SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

DEPARTENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

SPECIAL PROJECT PROPOSAL

TITLE:

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NAME OF SUPERVISOR:

DATE:
1. Introduction

1.1 Background information

Here you give the background of your topic. Go to the literature and do some literature reviews

using the key words as I showed you when we met at my office previously.

1.2 Problem statement

Here you tell the problem from the empirical level, and also a research gap. You tell briefly what

has been done about that problem (by going to the literature, and what has not been done)

1.3 objectives

1.3.1 General objective

1.3.2 Specific objectives

1.3.3 Research questions or hypothesis

2. Literature review

Here you go to the literature and search the work which have been done by others that relate to

your work. The aim is to know that has been done so that you come up with what remains to be

done. So use the key words of your title and search using the Google and Google scholar.

Remember I showed you this in my office.

3. Methodology

3.1 description of the study area

 Here you tell where the study will be conducted

 Where is this place located

 What are the socio-economic activities of this place

 What is the population of this area, etc

3.2 research design

 What research design was used?

 Why did you use this research design

3.3 Sampling procedure and sample size

3.3.1 sampling procedure

 What sampling procedure will you use?

 How will you sample the respondents?

3.3.2 sample size

 how many people will you interview?

 What is the basis of choosing this number?

3.4 data collection

3.4.1 types of data sources

 What type of data source will you use collect? (usually we have primary and secondary

data sources)

 What kinds of the data (about what)?

3.4.2 methods used for data collection

 Usually we have focus group discussion (FGD), household survey, key informants

interviews, and observation

 Which ones of these will you use for data collection?

3.4.3tools used for data collection

 Usually we have questionnaires and/or checklists

 Which ones will you use?

3.5 Data analysis

  Here you tell what software was used in the data analysis

4. schedule of activities

 Here you make a table which has activities and proposed dates when these activities will

be conducted

5. proposed budget.

 Here you have the cost item and the amount of money that is proposed for each cost item.

Put it in tabular form.

6. References

 All the authors you have cited in the introduction and literature review and elsewhere in

the document should appear here

 E.g. Mahonge, C.P. (2010). Mismatch between boundaries of the state and local people.

International Journal of Environmental Management. Vol 2(3): 100-120.

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Health Seeking Behaviour

Contents
[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Health Seeking Behaviour: 2 Models
o 2.1 Pathway Model
o 2.2 Determinants Model
 3 Methods Used in Studying Health Seeking Behaviours
o 3.1 Household surveys
o 3.2 Facility-based surveys
o 3.3 Other quantitative studies
o 3.4 Other qualitative studies
o 3.5 Mixed-methods surveys
 4 Patterns of Resort
 5 Factors that affect Health- Seeking Behaviours
o 5.1 Illness types, severity
o 5.2 Accessibility & Availability
 6 Social Determinants of Health and Health-Seeking Behaviour
o 6.1 Socio-Economic Status (SES) and Health-Seeking Behaviour
o 6.2 Gender and Health-Seeking Behaviour
o 6.3 Culture and Health-Seeking Behaviour
o 6.4 Implications for the Healthcare System
 7 Stigma and Health-Seeking Behaviour
 8 References

Introduction
Health-seeking behaviour has been defined as a “sequence of remedial actions that
individuals undertake to rectify perceived ill-health.” In particular, health-seeking
behaviour can be described with data collected from information such as the time
difference between the onset of an illness and getting in contact with a healthcare
professional, type of healthcare provider patients sought help from, how compliant
patient is with the recommended treatment, reasons for choice of healthcare
professional and reasons for not seeking help from healthcare professionals. [1]

In the broadest sense, health behaviour includes all behaviours associated with
establishing and maintaining a healthy physical and mental state ,(Primary
[2]

Prevention) . Health-seeking behaviours also include behaviours that deals with any
[3]
digression from the healthy state, such as controlling (Secondary Prevention) and [4]

reducing impact and progression of an illness (Tertiary prevention) . [5]

The concept of studying health seeking behaviours has evolved with time. Today, it has
became a tool for understanding how people engage with the health care systems in
their respective socio-cultural, economic and demographic circumstances. All these
behaviours can be classified at various institutional levels: family, community, health
care services and the state. In places where health care systems are considered
[6]

expensive with a wide range of public and private health care services providers,
understanding health seeking behaviours of different communities and population
groups is important to combat unaffordable costs of health care. [7]

Health Seeking Behaviour: 2 Models

Health-seeking model: Various studies demonstrated that one’s decision to engage with
a particular medical channel is influenced by a variety of soci-economic variables, sex,
age, social status of women, type of illness, access to services and perceived quality of
the service[8]

Pathway Model
Suchman was the first to use the pathway model to describe the steps of the process
from identification of symptoms to the use of particular health care providing facilities.
This model aims to identify a logical sequence of steps. It also analyses how social and
cultural factors affects this sequence. This has been primarily an anthropological
approach, using qualitative methods of investigation. [9]

Fabrega then developed a theoretical model of illness behaviour, which concentrates on

the information that an individual might be expected to process during an illness
episode. This approach is basde on economics and elementary decision theory and the
principle of cost-benefit is used to evaluate the action. Since health-seeking behaviour
is a social process that involves individual’s interaction with the social network, it is
crucial to look at the decision-making processes from this perspective.
Determinants Model
This model is based on a more bio-medical and quantitative approach. Instead of
focusing on the steps one would take to preserve or improve health, this model focuses
on highlighting a set of determinants which are associated with the choice of different
kinds of health service.[10]

There are various models to explain the different determinants of Health-seeking

behaviours. Andersen’s grouping of factors influencing determinants into 3 main
categories: population characteristics, health care systems and the external
environment. Next, another researcher focused on the individual’s health behaviour
[11]

and adoption of the sick role. This model specifically focuses on one’s health behaviour
and it ignores the effect of social network on the decision-making process. [12]

All of these models of determinants and factors influence health-seeking behaviours are
vital as it helps us to understand how and why one would seek care earlier than others.
As for illnesses that require immediate care, such models are informative as it
contributes to interventions for the reduction of transmission and complications arising
from neglect.

Methods Used in Studying Health Seeking Behaviours

Household surveys
Household surveys are the most commonly used method to study health seeking
behaviours. Most of the household surveys administered are disease specific. Sample
size varies each time, but usually around an average of 1000-2000 respondents for
each survey. These household surveys are usually conducted using structured interview
questionnaires. The World Bank provides guidelines and advice on how to design ‘multi-
topic household surveys’ . According to them, a household survey should include
[13]

modules such as: consumption, education, health, employment, anthropometry, non-

labour income, housing, price data, environmental issues, fertility, household income,
savings, household enterprises and time use. [14]

Facility-based surveys
Facility based surveys are usually patient surveys and are often disease specific in
areas such as Tuberculosis or neonatal care . Clients are recruited at health care
[15]

providing facilities and followed up using either qualitative or quantitative methods .

[16]

Conclusions drawn from facility or household surveys may appear mundane or obvious,
but they still hold significant importance.
Other quantitative studies
Quantitative techniques have been used to analyse the effect of contextual influences
on health care seeking and outcomes. For example, a study in Nigeria (sample size
4000) analysed the individual and social background characteristics of families with
children with protein energy malnutrition . Predictably, the study found that social
[17]

characteristics (wealth index) were associated with health care seeking and outcomes.
The study by Sharma and Vong-Ek (2009) examined the association of individual and
community characteristics with obstetric morbidity and care-seeking behaviour in
Thailand. Multi-level logistic regression analysis among 930 women living in 86 villages
showed that community impoverishment rather than social and health infrastructure was
associated with the likelihood of seeking appropriate care . [18]

Other qualitative studies

The ‘illness narratives’ method is commonly used too. For example, Målqvist, Nga et al
(2008) used the narratives approach to collect information on births and neonatal
deaths in the Quang Ninh province, located in Vietnam . The narratives included
[19]

information about care-seeking in relation to delivery and illness. Results from the study
showed that a quater of the neonatal deaths had no contact with any health care system
or provider at the time of death, and that the chance neonatal deaths within 24hrs of
birth increases when the mother does not seek health care during delivery. Mothers of
ethnic minorities were also found to be more likely to express this care-seeking
behaviour at delivery. Qualitative studies can provide more context to analyse the
motivation for different health seeking behaviours. These studies can also shed light on
how contextual influences affects illness causation and health-seeking behaviours. For
example, Lawton and Ahmad et al (2007) conducted a study that looked at different
ethnic groups in the United Kingdoms. A study of diabetes within that area highlighted
an ethnic group’s perception of the role of social circumstances as the main cause of
diabetic illness, while other ethnic groups emphasised the role of their own lifestyle
‘choices’ and ‘personal failings’ Furthermore, qualitative methods often research
[20]

treatment pathways too. For example, a study by Asbroek, Bijlsma et al (2008)on

Tuberculosis patients in Nepal revealed that revealed that patient factors (such as
severity of complaints, the ability to pay for services, the availability of services and peer
support for choosing a provider) as well as specific health services factors (perceived
quality, costs and service level and lack of provider-initiated referral) affected how
patients choice of health seeking behaviour . [21]

Mixed-methods surveys
Some surveys used mixed methods for analysis. For example, in a study in Bangladesh
of the attitudes of mothers to maternal care-seeking behaviour, both in-depth interviews
and structured quantitative interviews were conducted for data collection. The
qualitative interviews were used to identify the main care-seeking patterns while the
quantitative survey determined the frequencies associated with this pattern . [22]

Patterns of Resort
A person's approach to health-seeking behaviour can be described as a “pattern of
resort.” According to the Encyclopedia of Medical Anthropology, people usually opt for
the simplest form of treatment, which usually is the cheapest, most effective treatment
they deem to be (2004.p,3-8). Only when the simplest form of treatment is proved
unsuccessful do people seek higher level, more costly and unconventional treatments.
Health-seeking is a dynamic process and can involve many aspects of medical units at
the same time. Because of this, people are allowed to garner information and make
informed choices about the wide range of medical services that are available to them.

Factors that affect Health- Seeking Behaviours

Illness types, severity
Depending on illness type, people seek different forms of treatments specific to the
disease they are diagnosed with. In addition, depending on the severity of the
diagnosed disease, people might select different forms of treatments and medication.
It was found that individuals perceived their illness to be either mild or not for medical
treatment, which prevented them from seeking healthcare treatment. In addition,
poverty emerged as a major determinant of health-seeking behaviour as treatments
were often perceived as either a waste of money, lack of money, or poor attitude of
health worker. [23]

Accessibility & Availability

Depending on the area a person lives in, some treatment might be available but not
other forms of treatments. Therefore, a patient is limited to what is accessible and
available to them when seeking treatment for a disease.

Social Determinants of Health and Health-Seeking

Behaviour
The World Health Organization defines the social determinants of health as the
“conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age.” In 2011, the World
Health Organization argues “the distribution of money, power and resources at global,
national and local levels” creates these conditions. Socio-Economic Status (SES),
[24]

gender, race, and education are factors of health-seeking behaviour that are influenced
by the social determinants of health.
Socio-Economic Status (SES) and Health-Seeking Behaviour
A study done by John D. O’Neil (1989) stresses the importance of the “social
relationship” between a doctor and patient in his article, The Cultural and Political
Context of Patient Dissatisfaction in Cross-Cultural Clinical Encounters: A Canadian
Inuit Study. In his paper, O’Neil explains that because of an unequal distribution of
power and knowledge of health leads to patients being unsatisfied with their health care
provider, which in turn leads to patients to stop seeking
treatment http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/maq.1989.3.4.02a00020/abstract.
Gender and Health-Seeking Behaviour
Lazarus, Ellen S. 1994. What do women want: Issues of choice, control, and class in
pregnancy and childbirth. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 8(1):25-46.
The difference between gender roles is significant in the patterns of health-seeking
behaviour between men and women. According to Currie and Wiesenberg(2003),
women tend to engage in less health-seeking behaviour compared to their male
counterparts. In their article, Currie and Wiesenberg (2003) highlights three
[25]

components a woman’s decision-making process for seeking healthcare. Firstly, women

generally are less likely to identify disease symptoms in the first place. Women might
shrug of symptoms as normal everyday muscle aches or normal regular occurrence. To
be able to recognize and identify a health problem, one needs to have some form of
knowledge and awareness of symptoms and illnesses. Secondly, the study reveled that
women tend to belief that they are more restricted compared to their male counterparts
in terms of health care accessibility. This is due largely to cultural ideas about the social
value of women, which is lower compared to men. Thirdly, it is revealed that women do
not engage in healthcare treatments even if they recognized that they have a health
problem (Currie and Wiesenberg, 889). This is partly due to restricted accessibility to
[26]

health services given the social roles of women, which may limit their ability to visit
healthcare facilitates when they are open during the day (Currie and Wiesenberg,
889).[27]

Culture and Health-Seeking Behaviour

Factors such as cultural values and gender roles are significant in influencing the
decision making process associated with health-seeking behaviour (Tung, 536). Asian-
[28]

American cultures, for example, are strongly influenced by Confucian doctrines, which
emphasized the importance of “interdependence,” “collectivism,” and “familism” (Tung,
536). These values reinforce the expectation of individuals to place the needs of the
[28]

family before their own, which may discourage them to pro-actively seek healthcare in a
timely manner. Furthermore, these values of Asian-American cultures suggest that
physical and mental distress are family problems rather than an individual ones
meaning that they should not be revealed to people outside their kin (Tung,
536). Seeking help from health care professionals or seeking financial aid from the
[28]

government to pursue treatment would be exposing the problem beyond their family
network, which is considered shameful and could pose a threat to the status or
reputation of the family. Consequently, Asian-American people tend to turn to family
members before pursuing external help, thereby delaying the act of seeking
professional health care (Tung, 537).[28]

Implications for the Healthcare System

It is important for health care professionals to understand the different factors that
affects an individual’s decision to seek healthcare treatments. This is to ensure that
professionals are better able to recommend treatments that are appropriate to the
individual, so as to promote healths seeking behaviours, instead of providing options
that patients might not feel comfortable with because of social norms or values. Having
knowledge of the roles that cultural beliefs and gender roles play in terms of health-
seeking behaviour can help healthcare providers improve their relationship professional-
patient relationships and develop strategies to encourage people to seek appropriate
treatments as soon as possible.

Stigma and Health-Seeking Behaviour

Erving Goffman (1963) describes stigma or social devaluation “as a mark of social
disgrace” often leading others to see us as untrustworthy, incompetent, or tainted.
Gender, race, social status, mental and physical health are topics vulnerable to
stigma . It is important to note that some cultures or individuals feel that seeking
[29]

treatment is a shameful thing because its akin to announcing to public that you have an
illness. Therefore, education is needed to break this negative stigma in order to
increase health-seeking behaviours. For example, people are Asia are usually reluctant
to seek professional counselling help because they are afraid that their friends and
family might shun away from them, thinking that they are "crazy".

References
Cultures-Cross-Cultural Anthropology. (2004). In C. Ember & M. Ember
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of Medical Anthropology Health and Illness in the World's Cultures.
(Vol. 1, pp. 3-8). New York: Springer Science.
Lazarus, Ellen S. 1994. What do women want: Issues of choice, control, and class in
pregnancy and childbirth. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 8(1):25-46.
Martucci,S.,& Gulanick, M. (2012). Health-Seeking Behaviors: Health Promotion;
Lifestyle Management; Health Education; Patient Education. Retrieved from
http://www1.us.elsevierhealth.com/MERLIN/Gulanick/archive/Constructor/gulanick27.ht
ml
John D. O’Neil, 1989. “The Cultural and Political Context of Patient Dissatisfaction in
Cross-Cultural Clinical Encounters: A Canadian Inuit Study,” in Medical Anthropology
Quarterly 3(4): 325-344.
Sandstrom, Kent L., Lively, Kathryn J., Martin, Daniel D., Fine, Gary A.
(2014). Symbols, Selves, and Social Reality: A Symbolic Interactionalist Approach to
Social Psychology
and Sociology (4th ed.) New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Goffman and Stigma
Chapter 7-8.
World Health Organization. (2015). Social Determinants of Health. Retrieved
from http://www.who.int/social_determinants/en/
World Health Organization. (2013). Progress on the implementation of the Rio Political
Declaration. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/social_determinants/en/

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Health Informati...

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References
for related information. Knowledge of patient information seeking behavior can provide
Article Figures
health information, it is easily possible to prevent some chronic diseases, many people
ming people about the progress of these diseases and useful prevention methods is of
vide us with useful strategies for effective transfer of information to the patients, thus Article Access Statistics
d theories related to information seeking behavior of patients.
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Manage [serial online] 2014 [cited 2017 Dec 11];2:193-203. Available

s first introduced in the scientific information conference of Royal society in 1948. This [TAG2]
[TAG3]
[TAG4]

be a personal initiative for fulfilling a recognized need. Therefore, information seeking

udes all interactions with the system both at the level of interactions with computers and
feeling the need for information, finding, selecting and using of the information and in
ation are considered to be information seeking behavior. This label is used in different
[3]
nd can include all forms of information seeking.

ar and straightforward. According to Cease these differences are due to factor such as
of the seeker (student, expert, patient, care provider), information sources (personal,
ocess of seeking information using different methods and each person, based on the
information seeking behavior is to satisfy the information need of the people.

search for health information. If information seeking is done by patients and in order to
ed a health decision making process. [5] Health information seeking behavior includes
done by a person. [6] The following are among concepts related to health information

ture of the massage and instability of the information [17],[26],[27],[28]

sonal values and preferences [10],[11],[12],[15],[28],[29],[30],[31],[32]

nt responsible for providing the patients with suitable ways of information

seeking. Today, many people actively seek information that can improve their lifestyle.
[39]
seeking behavior. The extent and nature of the gathered health-related information
health information seeking behavior sometimes acts as a predecessor for other health
mation are more likely to visit doctors for minor problems and partake in more medical
seek health related information. [40]
urces, information seeking behavior, especially health seeking behavior or people has
for the patients and the patient can get involved in active seeking of health information
the medical practitioners about this new information. [41]

from three different points of view:

person's health at risk

hreatening situations and try their best to gain as much information as possible about
situations [6],[7],[8],[9],[10],[11],[12],[21],[22],[28],[29],[30],[31],[36],[38],[42]

decision making

health situation. These type of people also expect the medical experts to listen to their
reach a better decision. [6],[14],[15],[16],[17],[22],[31]

preventive behavior

ive changes in people's health-related behaviors. [6],[7],[9],[14],[16],[22],[23],[29],[31],[32],[37],[42]

lthough information seeking alone can't grantee healthy behavior, it seems that having
s. [19] According to Lambert and Loiselle, outputs of health information seeking are as

outputs

understanding of control and coping methods

outputs

medical practitioners and health experts,

outputs

ment and changes to health behavior

outputs

to increased physical health

results

and increased hope and empowerment.

ealth care services worldwide and easy and widespread access to different medical
to keep and improve their health. [19] However, even today many patients lack proper
ortance. Some of the results of these studies are as follows:
 the disease

es and psychological adaptation to the disease. [39] Information seeking is a mechanism

ation seeking behavior of patients, one can identify the triggers leading to information
aster the adaptation will become, leading to psychological adaptation to the disease.

self-management

he disease. Self-management is an important aspect of treatment which requires for the

nt, the patients' information needs, identifying the barriers and motives for information
s' information seeking behavior helps create strategies for effective transfer of health
oubt help the patients' self-management. [28]

seeking barriers

s' information seeking behavior is identification of information seeking barriers affecting

rge of health and education in medical centers to create strategies in order to remove
iers by investigating the information seeking behavior of patients.

nformation to the patients

uraging them to seek related information. [39] Educators working in health and medical
and therefore their information needs helping them in creating more effective methods
to the patients. [33]

of the family

mily and sociality. [44],[45],[46],[47] Investigation of the patients' information seeking behavior
ng minor and major strategies for confronting these chronic diseases.

patient and doctor

ion from medical experts due to misunderstandings regarding the information needs of
s and health care providers, improving the relation between patients and their doctors.

information systems

esign a suitable system for health information. [1] By better understanding of information
uch studies are useful for both patients and their relatives and for designers of medical
information systems.

n seeking patterns

outputs of a decision-making process. Based on this view, the behavior of a patient is

tion (since information can also be gained passively) but knowledge of the information
odels and theories trying to portrait the health information seeking behavior of patients,
n the following section.
g health related information and depict people's experiences by using a combination of
n different stages of information seeking are also presented in information seeking
ormation seeking discussed in the related literature are explained in the next section.

Freimuth, Stein and Kean

zation founded by National Cancer Institute of United States in 1975. [2],[3],[4],[5] CSI used
acquisition model of Freimuth has six stages: (1) Stimulus (2) information goal setting
ese stages are part of a decision making flowchart in which the decision in each stage
gate personal or contextual factors effecting information seeking behavior. The strength
information evaluation stage to determine whether the gathered information is enough
rocess until a suitable result is obtained. Newer models of health information seeking

n and Kean (41, P. 23)

information seeking

. In this model four factors effected the information seeking which are: (1) Demographic
e and (4) beliefs of people

ors include age, gender, education, Ethnicity and socioeconomic status of information
eople's social network. [41]

ng (41, P. 26)

rding to Dervin, salience information is information that acts as a bridge to cover a gap,
[2]
main driving force behind information seeking.
 A people's beliefs about themselves and the world around them are the defining factor
aren't simply about facts but also effect the relation of people with the current situation
situation possible naturally will never search for information related to the problem. On
ading to seeking new information. [2] The final component of Johnson's comprehensive
previously mentioned the health information acquisition model of Freimuth is a linear

seeking model

s and consists of the following six stages:

seeking stimulus

surrounding environment (death of a friend, negative comments of acquaintances about

n needed by the patient and therefore leads to the start of information seeking process.
that needs to be achieved or placement in and unfamiliar or threatening situation

information goals

ne the conditions of seeking and gathering of information. Information goals lead to

n needs to be gathered, the information sources used, types of information sought and
factors

to actively seek information

ation or not. This decision is derived from the amount of previous information available,
ormation, naturally they won' seek more. Also is situations such as financial difficulties,
rmation can outweigh anticipated benefit of active information seeking, people refuse to
s of active information seeking. Patient might believe active information seeking to be
ions from their doctors because they believe that the doctors will provide them with all
information

behavior

o factors of a number of alternatives investigated and the number of dimensions of each

ount of information gathered. However, one must remember that not every search leads
d from inanimate sources such as publications, reference services or strangers or (2)
e of these two methods, and a personal search is often preferred over impersonal one.

and codification

formation is new and relevant or new and irrelevant. New and relevant information is
encouraging further search behavior. [43]

adequacy of acquired information

whether information seeking needs to continue or stop. The criteria for this evaluation
st- benefits analysis of information seeking or based on information goals determined
nformation seeking process.

n lead to a premature termination of the search, while factors like curiosity and interest
 are cognitive and behavioral changes in the information seeker. [43]

blunting hypothesis

uations. [48] When active seekers of information are confronted by threatening situations,
that refuse active information seeking don't look for new information. [40]

ms compared with others. Active information seekers tend to gather a massive amount
ds, while those refusing to actively seek information have minimum information in these

s longer than those refusing to actively seek information. Although active information
us. Gathering massive amounts of information during information seeking helps relieve
rent situation and pay more attention to health care and prevention methods. [49]

ituations, while search for information during critical but controllable situations. On the
tions while actively seeking information seeking uncontrollable satiations. This process
s. [50] During uncontrollable critical situations and when enough relevant information isn't
e better results. Of course, this methods requires that people be trained to distinguish
to willfully ignore new information. [40]

ormation seekers because they are not equipped to deal with hopeless and malicious

and coping theory

oral and cognitive endeavors for managing internal and external needs. Coping consists
ocused coping method, people concentrate more on the problem that is the root of the
for dealing with stressful situations and therefore attempt to gather information, resolve
In emotion based coping methods, people seek to reduce the negative feeling resulted
sibility or blame (4) self-control over the expression of feeling (5) seeking social support
re of these two coping methods.

Evaluation of the stressor and personal abilities for dealing with them happens in three
r and (3) when person experience a chance for mastery or gain. [51]

the problem. On the other hand pessimistic and timid people evaluate the stressors
therefore avoid actively dealing with the problems. [51]

n. Coping in an anticipatory context allows people to control situations that are about to
h the situation, the coping methods are more about dealing with Consequences and
anges. [52] Therefore for better understanding of the relation between emotions, coping
with problems and their thoughts, actions and interpersonal relations. [53]

information seeking behaviors

se. [19] The initial design of this model was created by Longo et al. in the year 2005 in
del, Longo et al. investigated the information seeking behavior of diabetic patients and
tative data and has a conceptual structure. [41]
(28, P. 337)

ctors include demographic and socioeconomic factors, health history, genetics, anxiety,
actors include health situation, healthcare structure, delivery of healthcare, information
orts and networks. [28] Lango in his model counts both active information seeking and
details of which is available in [Figure 3]. [41]

bsent in all previous models. [41] The output of active information seeking and passive
nt, ease of everyday activities and finally better health status. Longo's et al. model is
liner model. [28]

Nadine Wathen and Roma M. Harris

ng people to quite health threatening practices (such as smoking or eating unhealthy),

and comfort. Health improving activities, from personal consulting to group activities are
ion behavior are, usually, used to find a more efficient way for informing people about
issues

in helping people quit sm oking [Figure 4]. The main theory of TTM is that the stages in
roughout the way, some of which are merely brief stops, while others are temporary or

428)

in the TTM are:

stage

ht even be unaware that a problem exists

stage

key factor of this stage is that the person seriously starts to consider the pros and cons
possible solutions,
 stage

small changes like small changes in behavioral problems

stage

n this stage, the problem is being worked on but the solution is still not at hand

stage

(4, P. 429)

nges. Probably the most interesting aspect of TTM is hidden and apparent reliance on
is involved in increasing the available information about self and the problem using
and book therapy

not necessarily a clinical technique applicable to all sorts of behaviors because the
always come to pass. [4]

es of active seekers of information, passive recipients of information and information

ion blunters actively and knowingly avoids gaining new information. Although active
ous compared to information blunters. All of these information seeking behaviors from
ese mechanisms depends on different factors such as age, gender, education, income,
duration of illness and many other factors. Therefore investigating and discovering the
ehaviors can provide the health policy makers with better viewpoints.

people still lose their lives or suffer from disease complications due to lack of proper
vestigating the health information seeking behavior of patients, identifying whether the
rovide solutions for more efficient transfer of information to the patients, increasing the
stop the progress of it.

massive number of studies in this area, the need for such studies is still growing. The
and ways to confront them. Every year new theories and models for the information
prehensive model which can cover all health information seeking behavior of patients
seases (such as cancer, cardiovascular, diabetes, arthritis, smokers, etc.,) is due to
or which the information seeking takes place.

tics and few of the models discussed above have been investigated in those countries.
o improvement in the society's health situation, it is necessary to pay more attention to
world countries.
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