Children and Youth Services Review 77 (2017) 10–17
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Children and Youth Services Review
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth
Prevalence and predictors of smartphone addiction proneness among Korean
adolescents
Changho Leea,⁎, Sook-Jung Leeb
a
National Youth Policy Institute, 370 Sicheong-daero, Sejong City, 30147, South Korea
b
School of Media & Communication, Chung-Ang University, 221 Heukseok Dong, Dongjak Gu, Seoul 06974, South Korea
1. Introduction
Recently, with the increase in the use of and popularity of
smartphones, adolescent smartphone addiction proneness has become
a serious social problem (Kim, Lee, Lee, Nam, & Chung, 2014; Kwon
et al., 2013). Smartphones have been integrated into Asian cultures, and
smartphone addiction proneness is increasing rapidly among younger
people (BBC, 2015). Many adolescents experience conflicts with parents
because of their uncontrolled use of smartphones at home, and with
teachers at school owing to unregulated smartphone use during class
(Lee & Kim, 2013). An increasing number of adolescents suffer from
inattention to school work, interruption of social interaction, or sleep
disturbance, which may be attributable to smartphone overuse (Lemola,
Perkinson-Gloor, Brand, Dewald-Kaufmann, & Grob, 2015; Wang et al.,
2013). According to a national survey of the National Information
Society Agency or NISA (2015), a governmental organization estab-
lished to nurture information culture in Korea, 32.6% of teenagers
suffered from disturbance, and 30.1% experienced deterioration of
visual acuity because of smartphone overuse. Adolescents spend an
excessive amount of time on their smartphones chatting (e.g., Kakao-
talk), listening to music, using SNS (e.g., Facebook), playing games, and
exploiting Webtoon services (Lee & Kim, 2013). As of 2016, about 90%
of Korean middle and high school students own a smartphone; owner-
ship had also increased rapidly in recent years (Korea Information
Society Development Institute, 2016). These findings indicate that
smartphone use is common and routinized among Korean adolescents.
Despite the growing public concern over adolescents' vulnerability
to smartphone addiction proneness, there is a lack of empirical research
examining the factors that influence smartphone addiction among
adolescents. Who are more vulnerable to smartphone addiction prone-
ness? Are contextual factors, such as those related to family, peers, and
school, which have been implicated as predictors of problematic media
use, also significant with respect to smartphone addiction? What are the
motives of adolescents who are addicted to smartphones? This study
aims to fill the existing knowledge gap by examining the influences of
demographic, contextual, and motivational factors on adolescent
smartphone addiction proneness.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ifsc334@nypi.re.kr (C. Lee), sjleecom@cau.ac.kr (S.-J. Lee).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.04.002
Received 20 January 2017; Received in revised form 4 April 2017; Accepted 4 April 2017
Available online 05 April 2017
0190-7409/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
MARK
1.1. Smartphone addiction scale
Public concern over excessive use of digital media by adolescents
has prompted several academic studies investigating the symptoms of
addictive behaviors, causes, and consequences in various countries
(e.g., Choo, Sim, Liau, Gentile, & Khoo, 2015; Jiang, 2014; Kuss,
Griffiths, & Binder, 2013; ŞaŞmaz et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2013;
Wang et al., 2014). Among the diverse kinds of technological addic-
tions, smartphone addiction proneness is a relatively new concept that
is receiving increasing amounts of attention, following the interest in
internet addiction. An often-cited definition of internet addiction is “an
impulse-control disorder that does not involve an intoxicant” (Young,
1998, p. 237). Many scholars prefer the terms “compulsive internet use”
(Greenfield, 1999), “problematic internet use” (Caplan, 2002, 2010), or
“unregulated internet use” (Larose, Lin, & Eastin, 2003). In accordance
with these definitions of internet addiction, smartphone addiction is
defined loosely as overuse of smartphones that leads to adverse
consequences or disturbance of daily life (Demirci, Orhan, Demirdas,
Akpinar, & Sert, 2014; Kwon et al., 2013).
Overall, Korean scholars developed a scale measuring smartphone
addiction proneness. For example, the 33-item Smartphone Addiction
Scale (SAS) by Kwon et al. (2013) covers six factors, namely, daily life
disturbance, positive anticipation, withdrawal, cyberspace-oriented
relationship, overuse, and tolerance (p. 6). Another example is the
Korean Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale, or SAPS (Kim et al.,
2014), with its reliability and validity verified based on a national
survey of young people in Korea. Its four sub-domains include
disturbance of adaptive functions, virtual life orientation, withdrawal,
and tolerance (Kim et al., 2014). Disturbance of adaptive functions
indicates the negative consequences, such as neglect of schoolwork and
falling school grades, caused by smartphone overuse. Virtual life
orientation points to the extent of users' preoccupation with the virtual
world. Withdrawal refers to symptoms that emerge when users are
unable to use a smartphone. Tolerance indicates an increasing amount
of time spent on smartphone to satisfy users' satisfaction.
In 2015, NISA conducted a national survey on smartphone addic-
tion, using the SAPS (National Information Society Agency, 2015).
C. Lee, S.-J. Lee
According to the survey results, 31.6% and 13.5% of adolescents and
adults, respectively, were addicted to smartphones. With respect to
internet addiction, the rates were 13.1% and 5.8% among adolescents
and adults, respectively. According to this survey, teenagers spent
about five hours a day on their smartphones, and most of them used
messenger service, SNS, and game on the device (National Information
Society Agency, 2015). The results indicated that adolescents are more
addicted to smartphones than the internet, and smartphone addiction is
more serious among youths than adults.
Thus, this study assesses the prevalence of adolescent smartphone
addiction proneness by using the SAPS; categorizes adolescents into
non-addicts, those at potential risk for addiction, and high-risk indivi-
duals; and examines the differences among the group by gender, grade,
socioeconomic status, academic performance, and school rules regard-
ing smartphone usage. Next, it will analyze the predictors of smart-
phone addiction proneness.
1.2. Factors of addictive smartphone use
1.2.1. Gender
Gender differences are apparent in the use of new technology. In
general, men are more likely to show positive and open attitudes
toward new technology compared with women (Ray,
Sormunen, & Harris, 1999). Many previous studies have shown that
male students are much more addicted to the internet and online games
than females (Choo et al., 2015; Dhir, Chen, & Nieminen, 2015;
Huanhuan & Su, 2013; Leung & Lee, 2012; Wang et al., 2013; Wang
et al., 2014; Yoon, Kim, & Park, 2014). However, findings of recent
studies on mobile phone addiction are contradictory, indicating that
females are more likely to be involved excessively with their mobile
phones to the extent that they develop dependency on or addiction to
mobile phones and become vulnerable to abuse of mobile phones (Chiu,
Hong, & Chiu, 2013; Koo, 2012; Walsh, White, Cox, & Young, 2011).
This can be attributed to female adolescents being more involved in
communication with others via their mobile phones and utilizing
diverse communication services, such as SNS, chatting, and texting
(Chiu et al., 2013). This dependence on communication via a mobile
phone exhibits females' stronger relationship with smartphone addic-
tion than gaming (Jeong, Kim, Yum, & Hwang, 2016). Thus, this study
hypothesizes that
H1. Female students are more likely to be addicted to smartphones than
their male counterparts.
1.2.2. Attachment to significant others
According to social control theory, an individual's bond to society
plays an important role in deterring a delinquent activity (Hirschi, 1969).
Adolescents' attachment to parents, friends, and teachers is critical in
preventing them from committing a delinquent activity. This theory has
been applied to addiction issues. For example, previous research has
indicated that parental attachment (Kim & Kim, 2015), parent–child
closeness (Choo et al., 2015), and a warm family environment (Liau
et al., 2015) reduce the risk of addiction to video games or the internet.
Better parent–adolescent relationships also enhanced connections to
school, thereby reducing internet gaming addiction (Zhu, Zhang,
Yu, & Bao, 2015). Social support from family or friends was also related
negatively to internet addiction (Gunuc & Dogan, 2013). Although ado-
lescents, who have many friends exhibiting deviant behaviors, are more
likely to be addicted to internet gaming (Zhu et al., 2015), overall
satisfaction with friendships is related negatively to smartphone addic-
tion (Bae, 2015). Thus, this study hypothesizes that
H2a. Attachment to parents is related negatively to smartphone
addiction.
H2b. Attachment to friends is related negatively to smartphone
addiction.
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Children and Youth Services Review 77 (2017) 10–17
H2c. Attachment to teachers is related negatively to smartphone
addiction.
1.2.3. School life
Adjustment to school is an important factor related to addiction (Lee,
Lee, & Shin, 2009). According to a study by Ju and Cho (2015),
maladjustment to school plays an important role in increasing adoles-
cents' smartphone addiction. In their study, addicts had less satisfying
relationships with peers compared with non-addicts. Adolescents con-
sider peer relations to be important. Consequently, they try to maintain
an intimate relationship with their friends. Otherwise, they are likely to
feel lonely and alienated, making them more addicted to their mobile
phones (Kim & Hwang, 2012). Moreover, participation in a wide breadth
of extracurricular activities, such as sports, was associated negatively
with internet addiction (Wang et al., 2013). According to Ryou's (2013)
study, adolescents who participated in club activities, were less likely to
become addicted to the internet. Life satisfaction was also associated
negatively with gaming addiction (Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2009).
Addicted adolescents reported lower satisfaction with life compared with
non-addicted ones (Wang et al., 2013). Accordingly, adolescents who are
not satisfied with school life are likely to depend on smartphones to
obtain the satisfaction that they do not derive from relationships or
activities in the physical world. Thus, this study hypothesizes that
H3. Satisfaction with school life is related negatively to smartphone
addiction.
1.2.4. Motives for smartphone use
According to the uses and gratifications theory, motivations for
media use influence the patterns of usage and result in need gratifica-
tions and other intended and unintended consequences (Katz,
Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973). The uses and gratification research has
classified the motivations for media use in terms of surveillance (i.e., to
learn about events and affairs that might affect one), social utility (i.e.,
to obtain information for conversations and utilize it for companion-
ship), personal identity (i.e., to reinforce one's values, beliefs, and
attitudes), and diversion (i.e., an escape from routines or for emotional
release) (Ruggiero, 2000). The motives for media use have been
examined as factors that account for duration of media usage, type of
content consumption, and intended or unintended outcomes. Media
addiction is associated with unregulated usage and unintended out-
comes, which are affected by certain motives for or gratifications
derived from media.
Previous research has identified various motives related to addictive
media use. For example, Song, Larose, Eastin, and Lin (2004) found that
gratification obtained from internet use, including being part of a
virtual community, diversion, and maintaining relationships, was
related to internet addiction among college students. Bian and Leung
(2014) identified four types of smartphone use motives, namely,
information seeking, utility, fun seeking, and sociability. Their findings
indicated that the more college students used smartphones to find
information, for practical purposes and fun, the higher the likelihood
that they were addicted. Meanwhile, Kim and Shin (2015) identified
three types of smartphone use motives, namely, constant use of
information, convenience of use, and ostentation and fashion. In their
study, using a smartphone only to display ostentation as a fashion
accessory was related significantly to smartphone addiction in middle
school students. Although a few previous studies have examined the
relationship between motives for smartphone use and addictive use, no
consistent pattern has been found. Most of all, there is a lack of research
that examines adolescents' motives for smartphone use, considering
their unique developmental needs, such as peer acceptance and identity
formation. Consequently, this study aims to identify the unique motives
for smartphone use among adolescents and examine how these motives
based on their developmental needs are associated with smartphone
addiction as an unintended outcome.
C. Lee, S.-J. Lee Children and Youth Services Review 77 (2017) 10–17

RQ1. How are adolescents' motives for smartphone use related to
addictive behaviors?
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants in the study were 3000 adolescents, with 1580 male
(52.7%) and 1420 female (47.3%) students. The sample included 484
students (16.1%) in grade seven, 494 (16.5%) in grade eight, 519
(17.3%) in grade nine, 503 (16.8%) in grade 10, 503 (16.8%) in grade
11, and 494 (16.5%) in grade 12. The percentages used in this study
follows closely the population distribution in 2012 National Statistics:
52.5% (male), 47.5% (female); 15.8% (7th grade), 16.3% (8th grade),
17% (9th grade), 17% (10th grade), 17.1% (11th grade) and 16.7%
(12th grade) (Korea Educational Statistics Service, 2012), so that the
sample would represent well the national demographics. About half of
the students (47.5%) had a medium level of academic performance. The
distribution of the other students according to academic performance is
as follows: very poor (3.0%), poor (13.9%), good (28.2%), very good
(7.4%). Majority of the students were in medium level of economic
status (83.9%); 8.8% in high level, and 7.3% in low level.
2.2. Measurements
2.2.1. Smartphone addiction proneness
To measure smartphone addiction proneness, SAPS developed by
Kim et al. (2014) was used. The scale consisted of 15 items. Each item
was measured on a four-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly
disagree to strongly agree. The items are listed in Table 1. Each
participant was given a total addiction score ranging from 15 to 60.
According to the criterion, respondents with over 45 points in total or
those with over 16 points for disturbance of adaptive functions, over 13
points for withdrawal, and over 14 points for tolerance were classified
as the high-risk group (National Information Society Agency, 2011).
Students with 42 to 44 total points, over 14 points for disturbance of
adaptive functions, over 12 points for withdrawal, and over 13 points
for tolerance were assigned to the potential risk group. These two
groups were classified as smartphone addicts. The cutoff point was
based on T-score (10 ∗ Z-value + 50), and it was over 70 in high-risk
group and over 65 in the potential risk group (for details see National
Information Society Agency, 2011).
In this study, the average score on the 15 items was used as the
dependent variable (M = 2.20, SD = 0.57, α = 0.91). Consequently,
higher scores on the addiction scale indicate a greater level of
smartphone addiction proneness.
2.2.2. Demographic variables
Gender was categorized into male and female, and school type into
middle and high school. Socioeconomic level was measured by a
respondent's self-perception of his/her family's economic situation on
a seven-point scale, ranging from “very poor” to “very rich.” In addition
to these variables, this study considered school rules on smartphone
usage. School regulations fell into one of three categories: (1) students
were not allowed to bring their smartphones to school (4.8%); (2) the
school collected students' smartphones before the beginning of classes
and returned them after school (68.1%); and (3) students were allowed
to use their smartphones during school hours but were penalized for
using them during classes (26.5%). Other category (0.6%) was excluded
from analysis because of its small proportion.
2.2.3. Attachment
As per the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey (National Youth
Policy Institute, 2012), six items, including “I try to spend plenty of
time with my parents” and “My parents always show me love and
affection,” were used to measure parental attachment. Attachment to
friends was measured using four items, such as “I am happy when I
hang around with friends” and “I confess my worries frankly to my
friends.” Attachment to teachers was assessed by three items, including
“Teachers show me love and interest.” Each item was measured on a
four-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly
agree. The Cronbach's α values for the scale were 0.89 (parents), 0.79
(friends), and 0.80 (teachers).
2.2.4. School life
Measurement of school life included good relationships with friends
(“I have a good relationship with my friends”), participation in school
activities (“I participate actively in school activities, such as clubs or
student organizations”), and satisfaction with school life (“I am satisfied
with school life”). These items were based on the study of school life
satisfaction by Hwang and Kim (2012). Possible answers for each item
ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree. Cronbach's α
for this scale was 0.74. Three items were averaged and used in the
analysis (M = 3.08, SD = 0.56).
2.2.5. Motives for smartphone use
To identify the motives for which adolescents use their smartphones,
respondents were asked to answer 14 items on a scale of 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). These items were selected based on
previous studies (Kim & Shin, 2015; Lee & Bae, 2011; Yang & Lee, 2011).

Table 1
Items of smartphone addiction proneness.

Factors Items M Cronbach's α

(SD)

Disturbance of adaptive functions My school grades dropped because of excessive smartphone use. 2.33 0.79
I have a hard time accomplishing what I have planned (study, finish homework, or go to after-school classes) (0.64)
because of my smartphone use.
People comment frequently on my excessive smartphone use.
Family or friends complain that I use my smartphone too much.
My smartphone does not distract me from studying. (R)
Virtual life orientation Using a smartphone is more enjoyable than spending time with family or friends. 1.87 0.65
When I cannot use a smartphone, I feel like I have lost the entire world. (0.68)
Withdrawal I cannot imagine my life without a smartphone. 2.09 0.82
I grow anxious and nervous without a smartphone. (0.67)
I am not anxious without a smartphone. (R)
I panic when I cannot use my smartphone.
Tolerance I tried to reduce the time I spend on a smartphone but failed. 2.38 0.77
I can control my smartphone usage time. (R) (0.63)
Even when I know I should stop, I continue to use my smartphone.
Spending a huge amount of time on a smartphone has become my habit.

Note. An item with R mark was coded reversely.

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C. Lee, S.-J. Lee Children and Youth Services Review 77 (2017) 10–17

Table 2
Factor analysis of motivations for smartphone use.

Factor Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Variance explained

I use a smartphone…

Obtaining infotainment To obtain the information I need 0.66 − 0.23 0.23 26.86%
To communicate with people I know 0.66 − 0.04 0.17
To find information instantly 0.69 − 0.17 0.20
For fun and pleasure 0.72 0.26 − 0.02
To kill time 0.62 0.45 − 0.17
To share memories with friends 0.44 0.24 0.33
To use many services (e.g., TV viewing, talking, accessing internet) simultaneously 0.61 0.20 0.07
Gaining peer acceptance Because my friends use it 0.03 0.73 0.21 13.55%
To show off to my friends − 0.16 0.70 0.34
Habitually 0.44 0.63 − 0.04
Finding new people To express myself 0.07 0.32 0.55 10.22%
To meet new friends 0.10 0.19 0.64
To find people with expertise 0.09 − 0.07 0.74
To share study data 0.12 0.06 0.54

Principal component analysis using the varimax rotation method identi-
fied three factors with eigenvalues > 1, which together explained
50.63% of the total variance (see Table 2). The first factor, obtaining
infotainment, explained 26.86% of the total variance, and contained seven
items related to obtaining information and seeking fun in using
smartphone. The second factor, gaining peer acceptance, which comprised
three items, explained 13.55%. The third factor, finding new people,
explained 10.22% and included four items. The Cronbach's α values for
these factors were 0.77, 0.65, and 0.57, respectively.
2.3. Procedure
This study conducted an online survey from April 25, 2013 to May
13, 2013. One research company, which had the largest online panels in
Korea, created a survey tool online and sent emails to respondents who
were enrolled in panels and had smartphones. The participants were
selected by quota sampling that considered region, gender, and grade.
The Educational Statistics Data in 2012 from the Korean Educational
Development Institute, which details the national distribution of
students in Korea according to 16 regions, gender, and grade, was used
as a sampling frame. After quota sampling was conducted, the ques-
tionnaire was sent to the adolescents via email. All participants, as
members of online panel that the research company had kept, had
3. Results
3.1. Prevalence of smartphone addiction proneness
Among all respondents, 7.6% were classified as high-risk users and
27.6%, as potentially at-risk users for smartphone addiction (see
Table 3). In total, 35.2% of students were addicted to smartphones.
Differences in the proportion of smartphone addiction by gender,
school grade, and academic performance were statistically significant.
Results regarding gender difference indicated that 9.5% of female and
5.9% of male students were classified as high-risk users, whereas 33.1%
of female and 22.7% of male, as potentially at-risk users. That is, more
addicts were found in female students than their male counterparts.
Regarding differences by school grade, the proportion of the high-risk
group was lowest for students in grade seven and highest for students in
grade nine. There was a clear difference in the proportion of smart-
phone addiction by academic performance. Among students who
reported their academic performance as “very poor,” 19.6% were
classified into the high-risk group, compared with 6.8% among students
with good academic performance. However, there was no difference
Table 3
Prevalence of smartphone addiction proneness by background variables (%).

already provided informed consent to participate in online surveys. Background variables Non- Potential High risk Chi-
Those who did not respond to the initial email were contacted again via addicts risk addicts square
text message and email to improve the response rate and maintain the addicts test
quota. Respondents were notified that all responses would be analyzed
Gender Male 71.3 22.7 6.0 63.98⁎⁎⁎
in anonymity and they would have no influence on personal life. After
Female 57.4 33.1 9.5
respondents agreed to participate in the survey, they began to answer School grade Grade 7 76.4 18.7 4.9 41.95⁎⁎⁎
the questionnaire. Grade 8 63.8 28.9 7.3
Grade 9 61.1 29.3 9.6
Grade 10 59.8 30.8 9.4
2.4. Statistical analysis Grade 11 62.0 30.6 7.4
Grade 12 65.8 27.1 7.1
First, this study used factor analysis to extract factors related to Academic Very poor 50.0 30.4 19.6 74.6⁎⁎⁎
performance Poor 52.9 34.6 12.5
motivations for smartphone use. As mentioned before, principal compo- Medium 64.4 28.6 7.0
nent analysis using the varimax rotation method was employed. Second, Good 70.2 24.6 5.2
to test the statistical difference of frequency of smartphone addicts/non- Very good 74.8 18.4 6.8
addicts among background variables, such as gender and school grade, Socioeconomic Low 60.9 28.2 10.9 10.69
status of Medium 64.3 28.3 7.4 (n.s.)⁎
chi-square statistics were conducted. Third, zero-order Pearson correla-
family High 71.9 20.9 7.2
tion was used to explore the relationships between study variables and School rule Forbiddance 70.6 23.1 6.3 2.97
the extent of smartphone addiction proneness. Finally, a hierarchical Collection 64.8 27.5 7.7 (n.s.)
multiple regression was performed to investigate the influence of Penalty marks 63.3 29.0 7.7
demographic variables, attachment to others, school life, and motivations Total 64.8 27.6 7.6

on the addictive tendency of smartphone. Participants' gender, school

Note. The socioeconomic status of family was recoded (1, 2 = low; 3, 4, 5 = medium; 6,
type, and socioeconomic level were entered in the first step; attachment 7 = high).
to parents, friends and teachers in the second step; school life in the third ⁎
p < 0.05.
⁎⁎⁎
step; and three types of motivations in the fourth step. p < 0.001.

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C. Lee, S.-J. Lee Children and Youth Services Review 77 (2017) 10–17

Table 4
Inter-correlation of predictors and addictive level of smartphone.

Addictive level Attachment to Attachment to Attachment to School life Obtaining Gaining peer Finding new
parents friends teachers infotainment acceptance people

Addictive level 1.000 −0.224⁎⁎ − 0.036⁎ − 0.116⁎⁎ − 0.149⁎⁎ 0.235⁎⁎ 0.462⁎⁎ 0.209⁎⁎
Attachment to parents 0.371⁎⁎ 0.348⁎⁎ 0.323⁎⁎ 0.098⁎⁎ − 0.087⁎⁎ − 0.008
Attachment to friends 0.182⁎⁎ 0.295⁎⁎ 0.331⁎⁎ − 0.018 0.036⁎
Attachment to 0.371⁎⁎ − 0.020 0.015 0.135⁎⁎
teachers
School life 0.138⁎⁎ − 0.027 0.115⁎⁎
Obtaining 0.301⁎⁎ 0.316⁎⁎
infotainment
Gaining peer 0.341⁎⁎
acceptance
Finding new people 1.000

⁎
p < 0.05.
⁎⁎
p < 0.01.

found in their economic levels. Although chi-square statistics indicated
a significant level (p = 0.03), Bonferroni corrections showed that it was
not significant statistically. If multiple comparisons are made, the
chance of rejecting incorrectly a null hypothesis (Type I error) increases
(for details see Wikipedia, 2017). Therefore, Bonferroni corrections
were applied to overcome this problem. In this case, significant level
testing of each hypothesis was decided at 0.017 (0.05/3). Among
students who reported their socioeconomic status (SES) level as low,
10.9% belonged to the high-risk group, 28.2% were potentially at risk,
and 60.9% were non-addicts. Meanwhile, among students reporting
high SES, 7.2% were high-risk users, 20.9% were potentially at risk, and
71.9% were non-addicts. There were no significant differences depend-
ing on school rules regarding smartphone usage. Although students
attending school policies that did not allow smartphones at school had a
lower rate of addiction compared with those who attended schools with
other policies, the difference was not significant statistically.
3.2. Correlation analysis
Table 4 shows the correlation among study variables. Attachment to
significant others and school life were all negatively correlated to
addictive level of smartphone. As students are more attached to parents,
friends, and teachers, they are less addicted to smartphone. More
satisfactory school life was associated with the decrease of smartphone
addiction tendency. On the contrary, motives were all positively related
to it. That is, the more students had motivations for smartphone use, the
more they had an addictive tendency of smartphone.
3.3. Hierarchical regression analysis
Table 5 shows the results of hierarchical regression analysis to
examine the predictors of smartphone addiction proneness. Various
motives for smartphone use explained 19.4% of the total variance,
followed by attachment (5.2%), demographic variables (1.9%), and
school life (0.6%). These findings indicate that motives were the most
influential factor related to the addictive level of smartphone addiction.
All input variables together explained 27.1% of variance in smartphone
addiction. If Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) is > 10, multicollinearity
can be found (Bowerman & O'Connell, 1990, p. 447). In this study, VIF
ranged from 1.009 to 1.211.
Gender was the only demographic variable that was related
significantly to smartphone addiction. Female students showed more
addictive tendencies compared with male ones (β = 0.07, p < 0.001).
This finding supports H1. Meanwhile, the linear relationship between
family economic level and adolescent addiction was not significant.
Attachment to parents was related significantly to addiction,
whereas that to friends or teachers was not. The influence of parental
attachment on addiction was significant among the input variables
(β = 0.17, p < 0.001). Therefore, although H2a was confirmed, H2b
and H2c were not.
School life was associated negatively with addiction. Thus, H3 was
supported. High rates of reported satisfaction with school or participa-
tion in school activities were associated with a reduced rate of
smartphone addiction.
All motives examined were related positively to smartphone addic-
tion. For example, adolescents who used smartphones to gain peer

Table 5
Hierarchical regression analysis predicting smartphone addiction proneness.

Predictor Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

β β β β

Demographic variables Gender (female = 1) 0.13⁎⁎⁎ 0.13⁎⁎⁎ 0.13⁎⁎⁎ 0.07⁎⁎⁎

School (high school = 1) −0.03 −0.03 − 0.04⁎ − 0.01
Socioeconomic status (1–7) −0.03 −0.003 0.005 − 0.01
Attachment Attachment to parents −0.23⁎⁎⁎ − 0.22⁎⁎⁎ − 0.17⁎⁎⁎
Attachment to friends 0.04⁎ 0.06⁎⁎ 0.02
Attachment to teachers −0.03 − 0.002 − 0.02
School life − 0.09⁎⁎⁎ − 0.09⁎⁎⁎
Motivations Obtaining infotainment 0.10⁎⁎⁎
Gaining peer acceptance 0.37⁎⁎⁎
Finding new people 0.06⁎⁎⁎
Adjusted R2 0.019⁎⁎⁎ 0.071⁎⁎⁎ 0.077⁎⁎⁎ 0.271⁎⁎⁎
ΔR2 0.052 0.006 0.194

⁎
p < 0.05.
⁎⁎
p < 0.01.
⁎⁎⁎
p < 0.001.

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C. Lee, S.-J. Lee
acceptance were more likely to be addicted to their smartphones
(β = 0.37, p < 0.001).
Despite these findings, it should be acknowledged that the effects of
gender, school life, motivation of obtaining infotainment, motivation of
finding new people on addictive level of smartphone addiction are
weak.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to identify the prevalence of and
predictors related to smartphone addiction proneness. The results
indicated that the proportions of high-risk (7.7%) and potentially at
risk (27.9%) users for smartphone addiction were quite high; that is,
35.6% of students were classified as addicts. This figure is similar to the
31.6% indicated in the 2015 NISA survey, which showed that many
students in Korea were addicted to smartphone compared with those in
other countries. For example, although the scale measuring smartphone
addiction was different from the one used in this study, only 16.9% of
adolescents in Switzerland were identified as addicts (Haug et al.,
2015), and only 21.3% of Chinese undergraduates were associated with
problematic smartphone use (Long et al., 2016).
The seriousness of smartphone addiction among Korean adolescents
may at least in part be the result of IT infrastructure and the
characteristics of the devices. In Korea, as of August 2015, about 40
million people used a Long-term Evolution (LTE) service (Ministry of
Science, ICT and Future Planning, 2015); that is, eight out of 10
Koreans have fourth generation (4G) smartphones with high speed
internet connection. In addition, there are many public places, such as
metro, cafe, and movie theaters, where people can use free Wi-Fi
service. The characteristics of smartphones can also contribute to the
development of addiction. Portability and immediacy are among the
advantages of smartphones. With smartphones, people can access the
internet at any time in any place. Users can download and utilize any
application at will. Diverse applications provide users with immediate
access to social networks. Especially, a smartphone's push service,
which notifies users with updates, encourages adolescents strongly to
check their smartphones often, thereby inducing them to be heavily
dependent on the device for information (Kim et al., 2014). In this
respect, smartphones can be an even more highly addictive medium
(Kwon et al., 2013), especially for adolescents in the developmental
stage at which they seek freedom from parental supervision.
Statistical tests measuring differences by demographic variables
showed that the proportions of at-risk users and non-addicts varied by
gender, school grade, and academic performance. Students with high
academic performance had lower addiction rate than those with poor
academic grade. This result is consistent with the finding of Samaha and
Hawi (2016) that academic performance is a mediating variable of
smartphone addiction and satisfaction with life. Meaning, smartphone
addiction risk was related negatively to academic performance, which
was related positively to satisfaction with life. Interestingly, there was
no statistical difference in school rules on smartphone use. Even when
students were not allowed to bring smartphones to school, their
addiction rate was not different statistically from that of adolescents
who were permitted to use smartphones in school. This result indicates
that prohibition of smartphone use at school is not that helpful in
reducing negative outcomes caused by overuse. It also suggests that
adolescents' addiction to smartphones may be problematic after school
hours.
The higher proportion of female adolescents addicted to smart-
phones is consistent with the findings of previous studies (Chiu et al.,
2013; Jeong et al., 2016; van Deursen, Bolle, Hegner, & Kommers,
2015). Jeong et al. (2016) provide an explanation of this finding in
terms of gender differences in smartphone use. According to their
study, girls are more likely to use smartphones for SNS compared with
boy; SNS is more highly associated with addiction than gaming, an
activity in which boys engage more frequently. Moreover, van Deursen
15
Children and Youth Services Review 77 (2017) 10–17
et al. (2015) identified the relationship between females and smart-
phone addiction through the mediators, such as social usage and social
stress. According to their findings, compared with men, women used
smartphones more for social purposes and felt more anxious in making
a preferred impression on online friends, which in turn were related
positively to habitual and addictive smartphone behaviors. This me-
chanism could be one possible explanation on why female adolescents
are more likely to develop addictive smartphone behaviors compared
with their male counterparts. These findings suggest that approaches to
mediating adolescent smartphone addiction must be based on an
understanding of gender differences in usage patterns and in social
and psychological characteristics.
Consistent with the findings of previous research (Choo et al., 2015;
Kim & Kim, 2015; Liau et al., 2015), this study's findings suggested that
attachment to parents and satisfaction with school life might serve as
protective factors for smartphone addiction proneness. Although ado-
lescence is the developmental stage at which individuals foster inde-
pendence from parents and extend their peer networks, a good relation-
ship between parents and children is still important in preventing
adolescents from becoming involved in unhealthy and undesirable
activities. Parents' interest in children's online activities and active
parenting are key factors in reducing internet addiction
(Wąsiński & Tomczyk, 2015). Therefore, prevention of smartphones
addiction proneness must start from the basic rule that the establish-
ment of a good relationship between parents and children is an essential
element.
Moreover, as adjustment to school life was related to a decrease in
addictive behaviors, schools must provide students with diverse
opportunities to be engaged in school extracurricular activities so that
students feel a sense of belonging and satisfaction with school life.
Students who are not satisfied with school life are more likely to depend
on online than offline world for pleasure. Especially, interpersonal
satisfaction in school life is associated negatively with smartphone
addiction proneness among addicts (Lee & Jun, 2013). Therefore,
maintaining a good relationship with peers and participating in club
activities are critical in preventing smartphone addiction proneness
among adolescents.
Regarding adolescents' motives for smartphone use, this study
identified three types of motives, namely, obtaining infotainment,
gaining peer acceptance, and finding new people. The motive for
smartphones use to gain peer acceptance was the most significant
factor related to smartphone addiction among adolescents. This finding
suggests that adolescents use smartphones to satisfy their needs to look
like their peers, to be conspicuous among peers, to be accepted by
peers, and to gain popularity among peers; moreover, this unique type
of motives among adolescents may result in addictive use of smart-
phones. Although information and entertainment motivation are im-
portant predictors of smartphone addiction proneness among young
adults (Bian & Leung, 2014; Wang, Wang, Gaskin, & Wang, 2015),
gaining peer acceptance is a critical indicator among adolescents.
Another interesting finding was that the motives of obtaining informa-
tion, communicating with others, having fun, and killing time were
loaded into the same factor in this study. Instrumental motives, such as
information seeking and communication with people, versus ritualized
motives, such as passing time, relaxation, and entertainment, that
previous studies have classified as distinctive were not distinguished for
adolescents' smartphone use. Adolescents seem to consume information
for fun and communicate with friends through smartphones, to pass the
time and avoid boredom. Their ritualized smartphone use to seek
infotainment and keep in touch with friends was associated with
addictive use. Further research needs to consider that the latent
constructs underlying adolescents' motives for smartphone use may
be different from those of other populations' motives or motives for
other media use. Practically, to help adolescent users manage their
smartphone use, parents and adolescents must be informed that needs
or motives can cause unintended outcomes, such as smartphone
C. Lee, S.-J. Lee
addiction proneness.
Despite these specific interesting results, this study contains limita-
tions. First, despite the relatively large sample size, it may be difficult to
generalize the results because this study was based on an online survey.
Second, to understand the peculiar characteristics of smartphone
addiction, its relation to internet and gaming addiction must be
explored in the future. Finally, the Cronbach's α values for a number
of subsets of smartphone use motives were relatively low. Hence, the
questionnaire related to them needs to be developed further.
5. Conclusion
The findings of this study advance an understanding of the
predictors related to addictive use of smartphones by adolescents.
Identifying the factors related to addictive use is important, as it
informs on who are more likely to be vulnerable to problematic
smartphone use and why they are more likely to become compulsive
smartphone users. This study showed that females,children with low
academic performance, children who have a poor relationship with
their parents, and those who are less involved in and satisfied with
school life are more likely to become compulsive smartphone users and
more vulnerable to the negative life consequences associated with
overuse of smartphones. In addition, this study indicated that adoles-
cents' motives for smartphone use, such as gaining peer acceptance, can
cause unintended negative outcomes beyond gratification of needs. The
findings of this study suggested implications for both theoretical
research examining the relationship between adolescents' motives and
their usage patterns and practical intervention programs regarding
adolescent smartphone addiction.
Acknowledgements
This study was based on data from a 2013 research project, titled
“Diffusion of Smartphone and Youth Protection Policy,” by the National
Youth Policy Institute in Korea.
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