Propelling nozzle

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A propelling nozzle converts a gas turbine or gas generator into a jet engine. Energy available in
the gas turbine exhaust is converted into a high speed propelling jet by the
nozzle. Turbofan engines may have an additional and separate propelling with negative nozzle
which produces a high speed propelling jet from the energy in the air that has passed through the
fan. In addition, the nozzle helps to determine how the gas generator and fan operate as it acts
as a downstream restrictor.[1]
Propelling nozzles accelerate the available gas to subsonic, transonic, or supersonic velocities
depending on the power setting of the engine, their internal shape and the pressures at entry to,
and exit from, the nozzle. The internal shape may be convergent or convergent-divergent (C-D).
C-D nozzles can accelerate the jet to supersonic velocities within the divergent section, whereas
a convergent nozzle cannot accelerate the jet beyond sonic speed.[2]
Propelling nozzles may have a fixed geometry, or they may have variable geometry to give
different exit areas to control the operation of the engine when equipped with an afterburner or a
reheat system. When afterburning engines are equipped with a C-D nozzle the throat area is
variable. Nozzles for supersonic flight speeds, at which high nozzle pressure ratios are
generated,[3] also have variable area divergent sections.[4]

Contents
[hide]

 1Principles of operation
 2Nozzle shapes
o 2.1Convergent nozzle
o 2.2Divergent nozzle
o 2.3Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle
 3Types of nozzle
o 3.1Fixed area nozzle
o 3.2Afterburner nozzle or Variable area nozzle
o 3.3Ejector nozzle
o 3.4Variable-geometry C-D nozzle
o 3.5Thrust vectoring nozzle
o 3.6Rocket nozzle
o 3.7Low ratio nozzle
o 3.8Thrust reversing nozzle
o 3.9Nozzle with noise-reducing features
 4Further topics
o 4.1The other purpose of the propelling nozzle
o 4.2Reasons for C-D nozzle overexpansion and examples
o 4.3Reasons for C-D nozzle underexpansion and examples
o 4.4What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?
o 4.5Nozzle area control during dry operation
o 4.6Nozzle area control during wet operation
o 4.7What happens if the nozzle doesn't open when the afterburner (AB) is selected?
o 4.8Other Applications
 5See also
 6References
Principles of operation[edit]
 A nozzle operates according to the Venturi effect to bring the exhaust gasses to ambient
pressure, and thus form them into a coherent jet; if the pressure is high enough, the flow
may choke, and the jet may be supersonic. The role of the nozzle in back-pressuring the
engine is explained below.
 The energy to accelerate the stream comes from the temperature and pressure of the gas.
The gas expands adiabatically with low losses and hence high efficiency. The gas
accelerates to a final exit velocity which depends on the pressure and temperature at entry to
the nozzle, the ambient pressure it exhausts to, and the efficiency of the expansion.[5] The
efficiency is a measure of the losses due to friction, non-axial divergence as well as leakage
in C-D nozzles.[6]
 Airbreathing engines create forward thrust on the airframe by imparting a net rearward
momentum to the air by producing a jet of exhaust gas which has a speed that exceeds that
of the aircraft. The jet may or may not be fully expanded as described in section "Reasons for
C-D nozzle underexpansion and examples".
 On some engines that are equipped with an afterburner the nozzle area is also varied during
non-afterburning or dry thrust conditions. Typically the nozzle is fully open for starting and at
idle. It may then close down as the thrust lever is advanced reaching its minimum area before
or at the Military or max dry thrust setting. Two examples of this control are the General
Electric J-79[7] and the Tumansky RD-33 in the MIG-29.[8] Reasons for varying the nozzle area
are explained in section "Nozzle area control during dry operation".

Nozzle shapes[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the
critical value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e. smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.
Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent
nozzle.
Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]
Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to
generate supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to
the very high area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes,
and thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding
air and cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing
efficiency of the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle
itself. Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle
which permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike
the fixed convergent-divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet
engines must have heavy and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in
nozzle pressure ratio that occurs with speeds from subsonic to over Mn3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable Exhaust Nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed area nozzle[edit]

Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is
not the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.
Afterburner nozzle or Variable area nozzle[edit]
The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9]nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry con-di nozzle
configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which
gave only one area available for afterburning use.[10]
Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining
(ejecting) a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or
diverging, nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow
constricts the exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft
speeds up, the two nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent
shape, speeding the exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a
tertiary airflow to reduce exit area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative
simplicity and reliability in cases where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure
forces. The ejector nozzle is also able to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which
is not required by the engine. The amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope
and ejector nozzles are well suited to matching the airflow between the intake system and engine.
Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise
efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged periods, hence its use in the SR-
71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the
arrangements used for the J58(SR-71) and TF-30(F-111) installations. They both used tertiary
blow-in doors (open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both
the blow-in doors and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from
the engine exhaust and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante) actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the AB nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mn <Mach number> requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler)
and Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]
Variable-geometry C-D nozzle[edit]
Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine
exhaust use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external
cooling air needed by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism
to provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.
Thrust vectoring nozzle[edit]
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Iris vectored thrust nozzle

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape

Rocket nozzle[edit]
Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed
geometry, to minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight,
rocket motor con-di nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using
a convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had
variable geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate
exhaust gas approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle
exit area controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line
slightly away from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and
causes the nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes
the throat to push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a
fan's surge margin is much greater at high flight speeds.
Thrust reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as
target thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the
exhaust partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine
(see below), the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe
to prevent changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on
the Fokker 100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.
Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]
Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet
into multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons,
which protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function
with the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle
and turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both
these areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others,
most notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation
is necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in
the jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the
pumping performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1] For example, if the propelling
nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the role played by the nozzle
area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or stators.[18]
Reasons for C-D nozzle overexpansion and examples[edit]
Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the AB, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The
secondary or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum AB case. At non-AB thrust
settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle underexpansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number, Mn. If the divergence is too short giving too
small an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be
lost thrust potential[20] With increasing Mn there may come a point where the nozzle exit area is as
big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus
limited to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other
considerations such as lower drag, less weight. Examples are the F-16 at Mn2.0[21] and the XB-
70 at Mn3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or
petals have to be isolated from the AB flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600
degF, by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to
the TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mn2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]
What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms? [edit]
A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2000 lb at SL TO) on this engine raised
the speed from Mn=1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's speed record of
1207.6 mph which was just below Mn=2 for the temperature on that day. The true worth of the C-
D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not modified for the higher speeds
attainable. [25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mn=2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mn=2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked whithin the convergent section.
Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body

Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW
003 and the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape)[26],
had a translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to
prevent overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust
velocity and thrust. The 004's Zwiebelpossessed a 40 cm (16 inch) range of forward/reverse
travel to vary the exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the
body's divergent area just behind the exit turbine.
Afterburner-equipped engines may also open the nozzle for starting and at idle. The idle thrust is
reduced which lowers taxi speeds and brake wear. This feature on the J75 engine in the F-
106 was called 'Idle Thrust Control' and reduced idle thrust by 40%.[28] On aircraft carriers, lower
idle thrust reduces the hazards from jet blast.
In some applications, such as the J79 installation in various aircraft, during fast throttle advances,
the nozzle area may be prevented from closing beyond a certain point to allow a more rapid
increase in RPM[29] and hence faster time to maximum thrust.
In the case of a 2-spool turbojet, such as the Olympus 593 in Concorde, the nozzle area may be
varied to enable simultaneous achievement of maximum LP compressor speed and maximum
turbine entry temperature over the wide range of engine entry temperatures which occurs with
flight speeds up to Mach 2.[30]
On some augmented turbofans the fan operating line is controlled with nozzle area during both
dry and wet operation to trade excess surge margin for more thrust.
Nozzle area control during wet operation[edit]
The nozzle area is increased during AB operation to limit the upstream effects on the engine. To
run a turbofan to give maximum airflow (thrust), the nozzle area may be controlled to keep the fan
operating line in its optimum position. For a turbojet to give maximum thrust, the area may be
controlled to keep the turbine exhaust temperature at its limit.[31]
What happens if the nozzle doesn't open when the afterburner (AB) is
selected?[edit]
In early AB installations, the pilot had to check the nozzle position indicator after selecting AB. If
the nozzle did not open for some reason, and the pilot did not react by cancelling the AB
selection, typical controls of that period[32] (e.g. the J47 in the F-86L), could cause the turbine
blades to overheat and fail.[33]
Other Applications[edit]
Certain aircraft, like the German Bf-109 and the Macchi C.202/205 were fitted with "ejector-type
exhausts". These exhausts converted some of the waste energy of the (internal combustion)
engines exhaust-flow into a small amount of forward thrust by accelerating the hot gasses in a
rearward direction to a speed greater than that of the aircraft. All exhaust setups do this to some
extent, provided that the exhaust-ejection vector is opposite/dissimilar to the direction of the
aircraft movement.
Ejector exhausts were devised by Rolls-Royce Limited in 1937.[34] On the 1944 de Havilland
Hornet's Rolls-Royce Merlin 130/131 engines the thrust from the multi-ejector exhausts were
equivalent to an extra 450bhp per-engine at full-throttle height.[35]