1141. His minister, Jagapala conquered the forts of Saraharadh,
Mavakasiha (va) and Bhramaravdra-desa, and took Kantara, Kusuma-bhoga,
Kandase (hav) ra, and Kakayara-desa. His younger son Jajalla II succeeded him
after A.D. 1158 (7).
The Kalachuri presence in Bastar - Koraput region is known from two villages
that still bear their name. A Kalachuri village is on way to Jagdalpur from Bastar
village; another Kalachuri village name is found near Kolab village in Koraput
block of Koraput district.Recent Kalachuri coins finds in Koraput district and
Bastar district attach more significance. However, the Koraput Kalachuri coins
await study and report.
References
1. C.I.I, CIF, Iv ins. No.76,
2. Ibid. Ins. No. 77.V.7.
3. Ibid. IV. Ins. No. 76, V.9
4. Ibid IV, Ins. No. 77.
5. Ibid IV. Ins. No. 93 V.5.
6. E.I. XIII, Ins. No. 88 v. 15-17.
7. C.I.I. IV. Inse Nos. 107 and 108
KONDA DORA
A brief account of Konda Dora has been given by Thurston and Rangachari
(1909)(1) who cited the observations of Surgeon Major W.R.Cornish (1871)(2),
H.A. Stuart (1891)(3), W. Francis (1901)(4) and also unpublished observations of
C. Hayavadana Rao (1909)(5) Bell (1945)(6) reviewed the above-published
reports and gave a brief account of Konda Dora.
Konda Dora person, Rayagada
The Konda Doras, a Scheduled Tribe of about twenty thousand population in

Koraput district as per Census reports. They are not so numerous in Koraput
district, but in the hill areas of Vizagapatam district. They are tribes in the eastern
part of Koraput district on 3,000-foot plateau, which has obvious affinities with
the Kondhs. The Konda-Doras (literally in Telugu ‘lords of the hills’) The Konda-
Doras are a caste of hill cultivators. Surgeon-Major Cornish (1871) writes,
“contrasting strangely with the energetic, patriarchal and land-reverencing Parja
(Poroja), are the neighbouring indigenous tribes found along the slopes of the
Eastern Ghats. They are known as Konda Doras, Konda Kapus and Ojas”. Bell
says, ‘In spite of their high sounding title they are generally underdogs and the
lordship of the hills in the area which they inhabit belongs to Muka Dora and (in
Vizagapatam) the Bagats. The Konda Doras have a language of their own, which
has been described in Madras Census Reports as the ‘Konda’ language and which
is clearly allied to Kui, the language of the Kondhs. Members of this tribe all
speak Telugu, sometimes exclusively, some times in addition to their own
language. It should however be mentioned that the Konda Porojas appear to be
identical with Konda Doras and these are Oriya speakers. It appears to be well
established that the Konda Doras are a section of Kondhs who, after centuries of
separation from the main stock of their race, have acquired some distinctive
characteristics.’(7)
Konda Dora family, Malkangiri
Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao says, “There are among the Konda Doras, two well
defined divisions, called Pedda (big) and Chinna (little) Kondalu. Of them, the
former have remained in their old semi-independent position, while the latter have
come under Telugu domination. The Chinna Kondalu, who have been living in
contact with the Bhaktha caste, have adopted the Telugu system of intiperulu, as
exogamous septs, whereas the Pedda Kondalu have retained the totem divisions,
which occur among other hill castes, e.g. Naga (cobra), Bhag (tiger) and
Kochchimo (tortoise).’(8)
It is interesting to note that the Chinna Konda Doras of plains are outcasted by
Hindus due to beef eating and are a notified criminal tribe during British India
whereas the Konda Dora of hills has not the free and confident bearing of the
Kondh, but he is an honest cultivator with no leaning to crime. The fate of his
cousins in the plains is a warring of what may happen when aboriginal tribes are
left to find their feet among more intelligent and industrious people was the
opinion of Bell.(9)
A riot took place in 1900 at the village of Kuravanivalasa in the Vizagapatam

district due to a Konda Dora who pretend to be superman and called himself
Swami and his little son Krishna to drive out the English and rule the country
himself which was put down with reserve police under D.M. from Vizagapatam,
Parvatipur and Jeypore. (10)
The word ‘Konda’ means hills and Dora means, their chief. My research could
not point out the allegiance of Konda Dora to any known dynasty who ruled the
region. During my investigation I came across Dora among Chagis, who were
having some relation to agency areas of Vasakhapatnam and Koraput, thus I have
proposed Konda Dora relationship to them.
However, Chagis dynasty seems to be the one close to Konda Dora. There were
three Chagis and are described as following,
Konda Dora and History Relation
The Chagis or Tyagis
Yashoda Devi (11) has given a good account of Chagis dynasty (A.D. 1000-1477)
The Chagis or Tyagis were the rulers of the Natavadi. Chagi dynasty owed
nominal allegiance to the Cholas, perhaps the Kakatiyas and the Gajapatis (12).
The family name of the Chagis was Vipparla. (13)
Muppa I is the first historical member of the Chagi dynasty. As a warrior he

received regal insignia from king Rajendra Choda 1 i.e. Kulottunga I. (A.D. 1070
– 1118) (14).
Dora II A.D. 1190-1199 son of Pota I by Rajembika, Dora I ascended the Chagi
throne in A.D. 1190. His earliest inscription mentions him as Chagi Dorayarajulu.
(15)
The Chagis of Vinukonda
This Ganna owed allegiance to the Gajapati viceroy Ganadeva at Kondapalle and
through him to Gajapati Kapileswara and Purushottama. No sons and successors
of Chagi Ganna are heard off. (16)
Other Chagis
Yashoda Devi wrote, “ An undated epigraph at Penuganehiprolu, (17) mentions-

Dora son of Bhimaraja ruling over the Natavadi country and granting lands of the
Munna, Probably this Dora was a brother of Manna, Chagiraju of A.D. 1268
whose father was also Bhimaraju.(18) If so Dora must have ruled in conjunction
with Manmachagi about A.D. 1268. About A.D. 1215 a Velananti Sagi
Dorayaraju is heard of from an epigraph at Yenamala- kuduru. The prefix
Velanandu is significant probably indicating some victory of Doraya over

Velanadu Prithvisvara and annexation of some tracts to the Chagi kingdom. The
identity of this Dora, whose data falls in the reign of Pota II and Ganapaya l1199-
1230 A.D.) is not known. Gannaya Sagi Baicha of Vipparlakula is said to have
possessed velour, captured Vellanki, took, Rama its ruler captive and killed him.
(19) This prince's relationship to other Chagis is not known. Another Ganna is
identical with Ganna of Vinukonda (20) Baicha may have lived about A.D.
1477”.
An inscription from Yenikapadu (21) mentions Mahamandaleswara Chagi

Doryaraja. Probably he is identical with Doryraja of Kancherla epigraph. (22). If,
so Dora figures in all these inscriptions was remarked by Yashoda Devi.
The above genealogy of the Chagis has the title Dora in all their genealogy; thus I
am of the opinion that the Chagis are the present Konda Doras.
References
1909, Vol.1-7.p.349-356
2. Cornish, W.R. (1871) quoted by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and
Tribes of Southern India, Madras: 1909, pp.1-7.
3. Stuart, H.A.1891 quoted by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and Tribes
of Southern India, Madras: 1909, pp.1-7.
4. Francis, W., Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District, vol.I, Madras, 1907.
5. Hayavadana Rao, C, ‘The Gonds of Eastern Ghats’, In: Thurston, E., ‘Caste
and Tribes of Southern India’, Madras: vol.1-7, 1907-9. p.351
1945
7. Cornish, W.R. (1871) op.cit. p.349
8. Hayavadana Rao, C. op. cit. p. 351
9. Bell, R.C.S., op.cit.
10. Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., p.354
11. Devi, Yasodha The History of Andhra Country.p.118-133
12. Ibid.p.118
13. 283 of 1924
14. 300 of 1924
15. Ibid.
16. Devi., Yasodha op.cit.p.127
17. 259 of 1924
18. Velugotivarivamsavali Ms. 15-5-32 in Or.Mss, Lib
19. 527 and 528 0f 1913
20. 262 of 1924

21. 159 of 1913
22. 264 of 1924
TELUGU IN DANDAKARANYA
More reasonable is the view that the Andhras lived in Eastern Dekkan between
the rivers Godavari and Krsna. A critical evaluation of the information supplied
by the Asokan Edicts leads us to locate the Andhras only in the above region was
the opinion of B.S.L. Hanumantha Rao (1). Satavahans had founded their empire
in West Maharashtra who were of Andhra or Telugu stock, thus identified. (2)
P.T. Srinivasa Ayyangar thinks that the Andhras were a Vindhyan tribe and that
they extended from the west to the east down the Godvari and the Krishna valleys
(3).I shall limit my discussion to the theory forwarded by D.R. Bhandarkar, who
observed: ‘The Telugu country lying between the rivers Krishna and Godavari is
called Andhra-desa at present. But whether or not it was the original home of the
Andhras, has been called in question. One Buddhist (Serivanija) Jataka, however,
speaks of two traders going form the Seriva kingdom to a town called Andhrapura
situated on the Telavaha river. Andhaura certainly corresponds to the Sanskrit
Andhrapura, and as pura is invariably used in early Pali literature to signify ‘a
capital town’, Andhrapura must mean the capital town of the Andhra kingdom.
The river Telavaha is either the modern Tel or Telingiri both not far distant from
each other and flowing near the confines of the Madras Presidency and the
Central Provinces. This, indeed, locates the original Andhra country which must,
therefore, have comprised parts of both these provinces. (4)’
Map showing origin of Telnadi from Koraput district

River Telingiri is flowing in Bhairaba Singapur area of Borigumma and joining

the river Indravati in the Koraput district of Orissa that joins river Godavari
flowing down south.
Andhri
Bastar-Koraput-Kalahandi region with the capital, at Podagada in its centre was
the cradle of culture and early home land of Nalas (5). The village Keselaka of the
Kesaribeda grant of Nalas has been identified with the present village Kesaribeda,
the find spot of the grant, in the Umerkot taluka of Koraput district and is located
at a distance of 25 kms to the nort-west of Puskari near the source of the river Tel.
(6) The find spot of Kesaribeda charter and its vicinity is full of ruins. G. Ramdas
(7) who visited the site in 1944 repots the existence of 5 mounds of rubble and
pieces of bricks and a tank of 100 yards. ------- There is a village named
‘Andhri’, one mile away from Kesaribeda and at the source of the
river’Tel’.(8)This river Tel, a tributary of Mahanadi, is originating from
Umerkote area of Koraput district which is flowing at present near the borders of
present Chhattisgarh and Orissa, but not very far from Andhra Pradesh.
Basing on the geographical presentation of the river Telivaha with reference to

the Serivanija Jataka (9) I am of the opinion that the Andhri village with its rich
archaeological finds may be the Andhranagari of the past. However,
Raychaudhuri is inclined to identify the Telivaha with river Krsna (10).
References
1. Hanumantha Rao, B, S.L Archaeological Series No. 69. Religion in
Andhra. p.13
2. Chattopadhyaya, S. Some Early Dynasties of South India.p.2.
3. I.A. 1913, 276-78
4. I.A. 1918, 71
5. Patel, C.B. Dynastic History of Nalas.1990. p. 45.
6. Ibid. p.74-75
7. E.I.XIX, pp.100-104, Lines13 and 14.
8. Ibid. P.168
9. Cowell, C.B. Jataka Book, I, No.3.
10. Smith, V.Early History of Deccan.p.27
TRILINGA AND TELINGA IN BASTAR-KORAPUT

CONTEXT
Trilinga, Telinga as a geographical term have been of interest to the historians
since long. The Trilinga, Telinga review and sequences basing on epigraphic
sources and others have been detailed by and Acharya (1952) (1).
I have reviewed extensively the literature and available reviews on Telingi and
Trilingi in the Chapter, “Trilinga, Telinga and Trikalinga in Bastar-Koraput
Context”. However I am giving the glimpses of it once again for the reference of
the reader.
The assumptions of earlier scholars that the territory of Trilinga comprises three
parts, viz, Northern, Central and Southern parts of Orissa and also by others that it
meant three contiguous regions, such as Kalinga, Utkala and Kangoda have now
proved to be wrong, as said by Tripathi, 1985. (2). On the other hand, scholars
have taken it to mean a separate region suited to the western part of Kalinga. The
inscriptions of Amma I clearly indicates that it was a forest country. So it can
definitely be said that this region forms southern border of the South Kosala
kingdom of the Somavamsis, the South-eastern border of Tripuri kingdom of the
Kalachuris, the northern border of the Vengi kingdom and western side of the
Eastern Gangas of Kalinganagara. This hilly and forest regions of Koraput and
Bastar which are even in the present day covered with dense forest, some of its
areas are still inaccessible were considered to be one of the most important
strategically important units. This was also one of the reasons given by the
historians that the enmity between the Kalachuris of Tripuri and the Somavamsis
was possibly their respective claim over the possession of the Trilinga and
Trikalinga region.
In verse 2 of the Bahmesvara inscription Janamejaya has been described as lord of

Trilinga (Trilingadhipati) and the conqueror of Odradesa. But Janamejaya’s
copper plate grants mention that he had the title of Trikalindhipati and not
Trilingadhipati. (3). He was ruling between 880 to 920 A.D.
The Trilinga has been identified and cited from the following epigraphic sources.
 Akkalapundi grant of Singaya-Nayaka (4) of the year 1368 AD

mentions Desastrilinganama and Trilingadesadhipat.
 Srirangam plates of Mummandi-nayaka (5) of the year 1358 AD gives

the boundary of Tilinga, which is “to the West and the East, two
famous countries Maharastra and Kalinga; to the south and the north
Pandya and Kanyakuvja, it is that country which is called Trilinga”.
The above two inscriptions belong to the same family.
 Purle plates (6) of Indravarman the lord of whole Kalinga (Sakala

Kalinga) mentions that the donee came from Tilinga and got land in
Kalinga. The date of this plate was assigned to 631 AD (7). These
inscriptions give a history of Trilinga from the 7th Century onwards
upto 14th century AD. The Trilinga has been mentioned in Puranas
and in Sankrit literature in Markandey Purano, Vayu Purano.
According to Acharya, the Trilinga cannot be taken as a mistake for
Trikalinga (8). G.Ramdas has quoted a verse from a work called
Trilinga Gramma belonging to the 12th Century AD (9).
 The Thana plate (10) of Ram Chandra of the year 1272 mentions the
defeat of Tilingas (Tlingatunga-tarunmulana-damatavala).
Trilinga from foreign sources:
 ‘Taranatha’ wrote Caldwell ‘repeatedly designates the Telugu country

Trilinga’ and describes Kalinga as a portion of Trilinga and Kalingapura
as its capital (14). Taranatha’s Tibetan History of the propagation of
Buddhism in India’ was written in 1573 AD (11).
 The Arab and Persian authors write Tilong and Tilingana (12).
 Ptolemy’s (c.150 AD) writing has been translated as Triglypton or

Trilingon. But it is bit surprising that only after the year 1000 AD the
name of the country was met after Ptolemy. The above reference clearly
shows that the antiquity of Trilinga is well established for a period of 1500
years from 15 AD from the time of Ptolemy to Taranatha.
 Cunningham suggested that the Sankrit equivalent of the Greek Trilingon

is Trikalinga and Trilinga (13). But Caldwell very rightly doubted this
identification and wrote “General Cunningham thinks Telinga derived, not
from Trilinga, but from Trikalinga, but this derivation of the word needs to
be historically confirmed Kalinga and linga may probably in some way be
connected, but the nature and history of connection have not as yet been
made out”(14). Again elsewhere he writes “the foreign name Trilinga
must have been the name by which the place was called by the natives of
the place, whilst Triglypton or Trigly-phon must have been a translation of

the name which had come into use amongst the Greeks. Hence the
antiquity of Trilinga, as the name of the State, or of the capital city of a
State, situated somewhere in India in Ptolemy’s time must be admitted to
be established” (15).
 McCrindle fully agrees with Caldwell and writes “The Andhras and
Kalinga, the two ancient divisions of the Telugu people are represented by
Greeks and Gangetic nations. It may be taken as certain that Triglyphon,
Trilinga or Modolinga was identical with Telingana or Trilingam, which
signifies the country of the three lingas. Pliny and Ptolemy fix the Telugu
name and language as near the mouths of the Ganga or between the
Gangas and the Godavari. Modo or Modogas equivalent to mudu of
modern Telugu means three (16). McCrindle’s Ptolemy was published in
1885 and Yule and Burnell’s Hobson Jobson was first published in 1886
and from the following note on Telenga, it appears that the authors had not
the occasion to take advantage of McCrindle’s views because this note
seems to support the views expressed by Cunningham in his Ancient
Geography of India which was published in 1871 was remarked by
Acharya, P. (17).
 The McCrindle’s researches on Ptolemy’s Geography were confined to the

study and identification of places in India alone, but Girini’s researches on
Ptolemy’s Geography were extended to further India and Indo-Malayan
Peninsula. Girini writes that “the Andhras of Orissa and Telengana in
conjunction with their near relatives, the Kalingas, founded, it appears, in
that region, kingdom consisting of three districts or separate communities
called Tri-Kalinga or Trilinga, a name from which the town Telengana
was derived and employed to designate the country of Kalinga proper, on
the western side of the Gulf of Bengal, as well as the country of Mons or
Telenga (Talaings) on the opposite shore, which had been colonized by
them”(18). The identity of Trilinga with Trikalinga as said in the extract
is attributed to the influence of Cunningham on Girini. There is no direct
reference to or even tradition of Trikalinga, has been recovered in any of
the works on this subject of the further India up till now.
 The Burma colonisation by the people of Kalinga or Trilinga of India

proper is forgotten to the extent that in Eastern India the traditions are
even silent. The study of history in Burma, Siam, Cambodia, Java etc. has
dispelled the obscurity of the then history of Eastern India has become
brighter now. Kalinga is mentioned as a civilised country in the Dhauli
edict of Ashoka and the title of Kalingadhipati of Kharavela is found from

Hatigumpha inscription (19).
 “The coast of Kalinga appears to be that of the continent which

commences with the Archipelago at an early date and emigration thither
was most ripe; and the name appears to have been in great measure
adopted in the Archipelago as the designation of India in general or of the
whole of the peninsular part of it. Throughout the book of Malay
historical legend called Sijara Malaya the word Kalinga or king is used for
India in general but more particularly for the southern parts”(20).
 Acharya wrote, “The geographical and ethnical names such as Sriksetra

(21) Utkala (22) Kalingarattah (23) and Tilanga (24) in Burma shows the
influence of the people of eastern India on the western side of the Bay of
Bengal who established their colony there before the Asokan period. But
we have not yet got any reference from Indian sources to Trikalinga in that
period. The remark of the reviewer of the Gazetteer of the Pegu district is
worthwhile quoting here in this connection.
“The only city of Pegu is referred to in inscriptions of the eleventh and twelfth
centuries as Ussa Pegu and the identification of Ussa with Orissa have been
placed beyond doubt in Mr. Duroiselle, the Government Epigraphist. The long
debated question of the origin of the name Talaing may also be looked upon as
settled. According to Mr. Stewart the non-inhabitants of the country were
confounded by the Burmese with Indians from Kalinga (Taleing) and Orissa
(Ussa)” (25).
The assumption of the title Tri-Kalingadhipati by the Somavamsins, who also

called themselves Kosal-endra or ‘Lord of Kosala’, would show that Tri-Kalinga.
It must be remembered in this connection that the Panduvamsins, who were lineal
ancestors of the Somavamsins, also ruled over South Kosala and when under
pressure from other powers they were forced to shift eastward and southward,
they naturally moved towards the Kalahandi-Koraput-Bastar region. For some
time they could have continued to hold a part of Kosala together with the
adjoining area. And lastly, the assumption of this title by some later members of
the Kalachuri dynasty as well as the continuation of its use by the later Eastern
Gangas would show that it was a bone of contention among them as well as the
Somavamsins and the Eastern Calukyas. ” (26)
He further continued; “The above is only a very rough indication of the areas
comprised in the three Kalingas, and it is impossible in the present state of
disinformation to be more precise. Perhaps, none of the kings who assumed the
title Tri-Kaling-adhipati controlled at any time of their rule the whole of Tri-
Kalinga; but even capture of a part of it, temporary or permanent, was thought
enough to justify the assumption of this title. This was true of the Somavamsins
also as they could control only a part of Orissan region of Tri-Kalinga adjacent to
South Kosala, viz., Koraput-Kalahandi-Bastar” (27).
R.Subba Rao writes that ‘Trikalingas’ are Utkala or north Kalinga, Kalinga proper
and Tel Kalinga or South Kalinga” and Trikalinga country “extended from the
river Ganges in the north to the river Godavari in the South” (28).
Garh Dhanora and Telingi
The Garh Dhanora is located 8 kms from Keskal; one has to take left turn after
traveling 3 kms from Keskal, towards Jagdalpur in NH 43 road and after 5 kms
comes the Garh Dhanora village. The ruins of temples in terms of mounds are
located about 1.5 kms from the said village. More precisely, its location is on the
banks of Lingdarha Nadi or river flowing from Telin Ghatt of Keskal. The river
derives its name Lingdarha from the Sivalingas of Garh Dhanora.Inbetween Garh
Dhanora and Upar Murwend is the Semla located amidst the dense forest.
Map showing Garh Dhanora, Telin Ghat, Lingdara Nadi and Semla
There are three Siva Lingas.Larger one still in place over the mound. It is made
up of finely polished granite stone and it is about six feet in length and equal in
girth. The other two smaller Lingas are called Bamhanin Devi.
I wish to impress upon the fact that the words with post fix’linga’ always
indicative of a name related to ‘Siva linga”, thus the name of the temple and
thence the name of the site has been derived. There are specific examples as
Kimling, Khaling, Kotilingi, Tsrling, Dhobalinga, Odilinga etc. So Telingi is no
exception to it.
Acharya said,’ Regarding the location of Trilinga or Trikalinga, it is difficult to

say anything definite on the point. From the epigraphic references it appears that
it extended from Godavari in the south to river Tel on the north along the western
border of Kalinga and Tosala, and the south borders of Dahala and south Kosala.
It roughly included the ex-States of Kanker; Bastar, Kalahandi, the hilly portions
of Ganjam and Koraput and some portions of the M.P. roughly comprising
Jhadakhand or Gondwana of the Mughal period(29).’ However, as of now, the
boundary of Trikalinga has been well defined by historians.
On the above light, I am of the opinion that the Trilinga region refers to
Bhongapal Buddhist Chaitya and neighbouring Telin ghatt of Keskal in Bastar
and extending upto Telingiri river of Borigumma in Jeypore plains of Koraput
district in Orissa. .
This has Saiva, Vaisnava and Buddhist relevance and has been discussed in detail.
Reference
1. Acharya, P (1952) Trilinga, Trikalinga, Kalinga, Odra and Utkala, OHRJ

Vol.I (1) 93ff.
2. Tripathy, S. OHRJ, XXXI, Nos. 2, 3 and 4, p. 143 ff.
3. OHRJ, Vol. XXXI, No. 2, 324 pp 143 ff
4. E.I. Vol. XIII, p.362
5. E.I. Vol. XIV, p.90
6. Ibid, Vol. XIII, p. 199 & 202.
7. Ibid, Vol. XIV, p.362
8. JAHRS Vol. VI, p.79.
9. OHRJ. Vol. I, No. 1 p.93 ff.
10 I.A. Vol. XLII, 1925, pp 35-37.
11. Ibid. p.9

12. Pre. Arya and Pre-Dravidian. p.76.
13. Ancient Geography of India, 1924, p.524.
14. Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Language 1913, p. 29.
15. Ibid. p.77
16. Ptolemy’s Ancient India by Mr. Crindle, 1927, p. 234
18. Gerini’s Research on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia, p.139
19. Hobson Jobson, kling, p.488
20. Goromo p.66
21. Ibid.p.73
22. Ibid. 32
23. Ibid.p.30
24. JRAS, 1918, p.150.
25. The Ancient Geography of India, 1924, p. 594.
26. Ibid. p. 184.
27. E.I. V, 133, text-line 17.
28. I.H.Q Vol. VIII p.29.
.
DIDYAI TRIBE
The Didayi are a small number primitive tribe who live on hills of about 4,000
feet plateau of the Eastern Ghat range in Koraput district. The plateau is a
continuation of Bondo hill. Elwin (1950) (1) described Didayi as a ‘wild tribe’
and Haimendrof (1945) (2) had described them as “the stratum of primitive semi-
normadic shifting cultivators.” Mohapatra (1963) (3) and Chowdhury (1990) (4)
and have given brief account of the tribe respectively.
Didayi tribe men and women
There are in total 37 villages where Didayi tribe live, of which about ten villages
are located on hills and rest are on both side of down hills. Approach to the
villages is extremely difficult as the 4,000 plateau stands as a steep hill and thus
one has to climb the path. The only easily accessible village is Orangi lying at a
distance of 10 kms. east of Kudumuluguma located on the main road from
Jeypore to Balimela. One has to climb from Orangi, Kondakamberu range of the
Eastern Ghat mountains to reach the hill villages.
Didyai are comparatively tall, thinly built but are muscular people. The women
are comparatively tall with sharp, pointed nose and then tips. The face is long,
hair curled in all most all eases. Most men have facial wrinkles; skin colour is
both dark to light. They have very strong calf muscle because of frequent
climbing of hills.
The women wear three nose rings, both at the lateral nares and at the nasal
septum. This is specific to Didayi tribe, like Sano Poraja woman. The ear rings
are common. The elderly lady populations have aluminum rings at wrist and at the
arm, but younger generation have dispersed it off. The necklace is made up of
aluminum may be one or two. The women have full grown hair and well dressed
with castor oil and a bun makes it more convenient and beautiful.
The women are dressed with sari; the younger generations have adopted jackets.
The sari is upto knee length, and is convenient for climbing steep hill. The woman
carry good head load as well hand load while climbing and stepping down the
steep hill.
The Didayi speak a dialect closely that is resembled to the Gadaba dialects and
Bondo; hence it belongs to Mundari group. The plains people have absorbed
many Telugu words into their language. The hill people are comparatively with
regard to their dress, habits, and mostly keep long locks of hair known as
‘Gunagbo’; but in recent years it has been influenced by societies living down
hills.
Exogamous segments, which may be equated with moiety, each, containing

totemic group called Gta. One moiety namely, Mkhoo (Tiger) is composed of one
totemic group and other possesses four totemic groups viz. Mala (cobra), Goe
(bear), Musali (crocodile) and Gei (tortoise).”(5)
The Clan
Mohapatra (1963) wrote, “The Didayi system is based on two distinct exogamous
clans known as Ghia and Nta. Ghia Sig, Gudia, Majhi, Muduli, Surma and Sisa
constitutes the Ghia clan and Nta, Mleh, Gushuwa, Golpeda, Patasi and Kswa
constitute the Nta clan. The groups of each clan are exogamous and can have
marriage relations only with any of the groups of the next clan. The clans have
their respective totems. Malabu-Bais or ‘Nag’ Nku-Bais or tiger is the totem of
Ghia clan.”(6) But Chowdhury (1990) reported, “One of the characteristic
features of Didayi social organization is the existence of moiety system. Their
society is divided into two Didayi kinship system is based on two exogamous
clans, mother’s sister’s children and father’s brother’s children are considered to
be brothers and sisters. Preference is given to father’s sister’s daughter and
mother’s brother’s daughter who are called Marraseboi. Generally, three forms of
marriage are prevalent in the Didayi society like any other Koraput tribe.”(7)
The hill Didayi practices shifting cultivation whereas the plain people have
adapted to settled agriculture. Both the groups cultivate ragi and suana
extensively, which is their staple food. Paddy is major crop where irrigation or
suitable land for the crop is available.
Folk Stories on Origin of Didyai Tribe

The Didyai folk study speaks on the origin of the tribe and say, ‘the first Didayi
boy was alone in the world wandering between Andrahal and Patroputtu. The
Bondos caught him.’ The other one is, in olden days, when the Didayis were first
living in Godavari there was no gourds and no grains, which signifies their past
relationship to Godavari.(8)
The tribe is well known for their wiseness, patience and has continued living
under the wilderness of Bondo tribesmen behaviour. Equally they show courage
and act swiftly in combating Bondo wild behaviour and outrage. The murder rate
among Didai is comparatively higher than neighbour plain land tribes but lower
than Bondo tribe.
History and Didayi

The low lands Didayi were influenced by several southern dynasties including the
Eastern Gangas. As said earlier Bondo, their immediate neighbours were
influenced by Nagavamsis of Bastar-Koraput.
The Didayi language is like the Mundari but physical features are some what
resemble the Dravidians. It was difficult preposition to connect Didayi with
history. I am of the opinion that they are connected to Silavamsis and the Matsyas
of Paderu-Nandapur. The name Didayi may have relation to the famous Dibbida
Agraharam in Vizagapatnam district that refers to Dibbida plate of Arjuna, the
famous king of Matsyas. It is said that the founder of the Matsya family had
descended from a ‘fish’, married a daughter of the King of Orissa and was
appointed to rule the Oddavadi country.(9)
Reference
1. Elwin, V. (1950) Bondo Highlanders, Oxford University Press, Bombay.
2. Furer Haimendorf, C.Von (1943) Megalithic rituals among the Gadabas and
Bondos of Orissa, JRAS, IX p. 149.
3. Mohapatra, P.K. (1963-64) The Didayi - A hill Tribe of Orissa. Adibasi p.63
4. Chowdhury, B. (1990) Didayi, In: Tribes of Orissa H & TW Department,
Bhubaneswar p. 97-102.
5. Mohapatra, P.K. op.cit p.63
6. Ibid.
7. Chowdhury, B. (1990) op.cit .p.97-102.
8. Elwin, V. (1950) op.cit.
9. E.I.V.p.108.
OMANATYA
The Omanatya, a tribal primarily living in Jeypore-Borigumma-Nowrangpur belt
of Orissa are also known as Omaitos, Omanaitos, Amanaitas or Omanatya or but
they pronounce as ‘Omnyat’. They are spread into South Bastar. Reference to
Omanatyas does appear from Nepal also. They are Saiva pujaris. I have come
across lone Virasavite stone slab in Bhairaba Singapur, which has its roots of
origin from Karnataka and came across Andhra and Kalinga country. Omanatyas
are Saivites, who brought cult to Koraput plains, I assume they are the once who
preached Saivism against Jainism.
Omanatya family in Borigumma
According to Bell wrote, (1945) (1)”interdining with the Bhottodas is sometimes

permitted and the customs generally resemble those of the caste, except that it is
said that an item in the marriage ceremony is a free fight with mud for missiles.
Like Bhottodas the Amanaitas are divided into two endogamous divisions named
Bodo and Sano.”
Thurston and Rangachari (1909) said, “The Omanatya or Omaitos are an Oriya
cultivating caste. According to a tradition the ancestor of this caste was one
Amatya, a minister of Sri Rama at Ayodhya. The caste is title is usually Nayak,
but the more prosperous take the title Patro”. (2)
The tribe is divided into two endogamous sections called Bodo and Sano. The
former claim on higher social scale than the later ones. The Sano are said to have
born out of Bhattra, Gond and other tribal women and Bodo men group.
The Omanatyas have the following clans:
1. Surja ... Sun

2. Naga ... Cobra
3. Bagha ... Tiger
4. Cheli ... Goat
5. Turinja Macha ... Fish (Turinuja variety)
6. Kaiencha ... Tortoise
7. Kumuda ... Cucurbita maxima or Pumpkin
8. Lau ... Bottle-gourd
9. Kukur ... Dog
10. Silabonso ... Stone
11. Khirbonso or ... Milk
Dudha bonso
12. Sua ... Parrot
The family is patrilinear. Nuclear families are the chief social units. The number
of joint and extended families are few. They also live in a heterogeneous village
society and maintain homogenous socio-economic ties with the other
communities living there. The other communities living around are Poraja,
Gadaba, Bhattra, Pentia, Kumar, Dom (SC), and Tantis (SC) etc.
They have both row and cluster arrangements of houses in villages. The
Omanatyas speak Oriya. They do not eat beef, rabbit, pork and dead animals.
They do not eat from higher caste Brahmins.
Omanatya Pujaris after Bali celebration, Konga Tirthankara in Konga village
Comparatively the Omanatyas have more numerous festivals and ceremonies in

their life than other neighbouring tribes.
Omanatyas came with Savite tradition that too the Bhairaba cult to the area as
evidenced from the duty and responsibility distribution at the Borigumma
Deulguda temple the Jangam priests are worshipping the Siva-linga and the
Omanatya priest of Old Borigumma is in charge of Bahairaba puja in the same
temple; possibly they replaced the Jain faith in the area. The Jangams are Saivites
who probably came with the Western Chalukyas from Karnataka and are seen in
Koraput, Bastar and Andhra Pradesh. At the same time you can find the Mali,
Bhumia, Bhattra and Omanyats etc as priests to Siva Temple in the district of
Koraput.
Reference
1945
1909, pp.1-7.
BAGATA
A small number of Bagata tribe, live in Padua region of Koraput, Orissa

extending into Andhra Pradesh. Culturally and through heritage they identify
themselves with inland fishermen community. Their main concentration is in
Sundergarh district, but small population in Koraput, Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar and
Sambalpur has been recorded in the census reports. In 1991, total Bagata
population in Orissa was 4802 only. (1)
Bagata women, Padua

Thurston and Rangachari (1909)(2) cited Hayavadana Rao who wrote, the Bagata
is divided into different exogamous septs (intiperulu), some of which also occur
among the Kapus, Telugus and Vantains. The Bagatas also account for their name
as Bhakta by referring to the tradition that they secured with great devotion
(Bhaktis) to the then rulers. During that period they were influential and ideal
farmers and later shifted to fishing livelihood.
A.C. Sahoo (2004) has given a brief account of Bagatas in Orissa. (3)
Thurston and Rangachari (loc. cit) said, ‘on the Dasora day they worship, the
fishing baskets and also a kind of trident’. (4) The said trident might be the
instrument to hook down the fishes. Bagatas in Kotpad area of Koraput practice
shift cultivations / cultivations where as in Cuttack and Balasore they are still
living on fresh water fish catching as main livelihood.
Bagatas has two sections, one are Saivites the other Vaishnavites.
History and Bagatas of Koraput-Visakhapatnam

The Bagatas are the official priest for the Matsyas or Bhupatis of Madgole
Zamindary. Capt.Owen in his ‘Diary of Expedition to Jeypore’ in 1855 mentions’
---------- However, the later Matsyas or Bhupatis of Madgole Zamindary had great
regard for the ‘Fish pool’ or Matsyakunda near Paderu, and they very jealously
protected from harm the Mahseer(fish) in it. It is curious pool the Macheru or
Matsya river near the village of Matam, six miles north –west of Paderu. A barrier
of rocks runs right across the river, and the stream plunges into a great hole and
vanished beneath this, reappearing again about a hundred yard lower down. Just
where it emerges from under the barrier, it forms a pool which is crowded with
Mahseers of all sizes.’-----------At Sivaratri festival occurs at a little thatched
shrine nearby (the Pujari at which is a Bagata) and part of the rituals consists in
feeding the sacred fish’(5). The Matsy rulers of Oddadi were coroneted at Paderu
on a stone throne. They used to carry a figure of a fish in their State banners, and
the picture of fish was their family emblem. (6)
Reference
1. Census Report, Orissa 1991.
2. Rao, Hayavadana, C. (1909) cited by Thurston, E and Rangachari, K (1909)
Castes and Tribes of Southern India.
3. Sahoo, A.C. (2004) Bagata: Tribes of Orissa, SC&ST Research and Training
Institute, Bhubaneswar. p.57-58.
4. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K (1909) op.cit.
5. Singh Deo, K.B.(1932) in Nandapur( A Forsaken Kingdom) Part I p. 3-4
cited Description by Mr. J.A.Sandell, Superintendent of Police, Jeypore &
J.O.A.Vol.I. pp.26-30.
6. Ibid p.3.
SUNDI OR SONDI PEOPLE OF KALINGA

The present Sundi people are related to Chedi dynasty of Kharavela? Who are
these Sundis? This question appeared to my mind when I was studying the
Kharavela inscription. I was lucky to solve the long-standing problem to identify
the site of Rishi Khebiri, which is mentioned in Kharavela’s inscription. I went
to see the place myself. My observation of the place is as following:
Rishi Khebri is a village located in Jeypore Sub-Division in Koraput District in

Orissa. It has two hamlets; one inhabited by tribals and Doms, the other with
Sundi and Gonds. The later is called Sondi Khebri; again a new village called Nua
Khebri with tribal of Rishi Khebri has come up.
The Telngeri River is flowing very close to the Rishi Khebri. The Kondamali hill
is located to its east and on its foot is the flowing stream called Konkada kunda.It
is due to Makada stone; where as to the east and west end of the site there are few
remnants of broken temple and village people acknowledge it.
About, 7 kms east to the village is Rani Pahada with caves; as its base a place
called ‘Gumma’ where people worship ‘Satabhauni’ or seven sisters, which stand
as seven small stones.
The Jani Paraja’s of Rishi Khebri annually go to Kondamalla hill and pay offers at
one of the caves where they claim that it houses some ancient archeological
evidences. I have not seen the caves.
It can be concluded that Rishi Khebri may be the South capital of Kharavela,
as mentioned by many learned scholars in the past. The place was well connected
in the past to Srikakulam. It was through Bhairbsinghpur and then through hill
path leading to Kakrigumma. The Rishi Khebri do not have any Jaina temples, but
Borigumma, Bhairab Singhpur as well closely located Chakma hill of Jaina fame
are located around it.
Sondis in Koraput and Bastar

The Sondis in the region have the following distinct divisions, where on the inter-
division marriage is forbidden. They are

1. Khardia or Kardia Sundi: They are found in Nowrangpur and Tentulikhunti

area and also in Kalahandi district.
2. Oriya Sundi: They are limited in number and found in the Kusmi area of
Jeypore
3. Kira or Kaira Sundi: They are distributed in Bastar district and Koraput
district
4. Raik Sundi: They are in Kosagumuda, Papadahandi, Maliguda of Nowrangpur
5. Kalar Sundi live in the neighbouring Bastar district of Chhattisgarh state.
6. Dhobi Sundi are inhabitants of Rajoda, Jeypore area also. They are children
out of Adivasi women is belived.
The Kaira Sundi is found from the last village boundary of Kebidi or Kebri. The
other villages where Kaira Sundi live are Konagaon, Papadahandi, Dubli,
Pradhayuda, Masigaon, Sanmarigaon, Chima, Turchuda, Dhamanhandi,
Sasahandi, Nuagan, Dursapalla, Dabugaon, Banduguda, Bobia, Kotpad, Chandli,
Dorgri, Dhanpunji, Dhargodi, Bhansuri, Rajuda, Kerla etc. of Koraput district
(from Borigumma block to Nowrangpur to Kotpad and Bastar). In Bastar they are
in Kasturi, Maskeli, Manganpur, Kundhi,, Darapalli, Sargipalli, Bhijasipadar,
Rajanagar, Auri, Bokaband, Badhahandi, Sadaguda, Puspall, Jagal, Jodign,
Nangur, Kawali, Murma, Chillikatti, Majhiguda, Tanpar, Kalipal, Chintagupa
villages and more.
i The Kira Sundis speak that they had come from Sambalpur region, in the past.
They have Surya, Nagarya, Kasyap, Kanda and Kukur clans. The Surya or sun
clan people don’t eat non-vegetarian food on Sunday and Monday. The women
follow strict vegetarian food only. It is a taboo to climb a horse.
The following arguments have been taken from the inscriptions of Kharavela,
(Line 1) Salutation to the Arhats (Arihats=lit. ‘Conquerors of Enemies’,.e. Jinas).

Salutations to all the Siddhas. By illustrious Kharavela, the Aira (Aila), the
Great king, the descendant of Mahameghavahana, the increaser (of the glory) of
the Cheti (chedi) dynasty (endowed) with excellent and auspicious marks and
features, possessed of virtues which have reached (the ends of) the four quarters,
overlord of Kalinga (1).
Cheti raja-vasa- Evidently Cheti are the same as Chedi (2). The later Chedis,
Kalachuris or Haihayas of Dabhala or Dahala were in occupation of modern
Baghelkhand and Chhattisgarh in the medieval period. We believe the Chedis
were later called ‘Schedi’ and became Sendis or present Sondi and Sundi.
Vasu from whose line Kharavela’s family descended (1.17) was, however, not a
Chaidya, but the conqueror of the Chedi country (3). He was fifth in descent from
Kuru who was the 72nd Aila (4)
The Jaina Harivamsa-Purana also includes Vasu in the Aileya list and as the son
of the founder of Chedi-rastra in the Vindhyas (5)
Kalinga-raja-va (m) se – In the third line the details about Kharavela’s ancestry
are made clear. He was born in the royal line of Cheti and was the overlord of
Kalinga, but the dynasty to which he belonged was the 3rd dynasty of the Kings of
Kalinga. This dynasty was one of the Aila dynasties settled in Central and
Southern India. Kharavela is described to be an Aila or Aida, that is, of the Lunar
House as opposed to the Solar. (6)
Sahu wrote; “These are the findings as reported by K.P.Jayaswal and

R.D.Banerjee. The word Aira also occurs in the Manchapuri cave inscription of
Kudepasiri. Jaiswal affirmed that this term being the same as Aila, the Cheti
(Chedi) dynasty, to which both Kharavela and Kudepasiri belonged, might be
associated with the lunar Ksatriya race of the Puranas (7).
B.C.Law has given a detailed account of the ‘The Cedi’ tribe of India. He wrote,
the Cedis formed one of the most ancient tribes among the Ksatriyas in early
Vedic times. Rgveda mentions of Cedi kings and a great battle power (Rgveda,
VIII, 5,37-9). The Cedis then appeared in the Mahabharata, as one of the leading
powers of north India. (8)
Vasu, a well-known Cedi monarch of ancient times who was also known as
Uparicaria, is glorified in the Mahabharata. His successors are recorded in
Jatakas. (9)
The Vayupurana (Chap 99) also confirms the story of the conquest of the Cedi
country by Vasu Paurva (10).
According to another account Vasu, the descendant of Kuru, conquered the

Yadava kingdom of Cedi, and established himself thence, whence he was known
as Caidya-Uparicara. His capital was Suktimati on the river of the same name.
He extended his conquests eastwards as far as Magadha and apparently also
northwest over Matsya. He divided his territories of Magadha, Cedi, Kausambi,
Karusa and apparently Mastsya among his five sons (11).
Note: The Vasupurana (4-12), the Agnipurana (275), the Markandeya purana
(Chap 129-131), Matsyapurana (Chap.44) and the Kumarapurana (Chap 24)
mentions of Chedi dynasty and kings (12)
In the Mahabharata, the Chedis allied to Pancalas, Matsyas, Karusas, Kasis and
Kosalas. (13).
The Capital of Cedi king, Dhrstaketu is called Suktimati (14), and is described as
named after Sukti or Oyster (15). This city appears to have stood on the river of
Suktimati, which we are told (16) flowed near the capital of the Cedi king, Vasu
Uparicaria, and which is also described in the geographical chapter of the
Bhismaparvan (VI, 9) as one of the rivers in the Bhartavarsa.
According to Dr.Fuhrer, Dahala Mandala was the ancient Cedi Kalanjava was the
capital of Cedi under the Gupta kings. The Cedi was also called Tripuri.
Cunningham remarks that in the inscriptions of the Kalachuri or Haihaya dynasty
of Cedi, the Rajas assumed the titles of ‘Lords of Kalanjarapura and of
Tricalinga’. Kalanjar is the well-known hill-fort in Bundelkhand; and Tri-Kalinga
(17).
Numismatist evidence: Gangeyadeva, Chedi dynasty monarch of Dahala issued
coins and were discovered and no coins of any Chedi king is known. (18)
Coins of one king of the Cedi or Kalachuri dynasty of Kalyanpura have been
discovered (19).
According to Cunningham (20) the river Suktimati is no other than the Mahanadi,
while D.C.Sircar (21) suggests that this river may be the same as the Suktel, a
tributary of Mahanadi the Suktel is, in fact, a tributary of the Tel river). N.K.Sahu
supported the findings of Sarkar. There is evidence of ancient archeological ruins
in the Suketel valley as well as in early Buddhist literature the city of Suktimati is
described to be located not far from the borders of Kalinga. The village Sakma on
the Suktel may be identified in the ancient city of Suktimati.
We strongly believe from the foresaid statements that the Chedis were later called
Chendis or Shendis, which is pronounced as Sondis or Sundis locally. The Kira
or Kaira Sundis of Koraput and Bastar are close to Aira Kharavella.
The Nasik cave inscription of Vasisthaputra Pulumavi indicates the conquest of
Gautamiputra Satakarni (22). The inscription further indicates that he was the
lord of the mountains like the Vindhyas, Rksavat, Parijatra, Sahya, Krsnagiri,
Malaya, Mahendra, Svetagiri and Chakora.
However, Sahu wrote the Malaya is Malayagiri in Dhenkanal district; Krsnagiri in
the Ganjam, Mahendragiri of Ganjam. The Svetagiri is probably the Dhavalgiri in
Puri district. The Chakora was identified with the Chakrakuta hill in Bastar
district. However, we are inclined to believe it to be Chikma hill of Borigumma,

about 40 kms from Bastar district. On the eastern boarder of the Chikma hill is the
Deolguda that houses lord Sivalinga called Pataleswar and is being attended by
Jangam priest on heredity title and there is the Bhairaba, that is worshipped by
Omanyat priest of Old Borigumma. The temple walls have Budhist, Jaina and
Hindu god and goddesses fixed to it. On Pusa full moon day traditionally a large
gathering of people come to Deolguda and pay their worships.
According to Jayaswal et.al. “42. Hathi-nivasa – parisaram – This reading of the
second word of the phrase is more reliable than the previous one (hathi-navana-
paripuram). Nivasa=nirvasa.The reference seems to be to elephant preserves or
some original form of Kheda arrangement, invented by Kharavela. The elephants
of Kalinga were very famous in ancient India. The strength of Kharavela
probably lay in elephants. He took the fort of Pataliputra with the help of
elephants (23).
This indicates for the statements of Kira Sundis that because Kharavela was from
Solar race and may have been forbidden to ride horses as of Kira sundi tradition,
he may have invented the elephants in replacement to horses. Strangely, the
Kalinga temple architect shows war camels also. This may be corroborated to the
horse taboo factor or even to shortage of horses, or may be usefulness of camels
in sea beach warfare.
Again, the Rishi-Khebri mentioned by Kharavela inscriptions which was until
now undiscovered by historians is named after Sundis as Sundi Khebri as well as
Rishi-Khebri is another strong evidence. The Rishi-Khebri is solely inhibited by
Kira Sundis only, till date. Most ancient Jaina vestiges of Koraput surround these
Kira Sundi village areas. This includes the famous Chakora or Chikma hills
surrounding the area
Kharavela was a warrior, even though he a Jaina. The women were all
vegetarians. This tradition is still to be seen among Kira Sundis.
The British period literatures have degraded the Sundis. They have been
classified as moneylenders, exploiters and were not regarded honorable because
of their association with liquor business. The Sundis in post-independence era
have shown their natural superior ability in the field of education and business.
They are intelligent people with fighter ability. They show a great respect to their
community and its welfare related decision, in other wards to its unity. They
surpass in local regional economic political controlling nexus and thus hold
greater stay. These communities have lived in remote forest villages, remote hilly
areas and most times single families in a village, still have maintained their
cultural identity and have also respected their fellow tribals in such villages since
centuries past. On the whole their ability to remain above the population both in
economical and political say superiority is unparallel. The women have played
important role and support to the community for progress. The Sundis are
Khytriyas. The Sundis survived through generations after ‘Chedis’ in these
regions, speak of their migration into forests, inaccessible areas and thus
continued the present state. The Sundis in MP (Chhattisgarh) area use surname
‘Sahu’; the Sundis of Kalingas have the following surnames, fixed to the first
name. They are Labla (Quails), Choudhury, Nemalpuri, Sahukara, Sahu,
Pondu Sahu (dog phratry), Behra, Bisoi, Senapati, Sunasagada, and
Sunamudi etc. The Kira Sondi of Bastar has Sethia, as the surname. The Raik
surname is attached to captains of Sveta Gangas of Kalinga. They are also
Sundis.
Kira Sundi family before their house in Kanagaon Borigumma, Koraput

Reference
1. E.I.XX p.36
2. Ibid, p.80
3. Ibid, p. 81
4. J.R.A.S., 1910, pp 22, 26-29
5. J.B.O.R.S., Vol.XV, p.277
6. E.I.XX p.82
7. Sahu, N.K. Kharavela. p.30.
8. Law, B.C. Tribes in Ancient India, Bhandarkar Oriental series. No.4, Poona
9. Sahu, N.K. loc cit. p.46
10. Ibid p. 47
11. Ibid p. 47
12. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, VII, 21.
13. Ibid
14. Mbh., 111, 22
15. Mbh, XIV, 83.
16. Mbh, I, 63.
17. Sahu, N.K., Ibid p.51.
18. Pracina Mudra, p.212
19. Ibid p.184
20. Arch. Surv.Report XVI, p.69
21. Geography of Ancient and Mediaeval India p.55.
22. E.I.VIII, p 60ft, Arch, Survey W.India. IV, p.1023.
23. Sahu,N.K., Ibid p.85
GAUDOS OF KORAPUT
The caste Gaudo was spelled as Gaoudos, Goudo, Gauda and Gaoaudos in the
past. The Gaudos are described, in the Madras census Reports, 1891 (1) and 1901
(2), as “the great pastoral caste of the Ganjam Oriyas.” Like those of all the
cowherd classes, its members say that they are descended from the Yadava tribe.
The majority of Goaudos in the north parts of Ganjam district (1909) were settled
cultivates, but there is evidence that the keeping and breeding of cattle is their
traditional occupation.
Gaudos in weekly market selling traditional milk products
Thurston and Rangachari (1909) said that the most important sub-division in
Sollkhondia; many of them are herdsmen and milk sellers. They showed fourteen
sub-divisions; who are Apoto, Behara, Bolodiya, Dongayato, Dumalo,
Gopopuriya, Kolata, Komiriya, Kusilya, Ladia, Madhurapurya, Mogotho, Pattidia
and Solokhandia (3).
In the Census Report, 1871, the former authors indicated that these are many
Goaudos of high social standing, who have much wealth in cattle. They, in many
instances own large herds of buffaloes that are being reared in the boundless
pastures of the hills and are much prized by the cart men of the lower country for
draught purpose(4).
Thurston and Rangachari (loc.cit) further stated that Behera is apparently a title
only. Bolodiya is the name of the section of the Tellies, who use pack-bullocks
(bolodi, a bullock) for carrying grain about the country. (5)
The sections of Gaudos that are recognized by all castes are Sallokhondia, Bhatta,
Gopopuriya, Madhurapuriya, Mogotho, Apoto and Pachilia. These with exception
of Gopopuriya and Madhurapuriya, seem to be endogamous sub-division. The
Bhatta Gaudos go by the name of Gopopuriya in some places and Madhurapuriya
in others, both these names being connected with the legendary history of the
origin of the castes. Bairagis are the caste priests.
My investigation revealed that the classification of Gaudo sect is a regional based

identity. They still carry their past root and identy.Mogotho or Magadhia Gaudo
are major in Kalahandi District but spread across Muran-Indrabati river and into
hills of Koraput sub-division. They are also called Magadhi Gaudo locally. It is
beloved that Magadhi Gaudo possibly came from Magadha (Pataliputra); however
their strong presence around Muran river in Koraput suggests their past link and
came with Gupta invading armies. In Kashipur they have the following bomso or
clan; Karkaria, Hansa, Ada, Jal and Nag; where as in Dasmanthpur area of
Koraput sub-division they are Bagha, Naga, Kodo, Sorai, Kosali, Niali, Ada,
Kota, Peji, Gua, Kadam, Ghee, Vemal and Gumal etc.
The other Gaudos are
1. Khandia Gaudo (Kakrigumma Bidakhandia). They are also known as

Kathargaudo.
2. Dongiyad Gaudo: They are found in Nandigaon, Bisali, Madubisali,
Potipar, Jhilikebri etc. villages in Koraput district.
3. Dud Kosalia or Kosalia Gaudos: As the name suggests they were from
Kosala region.
4. Jachak Gaudo are found in Junagadha of Kalahandi district. They are
considered to be superior to all Gaudos by Magadhia Gaudos. They come
periodically to Dasmanthpur of Koraput region to tattoo the Magadhia
Gaudo women.
5. Magda, Maghdia Gaudos possibly were originally from Magadha of
present day Bihar. They say that have come from Gopa or Gopapuri,
however they do not know where the place is located. They are
distributed in Muran, Dasmanthpur, and Kashipur of Koraput as well
Kalahandi district.
6. Lodia Gaudo:
7. Khandyat Gaudo:
8. Bernia Gaudos are a group born from tribal wives.
9. In coastal Orissa mostly Mathra Gaudo and Gopapuriya Gaudo are
found. The later keep buffaloes and sheep flocks.
MAGADA GAUDO
The Magada Gaudo, on hills of Koraput around river Muran were studied and
reported here. They are distributed in Dasmantapur area, Kashipur region, apart
from Muran, and extend into Kalahandi districts. The center of Magada Gaudo is
said to be Jundagada of Kalahandi.
Magada Gaudo family
The clans of Magada Gaudo are Bagha, Naga, Kodo, Sorai, Kodali Niali, Ada,
Kota, Peji, Gua, Kadam, Ghee, Vemal, Gumal etc.
They clean shave the sculp of children, at least once after birth, and a tuft of hair
is left behind the occiput for girls. Women still tattoo body as in the past; men
tattoo the ventral portion of left arm. The Magada Gaudo women are forbidden to
eat poultry and alcoholic drinks.
They have Bhat Nayaks unlike many other neighbouring tribes; who decides
issues related to out casting and community issues.
Magadhia Gaudo claims that the communities Dhrama guru are Kurumputia, who
come from Godavari country. They are strictly vegetarian and only eat before
sunrise at five A.M. They use cloths, which are dipped, in clay.
When some one is dead, they dispose the dead body by burial in sitting posture.
They give white cloths over the dead body.
The Magadia Gaudo celebrate festivals of Chaitra,Bhadrava, new eating

ceremony ,Dipabali festival,Baliparda in Bhadrava month, where they go to
Jeypore king’s palace and witness the germination festival or Bali jatra.
In most ceremonies and pujas Magadias place a small umbrella made up of

Bamboo, where cotton threads are woven in parallel in circular manner giving the
appearance of an umbrella. This is called ‘Chatra’.
All the above findings like shaving of head with tuft of hairs left behind; white
cloths in funeral and ‘Chatra’ point out somewhat Budhism influence in Magadia
Gaudo culture.
As per K.C. Panigrahi use of cotton thread oven little umbrella in pujas is a
Budhist / Jainism practice. (6)
We are inclined to put Magada Gaudo arrival and distribution around Kalahandi
and river Muran region to be the path of Maurya King to South.
The following references give a clear indication that Gaudos came to south
with Mauryan kings.
Nilakanta wrote, ‘other Mathuras are known in Ceylon and near Java, and
they suggest the continuity of the movement from North India, to the South
and farther across the seas (7).’ Evidence indicates movement of Aryans into
the South sometime before Mauryan Empire. Edicts of Asoka were engraved
in places as far as Mysore and Kurnool and he had political and diplomatic
relations (8). Kanada inscription mention that the Mauryas came by their
Southern possessions as a matter of course by overthrowing the imperial
dynasty of the Nandas (9). Jain tradition affirms that when Bhadrabahu, the
last of the saints called Srutakevalins foretold a famine of twelve years’
duration, the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta abdicated the throne and
migrated to the South with the saint and his pupils (10).
About the middle of the sixth century A.D., a feudatory chief was ruling in the
southern part of Orissa. We learn from an inscription discovered in a village
called Sumandala near Khallikote in Orissa that king Prithivi-vigraha was ruling
over Kalinga, in the dominion of the Guptas, in the year 250 (A.D. 569-70), and
that his subordinate chief, Maharaja Dharmaraja, had his headquarters at
Padamakholi near Khallikote. It proves that even in the last days of the Gupta
empire, Orissa continued to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Gupta era and was
used in this record as well as in the Ganjam Grant of 300 (A.D.619), to be
referred to later, is a strong argument in favour of the view, maintained above,
that Orissa formed an integral part of the Gupta empire for some time. (11)
One Isana-varman of Maukhari family who ruled south Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
as feudatories of Imperial Guptas had defeated the
Andhras,Sulikas(Salankayanas) and the Gaudos. These probably refer
respectively to the Visnu-kundins (12), the Sulkis of Orissa (13).I believe the
Sallokhondia sub-sect of Gaudos may be the Sulikas (Salankayanas).
References
1. Madras Census Report 1981

2. Ibid.1901
3. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K (1909) Castes and Tribes of South
4. India, Madras. Vol. I-VIII.
5. Madras Census report, 1871
6. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K op.cit
7. Panigrahi, K.C. Chronology of the Bhauma-Karas and the
8. Somovamsis of Orissa.p.56
9. Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta, A History of South India. P.70
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.p.83.
12. Ibid.
13. Majumdar, R.C. Northern India after Gupta Empire:Orissa; In The
Classical Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.p.92-93.
14. Majumdar, R.C., The Maukharis in The Classical Age, Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, 67-68.
15. Ibid.
MALI IN KORAPUT
The Mali people live in Koraput district. The Malis’, in the Madras census Report
1871 as indicated by Mr. H.A. Stuart runs, “are now mostly cultivators, but their
traditional occupation (from which the caste name is derived) is making garlands,
and providing flowers for the services of Hindu temples. They are especially
clever in growing vegetables. Their vernacular is Uriya.” (1)It is further recorded,
in the Census Report, 1871 that “the Malis are, as their name denotes, gardeners.
They choose for their settlements sites where they were able to turn a stream to
irrigate a bit of land near their dwellings. Here they raise fine crops of vegetables,
which they carry to the numerous markets throughout the country.”(2)
Mali women selling vegetable in the market
Thurston and Rangachari (1909) wrote, “For the following note I am indebted to
Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. (3) The Malis say that their ancestors lived originally at
Kasi (Benares), where they emigrated to serve under the Raja of Jeypore. He
further noted that they are divided into the following division,
 Bodo – live in Pottangi and Koraput.
 Pondra—live in Nowrangpur and Kotpad
 Kousalia/Kusilya- live in Kalahandi and Parlakhumundi
 Panara- live in Jeypore
 Sonkuva- live in Gunupur and

 Dongrudiya- live in Nandapur areas.
The name Pondra is said to have been derived from ‘podoro’, a dry field.
Bodo Mali main concentration is around villages of Nandapur region in Koraput,

there form they migrated to Jeypore plains, Koraput, Nowrangpur plains,
Semiliguda, Narayanapatna and Ramagiri regions.
Kusilya Mali who live on hills of Koraput are considered to be lower in rank to
Bodo Mali. The Kusilya Mali said to have come from Kalahandi region into
Koraput hills through Kashipur and now live in Koraput and Semiliguda. The
Kusilya Mali in Nowrangpur region are also known as Rauto. They claim to have
lived Nandapur region, which they left later; however the reason of migration is
not known.
The Panera Mali, another class are seen in Nowrangpur region. The Kusilya Mali
call themselves to Penera Mali. The Phul Mali are also known as Sano Mali.
Dongrudiya Mali are said to have due to marriages between Mali and local tribal
women. They form the last stratum of Malis.
The Kusilya Mali have the following clans,

- Kirsan
- Agni
- Pujari
- Kakdia (may be Kakatia)
- Pulapuria (may be Palava related)
The Malis do not eat poultry and goat which is a taboo to the caste, might have
appeared due to their horticulture interest.
The Malis dispose off dead both by pyre and deep burial. Over the pyre wood first
banana leaf is laid and then the dead body is laid. A white cloth sheet covers the
body; a log is then loaded above the body before lighting pyre. The pollution lasts
for 10 days. On the 9th day, the son dugs a hole inside the house and besides it
takes a meal, when it is finished, he buries the plates along with a lamp in the said
hole. They celebrate Pusparab where the village offers sheep and household then
celebrate the festival at home.
Chait parab has the same components like other tribes and ‘kings hunting’
expedition forms one important segment in it.
Oshaparab is celebrated to eat new rice of the season. Dialiparab is very important
festival of the Malis.
Asadha munda is the main parab celebration and call it ‘Mulla parab’, where in
the dark moon period of Asadha month, they place kendu twig and other plant
branches in the centre of the paddy fields, to ward off pests and diseases to gain
good harvest.
In general, one can say that the festivals or parabs are mostly related to
agriculture; so do the Mali implies to their traditional role and profession. The
Malis celebrate Bali puja for three months and is an elaborate affair.
Among the Bodo Mali, a man can claim his paternal aunt’s daughter in marriage.
The marriage takes place before the girl reaches puberty (Thurston and
Rangachari, 1909). Now marriages are preferred as per country’s law. A marriage
pendal is constructed before the bridegrooms’ house. It is covered with mango
and jamun leaves. The pendal has four supporting pillars. Every pillar has pots
each, which placed one on each other. In the middle of the pendal a mattress is
spread, and to the pendal a cloth, with tamarind fruit, rice and coins tied up is
attached. The couple sits down on the platform of the pendal, and the priest gives
the groom a sacred thread. The bride is presented with necklaces, ornaments etc.
by the bridegrooms’ party. On the fifth day the couple are bathed with turmeric
water, followed by in the near by stream.(4)
Widow remarriage in permitted and younger brother usually marries the widow of
his elder brother.
The Malis now-a-days eat poultry and goats.
The Mali women are most beautiful of all in the district; most of them are fair
complexion. The nose is straight and sharp, lips are thin and the hair style of
women is unique. They tie long saris that are given a knot at right shoulder and
hangs 2 to 4 inches down the knee. The women have ‘sacred thread’ like
Bramhins, which has ceremonial significance to Malis.
The Mali men are thin and tall, grow long hairs, both men and women work in
vegetable fields. Malis live in villages where there is perennial water flow and use
it for irrigation water equally. They are knowledgeable and disciplined people and
go well with neighbour.
Banamaliput
Banamaliput in Nandapur is a very old village of Malis.It is typical Mali village

with support of stream that is supporting the vegetable cultivation from centuries.
The village is unique in the sense that it has seen flourishing ages of Jainas,
followed by Saivites and then the Narayana(Vishnu) The village houses an unique
piece of Ardhanarisvara form of Siva , combining the futures and attributes of
Siva in one half and those of the Parvati in the other. It is the representation of
synthesis of the twin eternal principles of purusa and prakriti or Siva and Sakti.
References
1. Stuart, H.A cited by Thurston, E and Rangachari, K (1909) Castes and

Tribes of Southern India, Madras. Vol.I-VIII..
2. Madras Census Report, 1871
3. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K (1909) Castes and Tribes of Southern
India, Madras. Vol.I-VIII.
4. Ibid.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS OF BANAMALIPUT
Tirthankara Visnu
Ardhanari Siva
Visnu?
Tirthankara
RONAS
The Ronas (also known as Rona Paika) are an Oriya speaking caste found mostly
around Koraput town and Nandapur area of Koraput district. According to their
tradition “Seven brothers, their ancestors, came long ago to Nandapur, then the
capital of the Jeypore country, and took military service under the Raja there.
Rona means ‘battle’ and Paiko ‘Sepoy’ bearing retainers under the
Maharaja”1.Whatever may be the story of their migration; the Ronas are a section
of the great Paika caste found in large number in Koraput (1). Choudhury has
described the Ranas of Koraput in detail in his study-report. (2)
Subdivision
Other castes close to Rona are (a) Barhatika Paika, (b) Putia or Dhulia Paika, (c)
Katia or Kutia Paika. Among these sections, the Barhatika Paikas occupy the
highest position in the social hierarchy. The Ronas and Kutias have the same
status next to Barhatika Paika. But the Ronas do not relate themselves to either
with the Barhatiks Paikas or Putia Paikas. However they not only take food in the
hands of Kutia Paika but also have marital relationship. The Ronas do not accept
food from any other caste or tribe except Brahmin, where as the Barhatika Paikas
do not accept food and water from any other caste and tribe and even the
Brahmins. The Putia Paikas in the past were beef-eaters and thus are classified
under the lowest rung of the social order. Both the Barhatika and the Rona wear
sacred thread and style themselves as Khtriya. At present these sections behave
like distinct castes rather than as the sections of the main Paika caste.
Folk Stories and origin

The Ronas as their folk stories claim have come from Raipur area, in search of
land to Nandapur-Jeypore. These are the same Rauts of the Chattisgah, a
cultivator caste later claiming to be ‘Khtriya’ or fighter castes. Thinly build,
flexible body, light to fair complexion, intelligent people love to live in clusters.
Very much like to be staying in groups. They feel very superior to all except the
’Paikos’ and say to be near to the level of Paikos. The Ronas are distributed along
Nandapur. Semiliguda-Jeypore belt. As I think Ronas have come from the Central
India, a Maharastrian origin may be Bhonsla warriors and later served Maharaja
of Jeypore.
Rona society has got nine exogamous clans. Each clan is again sub-divided into
several sub-clans (3). The names of the clans and sub-clans are given below:
Clan. Meaning Sub-clans
1. Khila Tiger Duru, Masti, Matam, Majhi, Malik, Mukhi Paradhni

and Podal.
2. Khara Sun Badam, Dalapati, Domsuni, Dumka, Darli, Eringal,
Khada, Kichae, Kanteri, Khurdi, Majhi, Patar, Pujari,
Paradhani, Sagri.
3. Hantal Snake Pali and Diari
4. Khinbudi or Bear Machria and Majhi
Kinbudi.
5. Bardi Goat Dalpati, Pujari, Tamli, Tangul.
6. Gunta Fish Machh, Majhi, Pardhani
7. Sukri Cow Naenda (Nauria)
8. Pangi Kite Sengarbi
9. Golari Monkey
Families use the names of clans and sometimes that of sub-clans and sometimes
that of sub-clans as surname of their respective belonging. Similar Clans names
are also found among the Putia Paika, Kutia Paika, Barhatika Paika and Dom.
The Ronas are primarily cultivators, but landless families work as daily wage
earners.
Religious Practices
Festivals observed by the Ronas are in accordance with the local communities. In
the month of Asadha (June-July) the festival of Ratha Yatra is celebrated
collectively in the village and people attend the festival in Jeypore Zamindary, but
is now celebrated in all most all large villages. A small car is made from simili
tree wood and is taken to the outskirt of the village. The village priest, Pujari pulls
the said car to a site where a shed of twigs and leaves was built to perform the
ceremony. A she goat is sacrificed, and festive meals are prepared and taken.
Bandapan is a ceremony performed by Ronas and other communities on the

Ammavasya day of Asadha (June-July) to ward off all pests damaging the
prospectus of rice cultivation. Every individual plant Kendu, Bhalia, and
Chatrenga twigs in the center of the paddy plot that stays till the end of the
season. Some who can afford do sacrifice a fowl or offer a cocoanut in the paddy
fields for a bumper crop.
In the moth of Bhadrava (August-September) the New Year fist rice eating is
celebrated. The upland rice is ready for harvest, thus families harvest small
amount and dehusk them at home and cook for the festival. The eldest member of
the lineage offers the new rice to ancestors and there after every one in the
community is free to eat the new rice.
In the month of Kartika (October-November) they perform the Diwali parab. All
the families perform the pitru sradha in the house of the eldest member of the
lineage. They call by name of all ancestors of the lineage or family and offer a
small hillock of newly harvested rice. Next day early morning a woman of the
lineage will fetch water to cook food. The cows and bullocks are fed with the
cooked rice and other food items that is the thanks giving to the livestock for their
contribution in agriculture. The occasion is celebrated by sumptuous food, beer
and wine.
The Pus Parab is observed on full-moon day of the month of December-January.

Bhogi fire is lit in the night and youths are allowed to steal food and wood
articles. The villagers buy a goat and give sacrifice at the village shrine and
distribute the share of meat to all members. The whole night is spent in dance and
songs.
Along with all tribe members of Koraput the Ronas celebrate the summer festival,
Chait parab. It is a month long celebration in March-April and is mostly the
Hunting expedition A meeting of the village elders is conveyed and subscription
is collection from each family to meet the expenses of the ceremony. The Dissari
declares the auspicious time and every member of the family assemble with some
sample seed collected from respective home seed store to the shrine. The Pujari
performs the puja of the seeds thus collected and offers the sacrifice of a male
goat of choice as per the village tradition. There after the seeds are distributed
back to the families and is thus purified for better agriculture prospective.
Next morning, all able body men go for hunting with the leader identified by the
Dissari. If successful in hunting the parties roasts the animal outside the village
and eat. This is followed by mock hunting expedition in the village. Next day the
villagers go for actual hunting. The village offers an egg to Bana Durga (Forest
deity) for success in hunting and then they proceed to the forest.
On return from the successful hunt, women of the village greet men with garlands
of flower and accompany the hunt with dance. The animals killed are carried to
the place of village Thakurani and the Pujari performs a puja; there after meat of
the animals are distributed in equal share to all.
During these days the villagers both men and women remain mostly drunk and
continue dance during nights. There after starts the arduous cycle of agriculture.
Reference
1. Bell, R.C. (1945) Koraput Gazettes p. 19

2. Choudhury, B. (1964) Notes on the Ronas of Koraput, Adivasi 2: 51-56p
3. Ibid.
.
PAIKO
It was noted by Yule (1) and Burnell under the heading Paik or Pyke that “Wilson
gives only one original of the terms so expressed in Anglo-Indian speech. He
writes, ‘Paik or Payik, corruptly Pyke, Hindi., etc.( from S.padatika) , Paik or
Payak, Mar., a footman, an armed attendant, an inferior police and revenue
officer, a messenger, a courier, a village watchman. In Cuttack the Paika formerly
constituted a local militia, holding land of the Zamindars or Rajas by the tenure of
military service. But it seems clear to us that there are here two terms rolled
together: a) Pers, Paik, a foot-runner or courier; (b) Hind. Paik and payik (also
Mahr.) from Skt. Padatika, and padika, a foot-soldier.” The Greeks cavalry in
India used a hand instrument called ‘Pykus’ it was spear like and possibly the
Paik got their name from Pykus.
Thurston and Rangachari (1909) wrote, “In the Madras Census Report, 1891,
Paiko is defined as “rather an occupational than a caste name. It means a foot-
solider, and is used to denote the retainers of the Uriya Chiefs of Ganjam and
Vizagapatam. These men were granted lands on feudal tenure, and belonged to
various castes. They are now ordinary agriculturists. Some are employed in the
police, and as peons in the various public departments (2).”
In the Vizagapatam Manual, 1869, various castes are referred to as being” all
paiks or fighting men. Formerly they were a very numerous body, but their
numbers are much diminished now. That is as fighting men, for the old army used
to be paid, some in money, and some in grants of land. Now there are very few
paiks kept up as fighting men; those discharged from services have taken to
trading with the coast, and to cultivating their pieces of land. The fort at Kotpad
on the Bustar frontier always had a standing garrison of several hundred paiks.
They are gradually being disbanded since we have put police there. The men are a
fine race, brave, and capital shots with the matchlock (3)”
Paikos have been recorded in the past census as a synonym or sub-divison of

Rona and Paikarayi occurs as a title of Badhoyis (4).
Other castes close to Rona are (a) Barhatika Paika, (b) Putia or Dhulia Paika, (c)
Katia or Kutia Paika(5). Among these sections, the Barhatika Paikas occupy the
highest position in the social hierarchy. The Ronas and Kutias have the same
status next to Barhatika Paika. But the Ronas do not relate themselves to either
with the Barhatiks Paikas or Putia Paikas. However they not only take food in the
hands of Kutia Paika but also have marital relationship. The Ronas do not accept
food from any other caste or tribe except Brahmin, where as the Barhatika Paikas
do not accept food and water from any other caste and tribe and even the
Brahmins. The Putia Paikas in the past were beef-eaters and thus are classified
under the lowest rung of the social order. Both the Barhatika and the Rona wear
sacred thread and style themselves as Khtriya. At present these sections behave
like distinct castes rather than as the sections of the main Paika caste.
Bell (1945) wrote,” The Paikos are found in every taluk of the district, but the
Oriya Paikos of Gunupur taluk are more advanced economically and
educationally than their relatives elsewhere, probably because they have been not
so isolated from the Oriya culture of the plains. The men of this caste are
descendants of the military caste who maintained the prestige in battle of the
Gajapati kings of Orissa in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Their social
customs are similar to those of the Ronas; and like the later many of them are in
the Maharaja’s services (6).”
References
1. Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district

2. .Thurston, Edgar and Rangachari, K Castes and Tribes of Southern India,
Madras.p. 458-459.
3. Vizagapatam Manual, 1869
4. Thurston, Edgar and Rangachari, K. op.cit.
5. Choudhury, B. Notes on the Ronas of Koraput.Adivasi, 2. p.51-56
6. Bell, R.C.S. Orissa District Gazetteers, Koraput.p.82
KOTTIA PAIKO IN KORAPUT

The Kottia, are also known as Katia, Kottiya, Khatia or Kutia. They are a little
known and numerically small tribe found mostly in Koraput, Kalahandi and
Phulbani districts of Orissa. They are mainly distributed in Koraput, Jeypore,
Boipariguda, Ramagiri, Mathili, Machkund, Nandapur, Pottangi till Salur,
Paduwa, Machput, Kolab are the villages. Now most of them have been displaced
by the Kolab dam and have gone to the plains of Jeypore also and to other places.
Madras Census (1901-1902) reported the community as a section of the Oriya
cultivators found in Vizagapatnam Agency. (1) Kottiya Paik are the descendants
of Rona Paikos and women of the hill tribes. On the other hand Pattiya paiko are
the descendants of Kottiya Paikos and women of the hill tribes (2)
The Kottia Paika are classified as a caste close to Rona. Other castes classified
near close to are (a) Barhatika Paika, (b) Putia or Dhulia Paika, (c) Katia, Kottia
or Kutia Paika(3). Among these sections, the Barhatika Paikas occupy the highest
position in the social hierarchy. The Ronas and Kutias have the same status next
to Barhatika Paika. But the Ronas do not relate themselves to either with the
Barhatiks Paikas or Putia Paikas. However they not only take food in the hands of
Kottia Paika but also have marital relationship. The Ronas do not accept food
from any other caste or tribe except Brahmin, where as the Barhatika Paikas do
not accept food and water from any other caste and tribe and even the Brahmins.
The Putia Paikas in the past were beef-eaters and thus are classified under the
lowest rung of the social order. Both the Barhatika and the Rona wear sacred
thread and style themselves as Khtriya. At present these sections behave like
distinct castes rather than as the sections of the main Paika caste (4).
They say they had a war with Doras and the Kottia Paikos were defeated and
their enmity maintained with Kondhs and Doras and they do not pull on well with
each other. They equate themselves with the Upper class like Rona, Paiko, Dulia
with whom men can take food, but the women do not. They will not eat with
Kumbhar, Mali, Gadaba, Parenga, Poraja, Kondhs, Bhumia, Matia, Dom, and
Jangia. In the Kottia Paikos with composite village condition with Gadabas,
Paikos, Ranas, Bhumia, Matia and Doms. They have their own street in the
village away from the Dom community from the village and others. They share
the public places of the village with other communities. They have the phratries of
Kottia Paiko are,
1. Khilo – Bhago or Tiger

2. Khora – Sun
3. Gutta – Sit
4. Hontal – Cobra snake
The Kottia are described as identical with Kutia Kondha, it is not true rather are
mare akin to Bhumias (5). According to 1991 Censuses the total population of
Kottias in the state is 28,607. The Kottia speak corrupt form of Oriya
Bara wrote, “The traditional ornaments of the Kottias constitute Kadu and Pahnri
made of brass and aluminum which are now placed by gold and glass bangles.
Nanguli, their nose ornaments is no more in use. It is replaced by Khanja and
Phuli. Nothu and Dandi are mostly made of gold. Kala sorisamali and Nanpatti
are used as neck ornaments. Pahnri is worn at the ankle. The practice of tattooing
is not common among them. (6)”
Kottia male use sacred thread at the time of marriage, but it is not compulsory to
use it later on. The same tradition is followed by Bhumias also.
They believe in re-birth and follow elaborate ceremony to wade off evil spirits.
On attaining puberty, three days seclusion is observed by the girl. The maturity
ceremony is called ‘Ear boring Ceremony” On the 4th day she is given bath and
new cloths. A pandal of 4 pillars is constructed before the house of the girl and is
covered with mango, jamun twigs with leaves; and the pillars are tied with
Banana trees. Before marriage ceremony commences the family arranges 100 or
more new earthen pots filled with water. The girl is made to stand under the
pandal and water is poured on her from her head. This makes the mud pasty
locally called ‘Kado’ on which the men and women start playing with volleys of
mud. The play is mostly limited to a special relation ship called ‘Tapra loak’ that
has a potential marriage relationship or have the prerogative to cut jokes. These
includes wife’ sisters group, paternal aunt’s daughters and nice and other
marriageable clans. After this kado ceremony, the girl is taken to the close by
river or the stream. The girl is given bath and unnoted with amba kasa and oil, this
is to ward off the evils. Simultaneously, the materials of the temporary pendal are
laid into the flowing river stream. This ends with a grand feast, given to all
relatives and the maternal relations of the girl. .
Widow and divorce marriage is allowed by them. A divorcee also can remarry.
Marriage with the maternal uncle’s daughter and maternal aunt’s daughter is
allowed in Kottia society.
Nayak is the hereditary village headman is consulted in matter of social disputes

and conflicts. He is assisted by the Chalan. The priest is known as Pujari. The
Disari acts as the man to predict auspicious day and time also diagnose diseases
from evil spirits etc.
Festivals
Chaitraparab is the most important festival of the Kottias like any other tribe of
Koraput. It is observed for a period of seven days with great joy. The Disari fixes
a date during the month of Chaitra (March-April), for the celebration. During this
festival they eat mango for the first time. Another important festival is Nua-Khia
which is observed on any Monday during month of Sravana (July-August).
Bada Bibha or Wealthy Marriage

It is rich people’s marriage function. A chamunda (temporary pandal) with four
pillars is constructed and at the center one more pillar is fixed. The roof of the
pandal is covered with twigs of mango and Jamun tree. Each of the pillars is tied
with at least 20-30 empty new earthen pots that stand till, the top end of the
supporting pillars of the pandal. The whole event is instructed by the Disari. At
the central pillar, rice mixed with lia, gur, dhoop and some vermillion is laid on
the floor; and over it a large earthen pot tied with banana leaves is fixed. The
Groom sits over the pot at the direction of the Disari, the bride then asked to sit
over his lap. The Disari then enchants mantra telling to bless the married and asks
the center pillar to bless for good life. He then pours water from one of the pots. A
mango twig is taken around the couple four times and after pouring over water on
the couple they are declared husband and wife. Some gifts are also given to the
Disari as well as to the couple.
After the marriage the Groom’s brother will ask, who will kill the Goat? The
Bride’s family members take the challenge and stand up. Generally a small male
goat is offered with the condition that it is to be lifted by mouth and then to be
thrown such that it cross the chamunda (pandal).It is a difficult task and after
repeated attempts and laughter one of the Bride’s family members raises the goat,
holding its legs and will demand Rs.50-60 to the groom’s family, and the money
thus goes for the common feast in the marriage. It is aver peculiar function in the
marriage ceremony and well enjoyed.
The Divorce is allowed to women. Over a small pot one mango and Jamun leaf is
laid and over it is a sum of Rs.5 is placed. The lady in question shall stand before
him and the husband will pour water on her folded palms and will say, you seize
to be my wife from this day, I will not go to her and she shall not come to my
house. This needs to be attended by all social functionaries of the community.
This ends the divorce procedure
References
1. Madras Census Report, 1901-1902.
2. Hayavadana Rao, C. Rona: inThurston, E and Rangachari, K (1909)
Castes and tribes of Southern India.
3. Choudhury, B. Notes on the Ronas of Koraput. Adibasi, 1964-
65.No.2.p.51
4. Ibid.
5. Bara, F. Kotia. Tribes of Orissa.p.199-202.citedAdibasi (63-64 182.)
6. Ibid.
NANDAPUR
Nandapur is located on the banks of the river Isani Ganga or Gangeshani. This
river has been regarded as sacred and compared to Kasi of north and has been
called as Dakshina Kasi locally. There are numerous archeological remains left in
the place, notably the Batrisha singhasana, innumerous Jain vestiges in and
around the place. There are no direct evidences so far from inscriptions, what ever
is known has come from other sources and places. People are of the opinion that
much of the present idols and deities reported from Jeypore was due to Nandapur
and were transferred during shift of capital. There is evidence that at least twice
the Nandapur was capital of Suryavamsis and was shifted once to Narayanapatna
and the last to Jeypore.
K.B.Singh Deo (1938) had given a detail account of Nadapur Kings, later known
as Jeypore Zamindars in his book entitled, ‘Nandapur- A Forsaken Kingdom’ (1).
He has given a detail account of the archaeological remains, history related to the
Sankara Dynasty and their relation to Silavamsi Kings and the Bhupatis of
Madgole of Oddadi. He has given a detail account of the Sankara Dynasty of
Nandapur from Vinyako Deo who succeeded by marriage to the only daughter of
last Silavamsi King of Nandapur in 1443 and assumed the title of Nandapur
Bhupati; ruled upto 1476 (2).
Uma-Parbati in Nilakantheswara Temple, Sarveswara Siva temple, Nandapur

Jeypore (believed to be of Sankara Dynasty)
There are several views on the relationship and origin of Sankara Dynasty; Mr.
Oram speaks.’ Ramamachandra Deo, Raja of Nandapuram, is descendent of a
Rajah, formerly a servant and favourite to an ancient king of Jagannatha and
sovereign of these northern circars, who gave him a daughter in marriage and
bestowed this tributary principality upon him‘(3).
It was early in the 15th century that the plain lands of Orissa and the northern
circars passed from the sway of the Ganga dynasty to that of the Gajapati kings of
Cuttack, belonging to Solar race. As the change of dynasty occurred
simultaneously in Nandapur and as the new line of kings obviously to have been
Oriya descent, it is extremely likely that the kingdom was concurred by
Kapileswara Deva, the first of the Gajapatis as a mark of favour on one of his
following--- (4)Oram’s theory is thus probably correct.
A third theory is advanced by the author of a Sanskrit work called the

Gangavamsa Charitra, which seems to have been written about the middle of the
18th century. This states that the eldest son of the Bhanudeva IV, the last ruler of
the Ganga kings of the Kalinga, after the usurpation of his kingdom by
Kapileswara Deva, went southwards and founded a kingdom at Gudari (near
Gunupur) and that subsequently the Gudari Kings became masters of Nandapur.
The story lacks confirmatory evidence, and is in any case suspect as the aim of the
historian was confessedly the glorification of the Ganga line of Kings. This is all
as per the statement given in Koraput District Gazetteer by R.C.S. Bell (1941) (5).
Brusha in Sarveswara Temple, Nandapur Brusha in Nilakantheswara Temple,

Jeypore
The other version is due to Vadivelu’s Ruling Chiefs, Nobles and Zamindars of
India that traces the descendent to ancient Kings of Kashmir and Jamu.Vinayaka
Deo second son of Kambiraja Deo, the Jammu King and a descendant of
Kankasena of the Solar race, was on pilgrimage to Benares and God Visweswar
directed him to proceed to Nadapur to take up the kingdom’ (6).
Vinayaka Deo’s family, the Sankara Dynasty of Jeypore/Nandapur ruled from

1443 A.D. to Indian Independence from British during 1947.
Silavamsi Kings of Nandapur as per Inscriptions

Vinayaka Deo married the only daughter, Lilavati of the last Silavamsi king of
Nandapur and occupied the throne of Nandapur in 1443 as said above. K.B.S.Deo
(1938) (7) informed that there is meager account of the Silavamsis of Nandapur;
but in recent days there has been significant progress in the direction by
historians; and good account can be read from the work of Yashoda Devi’s ’The
History of Andhra Country-1000 A.D. to 1500 A.D.’ (8)
The Silavamsa may have got their identity from the Sila river that flows close to
the old fort of Nandapur.The same river then flows through Madgole, the land of
the Matsya kingdom is called as Matsya or Macheru river. The Macheru or
Machkund rises in the Madgole hills at about 3000 feet and then through the
Padwa valley it flows down. The Paderu village is located by the side of the upper
portion of Matsya or Maccha river was once the seat of the old Matsya Kings of
the Oddadi country. There is a stone in the shape of Fish that was the seat where
the Matsya kings were installed over as kings (9).
The Madgole kings were known as Bhupatis and the Madgole family became
extinct due to lack of male line (10).
Paderu is now a large settlement was formerly the seat of the Old Matsya kings of
Oddadi. The word Oddavadi means ’the beginning of the Oriya (11).
Map showing Nandapur, Narayanapatna and Jeypore

Silavamsi or Silas as they were known ruled from middle of the 14th century to
middle of the 15th century only. Their capital was at Nandapur and Bobli (12).
They had acknowledged the suzerainty of Gangas of Kalinga (13). They had
continued marriage alliances with Matsyas and the Pallvas (14). The Sila were the
originators of the Jeypore Estate. There is no record as to the origin of the Silas
except that they were Silavamsa and Silavemsa gotra of Nandapur.
Ganga ruled1300-1353 A.D. and as per inscription of Simhachalam dated 1353

A.D. (15) Visvanatha succeeded Ganga. His rule lasted till A.D. 1370 and
Bhairvaraju his successor ruled from A.D.1370-1427. He is known from
Simhachalam inscription dated A.D.1396. He was also known as Bayyaraju. He
was then succeeded by his son, Gangaraju A.D.1427-1435 also as per
Simhachalam inscription. He was also known by name Pratap Gangarajugaru.His
earliest record was from Simhachalam followed by next record from Srikurmam
dated 1435. He was a feudatory of Kapilesvar, thus Ganga with Gajapati support
must have succeeded his enemies.
Matsya contemporary of Gangaraju was Pratapavallabha the successor of Arjuna

III. The Silas and the Matsyas were connected by alliance of marriages. For king
Ganga’s mother, and queen of Bhairava was the daughter of Jayanta of the
Matsyas and sister of Singaraju (16). Possibly the Silas were helped by the
Matsyas in extending their country.
A king Visveswara raju of Silavamsa A.D. 1427 is known from the Srikurmam
inscription (17). He was the son-in-law of Jayanta of the Matsyas; so the Silas and
Matsyas were in terms of alliance in this period.
Pratapa Gangaraju of the Sila had a daughter Singama. She was married to
Khajjalabhanu alias Vinayaka Deva, the founder of the kingdom of Gudari. On
the death of Pratapa Gangaraju in A.D.1443, the two kingdoms of Nandapur and
Gudari were reunited under Vinayaka Deva. (18) Vinayaka Deva is said to have
been of the Ganga family of Cuttack. According to the Jeypore Chronicle (19),
Vinayaka Deva was the 33rd descendant of Kanakasena of the Solar race. He was
a general and feudatory of the king of Kashmir. Left for Benares, pleased
Visveswara by his penance and was directed by the God in a dream to go to the
kingdom of Silas of which he would become the king. This was the findings from
Yashoda Devi (20). The daughter of Pratap Gangaraju has been mentioned as
Lilavati and Singama, respectively in two above reports. Nandapur Suryavamsi
dynasty was born from mid fifteenth century. As I am dealing this work from BC
to 1250 A.D is not with in the scope of the book to continue information on
Nandapur Suryvamsis.
The history of Nandapur has remained obscure before Silavamsa and Matsya of
Oddai, because of lack of proper inscriptions and records. It is well documented
fact that Koraput-Bastar remained part of the Trikalinga and the subject has been
detailed out in one of the chapters. Again the history reveals the ploy of
Chakrakote which comes under the geographical location of Trikalinga had
remained the bone of contention for many of the Dynasties especially in the 9th
and 10th century. These events are well documented in the book. The Trikalinga
historical events do not specifically refer Nandapur but the Chakrakote is referred
in all events. The archaeological evidence, especially the Jaina monuments do
give a historical prospect to the Nandapur and is definitely earlier days to 9th
century. The Eastern Ganga had played major role in Trikalinga and I have
postulated the role of Western Ganga in this region and have been detailed out in
one of the chapters. But though the region came under the sway of Eastern
Chalukyas and the Chodas had occupied Koraput-Bastar so also the Western
Chalukyas they did not leave any significant event in Nandapur and seems to have
remained in the Nowrangpur and Kakrigumma tract extending into Kalinga.
There can be three dimensions to investigate the history of Nandapur before 14th
Century.
 One can be from the records and inscriptions base
 The second can be reconstruction of the history based on archaeological
find in and around Nandapur
 Third can be the people, the castes and Tribes in Nandapur region and
their affiliation to the history if any and finally reconstruction of history
based on all these lines and corroborating with the history of neighbours
along with linking of routes.
They are given as following,
Hathigumpha Record and King Nanda
Hathigumpha record in l. 6 lines states , “And, in the fifth year ( His Majesty)
caused the aqueduct that had been excavated by King Nanda three hundred years
before, to flow into (Kalinga) nagari through Tanasuli (very likely Tosali)”. (21)
King Nanda is identified with Nandivardhana (22)
Jayswal and Banerji (1929-30) wrote, “Again, we have the definite datum that
Alberuni found in use in his time an era with the initial year 458 B.C., which goes
back to the time of the first Nanda King (Nanda Vardhana) (23). The year 103
of the Nanda era would correspond to 335 B.C. when the Tansulia canal, which
Kharavela extended to the capital in the fifth year of his reign, was originally
excavated. If we take this Nanda to be the last Nanda, Kharavela would be
referring to (325 B.C.-103=) c.222 B.C. and not to any later year. (24)
There is standing controversy on Nandavardhana. It is not Nandavardhana but

Mahapadma Nanda who is said to have brought ‘all under his sole sway’ and
‘uprooted all Ksatriyas’or the old ruling families. So we should identify
‘Nandaraja’ of the Hathigumpha inscription, who held possession of Kalinga
either with the all-conquering Mahapadma Nanda or one of his local king of
Kalinga, but the view goes against the internal evidence of the Hatigumpha
inscription. As Nandaraja is said to have ruled some 300 years before Kharavela,
the latter evidently flourished at the second half of the first century B.C., or
somewhat later (25)
The Nanda age confirms the fact that the Nandas extended their empire beyond
Magadha. Unfortunately, the boundary of the Nanda empire cannot be precisely
determined. H.C. Raychaudhury mentions that from the sources assignable to the
commencement of Gupta Age, we may tentatively fix the southern boundary of
the Nanda empire, or at least the arena of its political and military activities, at the
river Godavari (26).
The presence of Magadhia Gaudo in Koraput, especially around river Muran and
Nandapur as well as the Nanda Gaudo in Kalhandi-Koraput region strengthens the
above theory.
Pravhavati Gupta and Nandapur-Nandvardana
The Pravhavati Gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta Vikramaditya II had

married to Rudrasena II of Vakataka dynasty (c.375-414) (27) and their country
was extended up to Krishna; and their capital was Nandapur-Nandivardana. It
is established her kingdom’s capital at Nandapur which is probably the same as
Nandapur township in Koraput district (28).
Rudrasena II passed away leaving two young sons, the eldest being 5 years of
age. So his wife and queen Prabhavati-gupta ruled the kingdom until her second
son took the regin.Ramagiri-svami was highly revered by the Vakatakas and
Prabhavati-gupta made her last grant in his presence. It is not likely that
Kalidasa too may have visited Ramagiri (Ramtek) several times in the company
of his wards and their mother, and that it may have been during one of these visits
that the idea occurred to him make this hill the place of the exile of his Yaksha in
the Meghaduta? (29) There is a literary tradition that the poem Setubandha was
composed by king Prvara-sena II of Kuntala soon after his accession and was later
revised by Kalidasa (30). This has been well discussed in ‘Ramagiri’ chapter in
this book.
Nanda or Nandodbhava family Ruling Jeypore-Nandapur
Majumdar and Altekar wrote, “One may point out in this connection that a king of
the Nanda dynasty of Pataliputra is associated with Kalinga in the Hathigumpha
inscription of Kharavela and that a Nanda or Nandodbhava family is known to
have ruled in the Jeypore – Nandapur region of Orissa, at least from the ninth
century A.D. (31)”
Jadumani Mohapatra in his ‘The Mandala Kingdom’ cites Gayada Tunga; his
Talcher Grant No.1 (32) was issued from a place called Jayapura Kotta which
has been identified by some scholars with the political headquarters of the
Nandodbhavas of Airavatta Mandala (33). Gayada Tunga was from Tunga
dynasty was ruling Yamagaratta Mandala. It is said that in the process of
amalgamation of Utkala with Kalinga, Chodoganga possibly destroyed the power
of the Mathra rulers of Yamagartta Mandala (34)
He further mentions, ‘Jayapura was the royal metropolis of Airavatta Mandala. It

seems that the capital city was named after the founder of the Nadodbhav ruler.
Jayanda, and can be identified with a village of the same name in the southern
part of Dhenkanal district (35). Further he says, ‘It is the epigraphic records the
rulers of Airavatta have claimed themselves as Nandodbhavas’ or as belonging to
Nanda kula. N.Tripathi and D.C. Sircar subscribing his view hold that the family
of Jayananda was an offshoot of the imperial Nanda family of Maghada’ (36).
There is another ruler family, Varahas also known as Mauryas because of their
peacock emblem claim that Uditavaraha, the first rulers of Bonai, the family had
hailed from Chitrakuta. This Chitrakuta has been interpreted to Rajasthan and
Uttar Pradesh etc.
J.K.Sahu concluded that they have origined from aboriginal tribal stock (37).
D. C. Sirkar wrote, “Another king of the same family (Pitibhakatas) seems to have
been Maharaja Nanda- Prabhanjana-varman whose Chicacole Grant bears the
word Pitibhakta on its seal. The king is described as ‘the lord of the entire Kalinga
Country’. His charter was issued from his vasaka at the victorious Sarapallika.
Although Nanda- Prabhanjana-varman is associated with the Pitibhakta of
Simhapura, it is tempting to suggest that his name indicates Prabhanjana-varman
of the Nanda family to which he may have been related on the mother’s side. We
know that a ruler of the Nanda dynasty of Pataliputra is associated with Kalinga in
the Hathgumpha inscription of Kharavela. A Nanda or Nandodbhava family
ruled the Angul-Dhenkanal region of Orissa from the ninth century, and another
branch of the family flourished probably in the Jeypore- Nandapur area of the
Koraput District at a later date.”(38)
The remarks of Bell are, “The Savara language is said to be very similar to that of
the Juangs, a primitive tribe inhabiting Keonjhar, Pal -Lahara and Dhenkanal
States as also to that of the Pareng Porajas of Pottangi Taluk (Koraput District).
(39)”. This has relevance, because in most of the literature the Easter Chalukyas
have referred the Eastern Gangas as Savara Chiefs. We have proposed in this
book that the Western Gangas are the lords of the Parenga tribe of the Koraput
and one special chapter has been devoted to this effect. Historically, Western
Ganga were related through marriage alliance to the rulers of Dhenkanal (Bhauma
Karas of Tosali) is well established. Thus the linguistic relation with Savara and
Parenga sheds the light that the Savaras as Eastern Ganga and the Parenga the
Western Gangas are closely related even though they now live in distant places
and have no relation what so ever. This confirms the historical hypothesis that
exits till date. On the other hand the sharing of linguistic closeness between
Juang, Savara and Parenga tribe; means they may have common inheritance and
in past and relationship between Pal-Lahara and Dhenkanal, Anugul and the
Nandapur region cannot be ruled out. This confirms the theory proposed by Sircar
as indicated above.
Nandivarman Pallavamalla and Nanndigrama
Early in his reign Rajasimha formed an alliance with Chalukya a Vikramaditya

II, espoused the cause of Chitramaya, and after inflicting a number of defeats on
Nandivarman Pallavamalla besieged him in a place called Nandigrama i.e.
Nandipuram, near Kumbakontam. The able Pallava general Zidayacondra, who
encountered the Pandya forces in many battles, raised the siege of Nadigrama,
beheaded Chitramaya, and thus made the Pallava throne secure for his monarch.
He also delt with other enemies of Pallavamallha like the Sabara King Udayana
and the Nisdha chieftain Prithivivygara who were probably acting in collision
with Chalukya Vikramaditya II.(40). The Nisadha and Sabara king point out to
Koraput-Kalahandi region, so Nandigrama here can mean the Nandapura of
Koraput.
Paliva in Nandapur is a well known Jaina monastery as evident by ruins of Jaina

temple (41). The name Paliva is also indicative of the Pallava presence in the
region. This requires further study.
Bhatiporlu inscription and Nandapuram
Bhatiporlu inscription of 2nd A.D. (from Krishna District of Andhra Pradesh) in its
3rd Stanza Manjusa denotes the name’Nandapuram’ (42)
Vyghraraja in Jeypore forest tract

Majumdar and Altekar are of the opinion that Vyghraraja ruled in Jeypore forest
(in Orissa) which is referred as Maha-Vana, a synonym of Mahakantara, in and
old inscription.(43)
Some Jaina Inscriptions and Trikalinga

The Peddaperappadu plates of Vishamasiddhi (East Godavari dist) (44) was
issued by Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi is of interest to Koraput district, Orissa.
King Vishmasidhi (i.e. Vishnuvardhana II) had issued the copper plates during
7th Century A.D. It is in Sanskrit and Telugu scripts. J. Durgaprasad in Bharati
published the inscription during October 1983, February 1985 and October 1984.
All three sets of copper plates refer to Chalukya king Vishnuvardhan II (i.e.
Vishamasiddhi) who resigned from AD 673 to 683. These plates only indicated
the Vengi king’s leaning towards Jainism.
Jawaharlal wrote “The register a gift of land to Jain temples given to Sri
Kanakanandi acharya who belonged to yapaniya sangha by Sri Vishamasidhi (i.e.
Vishnu-Vardhana-II). Further the gift of land is stated to have been given to Jain
temples, situated at Kakandiparru (modern Kakinada, East Godavari District)
Turangu (i.e. area around Turangesvara temple near Kakinada) Koyyuru (modern
Kovuru, near Kakinada, East Godavari district.) Pottapi Vishaya may be
identical with Pottapinadu or Virachoda inscription found at Pithapuram, East
Godavari district. The other villages like Nadipur, Induru, and Partipaka of the
plates are not identifiable at present. These plates throw a flood of light on the
existence of Yapaniya-sangha in East Godavari district during the 7th century
A.D. itself” (45). I am of the opinion that the Pottapi refers to Pottangi of Koraput
that is in close boarder to Eastern Ganga. N. Venkataramanaya was of the opinion
that the Pottapi-nandu and Nadupuru are located in Southern Kalinga; a detail
account of is given in the following chapter.
Second plate Second Face.
15. Masiddhi-maharajah-vriksha-mula (i) Yapaniyagana-tilaka.
16. Sya- Bhagavatah Kanakanandyacharyashya- Dharmopadesa-naka

17. sumishtitaya- senalayasya Bhagavata- mahatma-ba
18. li-vaisyadeva-navakaramma-saranardham-svadharmabhividdha-
19. potupa-vishaye yelinadya rrpurvata- Jamannurevu- grama-
20. ddakshine- Nadupura-gramat pacchame- isturu gramat
21. uttare-chapan madhye partipaka gramat- data
I am inclined to give identification of the places as following:

i. Here Potupa-vishaye yelinadya means Putura river and village
ii. Jamannurevu grama is Jamunda village, which is located on the
bank of Putura River in Jeypore block.
iii. Dakshine Nadupura gramat is south located Nandapur
iv. Paschima Isturu gramat not yet identified but it may be Ispur
village on bank of Indrabati
v. Uttare Chapan means Champa village of Koraput block.?????
vi. Madhye Partipaka grame means Partigumpha and Puki village
vii. Moreover, these villages incidentally still continue to be important
places of Jaina deities.
Chalukyas of Vemulavada and Subaie (Nandapur)

It is equally interesting to learn from an inscription engraved on the wall of the
Durgapancha cave that Vimaladitya’s (AD 1011-22) religious guru Trikalayogi
Siddhantadeva of the Desiagana paid homage to Ramakonda with great devotion.
No doubt, at first Ramatirthan was a strong hold of Buddhism during the early
centuries of Christian era, for numerous Buddhist remains have been unearthed
here (46).
The inscription support to Jainas in Trikalinga is one yet to be established from
the available findings (47). The last member of the Chalukya of Vemulavada
royal family, Baddega had very strong leaning towards Jainism. Arikesarin III,
son of Baddega II was also a Jaina. In his Parbhani plate Arikesarin III (A.D. 930-
955) had given a gift of village Kuttamvritti-Vaanikatupulu in the midst of
Repaka-12 in the Sabbi –thousand to Somadevasuri who was the sthalapati of
Subhadhama –jinalaya. (48)
Present Subaie (Sabbi) Jaina temple close to Nandapur in Koraput has references
from Arikesarin II and III, who were the Chalukyas of Vemulavada.The following
are some of the inscriptions referring to Kalinga and Vengi as well as Sabbi desa
in Rupaka.
TEXT
3. Arikesarin III and Parbhani plates of 966 A.D is in Sanskrit. He was from
Chalukyas of Vemulavada. The inscription states that the gift given by father
Arikesarin consisted of Repaka-12 in the Sabbi-Thousand, was given to Jaina
divine Somadevasuri, Sthanapati of the said Jinalaya.It is also said that in the
Gauda-sangha there arose a great sage called Yasodeva, his pupil was Nemideva,
who had several disciples of whom Somadevasuri was the most important.
So far from our studies we have come across only the above inscription which is
referring to Sabbi desa (Kornel and Gamang, 2010) (49). The present Subai Jaina
temple has been identified to Sabbi desa of the past. It has one Chakresvari asta
bhuja to which there is reference in Arikeasarins inscription as mentioned above.
At Kachela Jaina temple ruins a stone slab called ‘dhangdi pakna’ is there which
may be ‘sidhasila’ because barren women come and dance on annual puja to be
blessed .Again the reference to Kalinga and Vengi in the same inscription
strengthens the view. Surprisingly, a Gouda family still worships the Jaina deities
of Subai and claims it to hereditary succession. The same has relevance to
Somsekharasurideva who belonged to Gaudosangha of Jainism.
Patasivaram inscription of the Chalukya king Tribhuvnamalla Vira
Patasivaram inscription refers the reign of the Chalukya king Tribhuvnamalla

Vira Somesvara IV and mentions his feudatory Bhogadeva Cholakmaharaja as
ruling from Henjery. This inscription is dated 1185 A.D (50). Further, it refers to
Padmaprabha – Maladhari, disciple of Viranandi- Sidhanta – Chalkravartideva
belong to Desi gana, Pustaka gacchha and Mula – Sangha. There is a village
called Maldha near Honjore of Nandapur, similarly Virahandi is a village amidst
Jaina Temples in Kotpad region and is famous for its Siva temple. Kornel and
Gamang loc.cit. have identified the same Henjery to Devta Honjore of
Nandapur.
Kalachuris of Tripuri as Trkalingadhipati

The Kalachuris of Dahal, the country around Jabalpur was ruled by Kalachuris of
Tripuri.Karna ascended to throne between A.D.1034 and 1042. He was one of the
greatest generals of his time. He assumed the title of Trikalingadhipati (51).
Kalachuris of Ratnapur and Nandavalli

Kalingraja, a remote descendant of one of the sons of Kokalla I (52), the
founder of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri, conquered South Kosala and
established his capital in Tummana in Bilaspur of Chhattiasgarh. He was a
feudatory to Kalachuris of Tripuri. His son and successor Kamalaraja helped his
overlord Kalachuri Gangeyadeva in conquering Utkala.The tribals in Jeypore
refer the Mathili region as ‘Kamalraji’; this may have been derived due to
Kalachuri of Ratanpur.
One of the successive kings, Jajalldeva I took the Naga King of Chakrakote
(Bastar) Somesvara prisoner and released him on request of Someswar’s mother.
He invaded Orissa and defeated Bhujavala, the chief of Suvarnapur the modern
day Sonpur.He claims to have received tributes from the chiefs of the Mandalas of
Andhra, South Kosala, Khimidi, Vairagara, Lanjika, Bhanara, Talahari,
Dandakapura, Nandavalli and Kukkuta. (53)
The Nandavalli may be the Nandapur and Valli may be the Bali Mutha or
Mandala.
Ratnadeva II successed Jajalladeva I before A.D.1126. He repulsed an attack of

Anantavarman Chodaganga at Talahar-bhumi, not far from Sheorinarayan.He
was successor by his son Prithvideva II and his minister conquered several forts
including Machka-Shiva and took Bhramavadra, Kantara, Kusuma-bhoga,
Kandas(hva)ra and Kakayara–desa(54).He established a new city named

Jagapalapura. The Machka-Shiva may be the Machkund, Kantara is Kalahandi-
north Koraput, and Kusuma-bhoga may be the Kusumi close to Kotpad,
Bhramavadra, is identical with Bhramarakotya mandala in the Bastar district. The
Kakayara is the Kanker of Bastar district. Jagapalapura may be the present district
head quarters of Bastar district in Chhattisgarh.
Prthvideva II defeated the mighty Chodagangadeva and his feudatory Gokarna.

(55)
The Bilaigarh plate of Prthvideva’s reign in E. 896 indicates that’ by devastating

Chakrakotea, he overwhelmed the illustrious Ganga king with anxiety-------‘(56)
Krishana Deva Raya of Vijayanagar Empire in Nandapur

I had come across Bisna Sisa family in Nandapur. As for the Bisna Poraja who
play vital role in performing the age old Holpoda celebration of the Nandapur past
dynasty is well documented. (Kornel, 1999) (57). There is mention of Bisnaga
King and Bisnaga city in chronicle of Fernao Nuniz, 1535-37, that is cited by
Robert Sewell (1900). The Bisnaga is referred to Narsymga i.e. Narasingha Raya
of Vijayanagar (58). Nandapur had fallen in the hands of Vijayanagar Kings in
the past. According to Robert Sewell, Krishana Deva Raya (Bisnag king) of
Vijayanagar was present in Symamdry, the present day Simhanchalam and
halted for six months. (59).He mentions the city of Modogal in the context (60)
but is not clear whether it is the same Modogal of Visakhapatnam. However
Singh Deo (61) has wrote,’---------- and marched to Simhadri, and after erecting a
pillar of victory at Pottunur in the very heart of Kalinga country, he performed
Mahadanas------ and thence returned to Vijayanagar (via) Rajahmundry. (62) The
said hill route is located in Konam in Motto Pradesh. Mottu is known as Kamba-
Mottu in Malkangiri of Jeypore Zamindary. After conquering the hill forts in
Nandapur or Jeypore, Krishna Deva Raya occupied Madgol. Oddadi and
neighbouring forts and posted a stone –slab with an inscription (Now illegible) in
Rayavaram in Sarvasidhi Taluk (Visakhapatnam), in commemoration of his
victory of the Jeypore country (63). (Vide Sewell’s Antiquities. Vol.I in
Rayavaram in Sarvasidhi Taluk (Visakhapatnam)”
Nandapur from People’s Account

Bell wrote, ‘Oriya castes such as Gaudos, Ronas and Paikoas, who are now settled
as cultivators in considerable numbers, still enjoy a prescriptive right to certain
services under the Rajas of Jeypore and no doubt they originally entered the
district as soldiers and servants of the earliest Rajas.’(64)
The Malis in Nandapur came from Allahabad and the Magadhia Gaudos are
certainly from Magadha.This is also indicative that there was influence of Guptas
in this part of the country, though hard evidence is lacking.
Pandya Dynasty and Chellia Poraja or Konda Poraja in Koraput

District
The Chellia Porajas or Konda Poraja are prominent community of Eastern –Ghat
and Nandapur region. The history is silent with reference to them. But from my
studies I believe that the Chellia Poraja are extension of the Porajas living around
Sileru river of Malkangiri. During the construction of Balimella Dam over the
River Sileru, few idols of Hindu deities were unearthed and they are still
conserved in the find village. It gives the impression of Southern dynasty. As the
Western Chalukya camped in Koraput-Bastar region followed by immediate
incursion of Chodas to the said region “Chakrakote war”; it can well be postulated
that the Pandyas also had occupied some land around the Sileru River extending
into the Nandapur and Salur ghats. There in no hard historical evidence to this
effect as of now. The Pandya soldiers and Generals were engaged in Kalinga war
by Kulottunga I as is evident from records.Nilakanta Sastri wrote, “A vassal of
the Cola Emperor from the distant south, the Pandya King Parantaka, took part in
the war( refers to Kalinga war) and assisted Vikramacola. The inscription of
Parantaka Pandya (65) like those of the Vikramacola, state that Kulam of the
Telunga Bhima was captured and that South Kalinga was subdued”(66) He again
continued,” The valiant Pallva Chieftain, Karunakara Tondaiman, lord of the
Vandai, offered to carry out the emperor’s order and was accepted.” (67). This
Kalinga war was against Ananta Chodaganga.So it can well be concluded that
there was presence of Pandya King himself and Pallava Chieftains of Tamilnadu
in the context of Kaling wars and there is strong possibility that they have
rehabilitated their population after loss to Cholas in hills of Trikalinga..
The earlier Pandyas were Jainas and Kun Pandya converted to Saiva by Saint
Sambandar (68). The Chellia Poraja had a strong pointer being Jainas of the past
as seen from their present rituals and ceremonies (Kornel and Gamang, 2010) (69)
The Pandya King Maravarman Rajasimha I had conflict with Pallava King
Nandi-varman Pallavamalla. Pandyas conquered the Kaveri region and lay siege
Nandipura and the Pallavas were rescued by their great general Udyachandra.
(70). In future the historians need to see the relevance of Nandapur in Trikalinga
to Nandipura siege by Pandyas.The fact is becoming still stronger due to the

presence of Paliva Jaina temple in Nandapur close to Koraput town.
It can be seen from the Tirumalai Inscriptions that was translated by Prof.
Hltzsch (71) as pointed out in earlier chapters, remarked that the
Maduraimandalam to be different than the capital of Pandya kings, Madura.I am
of the opinion that the Maduraimandalam in the context of Rajendra Chola I is the
Pandya king ruled mandala in Koraput- Bastar; that implies the reasonable
connection to Chellia Poraja and Pandy dynasty.
As per Yashoda Devi ,’An important dynasty in South Kalinga, the Matsyas ruled
over the Matyadesa i.e. Oddadivishaya (A.D.1200-1470) with capital at
Oddadi, 16 miles from Anakapalle in Vizagapatnam district for a period of two
and half centuries from about A.D. 1200 to 1470. Their ancestry goes back to the
5th century A.D. The Matsyas had their own crest seal and coinage and two
Matsyas i.e. double fish was their emblem.(72) .They may have had some
connection with the Pandyas is postulated by Yashoda Devi; whose emblem was
also fish. (73).
There is another aspect Sircar mentions that there was rivalry between the Pandya
and Kalinga factions in the Ceylonese court. (74).
Eastern Gangas in Trikalinga

The Eastern Gangas were ruling Trikalinga and then started ruling the Kalinga.
The Trikalinga remained as an integral part of Kalinga till the Eastern Chalukya
king Gunga Vijaydity III occupied the region and thence it was changing hands
and many dynasties invaded and ruled the region.
Eastern Chalukya in Trikalinga

We have dealt here some important events that took place in Trikalinga by some
Vengi rulers, the Eastern Chalukyas.
Gunaga Vijayaditya III (844-888A.D.)

B. Venkatakrishna Rao wrote, “Gunaga Vijayaditya III seems to have marched
against the king of Dahala and defeated him (75.) Dahala was another name for
the kingdom of Chedi which lay in the Central Provinces. The king of Dahala at
this time was Kokalladeva I, father-in –law of the Rastrakuta king Krishna II (76).
Having defeated him Vijayaditya III burnt his city Achalapura and captured his
herds of elephants and levied tribute (77) the lord of the Trikalinga, who was
tributary to the King of Chedi. His capital Chitrakuta, which corresponds to
Chakrakuta, in the Bastar State (78), was then reduced and the whole country was
subdued and annexed to the kingdom of Vengi.” Thus he was the first Eastern
Chalukya king to hold the title of Trikalingadhipati and the family continued the
title till close of 10th Century A.D. (79)
Vijayaditya IV Kollabhaganda (922A.D.)

Vijayaditya IV is said to have ruled only over the Trikalinga-atavi or the forest
tracts belonging to Trikalinga in addition to his ancestral kingdom of Vengi (80).
This indicates clearly the Vijayaditya IV was ejected from the whole of Kalinga
with the exception of the forest tracts attached to it. It was probably to re-establish
his supremacy over that country that he led an expedition to Kalinga. Vijayaditya
is generally credited to have won victory at Viraja, but the Inangaru Grant of
Rajaraja II, no doubt, a late document of the Chola-Chalukya period, states that
Vijayaditya captured the city named Viraja and departed to the world of the Gods
(81). The Trikalinga-atavi country was probably lost and gained by Kalingas, as a
consequence of their defeat and the death of their leader in the battle at Viraja;
and Vajrahasta II made himself the master of the entire Trikalinga country
without much trouble.
Amma I, Vikramaditya II and Yuddamalla II (922-935)

After a rule of seven years Amma I died. Vikramaditya II appears to have been an
energetic ruler. During the short period of his rule, he brought under his control
not only his ancestral kingdom, Vengi, but also Trikalinga, which was lost after
the death of Chalukya Bhima I. Though a doughty warrior, and the hero of a
hundred battles, he was notable to keep himself in power for more than eleven
months (82). According to the Digubarru Grant of Chalukya Bhima II, the only
record that refers to the event, Vikramaditya II was attacked by Bhima, the son of
Amma I, who killed him in battle, and occupied the throne for a period of eight
months (83). And Yuddamalla II, the eldest son of Tala I, overthrew him in his
turn.
Danarnava (A.D. 970-71 to 972-3)

Danarnava celebrated his coronation in 892 Saka corresponding to A.D. 970-971.
Nilakanta Sastri wrote, “ The Canjeevaram inscription of Jatacoda Bhima states
that he slained Danarnava and his allies and took procession of the Chalukya
dominion until 1002(84) till thrown out by Saktivarman I, with the help of
Rajaraja (85). N. Venkataramanaya wrote, “The death of Danarnava did not result
in the submission of Vengi. The Samntas and other adherents of the dead monarch
still held out. They fall into three groups. First, there was the Vaidumba king.
Ganda Trinetra whom Danarnava had recently reduced to subjection. He was the
hereditary enemy of the Telugu Cholas, and he was not disposed to accept Bhima,
whom he must have regarded as an equal, as his overlord and sovereign. The
clash between the two became inevitable. The Vaidumba was presumably worsted
in the contest and had to acquiesce in the supremacy of the Telugu Chola. Next
come the Samntas, Manyas, and the wild tribes dwelling in the jungles in the east.
The hilly regions situated in the Madhya or Central Kalinga corresponding to the
present Agency tracts had already been the home of warlike savage tribes who
showed no inclination to submit to authority. It was not an easy task to keep them
under control, and the Chalukya rulers of Vengi had to adopt special measures to
enforce their authority. They assigned estates to their nobles in this region; and
one of the branches of the royal family migrated early to this district and settled
down there permanently. No wonder that the Samntas and Manyas at the head of
the jungle tribes, confident of the natural strength of their mountain strongholds,
held out against Bhima and defied his authority. Bhima was a brave warrior and
capable leader. Undaunted by the numerous difficulties that beset his path, he led
an expedition against them and put them down with a stern hand (86).” He further
said, ‘The war with the eastern Samntas and Manyas involved Bhima in a war
with Kamarnava, the Eastern Ganga king of Kalinga. The causes of this war are
not difficult to surmise. Danarnava was related, through his mother, to the
Kalinga royal family and Kamarnava might have been naturally desirous of
avenging the death of his cousin, and restoring to his children their patrimony.
More important than this was, perhaps, his ambition to re-establish the
sovereignty of his family over the Central and the Southern Kalinga, this had
remained in the possession of the Chalukyas since the time of Kubja-
Vishnuvardhana. Kamarnava was not, however, destined to achieve his ambition.
Though he held out for a while against the Telugu Chola, he had to succumb
ultimately. Notwithstanding the great distance which he had to traverse, Bhima, it
is said, marched at the head of an army to Kalinga and after some hard fighting
put to death not only Kamarnava but also his younger brother, Vinayadiya who,
on his death, succeeded him on the throne of Kalinga.(87)”.
He further said, “The Kalinga war was not an easy walk over to Bhima, as the
language of the Kailasanatha temple inscription seems to suggest. He had to
spend several years fighting with the Eastern Ganga princes in the hilly tracts of
Kalinga. Though he slew Danarnava and took possession of his kingdom as early
as A.D. 972-3, it was not until A.D. 981, some eight years later, that he was able
to overcome the opposition of the Kalingas. Kamarnava seems to have offered
stubborn resistance until he fell heroically fighting against the enemy in A.D. 978.
The task of defending the realm seems to have then devolved upon his younger
brother. Vinayaditya, who carried on the fight for three years longer, until he too
laid down his life on the battlefield. With the death of Vinayaditya in A.D. 981,
the backbone of the opposition was finally broken, and Kalinga submitted. Bhima
having thus successfully destroyed all his enemies became the undisputed master
of the kingdoms of Vengi and Kalinga and his authority was not seriously
questioned until the end of the century.”(88).
Nadupuru in Pottapi-nadu
During Ganga Vijayaditya III, a Eastern Chalukya king‘s period; the Eastern
Ganga, the Vaidumba, the Nolamba and the Telugu Cola Chief were all involved
in internecine warfare. (89)
The Vaidumbas ruled Pottapi-nadu that extended across the Eastern Ghats
from Rajampeta in the Cuddapah district to Kalahasti in Chittore district.
Bhubana Trinetra Vaidumba Maharaja ruled Kadapa -twelve and neigbhouring
country ‘from his capital (Vidu) at Pottapi in Paka-nadu’ in AD 972 (90) is
known for his Madras Museum Copper-plate Grant. His authority extended over
Western Cuddapah district is known from Upparpalle on Cuddapah-Pusphagiri
Road, dated 972-3A.D (91)
N. Venkataramanaya said,” An element of doubt, however, creeps in, on account

of the existence of another tract of territory known also as Pattapi-Nadu in a
different part of the Telugu country. An epigraph at Calukya-Bhimavaram in the
Cocanada taluk of the East Godavari district dated A.D.1027 registers the gift by
a certain Sankyaraja, an illegitimate son of Nungananti Semmarangirija of
Nagavamsa, of the village of Nadupuru in Pottapi-nandu. It is obvious that the
village of Nadupuru and Pottapi-nandu in which it was included must have been
situated some where in the neighbourhood of Calukya-Bhimavaram.” (92). He
further continued, “Though these inscriptions (An epigraph at Calukya-
Bhimavaram and Akkaliapundi Grant dated A.D. 1368) are late in date, it is not
unreasonable to belie on the strength of their evidence that there was in South
Kalinga a district called Pottapi nandu corresponding to apart of the East
Godavari district. This might very well have been the district of Pottapi-nandu
which Danarnava granted as an appanage to the Mudugonda Calukya chiefs,
Malliyaraja and Gondyaraja.If this definition of Pottapi-nandu and the Pampa
river as correct, there are no grounds for supposing that Danarnava ever
subjugated the Pottapi- nadu in Southern Telugu country, and came, as a
consequence, into conflict with Colas of Tanjore.”(93)
I am of the opinion that the Pottapi-nandu is the present day Pottangi area of
Koraput district and the Nadupuru is the Nandapur located in Pottangi area and
are well with in the South Kalinga region as pointed out by Venkataramanaya.
Western Gangas in Kalinga (Nandapur) and Konga

Western Ganga kingdom as whole is mentioned in Epigraphic as Ganga- rajya,
Gangeya-rajya, Gangapati and Gangavadi, but from 8th Century onwards they
were referred with suffix 96,000, Gangavadi-96, 000, Ganga- 6000 and
Gangapadi- 32000.
The Madviala inscription of Nitimarga-Permanadi shows that ,” when illustrious

Kongonivarman-Dharmma maharajadhiraja, Paameswara, the master of
Nandagiri, the chosen lord of the city Kovalal, Nitimarga-Permanadi was ruling
over the earth (by) governing Gangavadi-96,000
When the illustrious hero of the Pallava family, the lord of the goddess wealth and
the goddess earth, Nolambadhiraja, who was entitled to the band of the five great
instruments was ruling Ganga-6000.”(94)
This indicates clearly that the Gangavadi-96000 and Ganga-6000 are two different
countries or two different administrative-geographical locations. The Pallava were
friendly subordinate rulers to the Western Gangas.
The Husukuru inscription of Rajamalla-Permandi (870-71 A.D.) indicates that

Satyavakya- Konganivarma Rajamall-Permandi, the lord of Kovalapura and
master of Nandagiri was ruling over the earth, and when Butarasa, anointed as the
Crown-prince, was governing Kongal –nadu and Pu-nadu on the boarder of
Permadi ( i.e. the ruling king).(95)
As mentioned in early chapter, Kuknur plates on Marasimha II, A.D. 968-69,

states that he was ruling Dhavala-visaya and Gangapati-96000.We are of the
opinion that the Gangapati was contagious to Dhavala-visaya in South Kosala. So
Gangapati is a part of the Gangavadi-9600. (96)
Marasimha, having conquered all the feudatory kings; was ruling the entire
Ganga-mandala. (97)
In some inscriptions there is mention of Gangakuta. B.V. Rao (1973) writes,” He

also stated to have cut off the head of Mangi, drove the Gangas of the south i.e.
the Western Gangas to flee before his armies and take refuge on the top of the hill
Gangakuta, which apparently a fugitive expression meaning the capital of the
Gangas, humbled Baddega and defeated the Rashtrakuta Krishna on the battle
field. (98)”
Vikramaditya VI, W. Chalukya prince conquered Gangakunda? Vengi and

Chakrakuta. (99)
The southwest of Vengi-mandala was invaded by Western Gangas is a valuable

indication. During the period of Vijayaditya III, the Trikalinga was occupied by
the Vengi rulers. So, the South-west of the Vengi can be the Trikalinga portion
also. However it is not very clear.
The Kudlur plates of Marasimha, the Western Ganga king (962-63 A. D.) speaks
of his victory over Kerala, Pandya, Konga, Kalinga, Kosala and other countries.
(100)
Kadalur Grant (101) of Marasimha, 962 A.D. says, ‘of the king Jayaduttaraya (i.e.
Butuga II), the queen was Kallabba, daughter of Simhavarman of the Calukya
family, to them was born the king Satyavakya Marasimha, the brother of the
king Marula (Verse, 34). (102).
The summary note indicates clearly the patronising Jainism by queen Kallabba
(103).
We are inclined to think that the following names in the Western Ganga
inscription have much to do in relation to Koraput-Bastar Jainism. They are
Nandagiri, Kongunivarman, Konga country and queen Kallabba of the king
Jayaduttraya with the existing name of the places and rivers of Koraput.
The findings clearly indicate that Jainism persisted in between the Kolab river and
Indravati river doab and both join at different points in Bastar district of
Chhattisgarh to form the Godavari river that flows down in Andhra Pradesh.,
The Nandapur was one of main pithas of Jainism in Koraput, and was the ancient
capital of the Jeypore state. There is one large single granite stone Elephant,
beautifully carved on the banks of Isani Ganga at Nandapur. This was probably
the first capital of Western Gangas where Jaina temples were prevalent. It is
agreed by all that the existing all Jaina idols of Kalika temple of Jeypore was all
from Nandapur which were transferred after the shift of capital to Jeypore.
There is no written inscription on Western Gangas; discovered from Koraput as it

is. This may be due to the fact that the land being under occupation of ruling or
allied Dynasties may be Chalukyas and Rastrakutas; and Western Gangas were
only interested in making Jainism influence. The other aspects also that
subsequent king erased out all evidences to this effect. We believe that it was the
queen Kallabha, wife of king Jayaduttranga (Batuga II) and mother of Satyavkya
Marasimha of Western Ganga dynasty who had established the Jainism through
teachers and mulasanghas all over Nandapur, Jeypore sub-division and the great
river flowing from Nandapur down to Bastar is named after her and since known
as Kolab river.
The Nandapur as it may run for various historical findings, it looks to be

Western Ganga capital in this part and ruled by one branch and is described out
of Nandagiri title, which Western Gangas used to bear. There is no concrete
evidence yet.
The Nandapur Jaina temple was totally destroyed and in ruins, we don’t have its
history may be the Bhairaba cult and Virasaivites entry through the advent of
Jangamas and Omanatyas may have attributed to it. (104).
Thus the idols were placed under earth and elsewhere, which subsequently
surfaced out in small temples like Subaie and Jamunda, and elsewhere. The ruin
mounds of the said temple in Nandapur need excavation and history shall appear.
More ever, there are several place names that are common to Koraput district,
especially the Nandapur region with that of the Western Ganga Inscriptions and
have been enumerated for future scholars to look into it. They are as following.
The Hosakote Plates of Konganyadhiraja (5th Century) mentions,’ under the great
tank in the village of Pulli-uru in division (bhoga) called Korikunda. (105)
The Pulli-uru is the Bhagra; Pulli means tiger in both Telugu and Kanada. The
Korikunda may be the modern Korkunda of Koraput.
The Mercara Plates of Avinita (9th A.D.) speaks of places like Badanaguppe,
Dasnur and Polma also Kottgara. (106)
In Koraput, near Semiliguda a Poroja village called, Polma does exist. The
Dasnur may be Daspur, and Kattgara may be the Kottragdha.
The Manne plates of Marasimha (798 A.D.) says of places like Puli-tank,
Kacchava tank, Kondakonda lineage, Salmali village, Jaina Gana: Puspandi etc.It
is all in Ganga-mandala. (107)
The Kacchava may be Kacchala, Salmali may be the Salmi village in Koraput,
and the Jaina Gana Puspandi may be the Putpandi Koraput block village.
The Kudulur Plates of Marasimha King Raja mall----“such was the Dharma-
maharajadhiraja Paramesvara Nitimarga-Konguni varma who had the first name
of Rajamalla [he was also known as] Kacceyaganga (.108)
The village Kecchala in Nandapur rejoin, close to Koraput town is one of the
magnificent Jaina monuments of Koraput district. This may have relevance to
Kacceyaganga?
Foot Note: Verse II of the Kerehalli Plates, describing Satyavakya Rajamalla, son
of Nitimarga Ereganga does find a place in this charter, So also, the epithet
Komaravedenga ( the prince charming) attributed to Nitimarga Ereganga in line
72 of the text of the present charter, is found omitted in the Kerehalli plates.(109)
Further, it is mentioned, ‘Nitimarga -Kongunivarma alias Eregangadeva who

ever meditating at the feet of the god Arahat.’ (110).
There is one Jaina temple in Kumaradevaganjana in Nandapur and another at

Erenga village in Jolaput area of Koraput. The first may be the Komaravedenga
and the second may be due to Eregangadeva who as ardent believer of Jaina Arhat
may have constructed the temple or named after them.
Vinayacandra’s Kavyasiksa, e.g. mentions Parta70, 000 villages along with

Surastra, Lata-desa, Gujara-desa, Dahal etc. (111).
In Bendiganahalli Plates of Vijaya- Krishanavarmaman (5th A.D.) is stated,’’ He ,

on the 13th day of Asvayuja in the first year of his prosperous reign, when he was
at the victorious camp of Kavipada, made a gift of the villages Kuru-ura in
Perati-bhoga, a sub-division within Paruvi-visaya to Matrri-sarma.”(112) With
reference to the above, the village Parata in Nandapur seems to have some
historical connection and has been described in Western Ganga chapter.
It is the opinion of the author that an attempt has been made here to narrate the
literature that speak of Nandapur and has nearly close proximity to Nandapur of
present Koraput. The interaction of major dynasties like Eastern Ganga, Eastern
Chalukya, Choda, Western Chalukya and Chindaka Nagas even the minor
dynasties of South Kalinga needs attention with relation to Nandapur history. The
future research in the topic will be useful.
References
1. Singh Deo, K.B. (1938) Nandapur (A Forsaken Kingdom), Vol.I.p.1-11.
2. Ibid.
3. Singh Deo, K.B. (1938) op.cit. p.10. & vide Oram’s Report on
Nandapuram or Jeypore A.D. 1784 cited by Singh Deo, K.B.
4. Bell, R.C.S. (1945) Orissa District Gazetteer, Koraput.p.22.
5. Ibid.p.25
6. Singh Deo, K.B. (1938) op.cit. p.9.
7. Ibid.p.22-25.
8. Devi Yashoda. The History of Andhra Country 1000A.D.-1500 A.D.
9. Singh Deo, K.B.op.cit, p.1-3
10. Ibid.p.7
11. Ibid.p.1.
12. Devi Yashoda.op.cit.p.332
13. Ibid
14. Ibid.
15. 289 of 1899; S.I.I.VI 891.
16. 309 of 1899; S.I.I. VI 950
17. 281 of 1896; S.I.I. V.1162
18. JAHRS, VI.p.13
19. Vizagapatam Gazetteer.p.26; Vizag District Manual.p.284.
19. Devi Yashoda. Op.cit.p.336-337
20. Ibid.
21. E.I. XX.p.
22. JBORS.IV.p.91ff
23. JBORS, Vol.XIII.pp.237, 241; Sachau, Vol.II.pp5-7
24. E.I. XX.p75
25. Sahu, N.K. Kharavela. P.35-41
26. H.C. Raychaudhury India in the Age of Nandas: in K.A.N.Sastri Edi. Age
of the Nandas & Mauryas.p.26-27.
27. Majumdar, R.C and Altekar. The Vakataka –Gupta Age. p.110-111
28. Singh, R. L. India- a regional Geography. p.776
29. Majumdar, R.C and Altekar, A.S. op.cit p.112
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid. op.cit
32. E.I.XXXIV, p91ff.
33. Roy, R.K. Feudatory States of Medieval Orissa, Sambalpur University
Thesis, PhD.Thesis.Un-published. p.103.
34. Mohapatra, Jadumani. Mandala Kingdoms. Comprehensive History and
Culture of Orissa.Vol.I.p.276
35. Senapati, N.et.al (Edi) Gazetteer of India: Orissa, Dhenkanal i/c 1972,
p.52.
36. JBORS, XVI.p.459ff; E.I.XXVII, p.325-30
37. Sahu, J.K. et al. History of Orissa, Cuttack, p.139
38. Sircar, D.C. The Classical Age: Bharatya Vidya Bhavan,p.212.

39. Bell, R.C.S.op.cit.p.58
40. Sastri, K.A.N. A History of South India. P.155..
41. Kornel Das and Gamang, Giridhar (2010) Lost Jaina Tribes in Trikalinga.
42. Tripathy, Sunderlal. Meghaduta burnit Ramagiri ki Bhogalika Punarbichar
(in Hindi). (1974) ANC IND.History and Archaeology, Sagar University,
Madhya Pradesh. p.29
43. Majumdar, R.C. and Altekar, A.S. op.cit.p.146 and JAHRS.I, p228.
44. Pedda purappadu Plates of Vismagiddhi, Bharti, Oct. 1983, 1984 and May
1985.
45. Jawaharlal, G. Jainism in Andhra – As depicted in inscriptions. 29B.
Peddapurappadu Plates of Vismasiddhi. p. 225-230
46. A.S.I, AR, 1910-II, pp.78-87
47. SII, IX, Pt. I, No.278
48. Kurkyala Inscription of King Arikesarin II was found in Karimnagar taluk
in Karimnagar district. The King was from Chalukyas of Vemulavada. It
also records the installation of the images of this family deities, the
Adyanta (the first and the last) Jinas and Chakresvari on the Siddha-sila
(the rock of the Siddhas) and the construction of a basadi called
Tribhuvanatilaka, a tank Kavitagunarnava by Jinavallabha, son of
Bhimapayya and Abbanabbe who are said to have belonged to Kamme –
Brahma caste and hailed from Vamgiparra village in Venginadu. Cited by
Jawaharlal, G. Jainism in Andhra – As depicted in Inscriptions. 37.
Parbhani Plates of king Arikesarin III. p.253-257.
49. Kornel Das and Gamang, Giridhar (2010) op.cit.
50. N. Venkataramanayya, Chalukyas of Vemulavada, pp.92-98
51. Ray, H.C. DHNI, Pt.II, p.751; C.I.I. Vol IV.Insc. No. 51.
52. Sharma, R.K. The Kalachuris & Their Times: The Kalachuri Imperialism
at Its Zenith. Chapter III, p.21-29.
53. C.I.I.IV.,Ins.No.77
54. E.I.XIII., Ins.No.85
55. E.I.XIII, Ins.No. 100, V.8
56. E.I.XIII., Ins. No.89, V.11.
57. Kornel Das (1999) Tribal Cultural Heritage and Cult. The Gutob Gadaba
Tribe of Orissa. p.5.
58. Sewell, Robert. (1900) A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) London. p.291
59. Ibid.p.319
60. Ibid.p.354 and 355
61. Singh Deo, K.B.op.cit.p.6-7
62. 474 of 1919 Madras Epigraphy Report.
63. Sewell, Robert. Antiquities. Vol.I
64. Bell.R.C.S.op.cit.p.25.
65. K.A. Nilakanta, Sastri. The Colas. p.338
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid. p.322
68. Sathianathaier, R. The Classical Age: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan: The
Pandyas, p.268.
69. Kornel Das and Gamang, Giridhar op.cit. p.237.
70. Santhianathaier, R., Dynasties of South India: The Pallavas. In The
Classical Age. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.p.267-268.
71. E.I.IX, p.232
73. Yashoda Devi. The History of Andhra Country: The Dynasties in South
Kalinga. p.307
74. Sircar, D.C. Ceylon. In The Struggle for Empire. Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan.p.261..
75. E.I. Vol.IX, p.45.
76. I.A.Vol. XII, p.263
77. JAHRS.Vol.V, p.101&E.I. Vol. V, p.305
78. E.I. Vol.X, p.27
79. Rao, B.V. History of the Eastern Chalukya of Vengi (610-1210
A.D). p.196.
80. E.I. Vol. V.p.133
81. Cp.23 of 1916-17 & N.V.p.154
82. S.I.I. No. 37,p.45
83. I.A. XIII,p.214
84. E.I. vol.XXI,p.29
85. K.A.N.Sastri, The Colas.pp.218-19
86. Venkataramanaya, N. The Eastern Calukyas of Vengi.p.203-05
87. Ibid
88. Ibid
89. E.I. XXIV, No 26, p.183f; JOR, XII, pp.196 f
90. Cp .7 of 1935-36
91. 325 of 1905, A.R.E. 1935-36, Part II, p.58.
92. S.I.I. V.55.
93. Venkataramanaya.N. op.cit. p.305-06
94. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) Inscriptions of Western Ganga. Madviala inscription
of Nitimarga-Permanadi No. I. p.316-17.
95. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) Inscriptions of Western Ganga. Husukuru
inscription of Rajamalla-Permandi.No. 102. p.318-319
96. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) op.cit. Kukkanur Inscriptions of Marasimha

II.p.490-513
97. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) Ibid.
98. Rao, B.V. op.cit. p.185
99. E.I. Vol. V, p.122.
100. Buhler (Ed.) Vikramankadevacharitam (1875). Introduction p.31.
101. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) op.cit Kudlur plates of Marasimha.No.138. p.411
102. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) op.cit. Kadalur Grant of Marasimha.p.430
103. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) Ibid.p.447
104. Rao Hanumantha, B.S.L.Religion In Andhra.p.197-202
105. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) op.cit Hosakote Plates of Konganyadhiraja.p.15
106. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) op.cit. Mercara Plates of Avinita.p.65
107. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) op.cit. Manne plates of Marasimha.p.204
108. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) op.cit. . Kudulur Plates of Marasimha.p.427
109. Ibid.p.427
110. Ibid.p.377
111. Rajsekhara’s Kavyamimamsa G.O.S. ed. Pp.284-49 of. Nos.6,
10,25,29,37 and 38 of the Skanda Purana list quoted
112. Ramesh, K.V. (1984) op.cit Bendiganahalli Plates of Vijaya-
Krishanavarmaman p.17.
NANDAPUR ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS
Remains of Sati Stones and others Elephant half above ground, Jaina?
Lateral view of the elephant

Sati Stone, Nandapur
Sati stone, Nandapur Bhairaba, Nandapur
Subaie old Jaina temple

Laxami, Nandapur
door, Nandapur
Batrisha singhasana,
Ganesha idols, Nandapur reconstructed
Chakreswari, Subaie-
Sati Stone or Hata pakana originally from Umbel
Fore view from

Paliba Jaina temple remains Pitaiegumpa of Mahavira
Front view from Pitaiegumpa of Umbel Jaina temple,

Mahavira Nandapur
Honjore, Jaina temple remains

Ardha-Siva, Banamaliput,
Nandapur
Siva Linga, Banamaliput, Tirthankara Subaie Jaina

Nandapur temple
Visnu, Banamaliput,
Amba, Jaina temple, Umbel Nandapur
Visnu, Banamaliput, Nandapur Jaina Temple Remains in Umbel

BHAIRABA SINGAPUR
There are two Singapurs in Koraput district and both are having archaeological
importance remains; one is Kalyana Singapur and the other is Bhairaba Singapur.
These Singapur as spelled in present days is actually Simhapur of the past.
It is with reference to the context of the above Simhapur the possible linkage and
reference can be drawn with ample evidence as following.
The Bhairaba Simhapur got the prefix title of Bhairaba, mostly after the Bhairaba
sect who attained superiority in the region. Jogi and Omanatya are the two sects
who came possibly from the Karnataka in the remote past with the urge Bhairab
cult of Saivities and further propagated. These communities are still to be seen in
the region and the former Jogis are still in-charge of the important Siva temples in
the district.
The present day Bhairaba Singapur is located east to Borigumma under the west
foot hills of eastern ghat. The Bhairaba Singapur was the gateway ancient city to
Kalinga and Vengi that is to the coastal region of eastern India; thus probably the
name has been derived.
The other version is also there that the famous Jain teacher Simhandadini
preached and passed to south from this place. This is also a great seat of Jainas
(Digambars) from ancient period, which is a well documented fact (1).
There is very scanty information except few Sanskrit inscriptions about this place
of interest. The details of the archeological finds have been dealt by several
authors.
The other pathway is ‘Kathargad’ which is located close to the river Indravati and
Murian configure which is another gateway to the Eastern ghat hills and both the
walking paths i.e. B.Singapur also lead to Dasmanthpur and thence to
Kakrigumma and is about in 3 hours of walk to plains of Narayanpatna which
leads to Babli and thence to coastal belt.
This Bhairaba Singapur is the second capital of Kalinga, is postulated by the
present author.
 The Pedda-dugam plates of Sri Sattrudamanadeva (2)

Place of issue: Simhapura and Topography Giri-Kalinga.
The donor of this inscription seems to be a subordinate king, posted at
Simhapura, most probably under the Gangas of Kalinga who captured the
country after the extinction of the Mathras from that region. The term
Giri-Kalinga might have been under the hill portion of the Kalinga.
 Dantavaktra near Chicacole in the same district at Kalinga-nagara, modern
Mukhalingam in Srikakulam district; and the second capital at the old city
of Dantapura, identified the Easter Ganga capital. (3)
The Kalinga kings about 5th-6th century are known for their charters. A
royal city named Simhapuram, modern Singupuram near Chicacole is
mentioned in some of these records, but finds no mention in the Allahabad
inscription and thus may have flourished after the middle of the 4th
century.
Pitribhktas of Kalinga also issued grants from Simhapura. (4)
Some Mathra kings of Kalinga also issued grants for Simhapura, but they
were ruling simultaneously with Pitrabhaktas from their capital at
Pishtapura. (5)
D.C. Sirkar (1988) wrote, “When the Pitribhaktas were ruling from Simhapura in
Central Kalinga, the royal family of the Matharas had their capital at Pishtapura in
the south. The Ragolu Grant of the Mathara Maharaja Sakti-varman, which
records a gift of land near Chicacole, was issued in the king’s 13th regnal year
from the city Pishtapura. The king bears the title “lord of Kalinga”. This shows
that the Matharas of Pishtapura conquered the heart of the Pitribhakta kingdom in
Central Kalinga. This is also supported by the fact that the Sakunaka Grant issued
in the 28th regnal year of another Mathara king named Ananta-Sakti-varman, who
enjoyed former capital of the Pitribhaktas. Maharaja Ananta-Sakti-varman was
one of the immediate successors of Sakti-varman of the Ragolu grant. This is
suggested by the fact that an official mentioned as Amatya Arjunadatta in the
Ragolu grant of Sakti-varman, has been credited with a higher official designation
and called Desakshapataladhikrita-Talavara Arjunadatta in Ananta-Sakti-
varman’s record. The Amatya was probably raised to higher offices during the
latter part of his life. According to some writers, the name Ananta-Sakti-varman
actually indicates ‘Ananta-varman’s son Sakti-varman.” It has also been
suggested that Ananta-Sakti-varman was a successor of Sakti-varman, a third king
named Ananta-varman probably intervening between the reigns of the two. (6)
At present, there is a good population of ‘Omanatya’ at B.Singapur of Koraput
district. These Omanatya as they call themselves are also found in Ganjam district
of Orissa. It thus gives evidence that B.Singapur and Kalinga region had some
kind of linkage from the past
This locality has much more historical evidence above and under the earth. The
ancient Jain images scattered around Kumuli, Pakanaguda, Narigaon, Borigumma
and Khebdi depict of a rich history of the region which Kulottunga I ’s inscription
described it to be the ‘Jain hills’.. (7)
The capital of Kalinga before Gangas was at Simhapura. (The Gangas did not
prefer to have their headquarters there. So, for the purpose of administration they
kept out-post at Simhapura by appointing a member of the royal family as their
sub-ordinate (vide Pedd-duggam plate). The Gangas had their capital at
Dantapura at the beginning of the rule. Maharaja Indravarman issued his grant in
G.E.39 from Dantapura. But in Samanta-varman’s grant the royal seat is called
Srinivasa. We cannot say it refer to Dantapura of Kalinganagar. (8)
It is known form classical Greek writers like Diodorus, Curtius and Plutarch that
the last Nanda King Agrammes or Xandrammes (Augrasaniya) who was ruling at
the time of Alexander’s invasion, had suzerainty over Phasii (Magadha) and
Gangaridae. (9)
Only the Gangaridae portion described by Megasthenes as ‘Gangaridae
Calingarum Regia’ continued under the last Nanda ruler. (10)
References
1. Kornel Das and Gamang, Giridhar (2010) Lost Jaina Tribes of Tri-
kalinga (Under publication)
2. JAHRS Vol XXI, p.159 ff., E.I.XXXI pp.89-93 ff.
3. Pedd-Dugam Plates.No.52: Inscription Orissa, VilIi,p-237.
4 Sircar, D.C. (1988) The Pitribhaktas, II Kalinga. The Classical Age, Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. P-212
5. Ibid.
6. The Matharas. HAIP- The Classical Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
Bombay. p213
7. Inscription of Orissa Vol.I. pt. II, pp.59.62
8. Rajaguru, S.N. Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol II. P-338
9 Mc Crindle, Invasion of India by Alexander, pp.221 and 228
10. Mc Crindle, Ancient India. P.137
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS IN BHAIRABA SINGAPUR
Pair of Feet in Bhairaba Singapur Siva Temple
Rsabhanatha
Bhairaba in Bhairaba Singapur Parsvnatha in Bhairaba Singapur

unearthed from Siva temple
Visnu in Bhairaba Singapur
Virasaivite holding his head Bhairaba Singapur Hill needs

(The head was reconstructed recently) exploration and opening of the cave
Bhairaba from Bhairaba Singapur

CHANDELLAS
A schedule caste, named Chandalas are found in Jeypore sub-division i.e.

Borigumma, Kotpad area extending into Bastar district of Chhattisgarh. The noted
villages are Kamta, Ranaspur, Bondaguda, Mulasar etc. The clans are Naga,
Surya, Chandra, Bhalu, Bagha, Saharia, Sundarabaria, Dhangia, Baunsosulia,
Kumaria etc. These people are professional weavers, and famous for their special
skills. Chandalas and another schedule caste called chamars of Kotpad are distinct
in their racial features. Their complexion is white, with coloured retina (eyes) and
sharp features. They seem to have close resemblance to western world, possibility
they are the descendent of Greeks who came down to these forest first as invaders
or defeated past rulers who adorned untouchable schedule caste status.
Chandella man with coloured ratina Chandella couple
The following history as depicted by D.C. Ganguly clearly indicates the presence
of Chandella dynasty in Dahala; so I conclude in later course of time they have
entered to Bastar and Koraput districts of the present day.
D.C. Ganguly wrote, “The Chandella king Dhanga, who raised his family to the
rank of the principal ruling dynasties of the age, was succeeded by his son Ganda
some time after A.D. 1002 (1).”
Later Trailokyamalla, from the same dynasty inflicted a severe defeat on the
Muslims at Kakadadaha, modern Kakadwa, south-east of Bedwara, some time
before A.D. 1205, and recovered all the territories including Kalanjara. His
inscriptions, which bear dates from A.D. 1205 to 1241, prove that Lalitpur,
Chattarpur State, Panna State, Ajaigarh State, and Rewah State were included in
his kingdom. In A.D. 1211-1212 he wrested Rewah, in Baghelkhand, and
probably the whole of Dahala-mandala from the Kalachuri Vijayasimah.
Kielhorn identifies Bhojuka with the father of Abhayadeva, who is known to have
lived in the neighbourhood of Ajaigarh in or before A.D. 1268 during the reign of
the Chandella Viravarman. Vaseka’s brother Ananda, who was in charge of
Jayadurga, claims to have established peace and order in the kingdom of
Trailokyavarman by subduing the wild tribes of the Bhillas, Sabaras and the
Pulindas.
Karna, Kalachuris of Tripuri assumed the title Trikalingadhipati. He built a
temple at Banaras and founded a city near Jabalpur. He married Avalladevi of the
Huna family, who gave birth to a son Yasahkarna. In his old age Karna seems to
have abdicated his throne in favour of Yasahkarna shortly before A.D. 1073.
In the early part of his regin Yasahkarna led two aggressive campaigns, one
against Champaranya, modern Champaran in North Bihar, and the other against
the Andhra country, which was then ruled by Vijayaditya VII of the Eastern
Chalukya dynasty. He had to fight a number of battles in deference of his
kingdom. Jayasimha, younger brother of the Chalukya Vikramaditya VI, raided
Dahala before A.D. 1081, while Chandradeva of the Gahadavala dynasty wrested
Allahabad and Banaras. Paramara Lakshmadeva plundered his capital Tripuri, and
encamped on the Reva for some time. The Chandella Sallakshanavarman claims
to have defeated a king of Chedi, who was in all probability Yasahkrana. All these
successive foreign invasions weakened the foundation of the Kalachuri kingdom.
His son Gayakarna succeeded Yasahhkarna some time in the first quarter of the
twelfth century A.D.
D.C. Ganguly wrote, “Somesvara I and his feudatory, the Kakatiya Prola, raided
Kosala, and conquered Chakrakota, in the Bastar State, after defeating a king of
the Naga dynasty. It is not unlikely that he came into clash with Virarajendra and
Rajendera Chola II at Chakrakota. Prola killed Gonna, the chief of Purakuta.
Vajrahasta V, king of Kalinga, suffered defeat at the hands of Somesvara I (2).”
Reference
1. Ganguly, D.C, The Chandellas. The History and Culture of the Indian
People: The struggle for Empire. Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, p-58.
2. Ibid p.172.
DOMBS
Domb are an unfortunate scheduled caste (SC) community who have been abused
and mistreated since centuries. I am of the opinion that SC communities are the
defeated prajas of past dynasties of different times and the winners forced them to
take up menial jobs including horse caretakers, palanquin carries etc.
Oriya Dombs
The name Domb or Dombo is said to be derived from word “Dumba” meaning
devil, in relevance to the thieving properties of the tribe (Thurston & Rangachari,
1909) (1). Mr. H.A. Stuart (1891) (2) writes, “Dombas are a Dravidian caste of
weavers and menials, found in the hill tracts of Vizagapatam. This caste appears
to be an offshoot of the Dom caste of Bengal, Bihar and North-Western
provinces. Like the Doms, the Dombs are regarded with disgust, because they eat
beef, pork, horseflesh, rats and the flesh of animals, which died a natural death,
and both are considered to be Chandalas or Pariahs by the Bengalis and Woiyas.
Bell (1945) said,” closely allied to the Dombs are the Paidis of Vizapatam, the
Panos of Ganjam and the Gondas of Sambalpur (3). Mr. F. Fawcett (1901)(4)
writes, “The Dombs are an outcaste jungle people, who inhibit the forests on the
high lands fifty to eighty or a hundred miles from the east coast, about
Vizagapatam. Being outcast, they are never allowed to live within a village, but
have their own little hamlet adjoining a village, proper, inhabited by people of
various superior castes. It is fair to say that the Dombs are akin to the Panos of the
adjoining Khond country, a Pariah folk who live amongst the Khonds, and used to
supply the human victims for the Meriah sacrifices. Indeed, the Khonds, who hold
them in contemptuous inferiority, call them Dombas as a sort of alternative title to
Panos. The Paidis of the adjoining Savara or Saora country are also, doubtless,
kinsmen of the Dombs. The same man is said to be called Paidi by Telugus,
Dombas by the Savaras, and Pano by the Khonds.” It is noted in the Census
Report, 1881, that the Pano quarters in Khonds villages are called Dombo Sai (5).
According to Bell (1942) the Gandas of Sambalpur are also closely allied to
Dombs (6).
Missionary Gloyer (1901) (7) noted that the colour of the skin of the Dombs
varies from very dark to yellow, and their height from that of an Aryan to the
short stature of an aboriginal, and that there is corresponding variation in facial
type. It is generally noted that the Dombos are thinly and weak built. The children
at birth mostly have stray red hairs, which gradually change to slightly blakish
tinge. This type of hair pattern is mostly seen among the nomadic tribes of
Northwestern regions.
Musicians of Borigumma Domb lady preserving rice seeds
There are folk stories among tribes of Koraput that the Dombs came later to their
country along with Brahman, Paiko and others.
As per Madras Census Reports, 1891 (8), the following sections of the Dombs are
recorded:
2. Onomia
3. Odia
4. Mirgam
5. Kohara
The sub-divisions seem to be are
1. Mirigani
2. Kobbiriya
3. Odiya
4. Sodabisiya
5. Mandiri
6. Andiniya
I am of the opinion that the Odiya sub-division relates to Eastern Ganga and the
Sodabisiya to the Chodas of Tamilnadu who were ruling this part of the country.
There are also various septs in Odiya Dombs, of which the following have been
recorded:
Bhag (tiger)
Balu (bear)
Nag (cobra)
Hanuman (the Indian languor)
Kochhipo (tortoise)
Bengri (frog)
Kukra (dog)
Surya (Sun)
Matsya (fish)
& Jaikonda (lizard)
Domb traders in weekly market Domb Mahuria
s
Domb musicians playing for Bali celebration
Mr. Fawcett (9) noted with regards to the Domb, “Monkey, frogs and cobras are
taboo, and also the Sunari tree (Ochna squarrosa). The big lizards, cobras, frogs
and the crabs which are found in the paddy fields, and are usually eaten by jungle
people, may not be eaten.”
According to Bell (loc.cit) (10) there appears to be two main sub-divisions among
the Dombs namely the Oriya Dombs and Miriganis. The former who are more
numerous are further subdivided into Kuppias, Maggulis and Mandiris. Among
the Miriganis there are also three sub-sects, namely Kobbiria, Vodillia and
Andiniya. All these septs are further subdivided, as is usual in the Agency, into
exogamous totemistic steps. Oriya Dombs habitually kill cattle and eat beef, while
the Miriganis do not approve of the killing of cattle, but are not averse from eating
the flesh of animals that have died a natural death. The Miriganis generally regard
themselves as superior to the Oriya Dombs and in fact they are better both in
economic status and social customs. In generally they earn a livelihood by
cultivation and weaving and are not to any great extent addicted to crime.”
In the north of the Nowrangpur taluk live a related caste, the Ponakas, but inter-
marriage with the Dombs does not seem to be permitted, and the Ponakas can
perhaps be regarded as Hindus rather than aboriginals.
According to Mr. Hayavadana Rao (11), the Dombs are the weavers, traders,
musicians, beggars, and money-lenders of the hills, some own cattle and cultivate.
Bell (loc.cit) (12) said, “By profession they are drummers, weavers or village
watchmen in Koraput district. To the last-named occupation, they are entitled, as
is frequently the case in India, by their hereditary aptitude for theft which involves
a similar proficiency in its detection.”
Bell further continued, “Though occupying a position so low in the social scale as
to justify their inclusion among the “depressed” classes, their lot is far from being
the unenviable one of outcaste in villages of the plains. In intelligence the Domb
is easily superior to the aboriginals in whole midst he lives, and is usually able to
earn a comfortable livelihood by his wits. In some of the wilder and remoter parts
of the district the position of the village watchman or bariki is one of the great
influences. Where the Savaras and Kondhs know language besides their own
tribal tongue they rely upon the bariki not only for interpretation but advice,
whenever circumstances require a visit to the Sowcar, the police station or the
Magistrate’s court. Manual labour is not much to the taste of the Domb and he
finds it more profitable to huckster in the weekly market and pick up commissions
on the transactions, which he puts through on other behalf. Most of the cattle trade
in the district is conducted by the Dombs” (13). This holds still today good.
There is a certain code of conduct of practice among Scheduled Tribes (STs) and
other classes living with the Dombs in Koraput district. The STs are careful in
their talk and transaction with Dombs and avoid them as far as possible. But they
make a point to avoid conflict at any case when the Dombs eagerly try to entangle
them. So the Tribal societies have a concept of untouchables in the form to ovoid
physical fight with Dombs. If a Domb beats a tribal person, he is immediately out
caste by his society and to get back into his community, he has to spend a large
sum in shape of fine and feast. This however has lot of pressure and fear in his
mind and they thus try to be away from Dombs as far as possible and avoid the
consequences.
Most interesting fact is that even though the tribal know clearly the tricks and
cunningness associated with unreliability of the Dombs, still they fall prey to
them and easily get exploited, cheated in trade in money-lending and get into the
exploitation rings of lawyers and other dishonest officials through Dombs as
middlemen. What is most surprising is that the tribals do forward the village
bariki on their behalf to negotiate with the Government and agencies in order to
obtain social and economic development benefits and they carry the words
opinion of the Bariki or the Dombs. In other words in many instances the Dombs
occlude the exclusive ST development programmees with their wits and easily
misled them because they as SCs have no stakeholdership in such event.
The “Dombs” till date has profitably utilized the taboo of outcaste among all the
tribals and some other society of the Koraput due to physical fight or beatings
received from “Dom”. This needs readdressed in the modern world logic and
thinking and both Government and NGOs to institute awareness progragammees
to eliminate this harmful haterdnesss and age old taboo and ensure healthy and
respectful living for both.
The Dombs are widely distributed in villages of Jagdalpur area of Bastar district,
adjacent to Kotpad areas of Koraput. They speak Oriya and perform the same
duties as in Orissa. Thus it can be derived that Dombs have migrated from Orissa
region into Gond tract of Madhya Pradesh.
There are postulations that Dombs are originally from central Asia. The Dombo
children have almost red hair at birth, which later becomes dark colour as said
above.
The Mihirkula of Hunas may be the present day Mirigani Dombs of
Koraput.
The Sodabisia Dombs are very dark complexion people, found living close to
Sodia Poraja hamlets. The physical features of Sodabisia Dombs suggest that they
have come down here from South with Chodas, thus derive the name Soda bisia
(bisia means in Oriya subject). The Soda means Choda which has been discussed
in Sodia Poraja. We can relate the Sodabisia Dombs to Pandyas, who had lost to
Chodas in down south.
The Mihirkula of Huna relation to Marigan Dombs is due to the following
(14),
The Huns, a band of nomad savages, lived originally in the neighbourhood of
China. “As regards Indian records we have first the Eran inscription (No.68),
referred to above, dated in the first year of Maharajadhiraja Tormana. Next, this is
an inscription at Gwalior, dated in the 15th regnal year of Mihirkula (No.69). The
name of his father is mentioned, but only the first two letters ‘Tora’ can be read,
the rest being utterly lost.”
Toramana was succeeded by his son Mihrakula who probably ascended the
throne about A.D.515. According to Hiuen Tsang his capital was Sialkot and he
ruled over India.Rajatarangini, the chronicle of Kashmir, refers to Mihirakula as a
powerful king who ruled over Kashmir, Gandhara and conquered Southern India
and Ceylon. Mihirakula was taken as prisoner by Baladitya-raja of Magadha but
was released by him.
Vaidumbas and Dombs
Bell said,” A tradition in the Agency, current among others besides the Dombs,
has it that the Panos of Ghumsur in Ganjam District proved themselves so
obnoxious to the people by their criminal habits that the Raja issued an order that
any Pano should be killed wherever he should be found. In fear of this edict the
men of the tribe scattered and some of them sought refuge in the hills of Jeypore.
Soon after their arrival one of their member succeeded by a trick in inducing the
Kondhs of the locality to accept him as their king. Observing that the Kondhs
were in the habit of worshipping certain bija tree this man concealed himself in
the tree and suddenly leapt from it when the Kondhs were performing their
devotions, announcing that he had been sent to them to be their king.
Simultaneously he summoned some of his fellow- refugees who had concealed
themselves nearby and declared that they were his retinue. The Kondhs believed
that a king had been given to them by the tree as a reward for their devotions and
accepted the ruler thus sent to them. They built forts for him at a number of
places, of which the remains of one near Sembliguda are still clearly visible and
are known locally as the ‘Domb fort’. A period of terror and anarchy followed
during which the Raja and his followers came to be called ‘Dumbas’ or ‘devils’,
which name was later changed to Domb.
The tradition further narrates that the region of the Domb kings was ended by a
boy, who was found in a forest guarded by a cobra and a peacock and fed by a
goat, and was brought up by the foster-parents who discovered him. After over-
throwing the Dombs he established a kingdom at Narayanapatnam, which was
later moved to Nandapur. One of the successors of this Raja had no male issue
and at the bidding of the god Sarveswara, who appeared to him in a dream,
married his daughter to a certain youth who has come to his kingdom, also at the
direction of the gods, and from this union sprang the present family of the Rajas
of Jeypore.”(15)
Villages as Rajubidai, Bidai and Semiliguda and few more in the present
Semiliguda block of Koraput were known as Domb king’s fort and village.
There is only one correlation that can be postulated with Dombs is the
Vaidumbas, a dynasty that ruled South of Andhradesa in the past. Vaidumba
were vassals of E Chalukya.The matrimonial relationship between Vaidumbas
and Eastern Gangas would appear to have begun from two generations prior to
Kamarnav II, who had married Vinaya-Mahadevi, a prince of the Vaidumba
family, and Anantavarmadeva V alias Vajrahasta II was born to them. (16)
During Ganga Vijayaditya III, a Eastern Chalukya king‘s period; the Eastern
Ganga, the Vaidumba, the Nolamba and the Telugu Cola Chief were all involved
in internecine warfare. (17)
The Vaidumbas ruled Pottapi-nadu that extended across the Eastern Ghats from
Rajampeta in the Cuddapah district to Kalahasti in Chittore district.
Bhubana Trinetra Vaidumba Maharaja ruled Kadapa -twelve and neigbhouring

country ‘from his capital (Vidu) at Pottapi in Paka-nadu’ in AD 972 (18) is
known for his Madras Museum Copper-plate Grant. His authority extended over
Western Cuddapah district is known from Upparpalle on Cuddapah-Pusphagiri
Road, dated 972-3A.D (19)
N. Venkataramanaya said,” An element of doubt, however, creeps in, on account

of the existence of another tract of territory known also as Pattapi-Nadu in a
different part of the Telugu country. An epigraph at Calukya-Bhimavaram in the
Cocanada taluk of the East Godavari district dated A.D.1027 registers the gift by
a certain Sankyaraja, an illegitimate son of Nungananti Semmarangirija of
Nagavamsa, of the village of Nadupuru in Pottapi-nandu (20). It is obvious that
the village of Nadupuru and Pottapi-nandu in which it was included must have
been situated some where in the neighbourhood of Calukya-Bhimavaram.” He
further continued, “Though these inscriptions (An epigraph at Calukya-
Bhimavaram and Akkaliapundi Grant dated A.D. 1368) are late in date, it is not
unreasonable to belie on the strength of their evidence that there was in South
Kalinga a district called Pottapi nandu corresponding to apart of the East
Godavari district. This might very well have been the district of Pottapi-nandu
which Danarnava granted as an appanage to the Mudugonda Calukya chiefs,
Malliyaraja and Gondyaraja.If this definition of Pottapi-nandu and the Pampa
river as correct, there are no grounds for supposing that Danarnava ever
subjugated the Pottapi- nadu in Southern Telugu country, and came, as a
consequence, into conflict with Colas of Tanjore.”(21)
I am of the opinion that the Pottapi-nandu is the present day Pottangi area of
Koraput district and the Nadupuru is the Nandapur located in Pottangi area and
are well with in the South Kalinga region as pointed out by Venkataramanaya.
N. Venkataramanaya wrote, “Dananrava, E Calkya king took advantage of the

weakening of the Rastrakuta power about AD 970 and invaded successfully the
Vaidumba territory, which was on his southern frontier and entrusted the
administration to Mudugonda Chalukya family.”(22) He further said, “The death
of Danarnava did not result in the submission of Vengi. The Samantas and other
adherents of the dead monarch still held out. They fall into three groups. First
there was the Vaidumba king, Ganda Trinetra who Danarnava had recently
reduced to subjection. He was the hereditary enemy of the Telugu Colas (23); and
he was not disposed to accept Bhima, whom he must have regarded as an equal,
as his overlord and sovereign. The clash between the two became inevitable. The
Vaidumba was presumably worsted in the contest and had to acquiesce in the
supremacy of the Telugu Cola. Next came the Samantas, Manyas, and the wild
tribes dwelling in the jungles in the east. The hilly region situated in the Madhya
or Central Kalinga corresponding to the present Agency tracts had always been
the home of warlike savage tribes who showed no inclination to submit to
authority. It was not an easy task to keep them under control, and the Calukya
rulers of Vengi had to adopt special measures to enforce their authority. They
assigned estates to their nobles in this region; and one of the branches of the royal
family migrated early to this district and settled down there permanently. No
wonder that the Samantas and Manyas at the head of the jungle tribes, confident
of the natural strength of their mountain strongholds, held out against Bhima and
defied his authority. Bhima was a brave warrior and capable leader. Undaunted by
the numerous difficulties that beset his path, he led an expedition against them
and put them down with a stern hand.’ (24)
It is thus clear that the Vaidumbas of the down South who were related on
matrimonial ground to the Eastern Gangas came to Kalinga and possibly settled in
the wild forest tract of Trikalinga. Their migration to the north probably took
place shortly after the usurpation of their power and territories by the Nolambas in
the 9th Century A.D. (25) The present day Dombs may be the Vaidumbas of the
past.
References

Madras: 1909, Vol.1-7.pp.173-185.
2. H.A. Stuart (1891) cited by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., Castes and
Tribes of Southern India, Madras: 1909, pp173-174
Press, 1945p.79-82.
4. F. Fawcett (1901) Man. cited by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., op.cit.
pp174-175
6. Bell, R.C.S., .op.cit.
7. Missionary Gloyer (1901) Jeypore, Brekium. cited by Thurston E. and
Rangachari, K., op.cit. p176
9. F. Fawcett (1902) Man. cited by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., op.cit.
p 182-183
11. Rao, Hayavadana, C. cited by Thurston E. and Rangachari, K., op.cit.
pp176
14. Majumdar, R.C. The History and Culture of Indian People, The
Classical Age: The Huns.pp34-39
15. Bell.R.C.S., op.cit. p.80
16. Venkataramanaya, N. The Eastern Calukyas of Vengi. P.332 &
Ganguly, D.C. The History and Culture of Indian People, The
Struggle for Empire. p. 205.
17. E.I. XXIV, No 26, p.183f; JOR, XII, pp.196 f
18. Cp .7 of 1935-36
19. 325 of 1905, A.R.E. 1935-36, Part II, p.58.
20. S.I.I. V.55.
21. Venkataramanaya.N. (1950) The Eastern Calukyas of Vengi. p.306-06
22. Venkataramanaya, N. Ibid.. Chapter, p.198
23. Vaidumba prabhriti raja-rajanya-rajita pithastham of the Kailasanatha
Temple inscriptions cited by N. Venkataramanaya, The Eastern Chalukyas
of Vengi. ChapterXVI, p.203
24. Venkataramanaya, N. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Chapter, p.203
25. Ibid.p.332
BOIPARIS
The Boiparis are also called Lambadis, Lambari, Brinjari or Banjari, Sugali or
Sukali, Labhani, Labani and Vali Sugriva in other parts of the country, Thurston
and Rangachari (1909) (1). Mr. G. A. Girerson (1907) (2) writes, “Lambardi are
the well known tribe of carriers who are fond all over Western and Southern
India.” In the Madras Census Reports (1891) (3) the Lambadis are described as a
class of traders, herdsmen, cattle-breeders, and cattle lifters, transporters in hills
and forest tracts difficult of access, and in places they have settled down as
agriculturists. They have as yet been only partially reclaimed from criminal
habits.
The Lambadis or Boiparis of Bellary “have a tradition among them of having first
come to the Deccan from the north with Moghul camps as commissariat carriers.
Captain J. Briggs (1813) states that, as the Deccan is devoid of a single navigable
river and has no roads that admit of wheeled traffic, the whole of the extensive
intercourse is carried on by laden bullocks, the property of Banjaris.” Mr. Francis
writes, “they used to live by pack-bullock trade and they still remember the names
of some of the generals who employed there forebears. When peace and the
railway came and did away with these callings, they fell back for a time upon
crime as a livelihood, but they have now mostly taken to agriculture and grazing,
(4)” Bishop Heber (1825) noted that, “we passed a number of Brinjarees, who
were carrying salt. The all had bows, arrows swords and shields. (5)”
Orme mentions the Lambardis as having supplied the Comte de Bussy with store,
cattle and grain, when besieged by the Nizam’s army at Hyderabad (6).
Toward closer of eighteenth century, Moor writes, “the Banjaris associate chiefly
together seldom, seldom or never mixing with other tribes. In times of war they
attend, and are of great assistance to armies, and, being neutral, it is a matter of
indifference to them who purchase their goods (7)”. Of Lambadis in time of war,
the Abbe Dubois*, said, “They attach themselves to the army where discipline is
least strict. They hire themselves and their large herds of cattle of whichever
contending party will pay them best, acting as carriers of the supplies and baggage
of the army. They were thus employed, to the number of several thousands, by the
English in their last war with the Sultan of Mysore. The English, however, had
occasion to regret having taken these untrustworthy and iII-disciplined people into
their service, when they saw them ravaging the country through which they
passed, and causing more annoyance than the whole of the enemy’s army (8)”.
At the time when human (meriah) sacrifices prevailed in the Vizagapatam Agency
tracts, it was the regular duty of Lambadis to kidnap or purchase human beings in
the plains, and sell them to the hill tribes for extravagant prices (9). A person, in
order to be a fitting meriah, had to be purchased for a price.
It is recorded by Francis (1901) that not long after the accession of Vinayaka Deo
to the throne of Jeypore, in the fifteenth century, some of his subjects rose against
him, but he recovered his position with the help of a leader of Brinjaris. Ever
since then, in grateful recognition, his descendants have appended to their
signatures a wary line (called valatradu), which represents the rope with which
Brinjaris tether their cattle (10).
The Banjaris are principally found south of Jeypore, who are called as Baiparis.
The tahasil headquarters one at Baipariguda is named after the Baiparis. The
Baipari villages are still located in Mathli, Malkangiri sub-divisions and till today
they have lived with their culture and customs intact. They dominate over Koyas
and local tribes and dictate in most of the place to the Pedas of Koya villages.
They are feared for their ability to converse with outer world and their litigations
in the courts.
Principally the Boiparis were the only salt traders uptil recent 60’s in the Jeypore-
Malkangiri area, who used to carry the salt on their cattle as in ancient past.
The principal route of Boipari movement was probably in most from North India
was via the Gondi Kingdom and were passing through the Bastar district
(Jagdalpur area) through Konta to Hyderabad and down south of Deccan. Still on
these routes Banjari villages are located. Rev.J.Cain (1879) said, “That in some
places the Lambadis fasten small rags torn from some old garment to a bush in
honour of Kampalamma (Kampa, a thicket). On the side of one of the roads from
Bastar are several large heaps of stones, which they have piled up in honour of the
goddess Guttalamma. Every Lambadi who passes the heaps is bound to place one
stone on the heap and to make a salaam to it (11)”. C. Hayavadana Rao inferred
Thurston that. “The attacks of tigers, if the take certain precautions (12)”.
Abbe Dubois wrote, ‘when they wish to perform horrible act, it is said, they
secretly carry off the first person they meet. Having conducted the victim to some
lonely spot, they dig a hole, in which they burry him up to the neck. While he is
still alive, they make a sort of lump of dough made of flour, which they place on
his head. This they fill with oil, and light four wicks in it. Having done this, the
men and women join hands, and, forming a circle, dance around their victims,
singing and making a great noise till he expires. (13)’
It is seen still that the whole Koraput district is free from trypanosomiasis among
cattle, but it can be found only in Malkangiri sub-Division where Boiparis are still
living and once upon a time was the main concentration of Boiparis. This disease
must have come through cattle herds enroute from north to south; there is also
existence of Anthrax only in this area.
There is one peculiarity in Malkangiri-Motu area that the local Koya tribes keep
only cattle and goats with pigs and poultry, very seldom buffaloes are seen so also
the sheep. The cattle rearing as main occupation among Koyas may be the gift of
Boiparis to them.
Senapti and Sahu (1966) wrote, “An old trade route between the coast and
Chhattisgarh passed through Kashipur. Brinjaries and other traders used to
frequent this route with caravans of pack bullocks and it is known that they were
paying Rs.6/- towards transit duties at Kashipur for every one hundred laden
bullocks while on their way to Chhattisgarh. As other routes opened to Madhya
Pradesh this route through Kashipur is no more in use (14)”.
The other route the Boiparis were using to reach Hyderabad/Godavari was from
Jagdalpur (Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh) to Kotpad, Jeypore, Boipariguda,
Mathili, Malkangiri, via Anantapur to Motu and Konta then to Godavari. This is
proved due to the existence of name of village Boipariguda and the Boipari
village existing in the Malkangiri sub-division.
References
1. Thurston, E and Rangachari, K. Castes and Tribes in Southern

India.p.207-232
2. Grierson, G.A. Linguistic Survey of India.IX, 1907
4. Briggs, J. (1813) cited by Thurston, E and Rangachari, K. Castes and
Tribes in Southern India.p.217
5. Bishop Heber (1844) Narratives of a journey through the Upper
Provinces of India.
6. Orme
7. Moor, Narratives of the Operations of Little’s detachment against
Tipoo Sultan, 1794.

8. Dubois, Abbe.Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies cited by
Thurston, E and Rangachari, K. Castes and Tribes in Southern India.p.213.
9. Fawcett, F. Gazetteer of Vizagapatam.
10. Francis, W. (1901) Gazetteer of the Bellary district.
11. Rev. Cain, John (1879) Ind, Ant. VIII.
12. Rao, Hayavadana, C. cited by Thurston, E and Rangachari, K. Castes
and Tribes in Southern India.p.215.
13. Dubois, Abbe.Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies cited by
Thurston, E and Rangachari, K. Castes and Tribes in Southern India.p.229.
14. Senapati, N and Sahu. Gazetteer of Koraput district, Orissa
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS OF (BANSULI)

DEORLI, KOTAPAD
A Yogni Stone Bhairaba
Deorli Siva Linga

Murtahandi White Siva Linga
Rasabhanatha, Deorli Ambika, Deorli
Rasbhanatha Temple, Deorli Jaina Ambika
Rasbhanatha Temple, Deorli
Jaina Ambika
Index
Balimella, 300, 446
Banamaliput, 61, 77, 83, 420, 464
A Banda Acehe, 311
A.C.McNeill, 78 Bandapan jatra, 327
Acharya, P, 106, 116, 117, 390, 393, 394 Banerjee, Sukumar, 209, 210
Adhirajendra, 205 Banerji, R.D, 117
Aila, 406, 407 Banjaras, 81, 93
Ajay M.Shastri, 110 Bansuli, 52, 57, 83
Akkalapundi grant, 388 Bara, F., 432
Allahabad Pillar, 6, 119, 122, 126 Barasur, 16
Allahabad Pillar inscription, 6, 119, 122 Bareng Paroja, 47, 48
Amma I, 104, 109, 355 Barhatika Paika, 423, 424, 427, 429
Amma II, 147, 148 Bastar, i, iv, vi, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 14,
Ananta Chodaganga, 300, 446 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23, 24, 34, 36, 43, 44, 47,
Anantavarman Chodaganga, 208, 380, 444 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 62, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71,
Anchala, 185, 186, 187 72, 74, 75, 77, 81, 83, 84, 85, 91, 92, 93, 94,
Ancholagumma, 181, 182, 183, 336 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 104, 108, 110, 111, 113,
Andhra, 1, 8, 9, 11, 38, 49, 61, 67, 90, 94, 97, 98, 119, 121, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130,
101, 109, 110, 115, 139, 140, 143, 149, 151, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 144, 145, 147, 153,
217, 219, 239, 254, 278, 281, 284, 290, 355, 157, 159, 160, 163, 165, 169, 170, 171, 176,
356, 365 177, 179, 180, 188, 189, 190, 198, 200, 218,
Andhri, 387 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237,
Andiniya, 475, 477 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 245, 248, 250,
Aparajita, 12, 57 251, 252, 254, 262, 263, 280, 294, 295, 300,
Arikesarin III, 149, 443, 456 301, 312, 329, 330, 333, 334, 335, 337, 338,
Arthapati, 8, 123, 240, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 340, 341, 354, 356, 357, 358, 360, 364, 365,
248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 259, 260 366, 367, 368, 370, 371, 376, 380, 387, 388,
Arunachal Pradesh, 310 391, 392, 393, 398, 400, 402, 405, 406, 408,
Ashoka, 6, 107, 139 410, 437, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 452, 453,
Asoka, 7, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 138, 139, 141, 471, 472, 478, 484, 485
216, 280, 415 Bastar district, 7, 55, 68, 229, 354, 409
Atavi, 2, 11, 91, 118, 119, 121, 122, 280 Batrisha singhasana, 433
Austro-Asiatic, 19, 36, 39, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, Bayyaraju, 436
272, 276 Behera S.C, 241
Bell, R.C, 209, 295, 302, 322, 347, 384, 402,
426, 428, 455, 456, 482
B Bell, R.C.S, 38, 44, 90, 209, 241, 295, 302, 322,
Bada Bibha, 431 347, 384, 402, 428, 455, 456, 482
Bado Gadaba, 48, 49 Bell, R.C.S., 163
Bagata, 3, 41, 154, 403, 404 Benares, 66, 108, 417
Bagh, 167, 325, 340, 345 Bendiganahalli Plates, 330, 454, 458
Baiga, 3, 40, 154, 343 Berger, Peter, 151
Bajpai, K.D, 366, 367 Bhagavati, 53, 313, 376
Bali Jatra, 26, 175, 176, 214 Bhagvati temple of Jeypore, 149
Bali Khamba, 71 Bhairab Singhpur, 185, 405
Bali Mutha’, 20, 22 Bhairaba, 53, 55, 61, 77, 83, 84, 85, 133, 279,
Bali puja, 419 387, 400, 402, 409, 453, 465, 468, 469, 470,
Bali Puja, 300 487
Bali-jatra, 70, 208 Bhairaba Singapur, 133, 387, 400, 465, 468, 469,
Balimela, 286 470
Bhairbasingpur, 52
Bhandarkar, G. R, 122 Briggs, J, 485

Bhandarkar, G.R, 125 Brinjari, 483
Bhandarkar, R.G, 38, 90, 102 'Buddhaghosa, 56
Bhanumurti, V, 135
Bhat Nayak, 20, 22, 289
Bhatanayak, 197
B
Bhath Bhoie, 167 Buddhaghosha, 56
Bhatiporlu inscription, 441 Buddhism, 3, 7, 19, 20, 21, 22, 52, 54, 56, 57, 61,
Bhattacharjee P N, 50, 51 69, 72, 76, 77, 83, 92, 105, 215, 216, 355
Bhattacharya,, 322, 337 Buddhist, 5, 7, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 62, 69, 70, 77,
Bhattacharya, S., 44, 178 84, 235, 257, 328, 346, 355, 386, 393, 408,
Bhattra, 3, 35, 231, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 287 443
Bhauma king, 9, 322 Buhler, 118, 120
Bhaumakaras, 109 Burnell, 390, 427
Bhavadatta, 7, 242, 244, 246, 247, 250, 251, Burrow, T, 44
253, 259, 260 Burrow, T., 337
Bhavadattaraja, 246, 253 Butuga II, 330, 452
Bhavadattavarman, 240, 242, 243, 244, 245,
248, 251, 252, 253, 259
Bhavadatta-varman, 7 C
Bheraghat, 363 C. Hayavadana Rao, 229, 236, 283, 284, 289,
Bhima Khamba’, 70 343, 381, 382, 417, 484
Bhima pillars, 70 Cain,J.Rev, 295
Bhima Puja, 74 Caldwell, 105, 106, 116, 140
Bhogavati, 372, 373, 375 Calingae, 107, 138, 139
Bhongapal, 54, 55, 56 Campbell, John, 209
Bhottada, 3, 154, 236 Candragupta, 63
Bhramaravdra-desa, 380 Cap.John Campbell, 78
Bhumia, 3, 41, 55, 150, 168, 231, 239, 280, 286, Cedis, 407
287, 343, 344, 345, 346, 354, 402, 429 Chagis, 383, 384
Bhvadatta verman, 248 Chagis dynasty, 383
Bihan Puja, 168 Chagis of Vinukonda, 383
Bishop Heber, 483, 485 Chait Parab, 29, 74, 168, 299, 340
Bisna Sisa, 445 Chait Seed ceremony, 169
Bisnaga King, 445 Chaitra parab, 327
Bison-horn Maria, 75 Chakora, 7, 408, 409
Bison-horn Marias, 294 Chakrakota, 132, 133, 313, 380, 472
Boal, M.Barbara, 209 Chakrakote, 2, 15, 16, 91, 128, 130, 131, 132,
Bodo Gadaba, 317 136, 149, 177, 179, 180, 182, 187, 213, 229,
Bodo Poraja, 20, 23, 161, 162, 165 300, 366, 367, 437, 444, 446
Bodo Porajas, 160 Chalan, 167, 326, 431
Boiparis, 483, 484, 485 Chalukya Bhima I, 278
Bondo, 3, 19, 21, 23, 24, 34, 36, 42, 46, 154, 156, Chalukya Bhima II, 148, 278, 284, 448
157, 158, 275, 276, 287, 294, 306, 307, 308, Chalukya of Badami., 12
309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 379, 396, 397, Chalukya of Kalyani, 133, 206
398 Chalukyas of Badami, 8
Bondos, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, Chalukyas of Kalyani, 16, 177, 219
314, 322, 342, 398 Chandalas, 471, 473
Borigumma, 7, 57, 68, 71, 77, 83, 84, 85, 131, Chandalla, 158
133, 148, 171, 185, 187, 188, 230, 236, 387, Chandella, 57, 471, 472
393, 400, 402, 405, 406, 409, 410, 465, 466, Chandra Gupta, 3
471, 474 Chandragupta II, 4, 360
Bose,P.N., 198 Charls Fabri, 55
Brett, E.A.de, 163 Chattopadhyaya, S, 387
Brett, E.A.de., 200, 337 Chedi, 130, 448, 472
Chedi King, 121 Dasahara, 72

Chelia Poraja, 161 Dasgupta, S, 241
Chellia Porajas, 150, 162, 446 Dash Jagganath, 209
Chellia Poroja, 297 Dasmanthpur, 12, 172, 229, 413
Cher Chera, 328 Deshpande, C.D, 102
Chera Chera, 170 Desia, 2, 20, 22, 27, 40, 41, 54, 70, 72, 91, 131,
Cheras, 8, 12, 13 146, 147, 150, 151, 157, 188, 201, 203, 204,
Chhattisgarh, 2, 55, 58, 91, 97, 126, 171, 236, 208
250, 277, 280, 291, 329, 331, 337, 364, 371, Desia-Kondhs, 188
387, 406, 407, 410, 445, 452, 471, 485 Desigana, 146, 147, 354
Chhindaka Nagas, 16, 149 Devagiri, 218, 220, 221, 223, 227
Chikma hill, 7, 84, 409 Devendravarman, 205
Chitrakuta, 16, 98, 99, 128, 183, 360, 361, 362, Devi Yashoda, 210, 455
363, 366, 367, 439, 448 Devi, Yashoda, 209, 338, 342
Chitramaya, 440 Devta Honjore, 52
Choda Ganga, 17, 64, 66, 205, 276 Dey, N.L, 125
Choda I., 341 Dharamakiriti, 57
Chodaganga, 17, 109, 115 Dharavarsha, 372, 375
Chodas, 130, 131, 165, 180, 187, 188, 206, 294, Dharmkirit, 5
300, 437, 446, 475, 478 Dharua, 3, 40, 42, 154
Chodia Poraja, 165 Dharvarsa, 15
Chola, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 115, 128, 129, 133, Dhasmana, M.M, 314
134, 136, 166, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 183, Dhavala, 329, 330, 331, 373, 451
185, 187, 205, 208, 218, 219, 294, 328, 448, Dhavala visaya, 9, 322, 329, 330
449, 472 Dhobalinga, 393
Cholas, 3, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 61, 92, 115, Dhulia Paika, 423, 427, 429
130, 133, 178, 179, 181, 183, 185, 187, 205, Dhuruva, 157, 354
208, 210, 296, 301, 330, 383, 446, 449 Dhurwas, 333, 334, 335
Choudhury, B, 426, 428, 432 Diali parab, 327
Chowdhury,, 314, 398 Diali Parab, 169
Cornish, W.R, 384 Didayi, 3, 40, 42, 154, 157, 158, 160, 307, 396,
Cowell, C.B, 387 397, 398
Cunningham, 105, 106, 107, 145, 250, 275, 276, Didayi Poroja, 160
277, 282, 389, 390, 408 Disari, 168, 196, 326, 340, 343, 431
Dom, 22, 57, 158, 212, 287, 401, 424, 429, 473,
478
D Domb, 473, 474, 476, 477, 479, 480
Dahala, 111, 393, 406, 408, 448, 471, 472 Doms, 167, 212, 292, 344, 405, 429, 473
Dakshina Kosala, 3, 10, 91, 279 Dongar Puja, 167, 170
Dalton, E.T, 198 Dongaria Kodh, 157
Danarnava, 148, 448, 449, 450, 480, 481 Dongria, 23, 24, 37, 40, 137, 211, 212, 213, 214,
Dandaka forest, 100 215, 216
Dandakapura, 380, 444 Dongria Kondh, 201, 314
Dandakaranya, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, vii, viii, 1, 2, 4, 5, Dora II, 383
18, 19, 25, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 43, 45, Draksharama, 208
52, 54, 56, 57, 62, 63, 67, 72, 73, 74, 77, 82, Dravidian, iii, 19, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,
84, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 46, 47, 49, 51, 75, 116, 152, 156, 165, 171,
280, 291, 358, 360, 361, 362, 364, 365 173, 188, 201, 234, 288, 291, 297, 322, 333,
Dankiny rivers, 58 337, 339, 344, 371, 394, 473
Dantapura, 55, 108, 466, 467 Dubois, Abbe, 486
Dantewada, 58, 83, 84, 108 Dumba, 32, 74, 473
Das Patnaik, 211, 215 Durga, 64, 68, 77
Das Patnaik, P.S, 209, 215, 314 Durvinita, 9
Das S R, 50, 51
Das, H.C., 90
E Gamang, ii, vii, 38, 52, 54, 146, 147, 151, 172,
215, 273, 278, 281, 301, 302, 327, 331, 340,
East Godavari district., 441, 450, 480 342, 360, 376, 377, 443, 444, 446, 456, 457,
East India Company, 78 467
Eastern Calukya, 109 Gamang Giridhar, 151
Eastern Chalukya, 3, 9, 16, 17, 92, 111, 114, 124, Gamang, Giridhar, 215, 281, 302, 331, 342, 456,
128, 147, 148, 172, 173, 176, 240, 278, 281, 457, 467
354 Gandia, 3, 154
Eastern Chalukyas, 437, 441, 447, 483 Ganga, 180, 183, 205, 206, 208, 312, 321, 322,
Eastern Ganga, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 67, 108, 112, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 337, 341, 342, 390,
143, 158, 239, 278, 279, 322, 440, 450, 480 433, 434, 436, 437, 440, 442, 445, 449, 450,
Eastern Gangas, 3, 8, 9, 10, 93, 104, 109, 110, 451, 452, 453, 454, 458, 466, 475, 480
111, 112, 130, 140, 200, 239, 255, 277, 278, Gangapati, 9, 322, 329, 331, 451
285, 322, 356, 388, 391, 398, 440, 447, 480, Gangarides, 107, 138
481 Gangaridum Calingarum Regia, 138
Eastern Ghats, 75, 94, 95, 96, 97, 110, 113, 232, Gangas, 3, 8, 9, 10, 17, 66, 76, 93, 106, 108, 109,
241, 242, 356 111, 115, 140, 141, 150, 219, 240, 278, 322,
Edenga hoard, 243, 245, 247 410
Elwin, 32, 38, 159, 163, 189, 190, 198, 202, 207, Gangas of Kalinga, 187
210, 237, 241, 272, 273, 281, 282, 291, 295, Gangavadi, 451
306, 308, 310, 311, 313, 314, 319, 323, 396, Gangeshani, 328, 433
398, 399 Gangeyadeva, 380, 444
Elwin Verrier, 210 Ganguly, D.C, 134, 219, 472
Elwin, V, 241 Ganjam, 7, 42, 43, 47, 61, 62, 67, 69, 72, 78, 98,
Elwin, Verrier, 163, 314, 323 99, 101, 109, 111, 113, 114, 140, 141, 142,
Elwin,V, 295 255, 272, 273, 275, 281, 286, 357, 408, 412,
Ereganga, 329, 330, 454 416
Erenga, 52, 330, 332, 454 Gaon Hundi, 168
Erenga,, 52 Garh Dhanora, 55, 392, 393
Ereyanga, 330 Gauda-sangha, 443
Gaudo, 412, 413, 414, 415
Gautamiputra Satakarni, 7, 408
F Girikalinga, 2, 91, 135
Ficus infectra, 35 Girini, 106
Fleet, 60, 119, 120, 122, 181 Glasfurd, C.L.R, 198, 337
Francis, W, 384, 486 Glider, G.K, 232
Furer Haimendorf, C.Von, 398 Godavari, 1, 7, 8, 13, 16, 39, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99,
Furer-Haimendorf, C.Von, 313, 314, 322, 342 106, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 128, 133, 136,
Furer-Haimendrof, 234, 235, 311, 317 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 146, 157, 177, 187,
204, 206, 234, 239, 294, 312, 320, 321, 329,
354, 356, 358, 362, 363, 386, 387, 390, 392,
G 393, 398, 415, 438, 441, 450, 452, 480, 485
G.Ramdas, 10, 104, 105, 113, 114, 123, 126, Gond, 3, 25, 40, 41, 154, 156, 158, 200, 233, 234,
198, 242, 249, 389 235, 295, 335, 371, 401, 478
Gad Bhodra, 52 Gonds, 183, 198, 233, 234, 235, 295, 338, 384
Gad Bodra, 368, 369 Gondwana, 234, 393
Gadaba, ii, 3, 19, 21, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 39, 40, Goomsur, 79, 202
42, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 73, 74, 75, 90, Goomsur Wars, 78
151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 162, Gopal, B.R, 219
163, 168, 192, 275, 286, 287, 306, 307, 311, Goriahandi, 52, 149, 346, 349
317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 327, Gota Mela, 34
328, 329, 331, 339, 340, 341, 342, 379, 397, Goudas, 93, 168
401, 429, 457 Greeks, 390, 427, 471
Gajapatis, 383, 434 Grierson, G.A, 44, 485
Grigson, 291, 294, 295, 296, 335, 338
Grigson, Sir Wilfrid, 232 Index, 489

Grigson, W.V, 198, 295, 296 Indo-Aryan, 39, 40, 41, 236
Gumma’, 187 Indrarath, 294
Gunaga Vijayaditya III, 447, 448 Indravarman, 389, 467
Gunda- mahadevi, 17 Indravati, 54, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 110, 128, 137,
Gunda Mahadevi, 149, 371, 372, 377 146, 171, 183, 242, 275, 313, 329, 354, 356,
Gunupur, 5, 57, 72, 77, 272, 273, 275, 284, 418 362, 363, 364, 371, 387, 452, 465
Gupta, 6, 54, 63, 67, 141, 142, 144, 145, 242,
364, 408, 413, 416
Guptas, 446
J
Gurumai, 20, 22, 31, 74, 168, 176, 196, 299 J.P. Jain, 355, 365
Gurumaie, 298, 326 Jabalpur, 344, 444, 472
Gutob, 307, 311, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 323, Jagadalpur, 66, 128, 136
331, 339, 341, 457 Jagannatha, 62, 64, 66, 434
Guttas, 319 Jagdalpur, 130, 380, 392, 478, 484, 485
Jagganath Dash, 215, 216
H Jaina, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12, 20, 22, 23, 52, 53, 54, 84, 90,
117, 121, 138, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151,
Haihaya, 3, 61, 92, 93, 277, 408 176, 214, 215, 240, 354, 355, 364, 365, 366,
Haihayas, 17, 117, 130, 204, 205, 206, 208, 277, 405, 407, 409
341, 406 Jainism, 3, 7, 20, 22, 52, 53, 54, 61, 72, 76, 77,
Haihayas of Kona, 204, 205, 206 83, 92, 148, 149, 151, 153, 200, 214, 241,
Haihayas of Panchadharala, 341 319, 355, 365, 400, 415, 441, 443, 452, 453,
Halajatra, 327 456
Halba, 229, 230, 231 Jajalla I, 16
Halva, 3, 154, 155, 156, 185, 286, 287 Jangam, 53, 158, 402, 409
Halwa, 157 Jani, 20, 22, 23, 71, 150, 162, 168, 174, 175, 183,
Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L, 38, 90 193, 196, 207, 212, 214, 284, 326, 340, 341,
Harisena, 9, 254 405
Harsagupta, 63 Janis, 167, 207
Hathigumpha, 7, 121, 122, 138, 280, 437, 438, Jatapu, 3, 40, 41, 43, 283, 284
439 Jawaharlal, G, 456
Hayavadana Rao, C, 163, 241 Jawaharlal, G., 151, 365
Hayavadana Rao, C., 384, 432 Jayapura Kotta, 439
Hayavardana Rao, C, 232 Jena, K.Mihir, 209
Henderson C.A, 313 Jena, Mihir Kumar, 215
Hengo Poraja, 162 Jenkar, 318
Henjery, 444 Jenkery, 80
Hill Maria, 75 Jeypore, 9, 10, 17, 24, 52, 53, 57, 61, 63, 65, 66,
Hira Lal, 232, 371 67, 68, 72, 74, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95, 113,
Hiralal, 130, 134, 181, 200, 235, 333, 335, 337 130, 137, 183, 209, 229, 230, 231, 236, 237,
Hiralal, Sukla, 102, 103 261, 275, 279, 280, 294, 306, 311, 317, 318,
Hislop, Stephen, 198 320, 327, 333, 336, 339, 343, 344, 361, 377,
Hiuen Tsang, 56, 144, 215, 235, 479 378, 382, 393, 396, 400, 404, 405, 406, 415,
Hiuen-Tsang, 142 417, 418, 423, 424, 429, 433, 434, 435, 436,
Honjore, 444 439, 440, 441, 442, 444, 445, 446, 452, 453,
Hoysalas, 3, 14, 92, 93 455, 471, 479, 480, 482, 484, 485
Hultzsch, 11, 118, 120, 137, 301, 312 Jeypore Agency, 9
Human sacrifice, 72, 77, 85 Jha Makan, 322
Hunas, 478 Jhadesvana, 191
Jharakhanda, 2, 91
Jhodia, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 200,
I 330, 340
Ikshavaku, 8 Jhodia Poraja, 20, 23, 74, 76, 149, 330, 340
Ikshvakus, 148, 200 Jhodia Porajas, 35, 150, 192, 197, 200
Jhoria Murias, 190 Kalyanakaraka, 354, 355, 364, 365

Jijingi, 10 Kalyansingpur, 218
Jogi, 77, 158, 465 Kamala K. Patnaik, 215, 216
John, Wyld, 102 Kamalraji, 444
Kamarnav, 480
Kamarnava, 449, 450
K Kanak-Durga, 68
K, Reddy, 50, 51 Kandula Puja, 169
K.B.S.Deo, 65, 84, 435 Kanka Durga, 77
Kadalur Grant, 330, 332, 452, 458 Kanker, 95, 96, 114, 229, 231
Kadamba, 322 Kantanaka, 146
Kadambas, 8, 9, 10 Kantara, 2, 91, 126, 242, 251, 253, 255, 380,
Kakatiyas, 208, 383 445
Kakayara-desa, 380 Kapilendra Deva, 66
Kakha stupa, 55 Kathargada, 185, 353
Kalachuri, 380, 391, 444, 456, 471, 472 Kautalya, 37, 93
Kalachuris, 16, 104, 111, 112, 115, 130, 157, Kecchala, 454
219, 380, 388, 406, 444, 456, 472 Kechela, 52
Kalahandi, 1, 2, 4, 6, 16, 20, 22, 43, 70, 74, 91, Kerala, 291, 294, 452
94, 96, 97, 104, 110, 111, 113, 114, 121, 123, Kesari beda, 55
126, 127, 133, 144, 145, 159, 162, 171, 201, Kesaribeda, 55, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 249,
211, 230, 233, 234, 236, 242, 294, 317, 331, 250, 253, 259, 260, 262
336, 356, 357, 387, 391, 392, 393, 406, 413, Kesaribeda grant, 387
414, 415, 417, 418, 429, 441, 445 Kesastupa, 55
Kalidasa, 4, 63, 67, 98, 110, 356, 357, 358, 360, Keselaka, 387
361, 362, 363, 364, 366, 367, 439 Keskal, 392, 393
Kalinga, iv, ix, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, Khajuribandha, 183, 378
16, 17, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62, 64, 66, 67, 91, Khaling, 393
93, 99, 100, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, Khangars of Jeypore, 81
110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118, 119, 121, Kharavela, 3, 7, 93, 107, 121, 122, 138, 141, 279,
122, 126, 127, 128, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 280, 282, 405, 406, 407, 409, 411
137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142,鼈143, 144, 147, Kharjuri tank, 372
148, 162, 177, 187, 188, 205, 206, 208, 214, Khola puja, 169
216, 217, 218, 219, 239, 241, 255, 276, 277, Khond, 3, 48, 49, 154, 161, 162, 201, 283, 473
278, 279, 280, 285, 286, 289, 290, 300, 301, Kielhorn, 129
302, 312, 320, 321, 329, 330, 336, 337, 338, Kimling, 393
341, 342, 346, 355, 356, 357, 365, 366, 388, Kirtivarman I, 8, 9, 10
389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 400, 406, 407, 408, Kirtivarman II, 12
409, 410, 416, 434, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, Klaus Seeland, 215, 216
442, 443, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, Kobbiriya, 475
452, 455, 457, 465, 466, 467, 472, 480, 481 Kokalla I, 380, 444
Kalinga., 11, 14, 62, 93, 104, 105, 113, 114, 118, Kolab, 54, 82, 97, 137, 146, 193, 334, 346, 354,
119, 132, 138, 140, 141, 205, 206, 216, 277, 359, 380, 429, 452, 453
302, 336, 388, 389, 391, 407, 437, 447, 448, Kolaba,, 330
449, 450, 457, 465, 466, 467 Kolaru Surayanarayana, 16, 128, 129
Kalingam, 301, 342 Kolia Poraja, 160
Kalinganagara, 9, 11, 104, 108, 111, 140, 322, Kolia Porajas, 162
388 KOLOIE POROJA, 379
Kalingattu-Parni, 297 Kona Chodaraju, 341
Kalingattupparani, 17 Konamandala, 204, 205, 341
Kalingraja, 444 Konda Dora, 40, 42, 43, 154, 158, 313, 381, 382,
Kalingttu Parani, 129 383
Kalyan Singpur, 211, 218, 219, 220, 226 Konda Porajas, 150, 162, 297
Kalyana Singapur, 183, 206, 465 Konda Poroja, 297
Kalyana Singapur., 183 Kondagaon, 245, 248
Kondh, 3, 20, 23, 40, 41, 42, 43, 72, 75, 137, 171, Kumari, Krishna, 219
213, 215 Kumulura, 12
Kondhs, v, 24, 25, 33, 37, 43, 74, 79, 82, 131, Kuntala, 439
137, 158, 160, 188, 189, 192, 201, 203, 204, Kusilya Mali, 418
206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, Kusuma-bhoga, 380, 445
216, 233, 381, 429, 477, 479 Kutia Paika., 423
Kondi Poroja, 160 Kuttia, 23, 80, 137, 287
Konga, 2, 52, 91, 330, 402, 451, 452 Kuttia Kondh, 157, 201, 207, 209
Kongunivarman, 452 Kuttia Konds, 80, 207, 208
Koraput, 3
Koraput district, 168, 180, 183, 201, 204, 205,
291, 313, 317, 329, 333, 336, 337, 380, 381,
L
387, 393, 396, 423, 438, 441, 451, 453, 454, Lambadis, 483, 484
465, 466, 477, 481, 485 Langulini, 98, 101, 102
Kornel, ii, i, iii, vii, viii, 18, 38, 52, 54, 90, 146, Lanjia Saora, 49
147, 151, 162, 163, 170, 172, 199, 214, 215, Law, Bimala Churn, 120, 125
291, 295, 301, 302, 317, 320, 323, 327, 328, Lingdarha Nadi, 392
331, 340, 342, 360, 376, 377, 443, 444, 445, Lokesvara., 376
446, 456, 457, 467 Lombo Lanjhia, 273
Kornel Das, 90, 151, 163, 170, 215, 295, 302, Lord Rama, 1, 5, 67, 94, 357, 358, 364
323, 331, 342, 456, 457, 467
Kornel Das., 199
Korni copper plate, 276 M
Kosala,, 329, 380, 472 Macco-Calingae, 107
Kosalai, 312 MacPherson, S. Charles., 209
Kosalai-nadu, 312 MacViccar, 78, 82
Kota dynasty, 208 Madhukamarnava, 13
Kotapad, 52, 147, 187, 236 Madhurakantaka, 16
Kotia, 3, 154, 155, 208, 209, 345, 432 Madhurantaka, 313
Kotilingi, 393 Madhya Pradesh, 1, 2, 10, 39, 46, 47, 56, 81, 91,
Kotpad, 344, 404, 427, 444, 445, 471, 478, 485 94, 104, 126, 144, 229, 236, 242, 247, 248,
Kottia, 168, 207, 429, 430, 431 337, 343, 360, 363, 367, 380, 456, 478, 485
Kottia Dora, 207 Madhyadesa, 56, 124, 138
Kottia Paikos, 429 Madia, 3, 23, 41
Kottia Poraja, 207 Madras Museum Copper-plate Grant, 450, 480
Kottia Poroja, 157 Madras Presidency, 386
Kottimba grant, 331, 332 Madurai, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 136
Koya, ii, 3, 35, 40, 41, 42, 75, 153, 154, 155, 156, Maduramandalam, 136
157, 160, 233, 287, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, Madura-mandalam, 312
333, 484, 485 Madura-mandalam, 313
Koyas, ii, 23, 25, 34, 74, 157, 158, 160, 188, 286, Magada Gaudo, 414
287, 291, 292, 293, 294, 484, 485 Magadha, 6, 93, 138, 158, 321, 329, 407, 413,
Krishana Deva Raya, 445 438, 446, 467, 479
Krishana Kumari, M, 134 Magasthenes, 107
Krishna Kumari, M, 210 Magodhia Goudos, 6
Krishnamacharlu, C.R, 263 Mahabharata, 98, 99, 102, 107, 112, 123, 125,
Kudal – Sangama, 14 126, 251, 256, 407, 408
Kukkanur Plates, 323, 332 Mahakantara, 2, 10, 91, 126, 127, 191, 251, 441
Kulia Hoard of Gold Coins, 246 Mahalakshmi, 336
Kulottunga I, 14, 15, 16, 17, 129, 133, 150, 172, Mahalaxmi, 310
177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 187, 205, 208, Mahanadi, 54, 55, 72, 96, 100, 101, 110, 113,
294, 300, 330, 383, 446, 467 140, 141, 277, 356, 387, 408
Kumar V, 50, 51 Mahaprabhu, 30, 31, 73, 307, 327, 328
Kumar, N, 51 Mahasiva Tivara, 63
Kumaradevaganjana, 454 Mahavira, 52, 122, 147, 241, 368
Mahendragiri, 7, 14, 15, 94, 98, 133, 188, 336, Mittal, J.P, 102
408 Mjumder P, 50
Mahendragiri,, 188 Mjumder P P, 50
Mahendravarman I, 8 Moda dhangada, 198
Mahtab, H. K, 117 Mohanty, B.B., 215
Mahua, 293 Mohanty, S.C, 163, 170, 199, 302
Majhima gauri, 52 Mohapatra, C.R, 295
Majjhima gauri, 147 Mohapatra, K., 44
Majjhima Prava, 147 Mohapatra, P.K, 235, 398
Majumdar, R.C, 143, 145, 338, 416, 455, 456, Mohapatro, M, 281
482 Mookerji Radhakumud, 120
Maladhari, 444 Mr.Arbuthnot, 78, 80
Mali, 37, 52, 61, 71, 131, 165, 402, 417, 418, Mr.Russell, 78, 79, 82
419, 420, 429 Mudirabada, 313
Malis, 6, 61, 71, 74, 417, 418, 419, 420 Mudira-bada, 312
Malkangiri, ii, iii, 78, 82, 83, 95, 96, 99, 101, Mudli, 167, 183, 325
135, 156, 157, 163, 209, 229, 275, 280, 286, Mudlipada, 313
289, 291, 292, 294, 300, 309, 344, 345, 382, Mudni Parab, 299
445, 446, 484, 485 Muka Dora, 381
Mamata Choudhury, 124, 125 Mukhalingam, 466
Manda I, 187 Mukherjee D P, 47, 50, 51
Manda Kupli, 185, 186, 187 Mula Sangha, 146, 147
Mandakini, 329 Mulcangherry, 78, 79
Mandakini river, 100 Mummadi Bhima I, 205
Mandala Kingdom, 439 Munda, 3, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 68,
Mandiri, 475 275, 276
Marasimha, 323, 329, 330, 331, 332, 451, 452, Mundlipada, 306, 307
453, 454, 458 Mundra Poraja, 161
Masuni-desam, 313 Muran, 131, 438
Masunidesha, 2, 91 Muria, 23, 24, 41, 75, 231, 236, 238, 241
Mathara, 62, 127, 252, 289 Muria,, 41, 75
Matharagouda, 158 Murias, 294
Matia, 40, 286, 287, 288, 289 mutha, 20, 22, 211, 212
Matias, 23, 286, 287, 290, 354
Matsyakunda, 404
Matsyas, 17, 290, 301, 336, 398, 404, 408, 436,
N
447 N.K.Sahu, 119, 121, 123, 126, 143, 144, 242,
Matya, 3, 154, 157 243, 408
Matyadesa, 301, 447 Nadavali, 380
Mauryas, 6, 10, 93, 216, 415, 439, 455 Nag, 167, 298, 325, 345, 397, 475
May, J.A, 313 Naga, 130, 132, 133, 313, 372, 380, 382, 401,
Mc Crindle, 467 444, 471, 472
McCrindle, 106, 143, 323, 390 Nagavali, 11, 98, 102
Megalithic Culture, 34 Nagavamsi, 14, 15, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 136,
Meghaduta, 4, 63, 67, 357, 358, 360, 361, 362, 137, 149, 179, 312, 371, 372
363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 439, 456 Nagavamsis, 16, 130, 147, 176, 239, 398
Meghatuda, 361 Nala, 4, 7, 10, 63, 64, 82, 123, 125, 127, 144,
Menhir, 34 145, 240, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248,
Meriah, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 201, 202, 209, 473 249, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259,
Mihirkula, 478, 479 260, 261, 262, 265
Mirashi, V.V, 263 Nalas, 9, 10, 17, 63, 64, 72, 93, 119, 123, 127,
Mirgam, 475 145, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 245, 249, 252,
Mirigani, 475, 478 253, 254, 255, 261, 262, 264, 387
Miriganis, 476 Nanda, 6, 138, 247, 321, 437, 438, 439, 440, 467
Misra, P.L, 262, 263 Nandanaraja, 247
Nandapur, 6, 17, 24, 52, 61, 64, 65, 66, 72, 77, Odda-visaya, 136
82, 83, 137, 147, 149, 150, 209, 243, 261, Odda-vishaya, 312
297, 300, 301, 317, 320, 324, 327, 328, 329, Odilinga, 393
330, 331, 336, 337, 339, 340, 354, 398, 404, Odiya, 475
418, 420, 423, 429, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, Odra, 393
438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, Odradesa, 104
447, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 464, 479, 481 Ollar Gadba, 155, 157
Nandapur Suryavamsi dynasty, 436 Ollaro Gadba, 339
Nandavalli, 444 Omanatya, 3, 84, 155, 156, 400, 402, 465, 466
Nandi Puja, 74, 149 Omanatya,, 400
Nandi Vate’, 340 Onomia, 475
Nandiagouda, 158 Orissa, 130, 170, 180, 187, 189, 198, 199, 200,
Nandipuram, 440 201, 207, 209, 210, 233, 234, 235, 291, 294,
Nandi-Sangha, 146 295, 296, 302, 313, 314, 317, 322, 323, 331,
Nandivardana, 438 333, 334, 336, 338, 342, 347, 380, 384, 387,
Nandivardhana, 437 388, 390, 391, 393, 398, 400, 402, 403, 404,
Nandivarman Pallavamalla, 440 428, 429, 432, 434, 439, 440, 441,鼈444, 455,
Nandodbhava family, 439, 440 456, 457, 466, 467, 478, 482, 486
Nandodbhavas, 439 Oriya, 12, 23, 40, 41, 42, 43, 159, 160, 236, 237,
Nangla Khond, 161, 162 239, 273, 274, 309, 340, 343, 382, 400, 401,
Nangla Poroja, 157 406, 423, 428, 429, 430, 434, 435, 446, 473,
Nanndigrama, 440 476, 478
Narasimha, 330
Narayanapal Stone Inscription, 377
Narayanapatna, 205, 433 P
Narayanapura, 372, 375 P.R. Mohapatra, 53
Narayanpal, 368, 370, 371 Padamula, 256, 257, 258, 260
Narayanpatna, 29, 68, 155, 465 Padmaprabha Maladhari, 147
Nayak, 20, 22, 23, 167, 211, 215, 231, 284, 288, Padmapur, 5, 57, 77, 156
289, 299, 326, 400, 431 Padmini Pathi, 215, 216
Nema, S.R, 296 Paikapada, 58, 65, 67, 68, 77, 83
Niggemeyer, Hermann, 209 Paiko, 167, 168, 207, 423, 427, 429, 474
Nilakanta Sastri, 39, 132, 136, 137, 177, 179, Paikos, 12, 158, 168, 183, 423, 427, 428, 429
281, 284, 300, 301, 302, 446, 449 Pakkanaguda, 55, 279
Nisadha, 2, 91, 123, 124, 441 Paknagudda, 280
Nisanmundi, 35 Paliba,, 52
Nisdha chieftain, 441 Paliva, 441, 447
Nishada, 8, 281 Pallavas, 3, 8, 12, 17, 92, 93
Nishidhi memorials, 150 Panchadharala, 341
Nissanmundi, 191 Panchappalli, 312
Niyam Raja, 212 Panda L.K, 264
Niyamgiri, 201 Panduvamsi, 10, 63, 242, 255, 275, 280
Nolambas, 8 Panduvamsis, 8, 63, 64, 69, 280
Nowrangpur, 9, 12, 35, 61, 66, 71, 82, 84, 149, Panduvansis, 63
156, 162, 171, 172, 175, 177, 181, 185, 234, Pandya, 7, 14, 15, 17, 105, 124, 150, 281, 297,
236, 275, 343, 344, 400, 406, 417, 418, 437, 300, 301, 389, 440, 446, 447, 452
477 Pandyas, 8, 12, 13, 93, 150, 290
Nua khia, 169 Panigrahi, K.C, 216, 416
Panigrahi, K.C., 331
O Paniyabhumi, 52
Papdahandi, 55, 71, 82, 187, 236
Oddadi, 17, 163, 290, 301, 404, 433, 435, 445, Parbhani plates, 443
447 Parenga, 3, 21, 23, 28, 30, 34, 36, 40, 73, 150,
Oddadi,, 301, 447 155, 157, 158, 162, 311, 317, 320, 322, 324,
Oddadivishaya, 301, 447
325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 331, 339, 379, 429, Purvadesa, 2, 15, 91, 132, 168, 177, 179, 180,
440 181
Parengi Poroja, 160 Purvadesha, 180, 181, 188
Pargiter, D.K, 262 Pus parab, 170, 299, 328
Paroja, 3, 21, 27, 28, 33, 47, 48, 50, 51, 155, 159, Pushkari, 242, 245, 249, 250, 251, 253, 254, 255,
163, 170, 199, 302, 324 256, 257, 258, 259, 260
Paschimakalinga, 2, 91 Pustaka gaccha, 146, 147
Pataleswara temple, 58 Putia, 423, 424, 427, 429
Patasivaram inscription, 444
Patel, C.B, 145, 241, 264
Pathi Padmini, 209
Q
Patnaik, K.Kamala, 209 queen Kallabha, 453
Patnaik, U.N, 281
Pattnaik, N, 209
Pedda-dugam plates, 465 R
Peddaperappadu plates, 441 R. C.Majumdar, 38
Pengo, 20, 23, 40, 42, 43, 71, 76, 150, 155, 156, Rai Bahadur Hira Lal, 346
157, 158, 159, 161, 162, 168, 171, 172, 173, Raipur, 54, 55, 64, 114, 126, 144, 229, 231, 232,
174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 183, 188, 379 247, 250, 279, 280
Pengu Poroja, 160 Raj Bhattras, 237, 239
Peninsula, 6, 35, 93, 106 Raj Murias, 294
Pentia, 3, 41, 229 Rajadhiraja, 14
Pentias, 158, 229, 230 Rajaguru, iv, ix, 10, 135, 139, 143, 240, 241, 242,
Penukonda Plates, 180, 331 243, 244, 245, 251, 252, 253, 256, 260, 262,
Perang Porajas, 160 263, 264, 467
Perati-bhoga, 454 Rajaguru, S.N, 135, 143, 241, 262, 263, 264, 467
Pfeffer, 146, 150, 151 Rajaraja, 13, 14, 15, 17, 109, 137
Phampuni, 52, 57, 77, 83 Rajaraja I, 205, 294
Phupugaon, 346 Rajaraja II, 448
Pillai, V.Kanakasabhai, 302 Rajendra, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 93, 115, 128, 129,
Pithicampa,, 147 136, 137, 140, 177, 218
Pitribhktas, 466 Rajendra Chola, 132, 179, 181, 294, 301, 312,
Pliny, 106, 107, 114, 138, 143, 321, 323, 390 447
Podagada, 4, 7, 9, 10, 63, 68, 72, 82, 83, 183, Rajendra I, 181, 205, 294, 313
185, 242, 243, 248, 250, 251, 253, 254, 255, Rajendra II, 133, 168, 181
256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 387 Rajim stone inscription, 244, 245, 250
Pottapi Vishaya, 441 Ramachandra Rao, C.V., 143
Pottapinadu, 441 Ramadas, G, 322
Pottapi-nadu, 450 Ramagiri, 4, 5, 67, 99, 103, 110, 354, 355, 356,
Pottapi-nadu, 450 357, 358, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 367,
Pottapi-nadu, 480 418, 429, 438, 456
Pratapa Gangaraju, 436 Ramagiri., 4, 355, 358, 360, 361
Pravhavati Gupta, 438 Ramagiri-svami, 438
Prithivivygara, 441 Ramamurti, G.V, 281, 282
Prithvi-Vyagrah, 8 Ramatirthan, 443
Prtapa Rudra Deva, 66 Ramayana, iii, 1, 2, 94, 98, 99, 102, 122, 123,
Ptolemy’s, 389, 390, 394 272
Puki, 12 Ramdas, G, 116, 125, 127, 163, 170, 262, 263,
Puki-Vishaya’, 12 264
Pulakesin I, 8, 9 Ramesh, K. V, 331
Pulakesin II, 9, 10, 11 Ramesh, K.V, 458
Purle plates, 389 Ramgiri, 343, 344, 345
Purushottama, 376, 383 Ramo, 310
Purushottama Deo, 64
Rangachari,, 199, 209, 291, 295, 313, 314, 323, Sailodbhavas, 241
331, 342, 346, 384, 402, 404, 428, 432, 473, Saivism, 3, 8, 38, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 72, 76, 77,
482, 485, 486 83, 90, 92
Rangachari, K, 163, 178, 209, 232, 241, 281, Sakala-Kalingadhipati’, 109
290, 295, 313, 314, 323, 331, 342, 346, 384, Sakkarakkottam, 128, 136, 312
402, 404, 416, 420, 428, 432, 482, 485, 486 Sakkarakottam, 128, 136, 137
Rao Krishna, B.V, 262 Sakkara-kottam, 312
Rao, B.V, 134, 457 Sakkara-Kottam, 16, 128
Rao, Hayavadana, C, 404, 482, 486 Sakti, 28, 58, 61, 65, 67, 68, 76, 77, 84, 101, 153,
Rashtrakuta, 148, 277, 278, 354, 452 346, 369, 420, 466
Rashtrakutas, 205 SAKTISM, 67
Rastrakutas, 12, 13, 14, 176, 218 Salihundam, 55
Rastrakuttas, 3, 92, 93 Sambalpur, 54, 69, 113, 114, 144, 279, 406
Rath, B.K, 117 Samudra Gupta, 3, 6, 93
Ratnadeva II, 380, 444 Sankara Dynasty of Nandapur, 433
Ratnapur, 380, 444 Sankhini, 58
Ray A K, 51 Sano Poraja, 168, 396
Ray Choudhuri, H.C, 127, 145 Sano Porajas, 191, 192
Ray Choudhury, H.C, 125 Sano Poroja, 157, 161, 194
Ray, H.C, 117 Sansanakota Plates, 330
Ray, H.C., 456 Santhianathaier, R, 302, 457
Rayagada, iii, vii, 52, 54, 58, 68, 72, 77, 83, 133, Saora, 3, 40, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 75, 155, 272,
137, 146, 147, 156, 187, 193, 201, 204, 211, 474
214, 218, 220, 281, 284, 381 Saptamatrika, 68
Reddy B M, 50, 51 Sarkar S S, 51
Rev. Cain, John, 486 Sarkar,A, 241
Rice, B.L, 332 Sastri, K.A, Nilakanta, 302, 314, 457
Rishi Khebri, 405 Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta, 38, 416
Risi Khibidi, 148 Sastri, K.A.N, 134, 143, 178, 181, 456
Risi Khibira, 148 Sastri, K.A.Nilakanta, 210
Ronas, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 432, Sastri,K.Nilakanta, 296
446 Satavahana, 121, 122, 141, 144
Roy, S.C, 282 Satavahans, 386
Roy, S.N, 281 Sathianathaier, R, 296, 457
Roychoudhury, A.K, 322 Sati cult, 82
Rudra Siva, 58, 67 Satipillars, 261
Russel, R.V, 346 Semi Parab, 299
Russell, R.V, 200, 232, 235, 337 Senapati, 456
Sergent, 46, 50
Sergent B, 50
S Sewell, Robert, 163, 457
S.C.Macpherson, 78 Shangam corpse, 7
Sabara, 3, 8, 19, 21, 35, 36, 39, 55, 57, 69, 75, Sharabharpuriyas, 8
93, 124, 155, 156, 157, 158, 192, 272, 273, Sharma, R.K, 456
274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 286, Shastri, Ajay Mitra, 116, 117
440 Sickle cell anemia, 45
Sabbi country, 149 Silaharas, 14, 335, 337, 338
Sabbi –thousand, 443 Silavamsa, 191, 336, 435, 436, 437
Saberi, 280, 286, 334 Sileru, 187, 300, 446
Sahoo, A.C, 404 Simhachalam, 341, 436
Sahu, A.C, 215 Simhandadini, 465
Sahu, J.K, 143 Simhapura, 440, 465, 466, 467
Sahu, N.K, 120, 122, 125, 127, 143, 145, 262, Sindas, 372
263, 264, 282, 411, 455 Sindibor, 34
Sailodbhava, 337 Singama, 436
Singh Deo, J.P, 127 T

Singh Deo, K.B, 164, 404, 455, 457
Singh, Bhupinder, 281 Tagara Poraja, 335
Singh, R.B.P, 151 Tagara Poroja’, 335
Singh, R.L, 38, 90, 102 Tagra Poroja, 160
Sir Grigson, Wilferd, 235 Takra, 333
Sircar, D.C, 102, 103, 135, 143, 216, 262, 264, Tamil, 7, 12, 16, 35, 39, 67, 128, 129, 132, 136,
302, 323, 367, 456, 457, 467 165, 177, 179, 180, 297, 334
Sirha, 71, 174, 175, 176 Tamsa, 100
Sisa, 21, 23, 71 Taylor, Rev.W, 241, 295
Sitapati, G.V, 281 Tel, 72, 96, 114, 259, 386, 387, 392, 393, 408
Sivagupta Balarjuna, 63, 64 Telavaha river, 386
Skanda Varman, 248 Telin Ghatt, 392
Smith, V, 387 Telinga, 2, 56, 72, 91, 104, 105, 388, 389
Sodabisiya, 475 Telingiri, 386, 387, 393
Sodia Poraja, 131, 165, 166, 167, 168, 478 Telivaha, 387
Sodia Poroja, 157 Telugu, 3, 9, 11, 12, 16, 39, 43, 56, 93, 105, 106,
Sodor, 34 140, 142, 229, 239, 249, 283, 284
Somavamsi, 115, 143, 157, 296 Telugu Chodas, 3, 12, 93
Somavamsis, 16, 104, 111, 112, 115, 150, 216, Tenkuri Poraja, 162
346, 388 Tentulikhunti, 181, 187
Somesvara, 14, 15, 16, 17, 129, 132, 133, 177, Thana plate, 389
179, 205, 218, 219, 312, 319, 380, 444, 472 Thapar, Romila, 38, 90
Somesvara I, 472 Tharua, 3, 155
Sonepur, 380 Thurston and Rangachari, 159, 160, 161, 172,
South Kalinga, 17, 110, 114, 289, 300, 356, 392, 194, 201, 229, 272, 283, 286, 291, 306, 311,
446 314, 317, 324, 339, 343, 381, 400, 403, 404,
South Kosala, iv, 3, 8, 9, 10, 16, 54, 57, 63, 64, 412, 417, 419, 427, 483
91, 104, 110, 111, 127, 144, 145, 149, 254, Thurston E, 163, 199, 209, 232, 241, 281, 290,
280, 296, 335, 356, 357, 380, 388, 391, 392, 295, 313, 323, 346, 384, 402, 482
444, 451 Thurston, E, 178, 232, 241, 285, 290, 416, 420
Sri Chaitanya, 65, 66 Thurston, Edgar, 428
Srikakulam, 1, 55, 61, 67, 94, 98, 101, 110, 111, Thusu, K.N, 163, 170, 178
140, 277, 356, 357, 405 Thusu, Kidar Nath, 322, 337
Srirangam plates, 389 Timmapuram, 11
Srivaraha, 246 Tirthankaras, 52, 77
Stambha, 243, 247, 248 Tirumalai Inscriptions, 185, 301, 312, 447
Sthambhaesvari, 69, 70 Tooth Relic, 55
Sthiramati, 56 Trailokyamalla,, 471
Strumpell, Christian, 150 Tribhuvnamalla Vira, 444
Stuart, H.A, 241, 384, 420 Trikalayogi Siddhantadeva, 443
Suana Puja, 300 Trikalinga, ii, 2, 9, 10, 16, 17, 38, 52, 90, 91, 104,
Subaie, 52, 149, 443, 453 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
Subramanian, K.R, 143 114, 115, 116, 119, 127, 128, 130, 138, 140,
Sukhla, H.N, 263 147, 148, 149, 151, 200, 255, 278, 301, 302,
Sukla, H.L, 102 321, 331, 342, 354, 355, 377, 388, 389, 390,
Sukla,H.L, 125 391, 392, 393, 437, 441, 443, 446, 447, 448,
Sundi, 405, 406, 407, 409, 410 452, 456, 481
Sundis, 158, 183, 405, 406, 408, 409 Trikalingadhipati, 10, 104, 108, 109, 112, 113,
Surya, 67, 289, 325, 345, 406, 471, 475 114, 115, 116, 140, 366, 444, 448, 472
Surya Temple, 67 Trilinga, 56, 104, 105, 106, 116, 138, 140, 388,
Suvarnapura, 380 389, 390, 393
Trilinga,, 388, 389, 390, 393
Tripathi, Sunderlal, 102
Tripathy, S, 116, 262, 393
Tripathy, Sunderlal., 456 Vikramaditya, 132, 133, 134, 179, 180, 205, 438,
Tripuri, 206, 380, 388, 444, 472 440, 448, 452, 472
Tsrling, 393 Vikramaditya I, 9, 242, 255
Tugara, 333 Vikramaditya II, 109, 278, 281, 355
Tyagis, 383 Vilasatunga, 64, 244, 245, 248, 250
Vimaladitya, 443
Vinayaka Deo’s, 435
U Vinayaka Deva, 436
Udayana, 8, 124, 276, 279, 280, 281, 440 Vindyavedhana, 251, 252
Ugradityacarya, 4, 109, 356 Vir Rajendra, 133
Umbel, 52, 150 Virachoda, 188, 206, 441
Umerkot, 387 ViraChola, 17
Umerkote, 4, 7, 9, 10, 54, 63, 64, 68, 72, 123, Viranandi- Sidhanta, 444
236, 242, 245, 250, 255 Virarajendra, 132, 133, 179, 472
United Koraput, ii, iii, vii, 1, 155, 236 Virasaiva, 60, 61
Utkala, 104, 107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 116, 120, Visakhapatnam, 1, 11, 47, 61, 94, 99, 111, 284
125, 127, 138, 139, 140, 143, 380, 388, 391, Vishamasiddhi, 441
392, 393, 439, 444 Vishnu, 4, 63, 64, 65, 66, 77, 218, 251, 256, 257,
258, 259, 260, 262, 279, 360, 367, 420
Vishnuvardhana, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 124, 128,
V 281, 354, 355
Vaidumbas, 450, 479, 480, 481 Vizagapatam, 381, 382, 384, 427, 428, 455, 473,
Vaishnavism, 3, 92, 367 484, 486
Vaisnavism, 38, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 77, 90 Vyghraraja, 251, 441
Vajrahasta I, 278
Vajrahasta II, 448, 480 W
Vakataka, 4, 7, 9, 10, 145, 181, 240, 242, 248,
252, 253, 254, 360, 364, 438, 455 Watters, 145
Vakatakas, 3, 8, 93, 127, 144, 239, 243, 253, 254, Western Chalukya, 9, 11, 14, 76, 85, 132, 177,
261, 366, 438 218, 219, 242, 255, 300, 446, 454
Vamsadhara, 55, 98, 101, 273 Western Chalukyas, 3, 92, 93, 157, 189, 200,
Varaharaja, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 252, 253 229, 230, 239, 294, 402, 437
Velanti Rajendra Choda, 187 Western Ganga, 9, 12, 147, 213, 214, 239, 240,
Vengi, 3, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 91, 92, 104, 241, 277, 322
109, 110, 111, 115, 128, 130, 132, 133, 134, Western Gangas, 9, 200, 322, 328, 329, 330,
136, 137, 140, 141, 148, 150, 171, 172, 176, 331, 332, 440, 451, 452, 453
177, 179, 180, 187, 188, 205, 208, 219, 277, Wild Bottle, 169
278, 282, 284, 312, 313, 354, 355, 365, 388, Wilson, H.H, 125, 366, 367
441, 443, 447, 448, 449, 450, 452, 457, 465,
481, 482, 483 Y
Venkatakrishna Rao, B., 282
Vidyadhara territory, 2, 91, 121, 122 Yadavas of Devagiri, 12, 218, 219
Vijayaditya III, 16, 128, 129 Yashoda Devi, 17, 208, 290, 301, 302, 336, 341,
Vijayaditya IV, 448 383, 384, 435, 436, 447, 457
Vijayaditya IV Kollabhaganda, 448 Yayatinagar, 294
Vijayaditya VI, 148
Vijayaditya VII, 206, 472
Vijayanagar Empire, 445
Z
Vijrahasta, 205 Zide,N.H, 282
Vikrama Chola, 17, 206

History of Tribal People in United Koraput

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History of Tribal People in United Koraput

HISTORY OF TRIBAL PEOPLE IN

First published 2017

ISBN-978- 93- 5281- 937-9

Published by Das Kornel, 2017

Coverpage by Arjun Ojha

Freedom fighter Saheed Laxman Nayak of

Archaeological evidence has underlined the geographical significance to history,

Indian history involves linguistics, archaeology and attempts to differentiate alien

In future, studies related to genetically markers in plants, livestock, and even

 The archaeology and inscriptions where available have been incorporated

I am thankful to many friends in academics, tribal friends who willingly

ARSIE Annual report of South Indian Epigraphy

LANGUAGES IN KORAPUT ............................................................................. 39

Archeological Remains of Nalas .................................................................... 253

History and Didayi ...................................................................................... 394

INTRODUCTION OF HISTORY IN KORAPUT

Geographical location of Dandakaranya

Geographical Changes in Dandakaranya

The adjacent countries were

Creative literature and knowledge in United Koraput

Lord Rama’s Feet in Pujariguda, Ramagiri, Koraput District, Orissa.

EMERGING STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE AND

Western Chalukya Pulakesin I’s son Kirtivarman I (566-7) expanded the

In the Aihole inscription of Kirtivarman’s son, who can hardly be expected to

Eastern Gangas in Trikalinga

Kubja Vishnuvardhana I: (Saka 526- C. 544-45) founder of Eastern

Andhra country as Viceroy and completes the process of conquest, which

Kubja Vishnuvardhana I rewarded 3 of his military officers, of which one Atavi

Throughout the reign of Jayasimha I of Western Chalukya, the Eastern Ganga

The inscription records a grant by Vishnuvardhana- Maharya Surnamed

However, I believe from my study that it is ‘Puki-Vishaya’ as has been rightly

Rajadhiraja assessed by his younger brother and yuvaraja Rajendra II lead an

Kulottunga I as Prince in Koraput –Bastar

1.Culture Heritage History and Historiography In Dandakaranya Vol I—Das

SOCIETIES AND CULTURE IN UNITED KORAPUT

Customs and traditions

Salient Features of Tribal Socio-Cultural Life

Traditional Village Council

Mutha concept continued in the British administration structure of Koraput

Women and Society

Common Names of Persons

Dasara is celebrated in the month of Aswina (September-October).The tribal

Diali Parab is celebrated in the month of Kartika (October-November) for

Pus Parab is another important festival of Koraput district. The festival is

Individual family members worship their household deities and ancestors by

Agni Gangamma Jatra at Nilabadi

The Goddess Agni Gangamma of Nilabadi village of Narayanpatna Block is

Pradesh. In the month of Chaitra a weeklong jatra is celebrated at Nilabadi village

Gutab Gadaba in their worship says,

Jidan, Godan, Podan sabu saman,

Cremation and Burial

Ancestral Worship and Veneration of the dead

The very important and expensive festival of Gadaba is ‘Gotar’.Gotar is observed

Similar to Sodors most Jhodia Porajas construct the ‘Nisanmundi’ in a corner in

Menhirs in a Koya tribe village Nisanmundi with Ficus infectria in a Jhodia

Livelihood and Bio-Diversity in Primitive Societies

These societies in isolation have contributed to the development of bio-diversity

Hill people and Valley civilisation growth

1. Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India-from the origins

Proto-Munda is classified as South Munda, Koraput Munda, and Sora: Munda,

Linguistic Reports on Koraput Population

1. Sastri, N.K.N. A History of South India, p.61-63

GENETIC DISTANCE BETWEEN KORAPUT TRIBES