WELCOME

MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL

EVIDENCES
Comparative anatomy and morphology show
that different animals have some common
structural features. This can be explained as
follows:
Homologous organs and Homology:
◦ Homologous organs: The organs which are fundamentally
similar in structure and origin but adapted for different
functions . This phenomenon is called Homology.

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 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL
EVIDENCES
◦ E.g. Whale’s flippers, Bat’s
wing, Cheetah’s foot and
Human hand.
All these perform different
functions, but are constructed
on the same plan.
◦ Homology can be seen in
skeleton (they have humerus,
radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals & phalanges),
heart, blood vessels, excretory
system, brain etc.

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 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL
EVIDENCES

 Homology in plants:
Thorns and tendrils
of Bougainvillea and
Cucurbita.

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 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL
EVIDENCES
 The origin of homologous organs due to
adaptations to different needs is called Divergent
evolution.
 Homology indicates common ancestry.

Divergent evolution is the process by which

related species become less similar in order
to survive in different environmental
condition
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 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL
EVIDENCES
 Analogous organs and Analogy
◦ Analogous organs: The organs having similar function but
different structure and origin. This phenomenon is called
Analogy. E.g.
 Wings of insects (formed of chitin) and wings of birds (modified
forelimbs).
 Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina from
embryonic brain).
 Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
 Sweet potato (root modification) and Potato (stem modification)
 Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates
(from endoderm).
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 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL
EVIDENCES
 The origin of analogous organs due to adaptations for life
in similar habitats is called Convergent evolution.

Convergent evolution is the process by which unrelated

species become more similar in order to survive in similar
environmental condition.

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 BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCES

 Similarities in proteins
and genes.
 Similarities in other

biomolecules and
metabolism.

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 EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION BY NATURAL
SELECTION

Natural selection is the process by

which the organisms that are best
suited for their environment survive
and reproduce.

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 EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION BY NATURAL
SELECTION
◦ In England before
industrialization (1850s):
There were more white
winged moths (Biston
betularia) on trees than dark
winged or melanised moths
(Biston carbonaria).
◦ After industrialization (1920):
More dark winged moths and
less white winged moths.

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 EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION BY NATURAL
SELECTION

REASON
Before industrialization:
 There was thick growth of
white coloured lichen
covered the trees.

 In that background
the white winged moths
survived but the dark
coloured moths were
picked out by predators.
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 EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION BY NATURAL
SELECTION
After industrialization:
 The tree trunks became dark due
to industrial smoke and soots. No
growth of lichens.
 Under this condition the white
winged moth did not survive
because the predators identified
them easily.
 Dark winged moth survived
because of suitable dark
background, i.e. predators could
not identify them.

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NATURAL SELECTION BY ANTHROPOGENIC
ACTION

◦ Excess use of herbicides, pesticides etc resulted in

selection of resistant varieties.
◦ Excess use of antibiotics or drugs resulted in
selection of resistant varieties.

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 BIOGEOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCES
Adaptive radiation: A process of evolution of closely related
species in a given geographical area starting from a point.

E.g.
◦ Darwin’s finches (seen
in Galapagos islands)
◦ Australian marsupials
◦ Placental mammals in
Australia

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 Placental mammals: Mole, Anteater, Mouse,
Lemur, Flying squirrel, Bobcat, Wolf.
 When more than one adaptive radiation is

appeared in an isolated geographical area, this

leads to convergent evolution. E.g.
convergent evolution of Australian Marsupials and
Placental mammals.

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Placental mammals Australian Marsupials

Mole Marsupial mole

Ant eater Numbat (Ant eater)
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf
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THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL
EVOLUTION

Theory of Darwinia Mutation

Lamarck n Theory Theory
of of de
Evolution Vries
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THEORY OF LAMARCK (THEORY OF INHERITANCE OF
ACQUIRED CHARACTERS)
It states that evolution of life forms occurred
by use and disuse of organs. E.g.

◦ Evolution by use of organs:

The long neck of giraffe is
due to continuous
elongation to forage leaves
on tall trees.
◦ Evolution by disuse: Total
disappearance of limbs in
snakes.
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THEORY OF LAMARCK (THEORY OF INHERITANCE OF
ACQUIRED CHARACTERS)

 Such acquired characters

inherit to succeeding
generations.
 This theory was

eliminated out because it

is proved that the
characters are inherited
only through genes.
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DARWINIAN THEORY OF EVOLUTION
 By Charles Darwin. It is based on 2 key concepts
◦ Natural selection
◦ Branching descent
 Natural selection:

◦ Consider a bacterial colony A growing on a given

medium. If the medium composition is changed, only a
part of the population (say B) can survive under new
condition. This variant population outgrows the others
and appears as new species. I.e. B is better than A under
new condition. Nature selects for fitness.

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 The work of Thomas Malthus on populations
influenced Darwin.
 Natural selection is based on the following facts

◦ Heritable minor variations

◦ Overproduction by organisms
◦ Limited natural resources
◦ Struggle for existence
◦ Survival of the fittest

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 Darwin
Populationsaid that the
size grows faster if
organisms with better
everybody reproduces maximally
heritable variations
(E.g. bacterial population).(E.g.
 better resource
But population sizes are limited
utilization) reproduce
due to competition for resources
and leave
(Struggle for more progeny.
existence). Only
It leads
some to aand
survives change
grows in
population
(Survival of the fittest).
characteristics and new
forms appear.

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 MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
 Darwin ignored about the
origin of variation and
mechanism of speciation.
 Hugo de Vries proposed

Mutation Theory of evolution.

He conducted some
experiments on evening
primrose (Oenothera
lamarckiana).
Evening primrose

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 Darwinian variation Mutation
Minor variation Large variation

Directional Random, sudden and

directionless

Gradual evolution Speciation by saltation

(single step, large
mutation)

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SEE PART 3

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Prepared by
MUHAMMED ALI. K.C
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
Ph: 9544187632
Email: mailtokcm@gmail.com
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