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on-off (RZ)
polar (RZ)
bipolar/AMI (RZ)
on-off (NRZ)
polar (NRZ)
r(t)
t
t
|r(t)|
◮ A line code where it is easy to extract the timing signal is called a
transparent code. This is why many codes are designed the way they are.
◮ In practice the timing signal will be cleaned up by a narrowband
bandpass filter before it is used to extract the bits in the input signal.
Timing Signal (cont.)
◮ Another approach is on-off keying (OOK), with either RZ or NRZ codes.
RZ case is shown here.
r(t)
t
r(t) − c(t)
t
c(t) t
r(t)
t
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
◮ Many codes limit the number of consecutive runs of 1’s or 0’s, and force
bit changes after a given number of bits.
◮ The example we’ll look at in the next lab forbids 6 1’s in a row, and
adds an extra zero bit after 5 1’s.
◮ This is another example of bit stuffing that we saw last lecture.
Power Spectral Density of Line Codes
◮ The output distortion of a communication channel depends on power
spectral density of input signal
◮ Input PSD depends on
◮ pulse rate (spectrum widens with pulse rate)
◮ pulse shape (smoother pulses have narrower PSD)
◮ pulse distribution
◮ Distortion can result in smeared channel output; output pulses are
(much) longer tthan input pulses
◮ Intersymbol interference (ISI): received pulse is affected by previous
input symbols
Power Spectral Density (review)
For an energy signal g(t), the energy spectral density is the Fourier
transform of the autocorrelation:
Z ∞
ψg (t) = Rg (t) = g(u)g(u + t) du =⇒ |G(f )|2 = F{Rg (t)}
−∞
For a power signal, autocorrelation and PSD are average over time. Define
(
g(t) |t| < T /2
gT (t) = Π(t/T )g(t) =
0 |t| > T /2
Then
RgT (t) |GT (f )|2
Rg (t) = lim =⇒ Sg (f ) = lim
T →∞ T T →∞ T
PSD of Line Codes
The PSD of a line code depends on the shapes of pulses that correspond to
digital values. Consider PAM, pulse amplitude modulation.
0 n
Tb Rx (0) Rx (t)
Rx (Tb )
0 t
PSD of Impulse Train (cont.)
The power spectral density of impulse train is
∞
1 X
F {Rx (t)} = Sx (f ) = Rn e−jn2πf Tb
Tb n=−∞
◮ 1 → +p(t) , 0 → −p(t)
◮ Since ak and ak+n (n 6= 0) are independent and equally likely,
N N
1 X 2 1 X
R0 = lim ak = lim 1=1
N →∞ 2N N →∞ 2N
k=−N k=−N
N
1 X
Rn = lim ak ak+n = 0
N →∞ 2N
k=−N
|P (f )|2 |P (f )|2
Sy (f ) = R0 =
Tb Tb
PSD of Polar Signaling (cont.)
Examples:
◮ NRZ (100% pulse)
p(t) = Π(t/Tb )
P (f ) = Tb sinc(πTb f )
|P (f )|2 = Tb2 sinc2 (πTb f )
◮ RZ half-width:
p(t) = Π(t/(Tb /2))
P (f ) = 21 Tb sinc( 12 πTb f )
|P (f )| = 41 Tb2 sinc2 ( 12 πTb f )
PSD of Polar Signaling: Half-Width Pulse
1 2
|P (f )|2 T sinc2 ( 12 πTb f )
Tb πTb f
For RZ, Sy (f ) = = 4 b = sinc2
Tb Tb 4 2
◮ R0 is 12 because half the time the signals are 1 and half the time they
are 0.
R0 = 12 1 + 12 0 = 21
◮ The issue is with all the higher order terms. If we look at Rn , 1/4 of the
time two bits separated by n are both 1, 1/2 the time one is one and one
is zero, and 1/4 the time they are both zero. The autocorrelation is then
Rn = 41 1 + 12 0 + 14 0 = 41
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
Split Phase Encoding (cont.)
◮ The PSD is
∞
!
2 1 X 1
Sy (f ) = |P (f )| Rn e−jn2πf Tb = |P (f )|2
Tb n=−∞ Tb