The Geological Society of America

Special Paper 498

2013

Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of

Boquerón Volcano (San Salvador volcanic complex, El Salvador)

D. Ferrés
H. Delgado Granados
Departamento de Vulcanología, Instituto de Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México D.F., México

R.E. Gutiérrez
Dirección General del Observatorio Ambiental (DGOA), Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales,
San Salvador, El Salvador

I.A. Farraz
Terracon Ingeniería S.A. de C.V., México D.F., México

E.W. Hernández
Dirección General del Observatorio Ambiental (DGOA), Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales,
San Salvador, El Salvador

C.R. Pullinger
Independent Consultant, San Salvador, El Salvador

C.D. Escobar
Dirección General del Observatorio Ambiental (DGOA), Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales,
San Salvador, El Salvador

ABSTRACT

Boquerón Volcano, formed on the old San Salvador Volcano, is the youngest and
active central edifice of the San Salvador volcanic complex, which also includes 25
secondary vents. The San Salvador volcanic complex is located in the vicinity of the
San Salvador metropolitan area and is considered one of the most hazardous volcanic
centers in El Salvador and Central America. Boquerón Volcano has a long record of
effusive and explosive eruptions spanning 36,000 yr; the most recent eruption was
in 1917. We reviewed and updated its eruptive history through detailed fieldwork,
allowing the recognition of up to 25 different eruptions. Lava flows, ash-fall, and
ballistic projectile deposits produced by Strombolian or violent-Strombolian erup-
tions are the most recurrent events preserved in the stratigraphic record of Boquerón
Volcano. Pyroclastic-flow, and especially pyroclastic-surge, deposits are also present,

Ferrés, D., Delgado Granados, H., Gutiérrez, R.E., Farraz, I.A., Hernández, E.W., Pullinger, C.R., and Escobar, C.D., 2013, Explosive volcanic history and hazard
zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano (San Salvador volcanic complex, El Salvador), in Rose, W.I., Palma, J.L., Delgado Granados, H., and Varley, N., eds., Under-
standing Open-Vent Volcanism and Related Hazards: Geological Society of America Special Paper 498, p. 201–230, doi:10.1130/2013.2498(12). For permission to
copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. © 2013 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

201
202 Ferrés et al.

indicative of explosive subplinian and Plinian eruptions, some of which had signifi-
cant phreatomagmatic components.
We define three hazard scenarios regarding ash fall, ballistic projectiles, and
pyroclastic density currents for Boquerón Volcano and constrain them using its docu-
mented explosive eruptive history, fieldwork, and computer simulations. Each sce-
nario is characterized by a likelihood of occurrence (high, medium, low), assigned to
eruptive events of small, intermediate, or large magnitude, which are mainly charac-
terized for the areal distribution of the related volcanic products. Resulting hazard
maps show areas likely to be affected by future eruptions, enabling decision makers
and the general public to consider volcanic hazards in land development and risk
mitigation planning.

INTRODUCTION residential areas were developed on the S, E, and NE slopes of

The Pleistocene–Holocene San Salvador volcanic complex,
in central El Salvador, is considered one of the most hazardous
volcanic centers of Central America (Sofield, 2004; Ewert and
Harpel, 2004; Palma et al., 2009). The complex consists of a cen-
tral stratovolcano—the younger and active Boquerón Volcano
nested within an older San Salvador Volcano—and 25 secondary
cones located mainly along two NW-trending normal faults, NW
and SE of the main edifice (Bosse et al., 1976; Italtekna Consult,
1988; Sofield, 1998; Corti et al., 2005) (Fig. 1).
Boquerón Volcano has a 36,000 yr record of magmatic and
phreatomagmatic eruptions (Fairbrothers et al., 1978; Sofield,
1998, 2004; Ferrés et al., 2011). The most recent eruption in
1917 had both effusive and explosive phases that produced
andesitic a‘a lava from vents located on the northern flank and
inside the central vent, and built El Boqueroncito scoria cone
inside the crater (Fig. 1). In addition, 17 of the 25 secondary
vents have erupted during the last 3000 yr. Archaeological and
historical studies show how some of the Boquerón eruptions,
and mainly the secondary vent eruptions, have directly affected
the populations of the central sector of El Salvador since the
Middle Preclassic period (900–400 B.C.) until recent times
(Lardé y Arthés, 1960; Lardé y Larín, 1978; Sheets, 1983,
2004; Hart, 1983; Chandler, 1983; Amaroli and Dull, 1999;
Ferrés et al., 2011).
The capital city of San Salvador and the 13 municipalities
comprising its metropolitan area are on a plain formed by inter-
stratified pyroclastic, epiclastic, and effusive deposits of the San
Salvador and Ilopango caldera volcanic complexes, both of which
have had historic eruptive activity (Fig. 1). This area is laced with
numerous streams, has been intensely faulted, and has experi-
enced numerous earthquakes. The metropolitan area is the politi-
cal, economic, and cultural hub of El Salvador. It concentrates
27% of the population (1.6 million people; Digestyc, 2007) and
70% of the public and private investment of the country (Geólo-
gos del Mundo-IPGARAMSS, 2009). The population of the met-
ropolitan area has doubled in the past 30 yr. Unplanned growth
of surrounding towns, mainly during 1970s to 1990s, resulted in
the settlement of many communities inside ravines, and several
San Salvador Volcano. Some communities were even established
on the southern margin of the crater of Boquerón. Most of these
communities are located in high-risk areas. The municipalities
founded on the N, NW, and SW of the San Salvador volcanic
complex (Quezaltepeque, San Juan Opico, and Lourdes-Colón)
had the largest population growth in El Salvador from 2000 to
2010 (Ferrés et al., 2011), as evidenced by the development of
new housing projects, roads, and industry in the eastern Zapotitán
Valley. Because more than 670,000 people are exposed to volca-
nic hazards within a radius of 10 km from the crater, Boquerón
Volcano has one of the largest values on the recently compiled
Index of Volcanic Population in Central America (Ewert and Har-
pel, 2004; Palma et al., 2009).
Hazard assessment at the San Salvador volcanic complex
has special significance because any eruptive activity, regardless
of magnitude, from the central edifice or from secondary vents
would directly affect thousands of people and strongly disrupt
development of the country.
Here, the stratigraphy and eruptive history of Boquerón
Volcano are reviewed and refined on the basis of recognition of
newly defined pyroclastic sequences. This study defines prob-
able volcanic hazard scenarios related to explosive eruptive
activity from the central vent of Boquerón Volcano. Hazard sce-
nario maps are made for primary volcanic processes: ash fall,
ballistic projectiles, and pyroclastic flows and surges. Hazard
zones from these processes are constrained by the prior depos-
its and eruptive history, and computer simulations. These maps
Figure 1. Map of the San Salvador volcanic complex. Numbers in-
dicate relative ages of secondary vents increasing from the youngest
to the oldest (after Sofield, 1998; Ferrés et al., 2011), on the N40W
(A) and N65W (B) faults (updated from Bosse et al., 1976). Upper-
left inset: General location of the San Salvador volcanic complex
(SSVC) in the volcanic front of El Salvador. Other volcanoes: CHI—
Chingo; SA—Santa Ana; IZ—Izalco; COc—Coatepeque caldera;
ILc—Ilopango caldera; SVI—San Vicente; TEC—Tecapa; SMI—San
Miguel; COM—Comasagua; MEA—Meanguera. Upper-right inset:
View of the San Salvador and Boquerón Volcanoes from the SE; vil-
lages of Antiguo Cuscatlán and Santa Tecla in the foreground.
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano 203

89.72° 89.22° 88.72° 88.22° 87.72°W

ICO 0 20 40 Boquerón Cerro
EX HONDURAS
M
GUATEMALA
Kilometers Volcano El Picacho

14.07°
HONDURAS CHI

SA SSVC
NICARAGUA
EL IZ COc

13.57°
SALVADOR
COSTA
RICA ILc TEC
SVI
SMI COM
EL SALVADOR
Central America Volcanic Arc MEA

A 19
7 21
18
5
6 4 8 QUEZALTEPEQUE
JOYA
20 DE CEREN
299108

2 22
El Playón NEJAPA
1

Eastern APOPA
Zapotitán
Valley
SITIO 14 23
DEL NIÑO 10 3
24
B
9 San Salvador TONACATEPEQUE
294108

12
Volcano
13
15 17 0
Cerro El Jabalí
3
Cerro El
Picacho
AYUTUXTEPEQUE
289108

LOURDES MEJICANOS
COLON Boquerón
Volcano
CIUDAD
DELGADO
Cerro
La Hoya
11 SAN SALVADOR SOYAPANGO
284108

A
SANTA TECLA Cerro
ANTIGUO 16 Plan de San Jacinto
El Bálsamo Range CUSCATLAN
La Laguna

0 2 4
SAN MARCOS
Kilometers NUEVO
Coordinate system:
CUSCATLAN
Lambert Conformal Conic
462893 467893 472893 477893 482893

San Salvador Ancient Explosion craters

volcano caldera 1917 Interpreted Urban Major
San Salvador roads
and Boquerón crater Volcano Scoria cones lavas faults areas
204 Ferrés et al.
show areas likely to be affected by future eruptions of different
magnitudes, and they provide useful information to the general
public and decision makers for land development planning and
risk mitigation.
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Previous research on the San Salvador volcanic complex
focuses on hazard assessment based on the reconstruction of the
eruptive history.
Fairbrothers et al.’s (1978) study described the magmatic
evolution of Boquerón Volcano and identified numerous lava
bodies on the inner walls of the main crater separated by differ-
ent levels of pyroclastic and epiclastic deposits. These lava flows
are considered the products of 14 different volcanic eruptions.
Those flows are divided in two series (lower and upper), and they
show a continuous range of compositions, from basaltic-andesite
to andesite (53% to 61% SiO2). Some of those flows surpassed
the caldera margins and traveled across the slopes of the volcanic
edifice to a maximum distance of 10 km N and SE (Sofield, 1998;
Major et al., 2001).
Sofield (1998) studied the stratigraphy and eruptive his-
tory of San Salvador volcanic complex. His work compiled the
knowledge of previous studies (Fairbrothers et al., 1978; Ital-
tekna Consult, 1988; Hart, 1983; Miller, 2000) and paid special
attention to flank vent eruptions. He identified 41 volcanic events
at the San Salvador volcanic complex in the past 40,000 yr, 17
of which are related to effusive (14) and explosive (3) eruptions
from the central vent of Boquerón Volcano; the rest are attributed
to flank eruptions. The frequency of eruptions at the San Salva-
dor volcanic complex was calculated for different periods, based
mainly on flank-vent tephrochronology, and was estimated to be
one eruption every 113–950 yr.
Major et al. (2001) and Sofield (2004) proposed possible
scenarios for future eruptions of the San Salvador volcanic com-
plex and constructed hazard zonation maps for primary products
from effusive and explosive central vent and flank eruptions. The
hazard scenarios proposed in these studies were used as a starting
point for our research.
Major et al. (2001) also included possible scenarios for
future lahar occurrence. Lahar generation in San Salvador vol-
canic complex can occur mainly as a secondary volcanic pro-
cess, associated with the mobilization of volcanic deposits by
intense rainfalls, which occur annually in El Salvador. There-
fore, lahars have the highest recurrence and are the greatest
hazard in the area.
Major et al. (2004), Blanco et al. (2002), DGSNET (2004),
and Geólogos del Mundo-IPGARAMSS (2008) reviewed and
updated Major et al. (2001) and assessed potential lahar hazards
around San Salvador Volcano, especially on the eastern flank of
El Picacho (Fig. 1). These studies and maps on possible lahar
inundation zones are considered current; therefore, our research
focuses on primary volcanic hazards posed by future explosive
volcanic activity.
ERUPTIVE HISTORY OF BOQUERÓN VOLCANO
San Salvador Volcanic Complex
The evolution of the San Salvador volcanic complex consists
of three stages (Sofield, 1998; Ferrés et al., 2011).
Stage 1 was the eruption of basaltic-andesite to andesite
lavas and pyroclastic deposits that are interstratified with Coate-
peque caldera pyroclastic deposits. These lava flows and pyro-
clastic deposits formed the old San Salvador Volcano. The oldest
lavas known underlie Arce deposits from Coatepeque caldera,
dated at 72 ± 3 ka (Rose et al., 1999). The old San Salvador Vol-
cano could reach ~3000 m high (Meyer-Abich, 1956). The col-
lapse of this volcano caused the formation of an elongated cal-
dera (6 × 4.5 km; Fig. 1) associated with a large Plinian eruption
that emplaced the gray pyroclastic fall, surge, and flow deposits
of the G1 sequence (Meyer-Abich, 1956; Italtekna Italconsult,
1988; Sofield, 1998, 2004). Remnants of this ancient edifice are
evident at Cerros El Picacho and El Jabalí and the southwestern
part of the main edifice (Fig. 1).
Stage 2, involving the construction of the active Boquerón
Volcano inside the elliptic caldera, occurred between 36 ka
and 3 ka. Boquerón Volcano is composed of a superposition of
basaltic-andesite to andesite lavas (Fairbrothers et al., 1978),
interstratified with pyroclastic deposits of variable distributions
(Sofield, 1998, 2004; Ferrés et al., 2011). These lavas and pyro-
clastic deposits are in turn interstratified with four Plinian deposit
sequences from eruptions of Ilopango caldera, generically labeled
as “Tierra Blanca” (TB; white soil), which were emplaced in the
last 36,000 yr (Dull et al., 2001; Kutterolf et al., 2008). The G1
pyroclastic sequence, considered to be the product of the first
eruption of Boquerón Volcano (Meyer-Abich, 1956; Italtekna
Consult, 1988; Sofield, 1998), overlies TB4 deposits of Ilopango
caldera, dated at 36 ka (Kutterolf et al., 2008). The deposits of six
other explosive eruptions are found in the stratigraphic record of
this period and are described in the next chapter.
Stage 3 is from 3 ka until historical times, when effusive
and explosive activity was concentrated mostly on the N, NW,
and SE flanks of the volcanic complex, generating 17 second-
ary vents distributed among scoria cones and explosion craters
(Sofield, 1998, 2004; Ferrés et al., 2011). Eight of these vents
erupted prior to Tierra Blanca Joven (TBJ), the product of the last
eruption from Ilopango caldera, dated at A.D. 429 ± 107 (Dull
et al., 2001). The last secondary vent eruption occurred between
A.D. 1658 and 1671 and formed El Playón scoria cone (Sofield,
1998, 2004; Ferrés et al., 2011) N of the main edifice, along a
N40W-trending fault (Fig. 1).
The activity of central Boquerón paused at the beginning of
this stage, but it resumed 1000 yr ago. The stratigraphic record
preserves the deposits of three explosive eruptions during this
period, including the last eruption of Boquerón Volcano in 1917
(Ferrés et al., 2011). The first central vent eruption, considered to
be the last major eruption of Boquerón Volcano, produced San
Andrés Tuff deposits (Hart, 1983). The main unit of San Andrés
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano
Tuff sequence has a wide distribution, mainly to the WNW (Hart,
1983; Sofield, 1998; Ferrés et al., 2011). In this study, San Andrés
Tuff is referred to as Talpetate I, to distinguish it from “Talpetate
II,” which is another sequence that was found above San Andrés
Tuff deposits on the northern flank of Boquerón Volcano (Fer-
rés et al., 2011). Talpetate I and Talpetate II sequences received
their names due to the high degree of induration of their main
units, from the Nahuatl “Tali,” meaning land, soil, and “Petate,”
meaning mat (Geoffroy Rivas, 2009). Talpetate II deposits are
considered the products of the second explosive eruption of the
last 3000 yr of Boquerón Volcano.
Boquerón Volcano Stratigraphic Record
The construction of the Boquerón Volcano edifice within the
caldera of the old San Salvador Volcano is characterized mainly
by superposition of 14 lava flows (Fairbrothers et al., 1978;
Sofield, 1998). Three of the pyroclastic sequences interstratified
within them (G1, San Andrés Tuff, and 1917 sequences) were
identified by previous authors (Meyer-Abich, 1956; Hart, 1983;
Sofield, 1998) and reviewed in this research. The deposits of the
other seven explosive eruptions of Boquerón Volcano were iden-
tified through fieldwork around the San Salvador volcanic com-
plex, six corresponding to the 36 ka to 3 ka period and one during
the last 3000 yr B.P. period.
We studied the stratigraphic relations among the fall, flow,
and surge deposits associated with the 10 explosive eruptions of
Boquerón Volcano and their distribution (Fig. 2), as well as the
sedimentological characteristics of some of the main fall deposits
(Table 1), in order to use this information as a base to define vol-
canic hazard scenarios for ash-fall, ballistic projectiles (Table 2),
and pyroclastic density current (Table 3) processes.
Pyroclastic Sequences of the Construction Period of
Boquerón Volcano (36 ka–3 ka)
The G1 sequence is composed of eight different pyroclas-
tic units (Fig. 3). The four basal units consist of an intercalation
of black, vesicular, friable lapilli deposits, having maximum
diameters of 3 cm, and two levels of ocher, laminated, indu-
rated ash, each 40–70 cm thick, interpreted to be fall and surge
deposits, respectively. These basal units (Fig. 2, sector 3) have
a reduced distribution and were identified only at intermediate
areas (5–7 km from the central vent), at the southern flank of the
old San Salvador Volcano and at the foot of Cerro El Picacho.
The upper four units are distributed on a wider area around San
Salvador volcanic complex. From bottom to top, they are: (1) a
dark-gray, normally graded, well-sorted, poorly vesicular, friable
lapilli deposit, having maximum diameters of 4 cm. The deposit
contains 20% dense lava fragments, classified in two different
families based on visual characteristics. The most common are
dark-gray, angular fragments, 5.5 cm in maximum diameter. The
other group is composed of rounded, reddish fragments, 2.5 cm
in average. The juvenile fragments are dacitic (64.21% SiO2;
Sofield, 1998). The dense lava fragments are similar to the lavas
205
of the old San Salvador Volcano. The lower third of this deposit
is composed of a whitish-yellow, highly vesicular, pumiceous
lapilli subunit, having clasts of greater size (5–6 cm), and show-
ing evidence of magma mingling. A level of scoriaceous and
dense lava blocks of decimetric size (15–20 cm) is frequently
found at the top of this subunit. The deposit was classified as the
main fall deposit of G1 and named as G11. This unit is 4.7 m thick
at proximal outcrops and 50 cm thick at distal areas, where the
deposit presents a slight stratification and some degree of com-
paction, due to the alteration of the fine fraction. (2) The sec-
ond unit is an intermediate unit, 5–83 cm thick, light-ocher-gray,
highly indurated ash deposit, containing sporadic dark-gray,
vesicular lapilli ranging from millimeters to centimeters in size,
which unconformably overlies the G11 fall deposit. The lower
half of the deposit presents thin planar and cross-lamination and
interbedded layers of accretionary lapilli, while the upper half is
massive. This deposit was classified as a ground surge. (3) The
third unit is a 30-cm- to 2.1-m-thick, dark-gray, vesicular, fri-
able lapilli deposit, having maximum diameters of 3 cm. This
unit presents similar characteristics to G11, but it is less sorted,
does not present the bottom pumiceous part, has a higher con-
tent of dense lava fragments (30%) of both families described
earlier, and shows more pronounced stratification. This unit is
formed by several inverse graded layers and at the top has finer
granulometry, occasionally indurated due to the contact with the
overlying unit. The deposit was classified as a fall deposit and
named as G10. (4) The top deposit is a 30–80-cm-thick top unit
of pumiceous and scoriaceous lapilli and dense lava fragments,
having maximum diameters of 6 cm, embedded in a clayish,
dark-brown, fine-ash matrix. This unit unconformably overlies
G10 and was classified as a pyroclastic flow.
Four sequences overlying G1 (U5 to U2 in Fig. 2) were
described in the Las Lajas quarry (outcrop 75 in Fig. 2) at the
southern base of San Salvador Volcano. They are separated
by paleosols and formed mainly by different units of fall and
surge deposits.
Another pyroclastic sequence, called G2, was identified at
the top of the entire series at this outcrop. This deposit consists
of 4.8 m of gray, normally graded, friable lapilli with abundant
fragments of dense lavas, which were categorized in two families
similar to the ones found at G1. The most common fragments
are dark gray, angular, and have maximum diameters of 2–3 cm.
The other group is composed by rounded, reddish fragments of
millimeters to 1 cm in size. Characteristic whitish, highly vesicu-
lar, pumiceous lapilli, having a maximum diameter of 4 cm, is
observed in the bottom third of this deposit and shows evidence
of magma mingling. The G2 sequence is formed by another three
units, which were identified in other outcrops S and SE of San
Salvador Volcano (Fig. 4A). An ocher-gray, indurated, planar and
slightly cross-laminated fine-ash unit, <60 cm thick, was found
overlying the main fall deposit of G2. The base contact of this
unit is commonly erosive. This unit, similar to the intermedi-
ate unit of G1, is classified as a ground surge, associated with
the partial collapse of the eruptive column. Another fall unit,
206 Ferrés et al.

Basalt Basaltic- Andesite

andesite

Lapilli fall Scoriaceous Ash fall

with lapilli fall
lithic
fragments
Paleosol Soil

Pyroclastic Surge TB deposits

flow

TBJ San Salvador Alluvial Ignimbrites

volcano lavas deposits Ilopango
caldera
Coordinate system: Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC)
PL
1917 Tp>3ka

P TpII B1
TpI TBJ
GB
TBJ
5 lava
LC flows
G2
TBJ
SEQUENCES

U2
Upper series

CH
7 lava flows

4 POST-G1

TB2
U3

U4 TB3

SECTOR 5 U5
W-NW flanks G1
and Eastern
Zapotitán Valley
Lower series
7 lava flows

TB4

SECTOR 1 SECTOR 2 SECTOR 3 SECTOR 4

Crater interior S-SE-E San Salvador Eastern
and proximal San Salvador plain distal zone
area Volcano flanks
Figure 2. Composed stratigraphic sections of the San Salvador volcanic complex showing the deposits of the 10 explosive volcanic
events of Boquerón Volcano of the last 36,000 yr. These deposits are interstratified with the deposits of the four Plinian eruptions of
Ilopango caldera of the last 36,000 yr, known as “Tierras Blancas” (TB and TBJ—Tierra Blanca Joven). The deposits of some sec-
ondary vents of the volcanic complex are also represented: PL—Plan de la Laguna maar; CH—Chanmico maar; LC—Loma Caldera
tuff ring; GB—Loma de Grandes Bloques; lavas and P—El Playón scoria cone. Upper-left inset: Map of different sectors of the San
Salvador volcanic complex that are represented in stratigraphic composite sections. Studied outcrops containing G1 deposits are
indicated for reference as white dots; outcrops 75 and 79, which are cited in the text, are represented by black dots.
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano 207

10
TBJ

G2

TB2 8

TB3

G10
6

G11

G12

G13
0

TB4

-2

Figure 3. Stratigraphic section of G1 sequence at the E flank of Cerro El Picacho, showing eight pyroclastic units. The G2 se-
quence is at the top of the section at this outcrop, underlying Tierra Blanca Joven (TBJ) deposits of Ilopango caldera. Legend as
in Figure 2.
 TABLE 1. SYNTHESIS OF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 10 EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS OF BOQUERÓN VOLCANO THAT OCCURRED DURING THE LAST 36,000 YR
208
PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
Main pyroclastic unit Eruption
Area Volume
(km2, (km3,
Maximum over over Column
Event/ Units (bottom Thickness range 50 cm 20 cm Height Phreatomagm.
sequence Age to top) Main characteristics Composition (m) (km) Distribution isopach) isopach) (km) Type component References
1917 June– Lava flow Scoria fall Black, highly Andesite 2.5–N.P. 1 W-SW N.D. N.D. 2 Strombolian No Sapper
November Scoria cone - vesiculated scoria. (1925);
A.D. 1917 Ash fall Bombs found within Meyer-
deposit Abich
(1956);
Lardé y
Arthés
(1960);
Sofield
(1998); this
study
Talpetate II <766 ± 34 Tephra fall Basal Sequence of pale- N.D. 1–0.1 4.4 NW 5.5 0.002 N.D. Vulcanian? Yes Ferrés et al.
(TpII) yr B.P. Surge surge brown, indurated, (2011)
planar laminated
fine-ash layers
(few cm thick), and
friable coarse ash
layers containing
accretionary lapilli.
Talpetate I 1031 ± 29 Basal ash fall Top basal Indurated very fine- N.D. 6–0.1 16.9 W-SW 273 0.3-0.5 15 Subplinian Yes Hart (1983);
(San Andrés yr B.P. Basal surge surge to fine-ash beds, Sofield
Tuff) (TpI) series planar and low-angle (1998);
Intermediate cross-laminated. Ferrés et al.
ash fall / Multicolored indurated (2011)
Pyroclastic fine ash layer,
Ferrés et al.

flow containing abundant

(proximal) traces of plants at the
Top surge base.
series
Talpetate >3 >2690 ± Surge Basal Under study N.D. ≈0.6 8 SE-E N.D. 0.02 N.D. Vulcanian? Yes This study
ka (Tp>3ka) 50 yr B.P.* surge
B1 >2690 ± Tephra fall Tephra fall Black vesiculated Basaltic- 1.3–0.3 9 S-SW 115.73 0.1 15 Violent- No This study
50 yr B.P.* Pyroclastic lapilli, reversely andesite Strombolian
flow graded, well sorted
(σΦ = 1.4–1.6),
with very poor lithic
content (0.25%–
0.50%). Ballistic layer
of ballistic fragments
on the bottom third of
the deposit.
G2 <16 ka†; Thin ground Tephra fall Gray-brown, Andesite 4.8–0.4 18.3 NE-SW 562.64 0.6 25 Plinian Yes This study
<7868 ± surge highly vesiculated (dacite)
51 yr B.P. Tephra fall pumiceous and
Intermediate scoriaceous lapilli,
ground surge normally graded,
Ash fall and well sorted (σΦ =
surge levels 1.28–1.56). Rich in
Pyroclastic andesitic lithic content
flow (10%–20%). Lapilli
present, magma
mingling at the base.
(Continued)
 TABLE 1. SYNTHESIS OF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 10 EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS OF BOQUERÓN VOLCANO THAT OCCURRED DURING THE LAST 36,000 YR (Continued)
PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
Main pyroclastic unit Eruption
Area Volume
(km2, (km3,
Maximum over over Column
Event/ Units (bottom Thickness range 50 cm 20 cm Height Phreatomagm.
sequence Age to top) Main characteristics Composition (m) (km) Distribution isopach) isopach) (km) Type component References
U2 30 ka–16 Basal surge Pyroclastic Under study N.D. 1.3 N.D. S-SW N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D. Yes This study
ka† Ash fall and flow
indurated
fine ash
levels
Pyroclastic
flow
U3 30 ka–16 2 tephra falls Top ash Under study N.D. 0.5 N.D. S-SW N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D. Yes This study
ka† Intermediate fall
surge unit
U4 30 ka–16 2 ash falls Top ash Under study N.D. 1 N.D. S-SW N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D. No This study
ka† fall
U5 30 ka–16 Various units Central Under study N.D. 0.8 N.D. S-SW N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D. Yes This study
ka† of ash fall surge
and surge
deposits
G1 <36 ka† Basal falls 2 main G11 is a dark-gray Andesite 6.6–0.2 19 E- WSW 916.4 1.6 28 Plinian Yes Sofield
(2) and tephra fall black pumiceous and (dacite) (1998,
surge (2) scoriaceous lapilli, 2004)
Main tephra normally graded, very
fall (G11) well sorted (σΦ =
Central 0.99–1.24). Juveniles
ground surge present, magma
Upper tephra mingling at the bottom
fall (G10) third, which at the top
Pyroclastic has a concentration
flow of ballistic fragments.
G10, black
scoriaceous lapilli,
reverse graded at the
top third, well sorted
(σΦ = 1.49–1.69).
Both are very rich
Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano

in lithic content,
especially G10
(25%–40%).
Note: In the cases indicated, the references of absolute and relative ages of pyroclastic deposits are different than the general references indicated for the stratigraphic-volcanological studies.
N.D.—not determined; N.P.—not preserved.
*Radiocarbon age of Plan de la Laguna maar deposits (Amaroli and Dull, 1999).
†
Tephrochronological ages of Tierra Blanca deposits of Ilopango caldera (Kutterolf et al., 2008).
209
210 Ferrés et al.

TABLE 2. INPUT PARAMETERS AND RESULTS OF THE ASH-FALL AND BALLISTIC PROJECTILE EVENT SIMULATION PROCESS
Ash-fall events
Parameters Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3
Violent-Strombolian or Vulcanian with
SCENARIOS

Reference Strombolian, such as phreatic and phreatomagmatic phases, Subplinian or Plinian, such
HAZARD

eruption 1917 eruption such as B1 eruption or 2005 Santa Ana as G2 eruption

Volcano eruption
VEI 1–3 >3–4 5–6
3 3
Volume 0.02 km 0.2 km 0.5 km3
Column height 3.6 km 10 km 24 km
Reference
SIMULATION

B1 proximal B1 distal G2
PROCESS

deposit
Sample DF77 DF79 DF63-G2
3 3
Density 1.2 g/cm 1.85 g/cm 1.85 g/cm3
Wind altitude
intervals 500 m 500 m 1000 m

Distribution
SIMULATION

SW SW NNE
RESULTS

Dry season

Distribution
Rainy season WSW WSW SW

Maximum range 10 km 12 km 21 km
Area 48 km2 202 km2 960 km2
HAZARD MAPS

10-cm isopach
Area
1.5 km2 90.5 km2 241 km2
50-cm isopach
Area N.D. 55.6 km2 66.9 km2
1-m isopach
Volume
on 10-mm 0.015 km3 0.19 km3 0.4 km3
isopach
Note: Data from reference deposits and reference eruptions used to define hazard scenarios for ash-fall and ballistic projectile events of
Boquerón Volcano, input parameters, and results from the simulation processes with Ashfall© and Ballistics, respectively. N.D.—no data;
VEI—volcanic explosivity index.
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano 211

Ballistic projectile events

Parameters Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3
Violent-Strombolian or Vulcanian with Subplinian or Plinian,

SCENARIOS
Reference Strombolian, such as phreatic and phreatomagmatic phases,
such as G2 and G1

HAZARD
eruption 1917 eruption such as B1 eruption or 2005 Santa Ana eruptions
Volcano eruption
VEI 2–3 >3–4 5–6
Range of kinetic 2 3
104 of kJ
10 of kJ 10 of kJ
energy
Reference ballistic DF55b DF78 DF21

SIMULATION
Kinetic energy 110 kJ 3100 kJ 50,000 kJ

PROCESS
Range of 9–35 cm 10–40 cm 19–50 cm
diameters
Range of
“Launching” 30°–89° 30°–89° 30°–89°
angles
Maximum range 1080 m 2708 m 5374 m

SIMULATION
Optimal diameter

RESULTS
for maximum 14 cm 32 cm 49 cm
range
Optimal angle for
maximum range 33.5° 33.5° 33°
Maximum height
(angle 89°) 2.5 km 3.5 km 5.5 km

Maximum range 1126 m 2829 m 5482 m

HAZARD MAPS
Direction
SE (150°) ESE (120°) W (270°)
of maximum range
Average maximum 1.1 km 2.8 km 5.4 km
range

Area 4 km2 24 km2 92.5 km2

 212

TABLE 3. INPUT PARAMETERS AND RESULTS OF THE PYROCLASTIC DENSITY CURRENT EVENT SIMULATION PROCESS
Pyroclastic-flow events Pyroclastic-surge events
Parameters Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3
Type of eruption Vulcanian Subplinian Plinian Violent-Strombolian or Vulcanian or Subplinian or
Vulcanian subplinian Plinian
VE I 4 5 6 3– 4 4– 5 5–6
Formation mechanism Column collapse Column Column Column collapse Hydromagmatic Hydromagmatic

ERUPTION
collapse collapse directed blast directed blast
Eruptive sequence Talpetate I G2 G1 Talpetate II Talpetate >3 ka Talpetate I
Type of deposit Gran ular flo w As h flow Ash flow Basal surge Basal surge Basal surge
Maximum distance from vent 1 km 7 km 10–11 km 4.4 km 9 km 18 km
Ave r ag e t hick n e ss 40 cm 90 cm 55 cm 42 cm 37 cm 75 cm

HAZARD SCENARIOS
2 2 2 2 2 2
A r ea 0.50 km 45.7 km 154.5 km 5.4 km 70 km 340 km

DEPOSITS
REFERENCE REFERENCE
3 3 3 3 3 3
Volume 0.0 002 km 0.02 km 0.085 km 0.002 km 0.026 km 0.27 km
Height of collapse (over the vent) 500 m 1000 m 1500 m 700 m 100 m 50 m
3 3
Pile vol ume 0.0002 km 0.01–0.02 0.05–0.1 km N.A. N.A. N.A.
3
Ferrés et al.

km
Ini ti al ve loc it y 93 m/s 200 m/s 200 m/s N. A. N. A. N. A.
H/L 0. 64 0 . 22 0.17 0.27 0.155 0 . 13
–1
Basal friction (tg H/L) 32° 12° 9°–10° 15.1° 8.8° 7.4°

SIMULATION
PROCESS
In t e r na l fr i ct i on 30 30 30 N. A . N .A . N .A .
T ilt N . A. N.A. N . A. 0.5° 1° 4°
Ve nt lo ca t i o n N. A. N.A. N.A. C e n t ra l c r a t e r Central crate r NE of actual crat er
Ma xim u m ra ng e 2. 5 km 10 km 12.5 km 6 km 11.5 km 2 1 km
Direction of maximum range SW NE N W NE W
2 2 2 2 2 2

MAPS
A rea 17 km 203 km 340 km 60 km 250 km 700 km

HAZARD
Note: Data for reference deposits and reference eruptions used to define hazard scenarios for pyroclastic-flow and pyroclastic-surge events of Boquerón Volcano, including input
parameters and results from the simulation processes with Titan2D and Flow3D, respectively. N.A.—not applicable; VEI—volcanic explosivity index.
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano 213
A 2m

TBJ

G2 SEQUENCE
1m TBJ
Lava
DF131

1m

0
B
? 12 B1PF
TBJ
B1F
10

8
-1m G2PF

6 G2f

TB2
2

-2m 1m
0
G2 sequence

B1f
-3m
G2f

- 4m

B1PF

- 5m

Andesite G2PF
lava DF131

Figure 4. (A) Stratigraphic section of G2 sequence at the SE flank of Boquerón Volcano overlying an andesite lava flow. The sequence
has four different pyroclastic units at this outcrop. The date determination for G2 sequence was obtained analyzing charcoal found at the
upper contact of the lava flow. (B) B1 sequence overlying G2 deposits at outcrop DF79, located at the SE flank of Boquerón Volcano, on
the Pan-American Highway. B1 fall and pyroclastic-flow deposits underlie Tierra Blanca Joven (TBJ) deposits at this place.
214 Ferrés et al.
25–40 cm thick, of intercalated friable lapilli and indurated fine-
ash layers was identified overlying the ground surge. The top of
the G2 sequence is a dark-brown, massive, clayish fine-ash unit,
also having unconformable contact with the underlying fall unit,
classified as a pyroclastic flow (Fig. 4A).
The G2 sequence overlies TB2 deposits from Ilopango cal-
dera (Fig. 4B). TB2 was dated at 16 ka (Kutterolf et al., 2008),
although the G2 sequence likely is much younger. Radiocarbon
dating of charcoal from a paleosol overlying andesite lava and
underlying G2 deposits gave a calibrated age of 8545–8867 yr
B.P. (analysis performed at Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Lab-
oratory of Arizona University).
The last pyroclastic sequence of Boquerón Volcano for the
36–3 ka period is B1 (Black 1), which overlies G2 deposits in
an outcrop (79 in Fig. 2) close to the Las Lajas quarry (Fig. 4B).
It is characterized by dark-gray–black, highly vesicular lapilli,
inversely graded in the bottom third of the deposit and normally
graded throughout the rest of the unit. The lapilli have maximum
diameters of 4–5 cm. Unlike the G2 deposits, this fall deposit is
devoid of dense lava fragments. A characteristic level of deci-
metric dense lava blocks and bombs is found at the top of the
inversely graded basal part of the deposit. A massive, dark-brown,
fine-grained, ash-and-lapilli deposit unconformably overlies B1
fall and is interpreted as a pyroclastic-flow deposit.
The physical characteristics of the pyroclastic-flow units
in G1, G2, and B1 sequences are: (1) scarce, few-millimeter- to
centimeter-size lapilli, dense lava, or indurated ash fragments
embedded in a very fine matrix; (2) absence of a major concen-
tration of larger fragments in the basal portion; (3) erosive con-
tacts; (4) fresh deposits that grade into thick paleosols toward
the top; (5) presence of a few-centimeter-thick, light-ocher,
indurated fine-ash level at the base of the top third of the depos-
its; and (6) small volumes, less than 0.1 km3 (Table 3), and
wide distribution. The thicknesses of these deposits are greater
in outcrops inside the ravines, but they are present in other out-
crops corresponding to the ravine margins or topographic highs.
These ash-flows deposits are similar to those described by Cas
and Wright (1987) or Sparks et al. (1997). These pyroclastic
flows are products of pyroclastic density currents having char-
acteristics intermediate between a granular flow and a turbu-
lent flow (Walker et al., 1981; Walker and Wilson, 1983; Druitt,
1998; Sparks et al., 1997), and ash clouds likely accompanied
them during their transport. These ash flows were emplaced
during phreatomagmatic explosive events due to the partial col-
lapse of the eruptive column.
Light-ocher fine-ash layer units, massive or slightly planar
laminated, with a maximum thickness of tens of centimeters
(<25 cm), were found within the top of the pyroclastic-flow units
of G1, G2, and B1 sequences. Their distributions are similar to
those of the pyroclastic flows that support them, but, in the case
of G1 sequence, they become discontinuous in outcrops located
at distances greater than 5 km from the central vent. These layers
are classified as ash-cloud surges, generated by the cloud that
accompanied the flows.
The seven sequences described here underlie both the Tierra
Blanca Joven deposits of Ilopango caldera and the Plan de la
Laguna maar deposits found on the SE flank of San Salvador
Volcano (Fig. 1). Plan de la Laguna deposits have a calibrated age
of 933 B.C.–791 B.C. (after Amaroli and Dull, 1999) (Fig. 2).
An ocher-gray, highly indurated, planar laminated, fine-ash
unit, tens of centimeters thick, underlies Tierra Blanca Joven
deposits in the eastern and southern proximal areas of Boquerón
Volcano. A dark-brown paleosol lies between this unit and Tierra
Blanca Joven deposits. This unit also underlies Plan de la Laguna
maar deposits on the southeastern and eastern flanks of San Sal-
vador Volcano. Thus, it is older than 933 B.C.–791 B.C. This is
interpreted as a surge deposit and is called “Talpetate >3 ka.” Its
relation with the B1 and older sequences of Boquerón Volcano
cannot be determined unambiguously. The distribution of this
deposit is still under study. For that reason, the Talpetate >3 ka
unit was not taken in to account as an explosive separate eruption
of Boquerón Volcano.
The principal pyroclastic sequences related to the Boquerón
Volcano construction are found in the southern, southeastern, and
eastern sectors of the San Salvador volcanic complex (Fig. 2, sec-
tors 2 and 3). The G1 and G2 fall units have the widest distribu-
tion (Table 1), and they are found in much of the San Salvador
metropolitan area toward the western border of Ilopango caldera
(Fig. 2, sectors 3 and 4), where they are interstratified with its
deposits (Hart and Steen-McIntyre, 1983; Dull et al., 2001; Kut-
terolf et al., 2008; Hernández, 2004, 2008). The pyroclastic-flow
units of G1, G2, and B1 present a lower distribution than the fall
units, mainly to the south and southeastern flanks of the volcano,
reaching a maximum of 10 km in the case of G1 pyroclastic
flow. In the northern, western, and southwestern sectors of the
San Salvador volcanic complex, pyroclastic deposits older than
3 ka are covered by younger pyroclastic and effusive deposits of
different eruptive flank and central eruptions, as well as Tierra
Blanca Joven deposits of Ilopango caldera, and fluvial and lacus-
trine deposits filling the Zapotitán Valley (Hart, 1983; Miller,
1992, 1993, 2000; Sheets, 1983; Sofield, 1998, 2004; Ferrés et
al., 2011). This also occurs in proximal areas around Boquerón
crater (<2 km; Fig. 2, sectors 1 and 5).
Pyroclastic Sequences Younger than 3 ka
The youngest pyroclastic deposits of Boquerón Volcano are
associated with three explosive eruptions that occurred during
the last 1000 yr. These deposits are identified as the Talpetate
I (1031 ± 29 yr B.P.), Talpetate II (<766 ± 34 yr B.P.), and the
fall deposits and lavas of the 1917 eruption (Ferrés et al., 2011).
Hart (1983), Sofield (1998, 2004), and Ferrés et al. (2011) having
documented distributions for these eruptive products predomi-
nantly toward the N, NW, and W (Table 1).
The Talpetate I sequence is formed mainly by two units of
whitish fine-ash beds of variable consolidation degree, planar and
cross-bed laminated. Both surge units have multicolored, indu-
rated, very fine-ash layers at the base, indicating syndepositional
alteration and/or the involvement of hydrothermally altered
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano
deposits in the crater. The upper parts are composed of indurated,
very fine-ash beds (millimeters to few centimeters thick) inter-
stratified with coarse friable ash and accretionary lapilli layers
(Hart, 1983; Sofield, 1998; Ferrés et al., 2011). These units are
interbedded with a dark-brown, massive, fine-ash deposit in prox-
imal areas, interpreted to be a pyroclastic flow, and with ash-fall
deposits in proximal and intermediate areas (<5 km). The surge
units of Talpetate I present erosive contacts, and their thickness
varies from several meters at the crater rim to a few centimeters
in distal areas (>10 km). In several outcrops at intermediate and
distal areas, Talpetate I shows abundance of trace plants (leaves
and twigs). Additionally, in distal areas the massive part of the
deposit is discontinuous; it resembles small bricks, having hex-
agonal joints in plan view. These joints indicate dehydration after
emplacement, as seen in mud cracks.
The pyroclastic-flow deposit between the main surge units of
the Talpetate I sequence is found only in proximal areas (<2 km).
It presents most of the characteristics described earlier, but the
fragments embedded in the matrix are centimeter- to decimeter-
size, subangular dense lava fragments, which are mostly concen-
trated in the 30-cm-hick basal portion. This deposit was classified
as a granular flow.
The Talpetate II sequence is formed by a 50-cm-thick,
black, vesicular lapilli unit and, overlying it, a whitish, highly
indurated, fine-grained, cross-laminated ash deposit, showing
erosive contact between both. In distal areas (~4 km from the
vent), the deposit shows multicolored layers at the bottom part
and abundance of trace of fossil plants, as occurs in the Talpetate
I sequence.
Both Talpetate I and Talpetate II sequences have a fan-
shaped distribution from the central vent that affects the northern
and northwestern sector of Boquerón Volcano. Although this type
of surge generally has distributions less than 10 km (Sparks et
al., 1997), the main surge unit of Talpetate I reached a distance
of 18 km and was identified at the top of Cerro El Jabalí (Fig. 1),
where the deposit is 3 m thick in average, indicating a capacity
for the turbulent flow to overcome topographical barriers.
The depositional features of the Talpetate I and Talpetate II
indurated ash units classify them as wet base surges, likely pro-
duced by phreatomagmatic phases, combined with Strombolian
or violent-Strombolian magmatic phases during the eruptions
that generated them.
The explosive phase of the last eruption of Boquerón Vol-
cano in 1917 constructed El Boqueroncito scoria cone inside
the crater (Sapper, 1925; Meyer-Abich, 1956; Lardé y Arthés,
1960; Lardé y Larín, 1978) and generated an eruptive column
that, according to images of the event (Academia Salvadoreña
de la Historia, 2008), reached up 2 km in height (Table 1). An
ash cloud was produced and dispersed to the SW, affecting the
cities of Santa Tecla and Lourdes-Colón. The deposit of this
ash cloud is preserved only in the proximal area of Boquerón,
close to the crater rim. The rest of the Strombolian-type deposit
is not preserved, indicating that it was eroded in a relatively
short time.
215
The described pyroclastic sequences correspond to 10 dif-
ferent eruptions; most of them developed through several erup-
tive phases, which produced mainly ash fall, pyroclastic flow,
and pyroclastic-surge deposits (Table 1). These sequences are
interstratified with packages of lava units of basaltic and basaltic-
andesite compositions, divided in lower and upper series at the
crater interior (Fairbrothers et al., 1978) of Boquerón Volcano
(Fig. 2). The G1, G2, and Talpetate I sequences are located at the
base, between, and at the top of the two lava series, respectively.
The juvenile fragments of the fall units of these sequences have
dacite composition, whereas that the mineralogy of the dense lava
fragments indicates similar compositions to the lavas of the old
San Salvador Volcano and of the Boquerón Volcano. The rela-
tion of the effusive and explosive deposits of Boquerón Volcano
supports Fairbrothers et al.’s (1978) and Sofield’s (1998) hypoth-
esis (1998), whereby each episode of evolution of the volcanic
complex was mainly developed by effusive activity combined
with explosive activity of low to moderate magnitude (volcanic
explosivity index [VEI] 1–3), likely of Strombolian type, and
ending with a high-explosivity (VEI 4–6) eruption, of subplinian
or Plinian type, which produced a wider variety and distribution
of pyroclastic products, through several magmatic and phreato-
magmatic phases.
REVIEW OF POTENTIAL HAZARD SCENARIOS OF
THE SAN SALVADOR VOLCANIC COMPLEX
It is well known that an eruption is a multihazard prob-
lem (Blong, 1984; Tilling, 1993; Araña and Ortiz, 1993;
Schmincke, 2004), involving primary processes related to the
release of magma and/or products of the volcanic conduit.
However, there are also hazards related to magma ascent and
to posteruption mobilization of eruptive deposits by hydrome-
teorological events.
Several phenomena could occur when volcanic unrest
begins again at Boquerón Volcano or along the faults across the
volcanic complex, which could cause severe impacts on a wide
area around San Salvador volcanic complex. These phenom-
ena are mainly the local seismic activity associated with the
fault stress produced by magma ascent and the increase of the
emission rate of the volcanic gases, due to the mobilization of
a greater volume of magma inside the volcano edifice. Intense
seismic activity preceded historic eruptions of the San Salvador
volcanic complex and can be expected to occur in the future.
Present population and infrastructure are extremely vulnerable
to a future eruption of Boquerón Volcano (Ferrés et al., 2011).
Gas emissions can occur prior to or during the eruption, causing
health problems and acid rain. Currently, there are no emissions
from the central crater of Boquerón Volcano; steam appears
only in Cerro La Hoya scoria cone as weak fumaroles. Future
activity on Boquerón Volcano could generate more intense and
voluminous gas emissions, as was frequently reported at Santa
Ana Volcano before its last eruption in 2005 (Ferrés et al., 2004;
DGSNET, 2005; Colvin et al., this volume).
216 Ferrés et al.
A future central or flank eruption of the San Salvador vol-
canic complex is very likely, considering the frequency of erup-
tive events of the past 36,000 yr, and especially during the last
3000 yr (Sofield, 2004). As revealed by the stratigraphic record
of Boquerón Volcano, variable eruption behavior may occur dur-
ing a single eruption and produce different volcanic products.
Therefore, the degree of hazard posed by an eruption and the
areas that might be affected are diverse. Thus, the hazards associ-
ated to various processes are analyzed separately. The nature and
magnitude of hazards posed by a future eruption depend on the
explosivity of the eruption, the vent location, the composition of
magma, and any magma interaction with water (Sofield, 2004).
Effusive eruptions and associated lava flows, as well as
tephra falls produced by explosive eruptions of moderate to
high explosivity, are the most frequent type of volcanic hazard
observed (Sofield, 2004). Several ballistic projectiles associ-
ated with fall deposits were identified during fieldwork, mainly
within a radius of 1–5 km from the crater, indicating that this
hazard also needs to be considered. Deposits of pyroclastic
density currents are present in several stratigraphic sequences
around Boquerón Volcano. Base surge deposits produced by
hydromagmatic eruptions are especially frequent in the depos-
its associated with flank explosion craters, and are also found in
the stratigraphic record of Boquerón Volcano eruptions of the
last 3000 yr (Fig. 2; Table 1).
Sofield (2004) proposed five probable eruption scenarios of
San Salvador volcanic complex. The first two are related to flank
vent eruptions and are considered the most probable based on
their high recurrence (one per 133 yr over the last 1000 yr).
This study focuses on the three eruption scenarios pro-
posed by Sofield (2004) related to the eruptions of the central
volcano, as a framework to define hazard scenarios for various
explosive primary volcanic processes that could occur during
future eruptions.
Scenario 1: A small-scale eruption (similar to the eruption
of 1917), VEI 1–3, producing lavas and/or ash-fall deposits with
associated ballistic projectiles. It has the highest probability of
occurrence, estimated to be on the order of once per several hun-
dred years.
Scenario 2: Intermediate-to-large-scale eruption, having
VEI >3 to <5, of violent-Strombolian (Pioli et al., 2008) or Vul-
canian type. These types of eruptions, developed through various
magmatic, phreatomagmatic, or phreatic phases, are similar to
the one that produced the B1 deposits or that occurred at Santa
Ana Volcano on 1 October 2005. Such eruptions can produce
tephra falls, ballistic projectiles, base surges, and small-volume
pyroclastic flows. Recurrence is estimated to be on the order of
several hundreds to thousands of years.
Scenario 3: Large-to-very-large-scale eruption, having VEI
5–6. These are subplinian to Plinian-type eruptions, similar to the
ones that produced the Talpetate I and G2 sequences. Such erup-
tions can include magmatic and phreatomagmatic phases, pro-
duce large volumes of ash fall, and generate pyroclastic surges
and flows having high mobility. Eruptions of this type are the
least likely to occur, with recurrence estimated to be on the order
of thousands to tens of thousands of years.
As it was mentioned before, if eruptive activity occurs in
the rainy season, the generation of lahars is highly likely (Major
et al., 2001, 2004; Blanco et al., 2002; Sofield, 2004; Scola-
macchia et al., 2010) and could occur as a syneruption process.
The lahars can occur as secondary process too, produced by the
mobilization of unconsolidated volcanic deposits, during the
rainy seasons of the following years after the eruption. Major et
al. (2001, 2004) produced the lahar hazard map, which is still
in use in El Salvador.
HAZARD SCENARIOS OF BOQUERÓN VOLCANO
Three hazard scenarios for ash fall, ballistic projectiles, and
pyroclastic surges and flow were defined by integrating histori-
cal, stratigraphic, volcanologic, and meteorologic data, and by
considering different magnitudes of volcanic activity. Effusive
activity is not considered here.
Hazard scenarios for a specific volcanic process can be
divided into two general steps: (1) Run computer simulations that
reproduce past events, applying physical parameters obtained
from literature, field, or laboratory studies; and (2) owing to input
uncertainty, use a range of input parameters for specific processes
in order to produce a realistic range of outcomes from possible
future eruptions, which are then expressed as different levels of
eruptive scenario probability.
Each scenario is characterized for a likelihood of occur-
rence (high, medium, low) and is associated with an eruptive
event magnitude (small, intermediate, large). For instance,
the highest likelihood of occurrence (called scenario 1) corre-
sponds to eruptions of minor magnitude. Such eruptions would
affect relatively small areas but would occur frequently. The
lowest likelihood of occurrence (called scenario 3) is for erup-
tions of the largest magnitude that would intensely affect very
large areas. Their recurrence is infrequent (thousands or tens of
thousands of years).
For analysis of ash falls and ballistic projectiles (Table 2),
the parameters used to define each hazard scenario follow the
three main scenarios of Sofield (2004) for Boquerón Volcano.
The three levels of likelihood defined for pyroclastic density cur-
rents (Table 3) follow the framework outlined for the two largest-
magnitude eruption scenarios.
Hazard-scenario maps for different processes were con-
structed using simulations integrated with a geographic infor-
mation system (GIS). The hazard scenario maps are drawn by
overlying the simulation results over the 10-m-resolution digital
elevation model provided by the Dirección General del Servicio
Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (DGSNET) of El Salvador.
The hazard maps can be used as forecasting tools because
they define the likely behavior of a potential future eruption.
However, the hazard areas delimited are an approximation, and
their limits cannot be taken as predictions; hence, these maps
should be used with caution.
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano
Hazard Scenario Maps for Ash Falls
Hazard scenarios for ash falls were defined using the avail-
able geological and stratigraphic record of Boquerón Volcano.
At least eight magmatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions dur-
ing the last 36,000 yr have produced ash-fall deposits of vari-
able volumes: two Plinian eruptions produced the G1 and G2
sequences, a subplinian eruption gave rise to the fall deposits of
Talpetate I sequence, and a violent-Strombolian/Vulcanian erup-
tion (after Walker, 1973; Pyle, 1989) produced the B1 deposits,
the fall deposit of the Talpetate II sequence, and deposits of the
Strombolian eruption in 1917. In addition, three post-G1–pre-G2
eruptions (U5 to U3) produced ash-fall deposits. There is a high
likelihood that other Strombolian-type eruptions, represented by
effusive deposits inside the crater, produced ash-fall deposits that
are not preserved.
Ashfall© (Hurst, 1994) was used to simulate ash-fall hazard
scenarios. The model assumes that the ash particles emitted by
an eruptive column are transported in the direction of prevail-
ing winds and fall when they reach their limit velocity. Monthly
winds (speed and direction) and the ash-fall reference deposit
parameters—volume, eruption column height, and settling veloc-
ities corresponding to each grain-size fraction—are used as input
to the model for each defined scenario. The model also needs
geographical data to define the extent of the area where the simu-
lation will run, and the horizontal and vertical intervals to set a
grid (500 × 500 m), in which the model will provide results. The
model produces a data matrix of the thickness of ash at each node
in the grid, from which an isopach map (in mm) is obtained.
The scenarios for ash-fall events were defined following
three general scenarios of Boquerón Volcano (Table 2; see pre-
vious). The ash-fall deposits of the 1917 eruption and the B1
and G2 sequences were taken as reference deposits to define
hazard scenarios for ash-fall events (Table 2). The volumes of
the reference deposits are between 0.02 and 0.5 km3, and the
altitudes of the associated eruptive columns, between 3 and
24 km, were calculated from isopach and isopleth maps of the
deposits (Carey and Sparks, 1986). Grain-size distributions and
densities for different samples of the B1 and G2 fall depos-
its were obtained. The calculated average densities are 1.2–
1.8 g/cm3 for juvenile fragments and 1.75–2.4 g/cm3 for dense
lava fragments. Settling velocities for each grain-size fraction
were obtained from literature (Walker et al., 1971), considering
juvenile fragments of 1.2 g/cm3 for 1917 and B1 deposits and
1.85 g/cm3 for G2 fall deposit.
Four synthetic radio-soundings per day over a 10 yr period
(1997–2006) for the coordinate of the Boquerón crater (13.73°N,
89.29°W) were obtained from the Air Resources Laboratory of
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOAA
(2007). Monthly mean wind velocities were calculated for alti-
tude intervals of 500 m. Circular statistics were applied to calcu-
late the monthly mean and standard deviation of wind direction
for each altitude interval. These data indicate that wind directions
through the year mainly come from NE and E (Fig. 5), but for
217
the altitude intervals in the range between 10,000 and 20,000 m
high, the data presented opposite wind directions, with winds
coming from SW and S during the dry season (November to
April; Fig. 3). The winds of this range of altitude affect mainly
the simulations associated with scenario 3. Boquerón Volcano
wind data have gaps at specific altitude ranges. So, we interpo-
lated to generate the curve functions of mean wind velocity data
and mean wind direction and extrapolated them to the altitude
intervals where there is no information.
One ash-fall isopach map was prepared for each scenario
by averaging results from each month of the year. This process
produces a static hazard scenario map of ash fall (Fig. 6; Table 2).
Scenarios 1 and 2 show a clear dispersion to the SW, with
similar maximum extent in this direction, influenced by the prin-
cipal wind pattern (E-NE). The areas covered by the 100 mm
isopach are 50 km2 and 200 km2, respectively (Table 2). Wet
ash deposits of more than 100 mm could cause serious dam-
age in infrastructure and the collapse of less-resistant housing.
The 5 mm isopach shows the area where ash fall could induce
health problems and disrupt transportation and communications
(Fig. 6). The 100 mm isopach map for scenario 3 includes an area
of 960 km2 (Table 2). The eruption column in this scenario would
be influenced by stratospheric winds. The southwestern sector of
San Salvador volcanic complex would be affected if the eruption
occurred during the rainy season. Northern and northeastern sec-
tors would be impacted if the eruption occurred during the dry
season, affecting all the San Salvador metropolitan area.
Hazard Scenario Maps of Ballistic Projectile Impact
Explosive volcanic eruptions emit large fragments that fol-
low ballistic trajectories (blocks and bombs ≥ 64 mm), which are
separated quickly from an eruption column, due to their large
size and density. Ballistics are emplaced mainly in proximal
areas up to 5 km from source, but ballistic projectiles have been
observed at much greater distances, exceeding 10 km (Blong,
1984; Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia et al., 2006). Ballistic fragments
are generally associated with other pyroclastic deposits that are
emplaced contemporaneously, such as fall or surge deposits, and
they can leave impact craters within them.
The presence of ballistic fragments within the stratigraphic
record of Boquerón Volcano was documented through fieldwork.
Twelve block fragments, ranging from 7 to 90 cm length, were
found embedded inside and at the top of the fall deposits belong-
ing to G1, G2, B1, and the 1917 eruption, as well as inside and
at the top of the main surge unit of the Talpetate I sequence in
proximal areas (Fig. 7).
Hazard scenarios for ballistic projectiles are defined by the
characteristic kinetic energy of launching the fragments, which
is associated with the explosive magnitude of the eruptions that
produced them. For each value of kinetic energy, the maximum
distances and maximum altitude have to be calculated for bal-
listic fragments of different sizes and in different directions
from the volcanic vent (Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia and Delgado
218 Ferrés et al.

DRY SEASON RAINY SEASON

(November - April) (May - October)
N N
Velocity A Range of altitudes
(m/s) < 10 000 m
0-8

>8 - 16

>16 - 24 E
W E W

>24 - 32 2000 2500

4000 5000
>32 - 40
Mean wind 6000 7500
direction
8000 10000

S S
B N Range of altitudes: N
5000 10 000 m - 20 000 m
3750

2500

1250

W E W E

1250

2500

3750

5000

S S
C N Range of altitudes N
> 20 000 m

W E W E

1250 2500

2500 5000

3750 7500

5000 10000

S S

Figure 5. Seasonal wind roses displaying the directions and speeds of prevailing winds over Boquerón Volcano for three
ranges of altitude: (A) <10,000 m; (B) between 10,000 and 20,000 m, and (C) >20,000 m.
 Quezaltepeque
La Cuchilla Ctón. Joya Scenario 1 Scenario 2
de Cerén
Nejapa Ciudad
Ctón. Arce
Apopa
Zapotitán Joya Quezaltepeque
Nejapa
Sitio de Cerén
del Niño
Ctón. Apopa
Zapotitán Sitio
5 del Niño

294155
5 500

0
50
10 25

0
0
1000

10
294936

10
Sacacoyo

20
10
Ayutuxtepeque 50

25
. Lourdes
500 2000
Colón Mejicanos
Sacacoyo Ayutuxtepeque
San Salvador Ciudad Lourdes Mejicanos
Tepecoyo Delgado Colón Ciudad
Delgado
San Salvador
Santa Tepecoyo Soyapango
Jayaque Tecla Antiguo

284155
Talnique Cuscatlán Santa Tecla
284936

San Jayaque Antiguo

Nuevo Marcos Cuscatlán
Cuscatlán San
Nuevo Marcos
Comasagua Cuscatlán
0 2 4
0 2 4
Kilometers
Kilometers Tamanique
456917 466917 476917 456933 466933 476933 486933

412598 432598 452598 472598 492598

Hazard Scenario Maps for
ash fall events
of Boquerón Volcano
Santa Ana 5
Chalchuapa
Aguilares 10 Ash isopach (mm)
Suchitoto
Ahuachapán Coatepeque
San Juan Opico

310755
Urban areas
Guazapa Jutiapa
Quezaltepeque
Tenancingo Major roads
Nejapa
Apopa
Jujutlan
25 50 0
10
Izalco 0 100000 Average 12 month
Armenia 50 20
Colón Cojutepeque

290755
Sonsonate San
5 San Julián Salvador Ilopango
10 Santa
Jayaque Tecla
Comasagua Verapaz
Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano

Acajutla Zaragoza
Olocuilta
Jicalapa

270755
Coordinate system:
0 10 20 La Libertad Zacatecoluca Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC)
Aeropuerto
Kilometers Scenario 3 Internacional

Figure 6. Hazard scenario maps for ash-fall events of Boquerón Volcano obtained by averaging the ash-fall distributions spanning a 12 mo period (thickness
in mm). The distribution of ash fall in scenarios 1 and 2 is influenced by the prevailing winds from NE-E at ranges of altitude up to 12 km. The averaged scenario
3 shows a wider distribution of the ash fall, which is influenced by winds from NE during the rainy season and from SW-S winds during the dry season up to
26 km. The areas likely being affected for each scenario are indicated in Table 2.
219
220 462920 467920 472920 Ferrés et al.
477920
295466 A Block/bombs
Sitio
del Niño fragments
Urban areas
Major roads
290466

DF55a DF20Ayutuxtepeque
Lourdes- DF56b DF55b DF24 Mejicanos
Colón DF58 DF21
DF78
Ciudad
DF30 Delgado
San Salvador
285466

DF79 Santa DF39

Tecla Antiguo
Cuscatlán Coordinate system:
0 2 DF62 Lambert Conformal
Km Conic (LCC)

B1 B2

DF55b

C1 C2

DF21

Figure 7. (A) Location map of the block- and bomb-size fragments found around the San Salvador volcanic complex associated with pyro-
clastic deposits of Boquerón Volcano. (B) Ballistic fragment DF55b emplaced at the top of the main surge unit of the Talpetate I sequence
(hammer for scale in B1 = 32 cm; “cleaning tool” for scale in B2 = 28 cm). (C) Ballistic fragment DF21 associated with ash-fall deposits
of the G2 sequence (hammer for scale in C1 and C2 = 32 cm).
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano
Granados, 2006). To calibrate these scenarios, it is necessary
to get data on the composition, size, and density of ballistic
fragments, as well as on the exact location of their impacts.
Measurements of the three major axes, hand-sample descrip-
tions, and seven thin sections were made for the 12 block frag-
ments within Boquerón stratigraphic record. Nine of the frag-
ments are blocks of dense lava, and the others are scoriaceous
bombs, ranging in average diameter from 9 to 15 cm. Most of
them are andesite and basaltic-andesite, concordant with San
Salvador and Boquerón Volcano compositions. The densities
of five samples of the lithic blocks range from 2.18 g/cm3 to
2.99 g/cm3, with a mean density of 2.52 g/cm3.
The three modules of Ballistics software (Alatorre-
Ibargüengoitia, 2003) were used to define the minimum energy
needed to launch a fragment to the distance where a ballistic frag-
ment was found in the field (module 1), and to simulate launching
of ballistic fragments of different size around the crater (module 2
and 3), considering the minimum energy established in module 1.
To determine the minimum energy needed for a ballistic pro-
jectile to reach the location where it was found in the field, the
crater altitude was taken as 1800 m above sea level (masl) because
the base of the crater was situated at a greater altitude than the
actual crater bottom (1380 masl) during the 36 ka to 3 ka period
of eruptive events of Boquerón Volcano. The resulting energies
for the nine dense lava blocks range from 100 to 50,000 kJ.
Only the ballistic projectile DF39 (Fig. 7A), emplaced at the top
of the G11 fall deposit in an outcrop 10 km southeast from the
vent, resulted in a kinetic energy of 2,000,000 kJ. The energy
needed to launch the three scoriaceous fragments (DF20, DF62,
and DF79; Fig. 7A) were in the order of thousands of millions of
kilojoules, too large even for a Plinian eruption. These outputs
are not realistic, and, therefore, we consider that these fragments
were not transported as ballistic projectiles.
The kinetic energies calculated for the nine ballistic pro-
jectiles were used to define three hazard scenarios for ballistic-
projectile ejection at Boquerón Volcano. For each scenario, one
ballistic projectile of the database was selected to be representa-
tive, and a range of kinetic energies was used. The representative-
ness of a selected ballistic was based mainly on its distance to
the crater and its size. Another criterion taken into consideration
was the stratigraphic relation between the ballistics and the fall
or surge deposits that contained them. The selected ballistic frag-
ments were those emplaced within the fall deposits used to define
ash-fall hazard scenarios (Table 2).
The highest-likelihood scenario (scenario 1; Fig. 8) has a
range of kinetic energies of hundreds of kilojoules. It is associ-
ated with eruptions of small to moderate magnitude (VEI 2–3),
such as the 1917 eruption of Boquerón Volcano. It is character-
ized by the parameters of the ballistic fragment DF55b (110 kJ),
found at the top of the main surge deposit of Talpetate I sequence,
less than 2 km from the vent (Fig. 7). This distance is similar to
those observed for ballistics from the 1917 eruption.
The medium-likelihood scenario (scenario 2; Fig. 8) has a
range of kinetic energies of thousands of kilojoules. It is associ-
221
ated with eruptions of moderate to high magnitude (VEI >3–4),
of violent-Strombolian or Vulcanian type. It is characterized by
parameters of the ballistic fragment DF78 (Fig. 7), found embed-
ded in the scoriaceous fall deposit of the B1 sequence at a dis-
tance of 2.2 km from the vent. The initial launching energy for
DF78 was 3100 kJ.
The lowest-likelihood scenario (scenario 3; Fig. 8) has a
range of kinetic energies of tens of thousands of kilojoules. It
is related to large-scale eruptions of subplinian or Plinian type,
(VEI 5–6), such those that produced the G2 and G1 sequences. It
is characterized by parameters determined for ballistic fragment
DF21 (Fig. 7), found at the top of the G2 fall deposit, ~4.45 km
from the central vent. The initial launching energy for this bal-
listic fragment was 50,000 kJ.
Once the parameters for each hazard scenario were defined,
the maximum distance and the maximum height that a ballistic
could reach were determined (Table 2). The simulation code
estimated the launching of ballistic projectiles of different sizes
(from 10 cm smaller to 20 cm bigger than the real fragments)
and different launching angles. The minimum launching angle
for Boquerón Volcano, considering the morphology of its crater,
is 30°, and the maximum was taken as 89°.
The total surface that could be affected for ballistic projec-
tiles was determined by extrapolating the data of maximum dis-
tance for different directions around the crater of the main volca-
nic edifice (12 profiles at every 30°), according to the topography.
The resulting areas have roughly elliptical shapes and aver-
age maximum diameters of 1.1 km for scenario 1, 2.8 km for
scenario 2, and 5.4 km for scenario 3 (Fig. 8; Table 2).
Vertical distributions of ballistic trajectories were drawn for
each scenario, enclosing both the maximum distance and maxi-
mum height trajectory lines. The vertical distribution (Fig. 8)
shows the areas over Boquerón Volcano that could be dangerous
for civil aviation during an explosive eruption emitting ballistic
projectiles (Fig. 8). The maximum heights reached for ballistics
launched with a maximum angle of 89° are 2.5 km for scenario 1,
3.6 km for scenario 2, and 5.5 km for scenario 3 (Table 2).
Hazard Scenarios of Pyroclastic Density Currents Events
Several pyroclastic-flow and pyroclastic-surge units have
been described in the stratigraphic record of San Salvador vol-
canic complex (Hart, 1983; Miller, 2000; Sofield, 1998, 2004;
Ferrés et al., 2011) indicative of turbulent and granular pyroclas-
tic density currents during the explosive eruptions (Druitt, 1998).
Pyroclastic-flow deposits of Boquerón Volcano have been
recognized in the Plinian G1 and G2 eruption-sequence depos-
its and the subplinian Talpetate I eruption sequence, which were
used as reference deposits to define hazard scenarios (Table 3).
Pyroclastic-flow units were described also at the top of the B1
sequence and in one of the post-G1 sequences described in Las
Lajas quarry (Fig. 2).
On the basis of the presence of pyroclastic-flow depos-
its in the Boquerón stratigraphic record, pyroclastic flows are
222 Ferrés et al.
464764 469764 474764

QUEZALTEPEQUE NEJAPA
297013

APOPA
OPICO
292013

COLON
MEJICANOS
287013

SAN SALVADOR

ANTIGUO
CUSCATLAN
SANTA TECLA
Hazard scenarios for Ballistic projectile events Municipalities 0 2
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Urban areas
Kilomete
Kilometers
Coordinate system: Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC) Major roads
6000
North - South West - East
5000

4000

3000

2000

1000
Height
(masl)
10 5 0 5 10 km 10 5 0 5 10 km

Figure 8. Hazard scenario map for ballistic projectile events of Boquerón Volcano and the N-S and W-E diagrams of ballistic projectiles’
vertical distribution. The legend shading is valid both for the map and the profiles. The maximum ranges and the areas likely affected for
each scenario are indicated in Table 2.
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano
associated with Vulcanian, subplinian, or Plinian eruptions with
a phreatomagmatic component. The likelihood that a future erup-
tion can produce a pyroclastic flow is less than for ash fall or bal-
listic projectile emissions, but it cannot be neglected. The hazard
scenarios of pyroclastic-flow events are defined considering ash
flows generated by partial column collapse. Potential block-and-
ash flows originated from a lava front collapse were not consid-
ered in our scenarios.
Three hazard scenarios for pyroclastic flows were defined
as a function of several parameters related to the magnitude/
explosivity of the eruptions that generate them. Those parameters
include (Table 3): (1) the length and distribution observed in the
field, represented by a drop height to runout length coefficient
(H/L); (2) the total volume of the deposit; and (3) the height of
column collapse, independent of the total height of the eruptive
column, which in the literature is estimated to be between 500
and 1500 m above the vent (Sparks et al., 1997; Sheridan et al.,
2005). Values of H/L obtained for reference deposits were based
on field data and several assumed heights for column collapse.
They were later modified in the simulation process (Table 3).
Values for G2 and G1 pyroclastic flows used for reference para-
meters are in a range typical for ash flows, between 0.17 and 0.26
(Saucedo et al., 2005; Macías et al., 2008). The pyroclastic flow
of the Talpetate I sequence reached a maximum distance of 1 km
and had an H/L = 0.6, which is greater than is typical for granular
flows. The three pyroclastic-flow hazard scenarios were defined
as follows:
1. Highest likelihood scenario: Granular flows having vol-
umes less than or equal to 0.001 km3, produced by partial
collapse of an eruptive column of a VEI 4 Vulcanian or
subplinian eruption. The reference deposit for this sce-
nario is the small pyroclastic flow described in the Tal-
petate I sequence.
2. Medium likelihood scenario: Ash flows up to 0.05 km3,
produced by partial collapse of an eruptive column of a
VEI 5 subplinian eruption. These pyroclastic-flow events
could be associated with explosive phases producing ash-
fall or surge deposits. The reference deposit for this sce-
nario is the G2 sequence pyroclastic flow.
3. Lowest likelihood scenario: Ash flows up to 0.5 km3, pro-
duced by partial collapse of an eruptive column of a VEI
6 Plinian eruption. The reference deposit for this scenario
is the G1 sequence pyroclastic flow. This scenario has a
low likelihood of occurrence.
Pyroclastic-surge deposits are very frequent in the strati-
graphic record of Boquerón Volcano, as well as in flank erup-
tion deposits. At least eight of the 10 pyroclastic sequences of
Boquerón Volcano show pyroclastic-surge units, most of them
showing depositional features that indicate the phreatomagmatic
nature of the eruptive phases that generated them.
The likelihood of a pyroclastic density current event that pro-
duces a base-surge deposit is moderate to high, based on the fre-
quency of base surges in the Boquerón Volcano record. Although
there currently is no lake inside the crater, and despite the fact
223
that groundwater flow is radially away from central crater, it is
important to consider that the central edifice acts as a rain collec-
tor and the phreatic level could be shallow. The likelihood of this
type of events is much higher in flank eruptions (Sofield, 2004),
as suggested by the distribution of maars around San Salvador
volcanic complex, and the phreatic levels below the area affected
by N40W (NW-SE) and N65W faults (Barry, 1994; Cuéllar and
Duarte, 2001).
Ground surges and ash-cloud surges found in the Boquerón
Volcano record were not taken into account to define hazard sce-
narios of pyroclastic-surge events. The simulation codes avail-
able to model pyroclastic surge do not correctly reproduce the
physics and dynamics of these turbulent flows. It is considered
that the levels of likelihood for these events are associated with
the possibility that a pyroclastic-flow event occurs. The areas
that could be disrupted by ground or ash-cloud surges would be
greater to the areas impacted by pyroclastic flows, both laterally
and distally. Therefore, it is necessary to consider an additional
security area in the hazard maps for pyroclastic-flow events.
Three hazard scenarios of pyroclastic-surge events were
defined as a function of similar parameters used by pyroclastic-
flow scenarios, and they are related to the explosivity of the erup-
tions that generate them (Table 3):
1. Highest likelihood scenario: Small directed blasts from
VEI 3–4 violent-Strombolian or Vulcanian eruptions,
which produce small-volume base surges (maximum of
0.005 km3), and contemporaneous ash falls. The deposits
of reference for this scenario are the basal surges of Tal-
petate II sequence.
2. Medium likelihood scenario: Moderate-volume directed
blasts from VEI 4–5 Vulcanian or subplinian eruptions,
which produce basal surges having maximum volumes
of 0.05 km3, and contemporaneous ash falls and small-
volume pyroclastic flows. The reference deposit for
this scenario is the base surge of the Talpetate depos-
its observed underlying Tierra Blanca Joven (Talpetate
>3 ka) deposits of Ilopango caldera on the S and E flanks
of San Salvador Volcano.
3. Lowest likelihood scenario: Large-scale directed blasts
from VEI 5–6 subplinian or Plinian eruptions. Large-
volume base surges (maximum of 0.5 km3) can be produced,
and associated with large-scale ash falls and moderate-
scale pyroclastic flows. The deposit of reference for this
scenario is the main surge unit of Talpetate I sequence.
Hazard Scenario Map for Pyroclastic-Flow Events
Titan2D code (Pitman et al., 2003; Patra et al., 2005; Geo-
physical Mass Flow Group, 2007) was used to reproduce the
pyroclastic-flow events that have occurred in the past at Boquerón
Volcano and to simulate possible future scenarios. The software
simulates shallow-depth granular flows. The code is based on a
computational fluid dynamical model that assumes a Coulomb
material driven downslope by gravity. Although it is suited
chiefly for simulation of block-and-ash flows related to dome or
224 Ferrés et al.
lava front collapse, the software has been tested for other types of
pyroclastic flows (Macías et al., 2008).
Titan2D requires input for three parameter groupings (Geo-
physical Mass Flow Group, 2007): (1) topographic parameters
related to the resolution of the digital elevation model that is
used; (2) geographical parameters, concerning the area of sim-
ulation, and the starting point of the mass that collapses; and
(3) physical parameters about the pyroclastic flows, obtained from
field or laboratory analyses of pyroclastic flows and their deposits
(Table 3). Basal friction (arc tan H/L) values used to simulate the
reference pyroclastic flows of Boquerón Volcano were 32°, 12°,
and 9°–10° for scenarios 1–3, respectively. Sheridan et al. (2010)
cited the uncertainty of this parameter when there are no refer-
ence deposits to compare with and suggested constructing an
uncertainty map using basal friction values between 12° and 22°
for a volume of 4 × 108 m3. In the case of Boquerón Volcano, the
basal friction values were obtained during the simulation process,
after several trials, in order to calibrate the simulated flow to the
maximum distance evidenced by the deposits found in the field.
The typical internal friction values for a flow with a fluid volume
>60% are between 25° and 45° (Sheridan et al., 2005, 2010). A
value of 30° was used for Boquerón Volcano simulations, fol-
lowing the recommendations of Titan2D user guide. Sheridan et
al. (2010) pointed out that this parameter does not substantially
change the results of the simulation process. The initial velocity
of the flow is another parameter required for the simulation, and
it is a function of the height of the column collapse (v = √2 gh,
where g = gravity and h = height of column collapse). Typical
pyroclastic flows have calculated velocities ranging from 10 to
200 m/s (Sparks et al., 1997). The G2 and G1 ash flows have a
low aspect ratio, they are thin in relation to their distribution, and
they could surpass topographic barriers of several tens of meters.
This indicates that they could have high initial velocities. A value
of 200 m/s was used to simulate them.
Although a partial column collapse during an explosive
eruption affects only one sector of the volcano edifice, it is
impossible to determine which sector will be affected. Therefore,
it is necessary to perform several simulations to determine the
maximum ranges that a pyroclastic flow of certain volume can
reach in all directions around the vent. For that reason, we con-
ducted our simulations using a two-step process: (1) Simulations
were run to adjust the input parameters to get the maximum range
of the observed deposit; and then (2) eight simulations were run
using those parameters for various orientations around Boquerón
crater to obtain the flank areas potentially affected by pyroclas-
tic flows (Table 3). All simulations ceased when thickness of the
flow reached 0.1 m.
Hazard scenario maps were produced on a GIS base using
the areas around Boquerón crater affected by the eight simulation
runs of each scenario (Fig. 9). The pyroclastic flows produced
by the eruptions considered in the three scenarios could reach
maximum distances of 2.5 km, 10 km, and 12.5 km, respectively
(Fig. 9; Table 3). The simulated pyroclastic flows oriented to the
E, having volumes as large as 0.05 km3, should not overtop Cerro
El Picacho, which is an important topographic barrier. However,
this does not mean that the eastern flank of Cerro El Picacho
would be exempt from the associated impacts of pyroclastic
flows (such as ash cloud, heat, fire potential), but it does indi-
cate that pyroclastic flows would not deposit sediment directly in
this sector, which agrees with the stratigraphic record. Pyroclas-
tic flows having volumes greater than 0.05 km3 could possibly
bypass Cerro El Picacho.
Hazard Scenario Map for Pyroclastic-Surge Events
The simulation of the distribution and range of possible
future turbulent pyroclastic density current events producing
basal pyroclastic surge was performed with the “Energy Cone”
module of Flow3D modeling software (Malin and Sheridan,
1982). Although this model does not consider many physi-
cal aspects of turbulent flow dynamics, it is the only software
available to reproduce the distribution and range of base surge
deposits based on geological and geometric criteria (Sheridan
and Malin, 1983).
The simulation process consisted of reproducing the distri-
bution of the surge mapped deposits for each scenario through
the projection of a cone shadow to get values related to the H/L
coefficient of the deposit. The H/L values used for the reference
deposits for each scenario defined, expressed as an inverse tan-
gent, were 15° for Talpetate II deposits, 8.8° for Talpetate >3 ka,
and 7.4° for surge deposits of Talpetate I sequence (Table 3).
These values are in the range typical for turbulent flows (Sheri-
dan, 1979) and match with the average value for large-volume
pyroclastic surges, around 7° (Druitt, 1992). Other input param-
eters introduced were the tilt and the azimuth values (Table 3) to
use the “blast” option in the “Energy-cone” module of Flow 3D,
which allows us to distort the cone shape to better reproduce the
fan-shape distribution of the reference deposits, as in the case of
Talpetate I and Talpetate II surges.
The simulation process was performed in three steps. First,
trial and error simulation runs were conducted to optimize the
values of the required input parameters (height, angle, and direc-
tion of emission of pyroclastic surge). Next, adjustment simu-
lations were conducted to refine the input parameters that best
reproduced the distribution and range of the reference depos-
its (Table 3). Last, simulation runs of “rotation” with the same
height, tilt, and H/L coefficient values obtained in step 2 were
conducted by modifying only the azimuth value of each run in
order to simulate affected areas surrounding the Boquerón vent.
As in the case of pyroclastic-flow simulations, base surges are
products of directed explosions that will only hit one sector of
the volcano. However, they are very energetic events, and it is
impossible to forecast the direction that they will take in a future
eruption. For that reason, it is necessary to consider all the poten-
tial hazard areas.
The simulations were georeferenced in GIS software
and overlain on the 10-m-resolution digital elevation model.
Results were slightly adjusted manually to consider visible
geomorphic features.
 241243 251243 261243 271243

Quezaltepeque
La Joya
Cuchilla de Cerén Nejapa

Apopa

1527317
Sitio
del Niño

Ayutuxtepeque
Lourdes
Colón Mejicanos

Soyapango

1517317
San Salvador
Ilopango

Santa Tecla
Antiguo
Cuscatlán
Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano

San Marcos
Hazard scenarios for pyroclastic flow events of Boquerón Volcano 0 2 4
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Urban Major
areas roads Kilometers
Coordinate system: Universal Transverse Mercartor (UTM)

Figure 9. Hazard scenario maps for pyroclastic-flow events of Boquerón Volcano: scenario 1 in dark gray, scenario 2 in medium gray, and scenario 3 in light gray. The areas likely
to be affected for each scenario are indicated in Table 3.
225
226 Ferrés et al.
The highest-likelihood scenario (scenario 1) shows that a
total area of 60 km2 would be impacted by a turbulent pyroclas-
tic density current having a volume up to 0.005 km3 (Fig. 10).
The total area affected by the intermediate-magnitude event rep-
resented in scenario 2 is 250 km2, and an area of 700 km2 would
be highly disrupted by a large-magnitude event of low likelihood
having a volume up to 0.5 km3 (Fig. 10; Table 3).
IMPLICATIONS FOR RISK ASSESSMENT
The eruption hazard scenarios developed for Boquerón
Volcano could impact hundreds of thousands of people in the
San Salvador metropolitan area and in the cities located N
and NW of the central volcanic edifice, especially within a
radius of 5 km (Ewert and Harpel, 2004; Geólogos del Mundo-
IPGARAMSS, 2009; Palma et al., 2009). There is a high likeli-
hood of occurrence of an eruption having the conditions defined
for scenario 1 within the next few hundreds of years. It is esti-
mated than a future eruption of VEI 1–3 could impact 200,000
people in the municipalities of Santa Tecla, Lourdes-Colón, San
Juan Opico, Quezaltepeque, Antiguo Cuscatlán, San Salvador,
Ayutuxtepeque, and Mexicanos (DGSNET, 2007), as well as
the roads and communications infrastructure located on the
Boquerón edifice.
Various primary volcanic processes that develop during an
explosive eruption can affect different areas, as shown in the sce-
nario maps constructed (Figs. 6, 8, 9, and 10). These processes
can occur simultaneously or be spaced over minutes to hours.
The damages produced by the emplacement of products emitted
by these volcanic processes will also vary.
Future ash falls associated with small- to moderate-sized
eruptions (VEI 1–4) may intensely affect municipalities to the
S and W of San Salvador volcanic complex. It is important to
note that the ash fall will also affect transportation on the Pan-
American Highway, which would cause indirect impacts to many
more locations. Ash fall from a large explosive eruption (VEI
5–6) would affect all of central El Salvador.
Ballistic projectiles would mainly impact areas proximal to
Boquerón Volcano (~2 km), but could affect areas up to 5 km.
Housing and infrastructure in the areas delimited by the hazard
zonation of ballistic projectiles would be affected, especially
because additional housing and tourist businesses have recently
developed in these areas. The municipality of Santa Tecla is par-
ticularly vulnerable to ballistic impacts (Figs. 1 and 8).
Pyroclastic density currents would greatly disrupt munici-
palities around Boquerón Volcano, and could cause great loss of
life. The limits of pyroclastic flows are generally exceeded by
fine-ash clouds that could produce surges and ash-fall deposits.
These processes would affect larger areas and could cause seri-
ous damage.
After an eruption, several secondary processes may occur,
such as lahars or landslides, mainly due to the effects of heavy
rainfalls, which occur each rainy season in El Salvador, having
the capacity to mobilize the fresh and unconsolidated volcanic
materials deposited over the volcano flanks. These processes may
recur for several years after the eruption.
The lower recurrence of volcanic activity compared to other
geological and hydrometeorological hazards, such as floods or
landslides, promotes lower awareness of and preparation for the
dangers associated with eruptions.
The specific hazard scenario maps for ash fall, ballistic pro-
jectiles, pyroclastic flows, and pyroclastic surges are provided to
help reduce the vulnerability of the population, and to aid author-
ities tasked with risk management. The challenge comes in how
to use these maps.
In their current form, the scenario hazard maps could be
displayed on a dynamic Web platform, providing civil defense
authorities and land-use officers the volcanic hazards informa-
tion. Thus, the volcanic hazard scenarios could be combined with
information of other types of hazards, in order to be taken into
account in land management policies, and to develop risk scenar-
ios for preparing emergency plans. These users have to consider
that the hazard maps of Boquerón Volcano are the products of
simulations trying to reproduce the existing deposits. The limits
of the hazard areas are an approximation to the volcanic phenom-
ena and cannot be considered as definitive. As was mentioned
already, several processes could occur simultaneously during an
eruption, and some of the products released could extend beyond
the limits shown in these maps. The limits of scenario 2 of the
different hazard maps presented could be adequate in order to
consider safety areas in a long-term basis. The Management Plan
of the Extended Metropolitan Area (VMVDU, 2011) already
uses these maps, but it is necessary to help authorities and deci-
sion makers understand them. One way to achieve this goal is to
deliver the hazard maps along with their technical reports.
The hazard maps are also intended to be helpful for the obser-
vatory and emergency authorities in their work to disseminate
volcanic forecasts, especially during volcanic unrests or crises. It
is necessary to prepare a single hazard map that summarizes the
12 scenarios produced, in order to facilitate their understanding.
It is always a challenge to make a design respecting the scientific
background used for the elaboration of scenario hazard maps,
but at the same time, make them simple (not simplistic) for the
general public and particularly for the authorities. The existing
general hazard zonation map of the San Salvador volcanic com-
plex (Major et al., 2001; Sofield, 2004) could be refined for this
purpose, using new hazard boundaries obtained for the highest
probability scenarios presented here. Such a map could be part
of educational materials for schools, the general public, and deci-
sion makers to help them understand the natural phenomena and
associated hazards. Perceptions about hazards that could threaten
the population should be considered in the design of educational
tools (Bowman and White, 2012). A plan for disseminating vol-
canic hazard information to various stakeholders who live and
work in the urban area should be prepared. An important part of
such plan should introduce the contents of volcanic hazards in
formal educational programs to make sure that the transmission
of information is maintained over the long term.
 Explosive volcanic history and hazard zonation maps of Boquerón Volcano

Figure 10. Hazard scenario maps for pyroclastic-surge events of Boquerón Volcano: scenario 1 in dark gray, scenario 2 in medium gray, and scenario 3 in light gray. The
areas likely to be affected for each scenario are indicated in Table 3.
227
228 Ferrés et al.
The hazard maps presented in this research can help the
observatory and civil defense authorities to partially solve some
questions on how future volcanic activity may develop. However,
many uncertainties remain unsolved. Although the spatial distri-
bution of hazards is presented in the hazard maps, it is necessary
to deepen in the study of temporal distribution of the volcanic
activity, discussed by previous authors (Sofield, 1998; Major et
al., 2001). Future research has to be focused to cover the lags on
the age control of the new deposits identified and to perform a
statistical study of the recurrence of the eruptions. The construc-
tion of scenario hazard maps for lava flow events of Boquerón
Volcano and for other processes related to explosive magmatic
and phreatomagmatic flank eruptions should also be addressed
in future research.
One or several emergency plans should be drawn up using
the maps presented here. The criteria on when and which of them
to apply in a crisis will depend mainly on the capacity to identify
precursors of volcanic activity. The capacities of the monitoring
system of Boquerón Volcano and the link between the precursors
and the magnitude of the scenarios that could occur go beyond
of the scopes of this research, but they should be addressed in the
future for El Salvador.
CONCLUSIONS
The stratigraphic record of the San Salvador volcanic com-
plex preserves deposits of 49 different eruptions that span the
last 36,000 yr. Twenty-five eruptions from flank vents, located
mainly along NW-trending faults began ~10,000 yr ago, and
became more recurrent during the last 3000 yr (Sofield, 1998;
Ferrés et al., 2011). A future eruption of one of these flank vents
is the most likely scenario for the San Salvador volcanic complex
(Sofield, 2004).
Fifteen of the 24 eruptive events of central Boquerón Volcano
have been small-scale eruptions of effusive or Strombolian type,
and they are represented mainly by lava flows in the stratigraphic
record. However, they were probably accompanied by small to
moderate explosive phases that produced ash fall and ballistic
projectiles, as is the case of the eruption in 1917. The other nine
explosive eruptions of central Boquerón Volcano consisted of
magmatic and phreatomagmatic phases, which produced a wide
range of pyroclastic deposits, including those of pyroclastic flows
and surges of variable distribution.
A future central small-scale eruption is also highly likely
in the period of hundreds of years and could directly threaten
thousands of people in the radius of 5 km from central crater.
A future eruptive event, and the secondary process associated
with it, could also impact hundreds of thousands of people in
the San Salvador metropolitan area and other municipalities in
central El Salvador.
The scenario hazard maps for ash fall, ballistic projectiles,
pyroclastic flow, and pyroclastic-surge events of Boquerón Vol-
cano were constructed to evaluate the areas that could potentially
be impacted by primary process during a future eruption. These
maps could be useful tools for educational programs, risk assess-
ment projects, and land management policies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was possible thanks to the funding provided by Sec-
retaría de Relaciones Exteriores de México; Instituto Panameri-
cano de Geografía e Historia; Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología
del Distrito Federal and the IPGARAMSS Program (overseen
by the NGO “Geólogos del Mundo”; Office of Land Use Man-
agement and the 14 municipalities of San Salvador metropolitan
area), supported by Agencia Española de Cooperación Interna-
cional para el Desarrollo; and grant IX101610 of the Dirección
General de Asuntos del Personal Académico (DGAPA-UNAM).
The logistical and technical support during fieldwork campaigns
was provided by the Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales
(SNET) of El Salvador. Special thanks are addressed to Giovanni
Molina, Emilio Márquez, Eliseo Martínez, and Francisco Mon-
talbo. We are grateful to Luis Villareal and Ramón Ramírez of the
Dirección General de Cómputo y Tecnologías de Información y
Comunicación of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
and to Center for Geohazard Studies of the State University of
New York at Buffalo for their support during the simulation pro-
cess of surge and pyroclastic flows, respectively. We are indebted
to Julie Roberge and to Miguel A. Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia for
their reviews of different parts of this research, to Josué Murillo
for his help during fieldwork, to Jose Manuel Alvarez and Luis
Salazar Tlaczani for their support during the pyroclastic flow
simulations, and to Luke Bowman for revision of the manuscript.
We appreciate the detailed revision and comments provided by
Jon J. Major and Michael J. Carr, which greatly improved the
quality of the manuscript.
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