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TOE
Theory of Everything
November
2012
Fran De Aquino
TOE
Theory of Everything
November
2012
ABSTRACT
2. Gravity Control by means of Electromagnetic Field through Gas or Plasma at Ultra-Low Pressure
6. High-power ELF radiation generated by modulated HF heating of the ionosphere can cause
Earthquakes, Cyclones and localized heating
19. Superconducting State generated by Cooper Pairs bound by Intensified Gravitational Interaction
*
* *
Mathematical Foundations of the
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2008-2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved
Abstract: Starting from the action function, we have derived a theoretical background that leads to
the quantization of gravity and the deduction of a correlation between the gravitational and the inertial
masses, which depends on the kinetic momentum of the particle. We show that the strong equivalence
principle is reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein's equations are preserved. In fact, such equations
are deduced here directly from this new approach to Gravitation. Moreover, we have obtained a
generalized equation for the inertial forces, which incorporates the Mach's principle into Gravitation.
Also, we have deduced the equation of Entropy; the Hamiltonian for a particle in an electromagnetic
field and the reciprocal fine structure constant directly from this new approach. It was also possible to
deduce the expression of the Casimir force and to explain the Inflation Period and the Missing Matter,
without assuming existence of vacuum fluctuations. This new approach to Gravitation will allow us to
understand some crucial matters in Cosmology.
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Theory 3
Quantization of Velocity 7
Quantization of Time 7
Gravitational Motor 28
A Creator’s need 63
Appendix A 71
Appendix B 74
References 75
3
1. INTRODUCTION
b
S = −α ∫a ds
Quantum Gravity was originally
studied, by Dirac and others, as the where α is a quantity which
problem of quantizing General characterizes the particle.
Relativity. This approach presents In Relativistic Mechanics, the
many difficulties, detailed by Isham action can be written in the following
[1]. In the 1970's, physicists tried an form [3]:
t2 t2
even more conventional approach: S = ∫ Ldt = − ∫ αc 1 − V 2 c 2 dt
t1 t1
simplifying Einstein's equations by
assuming that they are almost linear, where
and then applying the standard L = −αc 1 − V 2 c 2
methods of quantum field theory to is the Lagrange's function.
the thus oversimplified equations. But In Classical Mechanics, the
this method, too, failed. In the 1980's Lagrange's function for a free-particle
a very different approach, known as is, as we know, given by: L = aV 2
string theory, became popular. Thus where V is the speed of the particle
far, there are many enthusiasts of
and a is a quantity hypothetically [4]
string theory. But the mathematical
given by:
difficulties in string theory are
formidable, and it is far from clear that
a=m 2
they will be resolved any time soon. where m is the mass of the particle.
At the end of 1997, Isham [2] pointed However, there is no distinction about
out several "Structural Problems the kind of mass (if gravitational
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory". At mass, m g , or inertial mass mi ) neither
the beginning of this new century, about its sign (±) .
the problem of quantizing the The correlation between a and
gravitational field was still open. α can be established based on the
In this work, we propose a new
fact that, on the limit c → ∞ , the
approach to Quantum Gravity.
relativistic expression for L must be
Starting from the generalization of the
reduced to the classic expression
action function we have derived a
theoretical background that leads to L = aV 2 .The result [5] is: L = αV 2 2c .
the quantization of gravity. Einstein's Therefore, if α = 2 ac = mc , we obtain
General Relativity equations are L = aV 2 . Now, we must decide if
deduced directly from this theory of m = mg or m = mi . We will see in this
Quantum Gravity. Also, this theory work that the definition of m g includes
leads to a complete description of the
Electromagnetic Field, providing a mi . Thus, the right option is m g , i.e.,
consistent unification of gravity with a = mg 2 .
electromagnetism.
Consequently, α = m g c and the
2. THEORY generalized expression for the action
of a free-particle will have the
We start with the action for a following form:
(1)
b
free-particle that, as we know, is S = −m g c ∫ ds
a
given by
or
4
t2
S = − ∫ mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt (2) sign if m g < 0 . Consequently, we will
t1 r
express the momentum p in the
where the Lagrange's function is
following form
L = −mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 . (3) r
r
m gV r
t2 p = = M gV (4)
The integral S = ∫t m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt , 1−V 2 c2
1
r
preceded by the plus sign, cannot The derivative dp dt is the
have a minimum. Thus, the integrand inertial force Fi which acts on the
of Eq.(2) must be always positive.
Therefore, if m g > 0 , then necessarily particle. If the force is perpendicular
to the speed, we have r
t > 0 ; if m g < 0 , then t < 0 . The r mg
possibility of t < 0 is based on the Fi =
dV
(5)
1 − V 2 c 2 dt
well-known equation t = ± t0 1 − V 2 c 2
However, if the force and the speed
of Einstein's Theory. have the same direction, we rfind that
Thus if the gravitational mass r mg
of a particle is positive, then t is also Fi =
dV
(6)
(1 − V c )
3
2 2
2
dt
positive and, therefore, given by
t = +t0 1−V 2 c2 . This leads to the From Mechanics [6], we know that
r r
well-known relativistic prediction that p ⋅ V − L denotes the energy of the
the particle goes to the future, if particle. Thus, we can write
V → c . However, if the gravitational r r mg c 2
mass of the particle is negative, then Eg = p ⋅ V − L = = M g c2 (7)
t is negative and given by 1 −V 2 c2
t = − t0 1 −V 2 c2 . In this case, the Note that Eg is not null for V =0, but
prediction is that the particle goes to that it has the finite value
the past, if V → c . Consequently,
m g < 0 is the necessary condition for E g 0 = mg 0 c 2 (8)
the particle to go to the past. Further Equation (7) can be rewritten in
on, a correlation between the the following form:
gravitational and the inertial masses mg c 2
will be derived, which contains the E g = mg c −
2
− mg c 2 =
possibility of m g < 0 . 1−V c 2 2
p + Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V expression above for ni . Thus we have
1 − (V c )
2
m i 0 = n i2 m i 0 (min ) (44 )
By considering that the particle is initially
at rest ( p = 0) , the equation above gives
9
⎢⎣
(
= M i − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 )
− 12
− 1⎤ M i
⎥⎦
(45 ) Let us now consider a planet in
the Sun’s gravitational field to which,
in the absence of external forces, we
By expanding in power series apply Lagrange’s equations. We
and neglecting infinitesimals, we arrive at the well-known equation:
2 2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
arrive at: ⎛ dr ⎞ 2GM i
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r
⎛ V2 ⎞
M g = ⎜1 − 2
⎜
⎟M i
⎟
(46) r2
dϕ
=h
⎝ c ⎠ dt
where M i is the inertial mass of the
Thus, the well-known expression for Sun. The term E = − GM i a , as we
the simple pendulum know, is called the energy constant;
period, T =2π (Mi Mg )(l g) , can be rewritten a is the semiaxis major of the Kepler-
in the following form: ellipse described by the planet
l ⎛⎜ V2 ⎞ around the Sun.
T = 2π 1+ 2 ⎟ for V << c By replacing M i into the
g ⎜⎝ 2c ⎟
⎠
differential equation above for the
Now, it is possible to learn why expression given by Eq. (46), and
Newton’s experiments using simple expanding in power series, neglecting
penduli do not find any difference infinitesimals, we arrive, at:
between M g and M i . The reason is
due to the fact that, in the case of ⎛ dr ⎞
2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
2
2GM g 2GM g ⎛ V 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
penduli, the ratio V 2 2c 2 is less than ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r r ⎜⎝ c 2 ⎟⎠
10 −17 , which is much smaller than the
accuracy of the mentioned Since V = ωr = r (dϕ dt ) , we get
experiments.
Newton’s experiments have 2 2 2
⎛ dr ⎞ 2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞ 2GM g 2GM g r ⎛ dϕ ⎞
been improved upon (one part in ⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r c 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
60,000) by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
which is the Einsteinian equation of the
(1784–1846). In 1890, Eötvos planetary motion.
confirmed Newton’s results with
10
GM g M ′g
U (r ) = − = whence we recognize the
r
Schwzarzschilds’ equation. Note in
Gmg M g′ this equation the presence of m g ,
=−
r 1−V 2 c2 whose value, according to Eq. (41)
can be reduced or made negative. In
Since Φ = U (r ) M g′ and g = ∂Φ ∂r
then, we get
11
Assuming that Ne χemie <<2Np χ pmip and In the case of Earth, for example,
ρ Earth << ρ p . Consequently the
Np ΔE c2 <<2Npχpmip Eq. (55d) reduces to
curvature of the space inside the Earth is
approximately null (space approximately
mg ≅ mi0 − 2Npχpmip = mi − χpmi (55e) flat). Then V Earth ≅ 3 π r Earth .
4 3
or
For rp = 1.4 ×10−15 m we then get
18
mp ⎡ 2⎤
ρp = ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3 ⎛ ω 2 ⎞
Vp χ = 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜
* 4 ⎟ ⎥ = 0.84 × 10−4
⎢ * 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥
Starting from the London moment ⎦
it is easy to see that by precisely From this equation we then obtain
measuring the magnetic field and the
angular velocity of the
superconductor, one can calculate the
ρ * ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3
mass of the Cooper-pairs. This has Note that ρ p ≅ ρ * .
been done for both classical and high-Tc Now we can calculate the
superconductors [17-20]. In the
graviphoton mass, m gr , inside the
experiment with the highest precision to
date, Tate et al, op.cit., reported a Cooper-pairs fluid (coherent part of the
disagreement between the theoretically superconductor) as
predicted Cooper-pair mass in Niobium
of m* 2me = 0.999992 and its m gr = μ 0G ρ * h c ≅ 4 × 10 −52 kg
experimental value of 1.000084(21) ,
Outside the coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) the
where me is the electron mass. This
graviphoton mass will be zero
anomaly was actively discussed in the
literature without any apparent solution (m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c = 0 . )
−1
[21-24]. Substitution of ρp, ρc =ρ and ω ≈ 500rad.s
*
If we consider that the apparent
mass increase from Tate’s into the expression of χ p gives
measurements results from an increase
in the gravitational mass m*g of the χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
Cooper-pairs due to BG , then we can
write Compare this value with that one
obtained from the Tajmar experiment.
m *g m *g
= * = 1.000084 Therefore, the decrease in the
2m e mi gravitational mass of the superconductor,
expressed by (55e), is
Δm *g = m *g − m *g (initial ) = m *g − m i* =
m g ,SC ≅ mi ,SC − χ p mi ,SC
= 1.000084 m i* − mi* =
≅ mi ,SC − 10 − 4 mi ,SC
−4
= +0.84 × 10 mi* =χ *
m i* This corresponds to a decrease of the
−4
where χ = 0.84 × 10 .
* −2
order of 10 % in respect to the initial
From (55c) we can write that gravitational mass of the superconductor.
However, we must also consider the
⎡ 2⎤ gravitational shielding effect, produced
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥ * −2
m*g = mi* + 2 1− 1− ⎜ ⎟ mi = by this decrease of ≈ 10 % in the
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ*c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G ⎠ ⎥ gravitational mass of the particles inside
⎦ the superconductor (see Fig. II).
= mi* + χ * mi* Therefore, the total weight decrease in
the superconductor will be much greater
−2
than 10 % . According to Podkletnov
where ρ * is the Cooper-pair mass
experiment [25] it can reach up to 1% of
density. the total weight of the superconductor
(5000rpm) . In this
Consequently we can write −1
at 523.6rad .s
experiment a slight decrease (up to
≈ 1% ) in the weight of samples hung
above the disk (rotating at 5000rpm) was
19
‡ g′ = χ g
The quantization of the gravitational mass
(Eq.(33)) shows that for n = 1 the gravitational This is the gravity acceleration inside m ′g .
mass is not zero but equal to mg(min).Although the Figure II (b) shows the gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle is never null,
shielding effect produced by two particles
Eq.(41) shows that it can be turned very close to
zero.
at the same direction. In this case, the
20
gravity acceleration inside and above the flux on the surface α returns from O′ to
second particle will be χ 2 g if m g 2 = m i1 . O and is detected by the
These particles are representative galvanometer G . That is, there is no
of any material particles or material deflection for the cathodic rays. Then it
r r
substance (solid, liquid, gas, plasma, follows that eVB = eEy since FB = FE .
electrons flux, etc.), whose gravitational
mass have been reduced by the Then, we get
factor χ . Thus, above the substance, the Ey
V =
gravity acceleration g ′ is reduced at the B
same proportion χ = m g mi 0 , and, This gives a measure of the velocity of
the electrons.
consequently, g ′ = χ g , where g is the Thus, by means of the
gravity acceleration below the substance. experimental set-up, shown in Fig. III, we
Figure III shows an experimental can easily obtain the velocity V of the
set-up in order to check the factor χ electrons below the body β , in order to
above a high-speed electrons flux. As we calculate the theoretical value of χ . The
have shown (Eq. 43), the gravitational experimental value of χ can be obtained
mass of a particle decreases with the
by dividing the weight, Pβ′ = m gβ g ′ of
increase of the velocity V of the particle.
~
Since the theory says that the the body β for a voltage drop V across
factor χ is given by the correlation the anode and cathode, by its
m g mi 0 then, in the case of an electrons weight, Pβ = m gβ g , when the voltage
flux, we will have that χ = mge mie where ~
V is zero, i.e.,
m ge as function of the velocity V is Pβ′ g′
χ = =
given by Eq. (43). Thus, we can write Pβ g
that
According to Eq. (4), the gravitational
mass, M g , is defined by
m ge ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬ mg
mie ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ 1−V c
2 2
⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ Mg =
1 − V 2 c2
Therefore, if we know the velocity V of
the electrons we can calculate χ . ( mie is While Eq. (43) defines m g by means of
the electron mass at rest). the following expression
When an electron penetrates the ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric field E y (see Fig. III) an electric m g = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
force, FE = −eE y , will act upon the
r In order to check the gravitational mass
electron. The direction of FE will be of the electrons it is necessary to know
r the pressure P produced by the
contrary to the direction of E y . The
r electrons flux. Thus, we have put a
magnetic force FB which acts upon the piezoelectric sensor in the bottom of the
r glass tube as shown in Fig. III. The
electron, due to the magnetic field B , is electrons flux radiated from the cathode
r r
FB = eVBμ̂ and will be opposite to FE is accelerated by the anode1 and strikes
because the electron charge is negative. on the piezoelectric sensor yielding a
By adjusting conveniently B we pressure P which is measured by
r r means of the sensor.
can make FB = FE . Under these
circumstances in which the total force is
zero, the spot produced by the electrons
21
g g′ < g g′ < 0
mg = mi mg < mi mg < 0
g g g
(a)
Particle 2 P2 = mg 2 g′ = mg 2 ( x g )
mg 2
g′ < g due to the gravitational
g′ shielding effect produced by mg 1
mg 1 = x mi 1 ; x < 1
Particle 1
mg 1 P1 = mg 1 g = x mi 1 g
g
(b)
M ge = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
V2
⎝ ne ⎠ where n is the number of holes in the
The amount of electrons, ne , is given grid. By means of the piezoelectric
sensor we can measure F and
by ne = ρSd where ρ is the amount of
consequently obtain M ge .
electrons per unit of volume
We can use the equation
(electrons/m3); S is the cross-section
above to evaluate the magnitude of
of the electrons flux and d the
the force F to be measured by the
distance between cathode and
piezoelectric sensor. First, we will find
anode.
the expression of V as a function of
In order to calculate ne we will ~
V since the electrons speed V
start from the Langmuir-Child law and ~
the Ohm vectorial law, respectively depends on the voltage V .
given by We will start from Eq. (46)
~ 3 which is the general expression for
and J = ρ cV , (ρ c = ρ e )
V2
J =α Lorentz’s force, i.e.,
r
( )
d dp r r r mg
where J is the thermoionic current = qE + qV × B
− 32
dt mi 0
density; α = 2.33 × 10 − 6 A.m −1 .V is
~ When the force and the speed
the called Child’s constant; V is the have the same direction Eq.
r r (6) gives
voltage drop across the anode and dp mg dV
=
cathode electrodes, and V is the dt (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 dt
3
αV
3
1 − V 2 c 2 2 dt
2
ρ= 2
ed V In the case of electrons accelerated
Thus, we can write that by a sole electric field (B = 0) , the
~ 3
αV S 2
equation above gives
ne = r r ~
( )
edV r dV eE 2eV
and a= = 1−V c
2 2
dt mie mie
⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞
M ge = ⎜⎜ ~ 3 ⎟⎟ P Therefore, the velocity V of the
⎝ α VV 2 ⎠ electrons in the experimental set-up
Where P = F S , is the pressure to be is
~
measured by the piezoelectric
( 2eV
)
3
V = 2ad = 1 − V 2 c 2 4
sensor. mie
In the experimental set-up the
From Eq. (43) we conclude that
total force F acting on the
23
Dynamometer (D)
d
~
Collimators g’= χ g ↓g + Vy
Grid d Collimators B
O’ +
α γ
F
e V
y Ey O⋅ e
~
V
+ −
Fig. III – Experimental set-up in order to check the factor χ above a high-speed electrons flux.
The set-up may also check the velocities and the gravitational masses of the electrons.
24
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ μσσ 3
⎞ ⎪ 10 −3% in respect to the initial
⎢ − 1⎥⎬mi0 (58a)
⎜ hT ⎟
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + B
⎢ ⎜ 4πκρ c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass of the
⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ superconductor, due to the local
Starting from this equation, we can thermal radiation only. However, here
evaluate the effect of the thermal we must also consider the
radiation upon the gravitational mass gravitational shielding effect
of the Copper-pair fluid, m g ,CPfluid . produced, in this case, by the
Below the transition temperature, Tc , decrease of ≈ 10 − 3% in the
gravitational mass of the particles
(T Tc < 0.5) the conductivity of the inside the superconductor (see Fig.
superconducting materials is usually II). Therefore the total weight
larger than 10 22 S / m [26]. On the decrease in the superconductor will
26
r r
be much greater than ≈ 10 − 3% . This J = Δ eVd
can explain the smaller effect on the where Δe is the density of the
order of 0.1% observed in the
free electric charges ( For cooper
Podkletnov measurements when the
disk is not rotating. conductors Δe = 1.3 × 1010 C / m 3 ).
Let us now consider an electric Therefore increasing Vd produces an
current I through a conductor increase in the electric current I .
subjected to electromagnetic Thus if mge is reduced 10 times
radiation with power density D and
frequency f .
(m ge ≈ 0.1me ) the drift velocity Vd is
Under these circumstances the increased 10 times as well as the
gravitational mass mge of the electric current. Thus we conclude
that strong fluxes of ELF radiation
electrons of the conductor, according upon electric/electronic circuits can
to Eq. (58), is given by suddenly increase the electric
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ currents and consequently damage
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ μσD ⎞ ⎪
m ge = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬m e these circuits.
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Since the orbital electrons
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
−31 moment of inertia is given
where me = 9.11 × 10 kg .
by I i = Σ (mi ) j rj , where mi refers to
2
⎩ ⎢⎣
( )
mg(sm) =⎧⎨1−2⎡ 1+ 5.71×10−12i04 f 3 sin42πft −1⎤⎫⎬mi(sm)
⎥⎦⎭
Substitution of this expression into
(41) gives
Some oscillators like the HP3325A ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
(Op.002 High Voltage Output) can mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬mi 0 (60)
generate sinusoidal voltages with ⎜ 2ρ cv ⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
extremely-low frequencies down to ⎩
f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and amplitude up to This expression shows that in the
case of sound waves the decreasing
20V (into 50Ω load). The maximum
of gravitational mass is relevant for
output current is 0.08 App . very strong pressures only.
Thus, for i0 = 0.04 A (0.08 A pp ) It is known that in the nucleus
and f < 2.25 × 10 −6 Hz the equation of the Earth the pressure can reach
values greater than 1013 N / m 2 . The
above shows that the gravitational
mass of the rod becomes negative at equation above tells us that sound
waves produced by pressure
2πft = π 2 ; for f ≅ 1.7 × 10−6 Hz at
variations of this magnitude can
t = 1 4 f = 1.47 × 10 5 s ≅ 40.8h it shows cause strong decreasing of the
that m g ( sm ) ≅ − mi ( sm ) . gravitational mass at the
This leads to the idea of the surroundings of the point where the
Gravitational Motor. See in Fig. IV a sound waves were generated. This
type of gravitational motor (Rotational obviously must cause an abrupt
Gravitational Motor) based on the decreasing of the pressure at this
possibility of gravity control on a place since pressure = weight /area =
ferromagnetic wire. mgg/area). Consequently a local
It is important to realize that instability will be produced due to the
this is not the unique way of opposite internal pressure. The
decreasing the gravitational mass of conclusion is that this effect may
a body. It was noted earlier that the cause Earthquakes.
expression (53) is general for all Consider a sphere of radius r
types of waves including non- around the point where the sound
electromagnetic waves like sound waves were generated (at ≈ 1,000km
waves for example. In this case, the depth; the Earth's radius is 6 ,378km ).
velocity v in (53) will be the speed of If the maximum pressure, at the
sound in the body and D the intensity explosion place ( sphere of radius r0 ),
of the sound radiation. Thus from (53) is Pmax ≈ 1013 N / m 2 and the pressure
we can write that
at the distance r = 10km is
Δp V D D
= = Pmin = (r0 r ) Pmax ≈ 10 N / m then we can
2 9 2
mi c mi c ρcv 2
consider that in the sphere
It can easily be shown that
D = 2π 2 ρf 2 A 2 v where A = λP 2πρv 2 ; P = PmaxPmin ≈ 10 N / m .Thus assuming
11 2
⎧ ⎡ i4μ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
α = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢ 64π c ρ S f σ
3 2 2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Axis
of the
Rotor
Ferromagnetic wire F = mg g = α mi g
P = mi g
Several plates of
ferromagnetic wire
r
force, Fi , is given by Eq.(6), and from
Δmg = mg (initial) − mg = Eq.(13) we can obtain the
r r r
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravitational force, Fg . Thus, Fi ≡ Fg
⎪ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
= mi 0 − ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 = leads to
⎢
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 2ρ cv ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ mg r m′g mg
a ≡G ≡
⎡
⎛ P2 ⎞
2 ⎤ 1−V c (
2 2 2
3
) ⎛
⎜ r′ 1−V c ⎟
2 2 ⎞
2
1 −V 2 2
c
= 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ρV ≈ 1011 kg ⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎝ 2 ρ cv ⎠ ⎥ ⎛ m′g ⎞ mg mg
⎣ ⎦ r
≡ ⎜⎜G 2 ⎟⎟ ≡g (61)
The transitory loss of this great ( )
⎝ r′ ⎠ 1−V 2 c2 2
3
( 3
)
1−V 2 c2 2
amount of gravitational mass may whence results
r r
evidently produce a strong pressure a≡g (62 )
variation and consequently a strong
Consequently, the equivalence is
Earthquake.
evident, and therefore Einstein's
Finally, we can evaluate the
equations from the General Relativity
energy necessary to generate those
continue obviously valid.
sound waves. From (48) we can write
The new expression for Fi
D max = Pmax v ≈ 10 16 W / m 2 . Thus, the
released power is P0 = Dmax(4πr02 ) ≈ 1021W
(Eqs. (5) and (6)) shows that the
inertial forces are proportional to the
and the energy ΔE released at the gravitational mass, m g . This means
time interval Δt must be ΔE = P0 Δt . that these forces result from the
Assuming Δt ≈ 10 s we readily obtain
−3
gravitational interaction between the
ΔE = P0 Δt ≈ 1018 joules ≈ 10 4 Megatons particle and the other gravitational
This is the amount of energy released masses of the Universe, just as
by an earthquake of magnitude 9 Mach’s principle predicts. Therefore
(Ms =9) , i.e., E = 1.74×10(5+1.44Ms ) ≅ 1018 joules. the new expression for the inertial
forces incorporates the Mach’s
The maximum magnitude in the principle into Gravitation Theory, and
Richter scale is 12. Note that the sole furthermore reveals that the inertial
releasing of this energy at 1000km effects upon a particle can be
depth (without the effect of reduced because, as we have seen,
gravitational mass decreasing) the gravitational mass may be
cannot produce an Earthquake, since reduced. When m g = mi 0 the
the sound waves reach 1km depth
with pressures less than 10N/cm2. nonrelativistic equation for inertial
r r
Let us now return to the Theory. forces, Fi = mg a , reduces to
The equivalence between r r
Fi = mi 0 a . This is the well-known
frames of non-inertial reference and
gravitational fields assumed m g ≡ mi Newton's second law for motion.
In Einstein's Special Relativity
because the inertial forces were given Theory the motion of a free-particle is
r r
by Fi = mi a , while the equivalent described by means of δS = 0 [29].
r r Now based on Eq. (1), δS = 0 will be
gravitational forces, by Fg = mg g .
given by the following expression
Thus, to satisfy the equivalence
r r r δS = − m g cδ ∫ ds = 0. (63 )
( a ≡ g and Fi ≡ Fg ) it was necessary
which also describes the motion of
that m g ≡ mi . Now, the inertial the particle inside the gravitational
31
∫( )
c3 length d min of Eq. (29) is given by
δSg = Rik − 12 gik R δg ik − g dΩ (64)
16πG ( )
1
≈ 10 −34 m (70)
~ ~
d min = k l planck = k Gh c 3 2
1
(65 )
2c ∫
δS m =− Tik δg ik − g dΩ (See Eq. (100)). On the other hand,
where Rik is the Ricci's tensor; g ik the we will find in the Eq. (129) the length
scale of the initial Universe, i.e.,
metric tensor and Tik the matter's dinitial ≈10−14m. Thus, from the Eq. (29)
energy-momentum tensor:
we get: n = dinitial dmin = 10−14 10−34 ≈ 1020
Tik = (P + ε g )μ i μ k + Pg ik (66 )
this is the quantum number of the
where P is the pressure and εg = ρgc2 spacetime at initial instant. That
is now, the density of gravitational quantum number is sufficiently large
energy, E g , of the particle; ρ g is then for the spacetime to be considered
the density of gravitational mass of approximately “continuous” starting
the particle, i.e., M g at the volume from the beginning of the Universe.
Therefore Einstein's equations can be
unit. used even at the Initial Universe.
Substitution of (64) and (65) into Now, it is easy to conclude why
δS m + δS g = 0 yields the attempt to quantize gravity
c3
16πG
( 8πG
)
∫ Rik − 2 gik R − c 4 Tik δg − g dΩ = 0
1 ik
starting from the General Relativity
was a bad theoretical strategy.
Since the gravitational
whence,
interaction can be repulsive, besides
⎛⎜ R − 1 g R − 8πG T ⎞⎟ = 0 (67)
⎝ ik 2 ik c4
ik
⎠
attractive, such as the
electromagnetic interaction, then the
because the δg ik are arbitrary.
graviton must have spin 1 (called
Equations (67) in the following form graviphoton) and not 2.
Rik − 12 g ik R = 8π4G Tik (68) Consequently, the gravitational forces
c
are also gauge forces because they
or
are yielded by the exchange of the
Rik − 12 gδ ik R = 8π4G Tik . (69) so-called "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
c
are the Einstein's equations from the such as the electromagnetic forces
General Relativity. and the weak and strong nuclear
It is known that these equations forces.
are only valid if the spacetime is Let us now deduce the Entropy
continuous. We have shown at the Differential Equation starting from Eq.
beginning of this work that the (55). Comparison of Eqs. (55) and
spacetime is not continuous it is (41) shows that Unr = Δpc . For small
quantized. However, the spacetime velocities, i.e., (V << c ) , we have
can be considered approximately
Unr << mi 0 c 2 . Under these
“continuous” when the quantum
32
t2
S = −∫t mgc2 1 − V 2 c2 dt = complete description of the
1 electromagnetic field. This means
t2
( )
= ∫t − mi + 2Unr c2 c2 1 −V 2 c2 dt = that from the present theory for
[ ]
1
gravity we can also derive the
= ∫t − mic2 1 − V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1 − V 2 c2 dt. (84)
t2
equations of the electromagnetic
1
field.
The integrant function is the Due to Un r = Δpc ≅ M i c 2 the
Lagrangean, i.e.,
second term on the right hand side of
L = −mi0c2 1−V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1−V 2 c2 (85) Eq.(86) can be written as follows
Starting from the Lagrangean we can
find the Hamiltonian of the particle, by Δpc⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥=
)
means of the well-known general ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦
formula:
H = V (∂L ∂V ) − L.
=⎢
( )
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥M i c 2 =
The result is ⎢⎣ 1 − V c ⎥⎦
2 2
H=
mi0c2
+ Unr ⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c2 − 2 ⎤
⎥.
)
(86) = Qϕ =
QQ′
=
QQ′
1−V c2 2
⎢
⎣ 1−V c ⎦
2 2
⎥ 4πε0 R 4πε0 r 1 − V 2 c 2
The second term on the right hand whence
QQ ′
side of Eq.(86) results from the
particle's interaction with the (4V 2
)
c 2 − 2 M ic 2 =
4πε 0 r
electromagnetic field. Note the
similarity between the obtained (
The factor 4V 2 c 2 − 2 becomes )
Hamiltonian and the well-known equal to 2 in the ultra-relativistic case,
Hamiltonian for the particle in an then it follows that
QQ ′
electromagnetic field [32]: 2M i c 2 = (88 )
4πε 0 r
H = mi0c2 1 − V 2 c2 + Qϕ. (87) From (44), we know that there is a
minimum value for M i given by
in which Q is the electric charge and M i (min) = mi (min) . Eq.(43) shows that
ϕ , the field's scalar potential. The mg (min) = mi0(min) and Eq.(23) gives
quantity Q ϕ expresses, as we mg (min) = ± h cLmax 8 = ± h 3 8 cdmax .
know, the particle's interaction with
Thus we can write
the electromagnetic field in the same
way as the second term on the right Mi(min) = mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax (89)
hand side of the Eq. (86). According to (88) the value 2M i (min )c 2
It is therefore evident that it is
the same quantity, expressed by is correlated to (QQ′ 4πε0r)min =Qmin2
4πε0 rmax,
different variables. i.e.,
2
Thus, we can conclude that, in Q min
= 2 M i (min )c 2 (90 )
ultra-high energy conditions 4πε 0 rmax
( 2 2
)
Unr ≅ M i c > mi 0 c , the gravitational where Qmin is the minimum electric
and electromagnetic fields can charge in the Universe ( therefore
be described by the same equal to minimum electric charge of
Hamiltonian, i.e., in these
the quarks, i.e., 13 e ); rmax is the
circumstances they are unified !
It is known that starting from maximum distance between Q and
that Hamiltonian we may obtain a Q ′ , which should be equal to the so-
34
⎣π (Δr ) ⎦ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠
4
The previous assumption that
(
A 0 = 960 π l planck
2 2
) shows that
( ) 1
The amount Gh c 3 2 = 1.61 × 10 −35 m ~2
δ A k = 960 π 2 what means that
is called the Planck length, l planck ,( the ~
5 .6 < k < 14 .9
length scale on which quantum
fluctuations of the metric of the space Therefore we conclude that
time are expected to be of order
~
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 −34 m. (100 )
unity). Thus, we can write the The n − esimal area after A0 is
expression of ΔF as follows
36
It can also be easily shown that the Hubble's law and (22) we have
the minimum volume related to d min that
( )
is the volume of a regular tetrahedron
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2 ) =
~ ~ ~
of edge length d min , i.e., 3 2 HLmax
( )
Ω min = 122 d min3
( ) ~
= 122 k 3 l 3planck ~
where H = 1.7 × 10−18 s −1 . Therefore we
The maximum volume is the volume
obtain
of a sphere of radius d min , i.e.,
Vmax ≅ 1012 m / s .
Ω max = ( 43π )d min = ( 43π )k 3l 3planck
3 ~
Thus, the elementary volume This is the speed upper limit imposed
~3 3
Ω 0 = δ V d min = δ V k l planck must have a
3
by the quantization of velocity (Eq.
36). It is known that the speed upper
value between Ω min and Ω max , i.e.,
( )< δ
limit for real particles is equal to c .
2
12< 43π V However, also it is known that
On the other hand, the n − esimal imaginary particles can have
volume after Ω 0 is velocities greater than c
(Tachyons). Thus, we conclude that
Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = n3Ω0 n = 1,2,3,...,nmax . Vmax is the speed upper limit for
The existence of nmax given by imaginary particles in our ordinary
(26), i.e., space-time. Later on, we will see that
nmax = Lmax Lmin = d max d min = also exists a speed upper limit to the
= (3.4 × 1030 ) k l planck ≈ 1064
~ imaginary particles in the imaginary
space-time.
shows that the Universe must have a Now, multiplying Eq. (98) (the
finite volume whose value at the expression of F 0 ) by n 2 we obtain
present stage is
Ω 0 = (d p d min )3 δ V d min
⎛ πn2 A0 ⎞ hc ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
Ω Up = nUp = δ V d 3p F = n2 F0 = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 = −⎜ ⎟ 4 (102)
3 3
⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
where d p is the present length scale
This is the general expression of the
of the Universe. In addition as
( )
Casimir force.
12 < δ V < 3
2 4π
we conclude that the Thus, we conclude that the
Universe must have a polyhedral Casimir effect is just a gravitational
space topology with volume between effect related to the uncertainty
the volume of a regular tetrahedron principle.
of edge length d p and the volume of Note that Eq. (102) arises only
the sphere of diameter d p . when Δmi and Δmi′ satisfy Eq.(94). If
A recent analysis of only Δ m i satisfies Eq.(94), i.e.,
astronomical data suggests not only Δmi <<h Δrc but Δmi′ >> h Δrc then
that the Universe is finite, but also Δm g and Δm′g will be respectively
that it has a dodecahedral space
given by
topology [33,34], what is in strong
accordance with the previous
Δ m g ≅ − 2 h Δ rc and Δ m ′g ≅ Δ mi
theoretical predictions.
From (22) and (26) we have
that Lmax = dmax 3 = nmaxdmin 3 . Since Consequently, the expression (96)
becomes
(100) gives dmin ≅ 10−34 m and nmax ≅ 10 64
37
⎛ 1 ⎞ whence
=
hc
3 planck ⎜
l2 ⎟ (105) ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
(Δr ) ⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠
F = −⎜⎜ ⎟ 4 (107)
From the General Relativity Theory ⎟r
⎝ 1920⎠
we know that dr = cdt − g 00 . If the The force will be attractive and its
field is weak then g 00 = −1 − 2φ c and 2 intensity will be the fourth part of the
dr = cdt (1 + φ c 2 ) = cdt (1 − Gm r 2c 2 ) .
intensity given by the first expression
(102) for the Casimir force.
For Gm r 2 c 2 <<1 we obtain dr ≅ cdt . We can also use this theory to
Thus, if dr = dr′ then dt = dt ′ . This explain some relevant cosmological
means that we can change (Δt ′c ) by phenomena. For example, the recent
(Δr ) into (105). The result is discovery that the cosmic expansion
of the Universe may be accelerating,
hc ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ and not decelerating as many
ΔF = 4 ⎜
l planck ⎟ =
(Δ r ) ⎝ π ⎠ cosmologists had anticipated [35].
We start from Eq. (6) which
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 480 2 ⎞ r
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 l planck ⎟ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δ r )
shows that the inertial forces, Fi ,
⎝1π4 2 4 3⎠
4
1
A0
whose action on a particle, in the
2
case of force and speed with same
⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc direction, is given by
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 960 ⎠ (Δ r ) r
4
mg r
Fi = a
or (1 − V 2 c 2 )3
2
⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc
F0 = ⎜ ⎟ 4 Substitution of m g given by (43) into
⎝ 960 ⎠ r
the expression above gives
whence
r ⎛ ⎞
⎛ πA ⎞ hc Fi = ⎜
3
−
2 ⎟ m ar
F = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 (106) ⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )3
2
(1 − V 2
c )
2 2 ⎟ i0
⎠
⎝ 960⎠ r
Now, the Casimir force is repulsive, whence we conclude that a particle
and its intensity is half of the intensity with rest inertial mass, mi 0 , subjected
r
previously obtained (102). to a force, Fi , acquires an
Consider the case when both Δmi r
acceleration a given by
and Δmi′ do not satisfy Eq.(94), and
38
r
r Fi
a =
⎛ 3 2 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟m
⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )
3
2
(1 − V 2
c2 )
2 ⎟ i0
⎠
δ
By substituting the well-known
β
expression of Hubble’s law for
~ ~ S C β
velocity, V = Hl , ( H = 1.7 × 10 −18 s −1 is
the Hubble constant) into the Photons
r
expression of a , we get the
acceleration for any particle in the
expanding Universe, i.e., Fig. V – Gravitational deflection of light about
r
r Fi the Sun.
a= Since δ and β are very small we can
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3
−
2 ⎟ write that
~ 2 2 2 2 ⎟mi 0
⎝(
⎜ 1− H l c ) (
~ 2 2 2 32
1− H l c ⎠ ) δ = 2β and β =
Vy
Obviously, the distance l increases c
with the expansion of the Universe. Then
Under these circumstances, it is easy 2V y
to see that the term δ=
c
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3
−
2 ⎟ Consider the motion of the
⎝ (
⎜ 1− H~2 2 2 2
l c
3
) ( ~2 2 2 2 ⎟
1− H l c ⎠ ) photons at some time t after it has
passed the point of closest approach.
decreases, increasing the acceleration of We impose Cartesian Co-ordinates
the expanding Universe. with the origin at the point of closest
Let us now consider the approach, the x axis pointing along its
phenomenon of gravitational path and the y axis towards the Sun.
deflection of light. The gravitational pull of the Sun is
A distant star’s light ray, M gS M gp
under the Sun’s gravitational force P = −G
field describes the usual central force r2
hyperbolic orbit. The deflection of the where M gp is the relativistic
light ray is illustrated in Fig. V, with gravitational mass of the photon and
the bending greatly exaggerated for a M gS the relativistic gravitational mass
better view of the angle of deflection.
The distance CS is the of the Sun. Thus, the component in a
distance d of closest approach. The perpendicular direction is
angle of deflection of the light ray, δ , F y = −G
M gS M gp
sin β =
is shown in the Figure V and is r2
δ = π − 2β . M gS M gp d
where β is the angle of the = −G
d +c t
2 2 2
d + c 2t 2
2
asymptote to the hyperbole. Then, it
follows that According to Eq. (6) the expression of
tan δ = tan(π − 2 β ) = − tan 2 β the force Fy is
From the Figure V we obtain ⎛ ⎞ dV
⎜ m gp ⎟ y
Vy Fy = ⎜ ⎟⎟ dt
tan β = ⎜ (1 − V 2 c 2 )2
3
.
c ⎝ y ⎠
By substituting Eq. (43) into this
expression, we get
39
⎛ ⎞ m gp = +
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
⎜ 3 2 ⎟ dV y ⎜ ⎟i
Fy = ⎜ −
⎜ (1 − V y c ) (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 ⎟
2 2 3
⎟ M ip 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
dt
⎝ y ⎠ This means that the gravitational and
For V y << c , we can write this inertial masses of the photon are
imaginaries, and invariants with
expression in the following form
F y = M ip (dV y dt ). This force acts on
respect to speed of photon, i.e.
M ip = mip and M gp = m gp .On the other
the photons for a time t causing an
hand, we can write that
increase in the transverse velocity
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
Fy mip = mip (real ) + mip (imaginary ) = ⎜ ⎟i
dV y = dt 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
M ip
and
Thus the component of transverse 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
velocity acquired after passing the mgp = mgp(real ) + mgp(imaginary) = ⎜ ⎟i
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
point of closest approach is
M gp (
d − GM gS ) This means that we must have
Vy = ∫ dt = mip (real ) = m gp (real ) = 0
(d )
3
M ip 2
+ c 2t 2 2 The phenomenon of gravitational
− GM gS ⎛ M gp ⎞ − GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞ deflection of light about the Sun
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ shows that the gravitational
dc ⎜⎝ M ip ⎟ dc ⎜ mip ⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ interaction between the Sun and the
Since the angle of deflection δ photons is attractive. Thus, due to the
is given by gravitational force between the Sun
2V y and a photon can be expressed by
δ = 2β =
c F = −G M g (Sun ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 , where
we readily obtain m gp (imaginary ) is a quantity positive and
2V y − 2GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞
δ= = ⎜ ⎟ imaginary, we conclude that the
c 2 ⎜ m ⎟
c d ⎝ ip ⎠ force F will only be attractive if the
If m gp mip = 2 , the expression above matter ( M g (Sun ) ) has negative
gives imaginary gravitational mass.
4GM gS The Eq. (41) shows that if the
δ =− inertial mass of a particle is null then its
c2d gravitational mass is given by
As we know, this is the correct m g = ± 2Δp c
formula indicated by the experimental where Δp is the momentum variation due
results.
to the energy absorbed by the particle. If
Equation (4) says that
the energy of the particle is invariant,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ then Δp = 0 and, consequently, its
⎛ Δp ⎞
m gp
⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mip
⎜ mip c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass will also be null. This
⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣
⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ is the case of the photons, i.e., they have
Since m gp mip = 2 then, by making an invariant energy hf and a momentum
(momentum) to the particle, and making the vortex (particle) gain or lose
consequently its gravitational mass will mass. If real motion is what makes real
be increased. This means that the mass then, by analogy, we can say that
motion generates gravitational mass. imaginary mass is made by imaginary
On the other hand, if the motion. This is not only a simple
gravitational mass of a particle is null generalization of the process based on
then its inertial mass, according to Eq. the theory of the imaginary functions, but
(41), will be given by also a fundamental conclusion related to
2 Δp the concept of imaginary mass that, as it
mi = ± will be shown, provides a coherent
5 c explanation for the materialization of the
From Eqs. (4) and (7) we get fundamental particles, in the beginning of
⎛ Eg ⎞ ⎛p ⎞ the Universe.
Δp = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ΔV = ⎜ 0 ⎟ΔV
It is known that the simultaneous
⎝c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
disappearance of a pair
Thus we have (electron/positron) liberates an amount of
⎛ 2p ⎞ 2 ⎛p ⎞ energy, 2mi 0e(real )c 2 , under the form of
mg = ±⎜ 20 ⎟ΔV and mi = ± ⎜⎜ 20 ⎟⎟ΔV
⎝ c ⎠ 5⎝c ⎠ two photons with frequency f , in such a
Note that, like the gravitational mass, the way that
inertial mass is also directly related to the
motion, i.e., it is also generated by the
motion. 2mi 0e(real )c 2 = 2hf
Thus, we can conclude that is the Since the photon has imaginary masses
motion, or rather, the velocity is what associated to it, the phenomenon of
makes the two types of mass. transformation of the energy 2mi 0e(real )c 2
In this picture, the fundamental
particles can be considered as into 2hf suggests that the imaginary
immaterial vortex of velocity; it is the energy of the photon, mip (imaginary )c 2 ,
velocity of these vortexes that causes the
fundamental particles to have masses. comes from the transformation of
That is, there exists not matter in the imaginary energy of the electron,
usual sense; but just motion. Thus, the mi 0e(imaginary )c 2 , just as the real energy of
difference between matter and energy the photon, hf , results from the
just consists of the diversity of the motion
transformation of real energy of the
direction; rotating, closed in itself, in the
electron, i.e.,
matter; ondulatory, with open cycle, in
the energy (See Fig. VI).
Under this context, the Higgs 2m i 0 e (imaginary )c 2 + 2m i 0 e (real )c 2 =
mechanism † appears as a process, by
= 2m i 0 p (imaginary )c 2 + 2 hf
which the velocity of an immaterial vortex
can be increased or decreased by
* Vmax is the speed upper limit for Tachyons with non-null imaginary inertial mass. It has been previously
~
(
obtained starting from the Hubble's law and Eq.(22). The result is: Vmax = 3 2 HLmax ≅ 10 12 m. s −1 . )
**
In order to communicate instantaneously the interactions at infinite distance the velocity of the quanta
(“virtual” photons) must be infinity and consequently their imaginary masses must be null .
=− 2 (h λec) i = − 23 mi0e(real)i
3 mi 0e(im) = − 2 mi 0e(real)i
3
mi 0 proton(imaginary ) = + 2 mi 0 proton(real ) i
3 ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪
The sign (+) in the expression of mge(im) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) is due to the fact ⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(im) =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
that mi 0 neutron(imaginary ) and ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
= χ e mi 0e(im)
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) must have contrary
signs, as will be shown later on.
42
−Gχ e2
3
Fee = −G = =
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ r2 r2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ U pr(im) ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
mgpr(im) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0pr(im) = mi20e(real ) + 2.3 ×10 −28
⎜ 2⎟ 4
= + Gχ e2 =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0pr(im)c ⎠ ⎥⎪ ( repulsion)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ 3 r2 r2
= χ prmi0pr(im) 2
2 ⎛⎜ + 2
mi0 pr(real)i ⎞⎟
mgpr(im) 2 ⎝ ⎠
= −Gχ pr
3
where U (real ) and U (im ) are Fprpr = −G 2 2
=
r r
respectively, the real and imaginary 4 mi0 pr(real) + 2.3 ×10−28
2
4πε G (χ )
3
= 0 e
2 mi 0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C derived from Eq. (44a). Thus, we get
3
In the case of the proton, we get q = 4 πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i =
(
= 4πε 0 G χ pr mi 0 pr(imaginary)i = ) = 4 πε 0 G [n (±2 2 m i 0 (min )i )] i =
( )
3
(
= 4πε 0 G − χ n 2 m i 0 n (real )i 2 = ) q min = m 2 4πε 0 G mi 0(min ) = m3.8 × 10 −83 C
4πε G (χ )
3 3
= 0 n
2 m i 0 n (real )
3
where mi0(min) is the elementary
However, based on the quantization of
the mass (Eq. 44), we can write that quantum of matter, whose value
previously calculated, is
χ n 2 mi0n(real) = n 2 mi0(min) n≠0 −73
3 mi0(min) = ±3.9 ×10 kg .
Since n can have only discrete values
The existence of imaginary mass
different of zero (See Appendix B), we
associated to a real particle suggests
conclude that χ n cannot be null. the possible existence of imaginary
However, it is known that the electric
44
mg χ mi
Mg = = = χM i
1−V 2
c 2
1−V 2
c 2
where
46
Body
χ Ordinary Space-time
0≤V < c
+0.159
0≤V ≤ ∞
Imaginary Body
0 Imaginary Space-time
“Virtual” Photons ( V = ∞ )
−0.159
Ordinary Space-time
Real Photons ( V = c )
Fig. VII – Travel in the imaginary space-time. Similarly to the “virtual” photons,
imaginary bodies can have infinite speed in the imaginary space-time.
47
Δt3
(a)
Δt3
Δt2 Vmax
(speed upper limit)
ΔE
Δt1
Imaginary particle Imaginary particle
(b)
Fig. VIII – “Virtual” Transitions – (a) “Virtual” Transitions of a real particle to the imaginary
space-time. The speed upper limit for real particle in the imaginary space-time is c.
(b) - “Virtual” Transitions of an imaginary particle to the ordinary space-time. The
speed upper limit for imaginary particle in the ordinary space-time is Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1
Note that to occur a “virtual” transition it is necessary thatΔt=Δt1+ Δt2+ Δt3 <ℏ/ΔE
Thus, even at principle, it will be impossible to determine any variation of energy in
the particle (uncertainty principle).
48
− 43
Thus at t ≅ 10 s (at the first Thus, the gravitational forces
spontaneous breaking of symmetry) between two superparticles ,
according to (13), is given by:
the temperature was T ≈ 10 32 K
(∼1019GeV).Therefore, we can r r M g(sp) M 'g(sp)
assume that the absorbed F12 = −F21 = −G μˆ 21 =
r2
electromagnetic energy by each
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
superparticle, before t ≅ 10 −43 s , was ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟( ηn κT ) ⎥ μˆ 21 (119)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2
r
U =ηkT >1×109 J (see Eqs.(71) and ⎣ ⎦
(72)). By comparing with
mi(sp)c ≅ 9×10 J , we conclude that
2 8
Due to the unification of the
U > m i ( sp )c . Therefore, the gravitational and electromagnetic
(
unification condition Unr ≅ Mi c > mi c
2 2
) interactions at that period, we have
is satisfied. This means that, before
t ≅ 10 −43 s ,the gravitational and
electromagnetic interactions were
unified.
From the unification condition
( )
Unr ≅ Mi c2 , we may conclude that
53
total
photons, M gp (imaginary ) , while an where m gp (imaginary ) (the imaginary
amount of real inertial mass of the gravitational mass of the photon) is
a quantity positive and imaginary,
(real) =η MiU c , has been
total 2
matter, Mim
and M gSun (imaginary ) (the imaginary
converted into real energy of the
N gravitational mass associated to the
primordial photons, E p = ∑ hf j , i.e., matter of the Sun) is a quantity
j =1 negative and imaginary.
The fact of the gravitational
interaction between the imaginary
gravitational masses of the
(imaginary) + M im( real) =
total total
M gm
primordial photons and the
= M gp (imaginary) + M ip( real)
total total
imaginary gravitational mass of the
1424 3
Ep matter be attractive is highly
c2 relevant, because it shows that it is
necessary to consider the effect of
this gravitational interaction, which is
(imaginary ) = M gp (imaginary ) and
total total
where M gm
equivalent to the gravitational effect
produced by the amount of real
(real) = M im(real) = ηM iU ≅ 0.11M iU
E p c 2 ≡ M iptotal total
(real) ≅ 0.22M iU ,
total
gravitational mass, M gp
sprayed by all the Universe.
It was previously shown that, for the This means that this amount,
photons equation: M gp = 2 M ip , is which corresponds to 22% of the
valid. This means that total inertial mass of the Universe,
must be added to the overall
M gp(imagimary) + M gp(real) = computation of the total mass of the
14444244443 matter (stars, galaxies, etc., gas and
M gp
dust of interstellar and intergalactic
(
= 2 M ip(imagimary) + M ip(real)
14444244443
) media). Therefore, this additional
portion corresponds to what has
M ip
been called Dark Matter (See Fig.
By substituting M gp(imaginary) = 2Mip(imaginary) IX).
into the equation above, we get On the other hand, the total
amount of gravitational mass at the
M gp (real ) = 2M ip (real ) initial instant, M gtotal , according to
Eq.(41), can be expressed by
Therefore we can write that M gtotal = χ M iU
(real ) = 2 M ip (real ) = 0.22 M iU
total total
M gp This mass includes the total
The phenomenon of negative gravitational mass of the
total
gravitational deflection of light about matter, M gm (− ) , plus the total
the Sun shows that the gravitational gravitational mass, total
M gp ( real ) ,
interaction between the Sun and the
photons is attractive. This is due to converted into primordial photons.
the gravitational force between the This tells us that we can put
Sun and a photon, which is given by
M gtotal = M gm ( − ) + M gp ( real ) = χ M iU
total total
M iU
Imaginary spacetime
Real spacetime
(imaginary) + Mip( real) ) + Mim(real)
total total total total
Mgp Mgm (imaginary
Primordial Photons
total
M gp (imaginary) + M iptotal
( real )
1
42 43
Ep
c2
∼ 10-14 m
Fig. IX – Conversion of part of the Real Gravitational Mass of the Primordial Universe into
Primordial Photons. The gravitational effect caused by the gravitational interaction of imaginary
gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the imaginary gravitational mass associated to
the matter is equivalent to the effect produced by the amount of real gravitational mass,
(real ) ≅ 0.22 M iU , sprayed by all Universe. This additional portion of mass corresponds to what
total
M gp
has been called Dark Matter.
57
( −) = χ M iU − 0.22M iU (
M g ( sp ) = ⎛⎜1 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) ⎤ ⎞M
total − 12
M gm
⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎟⎠ i ( sp )
In order to calculate the value
of χ we can start from the By comparing this expression with
expression previously obtained for the equation above, we obtain
χ , i.e.,
1
m g ( sp ) 2η n r kT T ≅ 1 .5
χ= =1− =1− 1− V 2 c2
mi ( sp ) mi ( sp ) c 2 Tcritical
where Substitution of this value into the
expressions of χ and M gmtotal
(− ) results
mi ( sp ) c 2
Tcritical = = 3.3 × 10 32 K in
2ηn r k
χ = −0.5
and
and
⎛ m ⎞
⎜ i(sp) ⎟ 2
2 ⎜ ⎟c
Mi(sp)c ⎜⎝ 1 −V c ⎟⎠
2 2
T
T= = = critical ( − ) ≅ −0.72 M iU
total
M gm
2ηnr k 2ηnr k 1 − V 2 c2
This means that 72% of the total
We thus obtain energy of the Universe ( M iU c 2 ) is
due to negative gravitational mass
1
χ =1− of the matter created at the initial
1 − V 2 c2 instant.
Since the gravitational mass
By substitution of this expression is correlated to the inertial mass (Eq.
total
into the equation of M gm (41)), the energy related to the
(− ) , we get
negative gravitational mass is where
there is inertial energy (inertial
⎛ ⎞ mass). In this way, this negative
⎜ 1 ⎟
total
M gm = ⎜⎜ 0 . 78 − M iU
2 ⎟
(−) gravitational energy permeates all
1 − V 2
c ⎟
⎝ ⎠ space and tends to increase the rate
of expansion of the Universe due to
On the other hand, the Unification produce a strong gravitational
condition ( Unr ≅ Δpc= MiUc2 ) previously repulsion between the material
shown and Eq. (41) show that at the particles. Thus, this energy
initial instant of the Universe, corresponds to what has been
M g (sp ) has the following value: called Dark Energy (See Fig. X).
The value of χ = −0.5 at the
initial instant of the Universe shows
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Un ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪ that the gravitational interaction was
⎪
Mg(sp) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ r ⎟ −1⎥⎬Mi(sp) ≅ 0.1Mi(sp)
⎜ Mi(sp) ⎟ ⎥ repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ repulsive until the temperature of the
Universe is reduced down to the
Similarly, Eq.(45) tells us that critical limit, Tcritical . Below this
temperature limit,
58
Negative
Gravitational Mass of Matter
72%
22%
χ ≅ − 0 .5
t =0 t ≈ 15 billion years
t ≈ 10 −43 s
Fig. XI – Inflation Period. The value of χ ≅ −0.5 at the Initial Instant of the Universe shows that the
gravitational interaction was repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains repulsive until the temperature of
the Universe is reduced down to the critical limit, Tcritical . Below this temperature limit, the
attractive component of the gravitational interaction became greater than the repulsive component,
making attractive the resultant gravitational interaction. Therefore, at beginning of the Universe −
before the temperature to be decreased down to Tcritical , there occurred an expansion of the Universe
that was exponential in time rather than a normal power-law expansion. Thus, there was an evident
inflation period during the beginning of the expansion of the Universe.
61
Light
(a)
Dw
Light
(b)
Dp
Electrons ?
(c)
Fig. XII – A light ray, after going through the holes in the metal sheet, will be detected as a
wave(a) by a wave detector Dw or as a particle if the wave detector is substituted for the wave
detector Dp. Electron ray (c) has similar behavior as that of a light ray. However, before going
through the holes, the electrons must “decide” which one to go through.
63
=− 2 (hf neutron )
c2 i =
F = G M i (imaginary) mi (imaginary) r 2 =
( ΔE ⎞
)
3
⎛
=− 2 mi 0(real )neutron i (142 ) ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
3 ≅⎜ c ⎟G i (real )i mi (real )i
The imaginary gravitational ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
masses of the atoms must be much ⎝ c ⎠
smaller than their real gravitational Therefore, the total gravity is
masses. On the contrary, the weight of M i (real )
the bodies would be very different of g real + Δg (imaginary ) = −G −
r2
the observed values. This fact shows
that mi (imaginary ) proton and mi (imaginary )neutron
⎛
( ΔE ⎞
)
⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
−⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
must have contrary signs. In this way, ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
the imaginary gravitational mass of an ⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
atom can be expressed by means of
the following expression Thus, the imaginary gravitational mass
of a body produces an excess of
⎛
(ΔE ⎞
mi (imaginary )atom = N ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟i ) gravity acceleration, Δg , given by
⎝ c ⎠
where, ΔE , is the interaction energy.
By comparing this expression with the
⎛
( )
ΔE ⎞
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ M
following expression Δg ≅ ⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎜ e
m + m + m + ⎟
mi (real )atom = N ⎜ me + m p + mn + 2 ⎟ ⎝
p n
c2 ⎠
⎝ c ⎠
Thus,
In the case of soft atoms we can
mi (imaginary )atom << mi (real )atom
consider ΔE ≅ 2 × 10 −13 joules . Thus, in
Now consider a monatomic body with this case we obtain
real mass M i (real ) and imaginary mass Mi
M i (imaginary ) . Then we have
Δg ≅ 6 ×10 −4 G (143)
r2
In the case of the Sun, for example,
⎛ ΔE i ⎞ there is an excess of gravity
Σ⎜ mi (imaginary )atom + 2a ⎟
M i (imaginary ) acceleration, due to its imaginary
= ⎝
c ⎠
= gravitational mass, given by
M i (real ) ⎛ ΔE a ⎞
Σ⎜ mi (real )atom + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ (
Δg ≅ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS
r2
ΔE ΔE ⎞
⎛
(
n⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 + 2a ⎟i ) At a distance from the Sun of
= ⎝
c c ⎠ r = 1.0 × 1013 m the value of Δg is
≅
⎛ ΔE ΔE a ⎞
n⎜ m e + m p + m n + 2 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c c ⎠ Δg ≅ 8 × 10 −10 m.s −2
⎛
(
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ )
ΔE ⎞
≅⎜ c ⎟i Experiments in the pioneer 10
⎜ ΔE ⎟ spacecraft, at a distance from the Sun
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ of about 67 AU or r = 1.0 × 1013 m [45],
Since ΔE a << ΔE . measured an excess acceleration
The intensity of the gravitational towards the Sun of
forces between M g (imaginary ) and an
Δg = 8.74 ± 1.33 × 10 −10 m.s −2
imaginary particle with mass
m g (imaginary ) , both at rest, is given by
67
Note that the general expression for electromagnetic interaction which,
the gravity acceleration of the Sun is as we know, is conveyed by the
exchange of “virtual” photons.
(
g = 1+ ≈ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS If electrons, protons and neutrons
have psychic mass, then we can infer
r2
Therefore, in the case of the that the psychic mass of the atoms are
gravitational deflection of light about Phase Condensates *** . In the case of
the Sun, the new expression for the the molecules the situation is similar.
deflection of the light is More molecular mass means more
(
δ = 1+ ≈ 6 ×10 − 4 ) 4GM iS
(144)
atoms and consequently, more psychic
mass. In this case the phase
c2d
Thus, the increase in δ due to the condensate also becomes more
excess acceleration towards the Sun structured because the great amount
can be considered negligible. of elementary psyches inside the
Similarly to the collapse of the condensate requires, by stability
real wave function, the collapse of the reasons, a better distribution of them.
psychic wave function must suddenly Thus, in the case of molecules with
also express in reality all the very large molecular masses
possibilities described by it. This is, (macromolecules) it is possible that
therefore, a point of decision in which their psychic masses already constitute
there occurs the compelling need of the most organized shape of a Phase
realization of the psychic form. Thus, Condensate, called Bose-Einstein
this is moment in which the content of Condensate ††† .
the psychic form realizes itself in the The fundamental characteristic of
space-time. For an observer in space- a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we
time, something is real when it is in the know, that the various parts making up
form of matter or radiation. Therefore, the condensed system not only behave
the content of the psychic form may as a whole but also become a whole,
realize itself in space-time exclusively i.e., in the psychic case, the various
under the form of radiation, that is, it consciousnesses of the system
does not materialize. This must occur become a single consciousness with
when the Materialization Condition is psychic mass equal to the sum of the
not satisfied, i.e., when the content of psychic masses of all the
the psychic form is undefined consciousness of the condensate. This
(impossible to be defined by its own obviously, increases the available
psychic) or it does not contain enough knowledge in the system since it is
psychic mass to materialize §§ the proportional to the psychic mass of the
respective psychic contents.
Nevertheless, in both cases, ***
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of
there must always be a production of imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers,
“virtual” photons to convey the psychic super fluids, superconductors and magnets are
interaction to the other psychic examples of phase condensates more structured.
†††
particles, according to the quantum Several authors have suggested the possibility of
field theory, only through this type of the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the
brain, and that it might be the physical base of
quanta will interaction be conveyed, memory, although they have not been able to find a
since it has an infinite reach and may suitable mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis.
be either attractive or repulsive, just as Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein
condensates in living tissues abound (Popp, F.A
Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New
§§
By this we mean not only materialization proper Scientist, May89, p.41; Rattermeyer, M and Popp,
but also the movement of matter to realize its F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
psychic content (including radiation).
68
consciousness. This unity confers an correlated to Ψ and Ψ 2
Ψ1 . Only 2
Ψ2
‡‡‡
r r
becomes χ 2 g S . This means that χ 2 g S ≅ g ⊕ − 9.6 × 10 − 4 m.s − 2 =
r
has the same direction of g S . In (
= 1 − 9.7 × 10 − 5 g ⊕) (4 A )
addition, right after the lunar (Sh2) This decrease in g increases the
r
gravity becomes χg moon . Therefore, the pendulum’s period by about
total gravity acceleration in the Earth g⊕
T′ =T = 1 .000048 T
will be given by ( )
1 − 9 .4 × 10 − 5 g ⊕
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon (2 A) This corresponds to 0.0048% increase
in the pendulum’s period. Jun’s
abstract [53] tells us of a relative
Since g S ≅ 5.9 × 10 −3 m / s 2 and change less than 0.005% in the
−5
g moon ≅ 3.3 × 10 m / s Eq. (2A), gives
2 pendulum’s period associated with the
1990 solar eclipse.
For example, if the density of the
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1 .1) g S − (− 1 .1)g Moon =
2
top layer of the lunar atmosphere
≅ g ⊕ − 7 .1 × 10 − 3 m .s − 2 = increase up to 2.0917 × 10−18 k g m 3 , the
(
= 1 − 7 .3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) (3 A ) value for χ becomes
g⊕
T′ = T = 1.00037 T
(
1 − 7.3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) ≅ g ⊕ − 6.3 × 10−8 m.s −2 =
This corresponds to 0.037% increase ( )
= 1 − 6.4 × 10−9 g ⊕ (5 A)
in the period, and is roughly the value So, the total gravity acceleration in the
(0.0372%) obtained by Saxl and Allen Earth will decrease during the solar
during the total solar eclipse in March eclipses by about
1970 [48].
As we have seen, the density of 6.4 × 10 −9 g ⊕
the interplanetary medium near the
Moon is highly variable and can reach The size of the effect, as measured
values up to ~ 100 protons / cm 3 with a gravimeter, during the 1997
(1.7 ×10−19 k g m3 .) eclipse, was roughly (5 − 7 ) × 10 −9 g ⊕
When the density of the [54, 55].
interplanetary medium increases, the The decrease will be even
top layer of the lunar atmosphere can smaller forρ ≳ 2.0917 ×10-18kg.m-3. The
also increase its density, by absorbing lower limit now is set by Lageos
particles from the interplanetary satellites, which suffer an anomalous
medium due to the lunar gravitational
acceleration of only about 3 × 10 −13 g ⊕ ,
attraction. In the case of a density
increase of roughly 30% during “seasons” where the satellite
( )
1.7 × 10 k g m , the value for χ
−18 3 experiences eclipses of the Sun by the
Earth [56].
becomes
χ = − 0 .4
Consequently, we get
73
Fig. 1A – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shielding around the Moon – The top layer of the
Moon’s atmosphere with density of the order of 10-18 kg.m-3 , produces a gravitational shielding
r r
when subjected to the radiation from the Sun. Thus, the solar gravity g S becomes χ g S after the
r r
first shielding Sh1 and χ 2 g S after the second shielding Sh 2 . The Moon gravity becomes χ g Moon
after Sh 2 . Therefore the total gravity acceleration in the Earth will be given by
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon .
74
means that the gravity can have only other hand, the Eq. (2B) shows that the
discrete values different of zero. exclusion of η = 0 means the exclusion
Equation (33) shows that the of m g = 0 as a possible value for the
gravitational mass is quantized and
given by gravitational mass. Obviously, this also
means the exclusion of M g = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) (Relativistic mass). Equation (33) tells
us that M g = n 2 m g (min ) , thus we can
Since Eq. (43) leads to conclude that the exclusion of Mg = 0
implies in the exclusion of n = 0 since
mg(min) = mio(min)
mg(min) = mi0(min) = finite value (elementary
quantum of mass). Therefore Eq. (3B)
where
is only valid for values of n and η
different of zero. Finally, from the
mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9×10−73kg
quantized gravity equation (Eq. 34),
GM g ⎛ Gm g (min ) ⎞
is the elementary quantum of inertial g =− = n 2
⎜− ⎟=
r2 ⎜ (r )2 ⎟
mass. Then the equation ⎝ max n ⎠
for M g becomes = n 4 g min
we conclude that the exclusion of n = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) = n 2 mi (min ) means that the gravity can have only
discrete values different of zero.
On the other hand, Eq. (44)
shows that
M i = ni2 mi 0(min )
Thus, we can write that
2
Mg ⎛n ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or M g = η 2 M i (1B)
M i ⎝ ni ⎠
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76
It is shown that the gravity acceleration just above a chamber filled with gas or plasma at ultra-low
pressure can be strongly reduced by applying an Extra Low-Frequency (ELF) electromagnetic field
across the gas or the plasma. This Gravitational Shielding Effect is related to recent discovery of
quantum correlation between gravitational mass and inertial mass. According to the theory samples
hung above the gas or the plasma should exhibit a weight decrease when the frequency of the
electromagnetic field is decreased or when the intensity of the electromagnetic field is increased. This
Gravitational Shielding Effect is unprecedented in the literature and can not be understood in the
framework of the General Relativity. From the technical point of view, there are several applications for
this discovery; possibly it will change the paradigms of energy generation, transportation and
telecommunications.
CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION 02
II. THEORY 02
Gravity Control Cells (GCC) 07
III. CONSEQUENCES 09
Gravitational Motor using GCC 11
Gravitational Spacecraft 12
Decreasing of inertial forces on the Gravitational Spacecraft 13
Gravity Control inside the Gravitational Spacecraft 13
Gravitational Thrusters 14
Artificial Atmosphere surrounds the Gravitational Spacecraft. 15
Gravitational Lifter 15
High Power Electromagnetic Bomb (A new type of E-bomb). 16
Gravitational Press of Ultra-High Pressure 16
Generation and Detection of Gravitational Radiation 17
Quantum Gravitational Antennas. Quantum Transceivers 18
Instantaneous Interstellar Communications 18
Wireless Electric Power Transmission, by using Quantum Gravitational Antennas. 18
Method and Device using GCCs for obtaining images of Imaginary Bodies 19
Energy shieldings 19
Possibility of Controlled Nuclear Fusion by means of Gravity Control 20
IV. CONCLUSION 21
APPENDIX A 42
APPENDIX B 70
References 74
2
I. INTRODUCTION
It will be shown that the local In general, the momentum variation
gravity acceleration can be controlled by Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F
means of a device called Gravity Control is the applied force during a time
Cell (GCC) which is basically a recipient interval Δt . Note that there is no
filled with gas or plasma where is applied restriction concerning the nature of the
an electromagnetic field. According to force F , i.e., it can be mechanical,
the theory samples hung above the gas electromagnetic, etc.
or plasma should exhibit a weight For example, we can look on the
decrease when the frequency of the momentum variation Δp as due to
electromagnetic field is decreased or absorption or emission of electromagnetic
when the intensity of the electromagnetic energy by the particle.
field is increased. The electrical In the case of radiation, Δp can be
conductivity and the density of the gas or obtained as follows: It is known that the
plasma are also highly relevant in this radiation pressure, dP , upon an area
process.
dA = dxdy of a volume d V = dxdydz of
With a GCC it is possible to
convert the gravitational energy into a particle ( the incident radiation normal
rotational mechanical energy by means to the surface dA )is equal to the
of the Gravitational Motor. In addition, a energy dU absorbed per unit volume
new concept of spacecraft (the (dU dV ) .i.e.,
Gravitational Spacecraft) and aerospace
dP =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(2)
flight is presented here based on the dV dxdydz dAdz
possibility of gravity control. We will also
see that the gravity control will be very Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed
important to Telecommunication. of radiation) into the equation above
gives
II. THEORY dU (dU dAdt ) dD
It was shown [1] that the relativistic dP = = = (3)
dV v v
gravitational mass M g = m g 1 − V 2 c2
and the relativistic inertial mass Since dPdA = dF we can write:
M i = mi 0 1 − V 2 c 2 are quantized, and dFdt=
dU
(4)
v
given by M g = n g2 mi 0(min ) , M i = ni2 mi 0(min ) However we know that dF = dp dt , then
where n g and ni are respectively, the
dp =
dU
(5)
gravitational quantum number and the v
inertial quantum number ; From this equation it follows that
mi 0(min ) = ±3.9 × 10 kg is the elementary
−73
U ⎛c⎞ U
Δp = ⎜ ⎟ = nr
quantum of inertial mass. The masses v ⎝c⎠ c
m g and mi 0 are correlated by means of Substitution into Eq. (1) yields
the following expression: ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎜
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
⎢
U
nr ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
⎟
⎥⎪
(6)
⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ ⎝
2
⎠
⎢
mg = mi0 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥mi0 . (1) ⎩ ⎣
mi0 c
⎦⎭
⎢ ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Where U , is the electromagnetic energy
Where Δp is the momentum variation on absorbed by the particle; nr is the index
the particle and mi 0 is the inertial mass of refraction.
at rest.
3
Equation (6) can be rewritten in Equation (9) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
the following form E B = ω k r = v , i.e., E = vB = vμH .
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪ Then, Eq. (8) can be rewritten in the
⎢
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 (7) following form:
⎢ ⎜ ρ c2 r ⎟ ⎥
⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢
⎝ ⎠ ⎪
⎦⎥⎭ W = 12 (ε v2μ)μH 2 + 12 μH 2 (12)
Where W = U V is the density of For σ << ωε , Eq. (9) reduces to
electromagnetic energy and ρ = mi 0 V c
v=
is the density of inertial mass. ε r μr
The Eq. (7) is the expression of the Then, Eq. (12) gives
quantum correlation between the ⎡ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎤ 2 1 2
gravitational mass and the inertial mass W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH + 2 μH = μH2 (13)
⎢⎣ ⎝ εr μr ⎠ ⎥⎦
as a function of the density of
electromagnetic energy. This is also the This equation can be rewritten in the
expression of correlation between following forms:
B2
gravitation and electromagnetism.
W = (14)
The density of electromagnetic μ
energy in an electromagnetic field can be or
deduced from Maxwell’s equations [2] W = ε E2 (15)
and has the following expression
W = 12 ε E 2 + 12 μH 2 (8) For σ >> ωε , Eq. (9) gives
2ω
It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [3] v= (16 )
μσ
and
dz ω Then, from Eq. (12) we get
v= = =
c
(9) ⎡ ⎛ 2ω ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ωε ⎞
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ W = 12 ⎢ε⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH2 + 12 μH2 = ⎜ ⎟μH2 + 12 μH2 ≅
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
2
2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ μσ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝σ ⎠
Where kr is the real part of the ≅ 12 μH2 (17)
r
propagation vector k (also called phase Since E = vB = vμH , we can rewrite (17)
r in the following forms:
constant [4]); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ,
B2
are the electromagnetic characteristics of W ≅ (18)
2μ
the medium in which the incident (or
emitted) radiation is propagating or
⎛σ ⎞ 2
( ε = ε r ε 0 where ε r is the relative W ≅⎜ ⎟E (19 )
⎝ 4ω ⎠
dielectric permittivity and ε0 = 8.854×10−12F/ m
By comparing equations (14) (15) (18)
; μ = μrμ0 where μ r is the relative and (19) we see that Eq. (19) shows that
magnetic permeability and μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m; the better way to obtain a strong value of
W in practice is by applying an Extra
σ is the electrical conductivity). It is
Low-Frequency (ELF) electric field
known that for free-space σ = 0 and
ε r = μ r = 1 then Eq. (9) gives
(w = 2πf << 1Hz ) through a mean with
v=c (10) high electrical conductivity.
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq.
From (9) we see that the index of (7), gives
refraction nr = c v will be given by ⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
⎪ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E 4 ⎥⎪
c εμ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε) + 1⎞⎟ (11)
⎢
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1 ⎬mi0 (20)
nr = 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎟⎠ ρ 2 ⎥⎪
2
⎪⎩ ⎢
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦⎭
This equation shows clearly that if an
4
electrical conductor mean has j lamp
ρ << 1 Kg.m −3
and σ >> 1 , then it is
σ Hg plasma = = 3.419 S .m −1 (23)
E lamp
possible obtain strong changes in its Substitution of (22) and (23) into (20)
gravitational mass, with a relatively small yields
ELF electric field. An electrical conductor
mean with ρ << 1 Kg.m−3 is obviously a
mg(Hg plasma) ⎧⎪ ⎡ E 4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.909×10
⎢ −17
−1⎥⎬ (24)
mi(Hg plasma) ⎪ ⎢ f 3 ⎥⎪
plasma. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
There is a very simple way to test Thus, if an Extra Low-Frequency electric
Eq. (20). It is known that inside a
field E ELF with the following
fluorescent lamp lit there is low-pressure
Mercury plasma. Consider a 20W characteristics: E ELF ≈ 100V .m −1 and
T-12 fluorescent lamp (80044– f < 1mHZ is applied through the
F20T12/C50/ECO GE, Ecolux® T12), Mercury plasma then a strong decrease
whose characteristics and dimensions in the gravitational mass of the Hg
are well-known [5]. At around plasma will be produced.
T ≅ 318.15 K , an optimum mercury
0
It was shown [1] that there is an
vapor pressure of P = 6 ×10−3Torr= 0.8N.m−2 additional effect of gravitational shielding
is obtained, which is required for produced by a substance under these
maintenance of high luminous efficacy conditions. Above the substance the
throughout life. Under these conditions, gravity acceleration g 1 is reduced at the
the mass density of the Hg plasma can same ratio χ = m g mi 0 , i.e., g1 = χ g ,
be calculated by means of the well-
( g is the gravity acceleration under the
known Equation of State
substance). Therefore, due to the
ρ=
PM 0
(21) gravitational shielding effect produced by
ZRT
the decrease of m g (Hg plasma ) in the region
Where M 0 = 0.2006 kg.mol −1 is the
where the ELF electric field E ELF is
molecular mass of the Hg; Z ≅ 1 is the
compressibility factor for the Hg plasma; applied, the gravity acceleration just
R = 8.314 joule.mol −1 . 0 K −1 is the gases above this region will be given by
m g (Hg plasma)
universal constant. Thus we get g1 = χ (Hg plasma) g = g=
ρ Hg plasma ≅ 6.067 × 10 −5 kg.m −3 (22) mi (Hg plasma)
The electrical conductivity of the Hg ⎧⎪ ⎡ E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
plasma can be deduced from the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909 × 10 −17 ELF − 1⎥ ⎬ g (25)
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣
3
f ELF ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
continuum form of Ohm's Law j = σE ,
since the operating current through the The trajectories of the
lamp and the current density are well- electrons/ions through the lamp are
known and respectively given by determined by the electric field E lamp along
i = 0.35A [5] and jlamp = i S = i π4 φint
2
, where the lamp. If the ELF electric field across
φint = 36.1mm is the inner diameter of the the lamp E ELF is much greater than E lamp ,
lamp. The voltage drop across the the current through the lamp can be
electrodes of the lamp is 57V [5] and the interrupted. However, if EELF <<Elamp, these
distance between them l = 570mm . Then trajectories will be only slightly modified.
the electrical field along the lamp E lamp is Since here Elamp = 100 V .m−1 , then we can
given by Elamp = 57V 0.570m = 100 V.m−1 . max
arbitrarily choose E ELF ≅ 33 V . m −1 . This
Thus, we have means that the maximum voltage drop,
which can be applied across the metallic
5
plates, placed at distance d , is equal to mg1(Hg plasma)
the outer diameter (max * ) of the χ1(Hg plasma) = =
max
mi1(Hg plasma)
bulb φlamp of the 20W T-12 Fluorescent
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫
lamp, is given by ⎪ EELF ⎪
φlamp ≅ 1.5 V
max max
Vmax = E ELF
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.909×10
⎢ −17 (1)
− 1⎥⎬ (27)
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
3
⎣ ⎦⎭
max
Since φlamp = 40.3mm [5]. Then, above the second lamp, the
max
Substitution of EELF ≅ 33 V.m−1 into gravity acceleration becomes
(25) yields r r r
mg (Hg plasma) g 2 = χ 2(Hg plasma) g1 = χ 2(Hg plasma) χ1(Hg plasma) g (28)
g1 = χ (Hg plasma) g = g= where
mi (Hg plasma)
mg 2(Hg plasma)
⎧⎪ χ 2(Hg plasma) = =
⎡ 2.264× 10−11 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 3
− 1⎥⎬g (26) mi 2(Hg plasma)
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ELF ⎦⎥⎪⎭ ⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎪ E ELF
Note that, for f < 1mHz = 10 −3 Hz , the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909 × 10 −17 (2 )
− 1 ⎥⎬ (29)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 3
f ELF ( 2) ⎥⎪
gravity acceleration can be strongly ⎣ ⎦⎭
reduced. These conclusions show that Then, results
the ELF Voltage Source of the set-up
g2 ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
EELF ⎤⎫⎪
(1)
shown in Fig.1 should have the following = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3 − 1⎥⎬ ×
characteristics: g ⎪ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
- Voltage range: 0 – 1.5 V ⎧
⎪ ⎡ 4
EELF ⎤⎫⎪
- Frequency range: 10-4Hz – 10-3Hz × ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 ( 2)
− 1⎥⎬ (30)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 3
f ELF( 2) ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
In the experimental arrangement
shown in Fig.1, an ELF electric field with From Eq. (28), we then conclude that if
intensity E ELF = V d crosses the χ1(Hg plasma ) < 0 and also χ 2(Hg plasma ) < 0 ,
fluorescent lamp; V is the voltage drop then g 2 will have the same direction
across the metallic plates of the
of g . This way it is possible to intensify
capacitor and max
d = φlamp = 40.3mm .
several times the gravity in the direction
When the ELF electric field is applied, r
of g . On the other hand, if χ1(Hg plasma ) < 0
the gravity acceleration just above the r
lamp (inside the dotted box) decreases and χ 2(Hg plasma ) > 0 the direction of g 2 will
according to (25) and the changes can r
be contrary to direction of g . In this case
be measured by means of the system will be possible to intensify and
balance/sphere presented on the top of r r
become g 2 repulsive in respect to g .
Figure 1.
In Fig. 2 is presented an If we put a lamp above the second
experimental arrangement with two lamp, the gravity acceleration above the
fluorescent lamps in order to test the third lamp becomes
r r
gravity acceleration above the second g 3 = χ 3(Hg plasma) g 2 =
r
lamp. Since gravity acceleration above = χ 3(Hg plasma) χ 2(Hg plasma) χ1(Hg plasma) g (31)
the first lamp is given by
r r or
g1 = χ1(Hg plasma ) g , where
*
After heating.
6
g3 ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
4 Table1 presents the theoretical
EELF (1) ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3 − 1⎥⎬ × values for g 1 and g 2 , calculated
g ⎪ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ respectively by means of (25) and
(30).They are also plotted on Figures 5,
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫
⎪ EELF (2) ⎪ 6 and 7 as a function of the
× ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17
− 1⎥⎬ ×
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(2) ⎥⎪
3 frequency f ELF .
⎣ ⎦⎭
Now consider a chamber filled
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫ with Air at 3 × 10 −12 torr and 300K as
⎪ EELF ⎪
× ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3
(3)
− 1⎥⎬ (32) shown in Figure 8 (a). Under these
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(3) ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ circumstances, the mass density of the
If f ELF (1) = f ELF (2 ) = f ELF (3 ) = f and air inside the chamber, according to Eq.
(21) is ρ air ≅ 4.94 × 10 −15 kg.m −3 .
E ELF (1) = E ELF (2 ) = E ELF (3 ) = V φ = If the frequency of the magnetic
= V0 sin ωt 40.3mm = field, B , through the air is f = 60 Hz then
= 24.814V0 sin 2πft. ωε = 2πfε ≅ 3 × 10 −9 S / m . Assuming that
Then, for t = T 4 we get the electric conductivity of the air inside
the chamber, σ (air ) is much less than ωε ,
E ELF (1) = E ELF (2 ) = E ELF (3 ) = 24.814V0 .
Thus, Eq. (32) gives i.e., σ (air ) << ωε (The atmospheric air
3 conductivity is of the order of
g3 ⎧⎪ ⎡ V 4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.237×10−12 03 − 1⎥⎬ (33) 2 − 100 × 10 −15 S .m −1 [6, 7]) then we can
g ⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ rewritten the Eq. (11) as follows
For V0 = 1.5V and f = 0.2mHz
(t = T 4 = 1250s = 20.83min) the gravity
nr(air) ≅ ε r μr ≅ 1 (34)
r
acceleration g 3 above the third lamp will
From Eqs. (7), (14) and (34) we thus
be given by
r r obtain
g 3 = −5.126 g
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Above the second lamp, the gravity ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ B2 ⎞ ⎪
mg(air) = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ nr(air) ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi(air) =
acceleration given by (30), is
r r ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ μair ρairc
2
⎠ ⎥⎪
g 2 = +2.972g . ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
According to (27) the gravity acceleration
above the first lamp is
{ [ ]}
= 1 − 2 1 + 3.2 ×106 B4 −1 mi(air) (35)
r r
g1 = -1,724g
Therefore, due to the gravitational
Note that, by this process an
r shielding effect produced by the
acceleration g can be increased several
r decreasing of m g (air ) , the gravity
times in the direction of g or in the
acceleration above the air inside the
opposite direction.
chamber will be given by
In the experiment proposed in Fig.
m g (air )
1, we can start with ELF voltage g ′ = χ air g = g =
sinusoidal wave of amplitude V0 = 1.0V m i (air )
and frequency 1mHz . Next, the frequency
will be progressively decreased down
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 3 . 2 × 10 6 B 4 − 1 g ]}
to 0.8mHz , 0.6mHz , 0.4mHz and
Note that the gravity acceleration
0.2mHz . Afterwards, the amplitude of the
above the air becomes negative
voltage wave must be increased to
for B > 2.5 × 10 −2 T .
V0 = 1.5V and the frequency decreased
in the above mentioned sequence.
7
For B = 0.1T the gravity nitrogen atoms of the air in the
acceleration above the air becomes ionization chamber (See Fig. 3(c))
increasing the electrical conductivity of
g ′ ≅ −32.8 g the air inside the chamber. The high-
speed alpha particles hit molecules in
Therefore the ultra-low pressure air the air and knock off electrons to form
inside the chamber, such as the Hg ions, according to the following
plasma inside the fluorescent lamp, expressions
works like a Gravitational Shield that in
practice, may be used to build Gravity O2 + H e+ + → O2+ + e − + H e+ +
Control Cells (GCC) for several practical N 2 + H e+ + → N 2+ + e − + H e+ +
applications.
Consider for example the GCCs of
It is known that the electrical
Plasma presented in Fig.3. The
conductivity is proportional to both the
ionization of the plasma can be made of
concentration and the mobility of the ions
several manners. For example, by
and the free electrons, and is expressed
means of an electric field between the
by
electrodes (Fig. 3(a)) or by means of a
RF signal (Fig. 3(b)). In the first case the
σ = ρ e μe + ρi μi
ELF electric field and the ionizing electric Where ρ e and ρ i express respectively
field can be the same. ( )
the concentrations C m 3 of electrons
Figure 3(c) shows a GCC filled
and ions; μ e and μ i are respectively the
with air (at ambient temperature and 1
atm) strongly ionized by means of alpha mobilities of the electrons and the ions.
particles emitted from 36 radioactive ions In order to calculate the electrical
sources (a very small quantity of conductivity of the air inside the
Americium 241 † ). The radioactive ionization chamber, we first need to
element Americium has a half-life of 432 calculate the concentrations ρ e and ρ i .
years, and emits alpha particles and low We start calculating the disintegration
energy gamma rays (≈ 60 KeV ) . In order constant, λ , for the Am 241 :
0.693 0.693
to shield the alpha particles and gamma λ= = = 5.1 × 10 −11 s −1
rays emitted from the Americium 241 it is T
1
2 432 (
3.15 × 10 7
s )
sufficient to encapsulate the GCC with 1
epoxy. The alpha particles generated by Where T = 432 years is the half-life of
2
ρ i = eN i V ≈ 0.1 V (C m 3 )
amount of Am 241. For example, by
using 0.1g of Am 241 the value of R
Where V is the volume of the ionization increases to:
chamber. Obviously, the concentration of
electrons will be the same, i.e., ρ e = ρ i . R = λN ≅ 1010 disintegrations/s
For d = 2cm and φ = 20cm (See Fig.3(c))
we obtain This means Ni ≅ 1020 ions that yield
V = π4 (0.20) (2 × 10 −2 ) = 6.28 × 10 −4 m 3 The ρ i = eN i V ≈ 10 V (C m 3 )
2
{ [ ]}
mg( Al) particle and the others of the Universe,
χ Al = = 1 − 2 1 + 3.68×10−8 B4 −1 (45) just as Mach’s principle predicts. Hence
mi( Al) mentioned expression incorporates the
In practice it is possible to adjust B in Mach’s principle into Gravitation Theory,
order to become, for example, and furthermore reveals that the inertial
χ Al ≅ 10 . This occurs to B ≅ 76 .3T .
−9 effects upon a body can be strongly
reduced by means of the decreasing of
(Novel superconducting magnets are
its gravitational mass.
able to produce up to 14.7T [10, 11]).
Then the gravity acceleration in Consequently, we conclude that if
any direction inside the spacecraft, g l′ , the gravitational forces upon the
spacecraft are reduced from 109 times
will be reduced and given by
then also the inertial forces upon the
13
spacecraft will be reduced from 109 times radioactive material, it is possible to
when χ Al ≅ −10 −9 . Under these increase the air conductivity inside the
conditions, the inertial effects on the GCC up to σ (air) ≅ 106 S .m−1 . Then
crew would be strongly decreased. for f = 10 Hz ; ρ (air ) = 4.94 × 10−15 kg.m −3
Obviously this leads to a new concept of
(Air at 3 ×10-12 torr, 300K) and we obtain
{[ ] }
aerospace flight.
Inside the spacecraft the χ air = 2 1 + 2.8 × 1021 B 4 − 1 − 1 (57)
gravitational forces between the For B = BGCC = 0.1T (note that, due to
dielectric with gravitational mass, M g
the Meissner effect, the magnetic field
and the man (gravitational mass, m g ), BGCC stay confined inside the
when B = 0 are superconducting box) the Eq. (57) yields
r r M g mg
Fm = − FM = −G μ̂ (46)
r2 χ air ≅ −10 9
or
r Mg
Fm = −G 2 m gˆμ = − m g g M ˆμ (47 ) Since there is no magnetic
r field through the dielectric presented in
r mg Fig.10 then, Mg ≅ Mi . Therefore if
FM = +G 2 M gˆμ = + M g g mˆμ (48)
r M g ≅ Mi =100Kg and r = r0 ≅ 1m the
If the superconducting box under M g
gravity acceleration upon the man,
(Fig. 10) is filled with air at ultra-low according to Eq. (55), is
pressure (3×10-12 torr, 300K for example) a man ≅ 10m .s −1
then, when B ≠ 0 , the gravitational mass
of the air will be reduced according to Consequently it is easy to see that this
(35). Consequently, we have system is ideal to yield artificial gravity
inside the spacecraft in the case of inter-
g ′M = (χ steel ) χ air g M ≅ χ air g M (49)
2
stellar travel, when the gravity
g m′ = (χ steel ) χ air g m ≅ χ air g m (50)
2
acceleration out of the spacecraft - due
r r to the Universe - becomes negligible.
Then the forces Fm and FM become
r The vertical displacement of the
Fm = −m g (χ air g M )ˆμ (51) spacecraft can be produced by means of
r
FM = + M g (χ air g m )ˆμ (52) Gravitational Thrusters. A schematic
diagram of a Gravitational Thruster is
Therefore if χ air = −n we will have shown in Fig.11. The Gravitational
r
Fm = +nmg g M μ̂ (53) Thrusters can also provide the horizontal
r displacement of the spacecraft.
FM = −nM g g m μ̂ (54) The concept of Gravitational
r r Thruster results from the theory of the
Thus, Fm and FM become repulsive.
Gravity Control Battery, showed in Fig. 8
Consequently, the man inside the (b). Note that the number of GCC
spacecraft is subjected to a gravity increases the thrust of the thruster. For
acceleration given by example, if the thruster has three GCCs
r Mg
aman = ngMˆμ = −χ air G 2 ˆμ (55) then the gravity acceleration upon the
r gas sprayed inside the thruster will be
Inside the GCC we have, repulsive in respect to M g (See Fig.
⎧ ⎡ σ B4 ⎤⎫⎪ 11(a)) and given by
m ⎪
χair = g(air) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + (air)2 2 − 1⎥⎬ (56) Mg
mi(air) ⎪ ⎢⎣ 4πfμρ(air)c ⎥⎦⎪ a gas = (χ air ) (χ steel ) g ≅ −(χ air ) G
3 4 3
⎩ ⎭
r02
By ionizing the air inside the GCC
(Fig. 10), for example, by means of a Thus, if inside the GCCs, χair ≅ −109
14
(See Eq. 56 and 57) then the equation Let us now calculate the
above gives gravitational forces between two very
Mi close thin layers of the air around the
a gas ≅ +10 27 G
r02 spacecraft. (See Fig. 13).
The gravitational force dF12 that
For M i ≅ 10kg , r0 ≅ 1m and m gas ≅ 10 −12 kg
dm g1 exerts upon dm g 2 , and the
the thrust is
F = m gas a gas ≅ 10 5 N
gravitational force dF21 that dm g 2 exerts
Thus, the Gravitational Thrusters are upon dm g1 are given by
able to produce strong thrusts. r r dmg2 dmg1
Note that in the case of very dF12 = dF21 = −G μ̂ (58)
r2
strong χ air , for example χ air ≅ −10 9 , the Thus, the gravitational forces between
gravity accelerations upon the boxes of the air layer 1, gravitational mass m g1 ,
the second and third GCCs become very
and the air layer 2, gravitational mass
strong (Fig.11 (a)). Obviously, the walls
m g 2 , around the spacecraft are
of the mentioned boxes cannot to stand
the enormous pressures. However, it is r r G mg1 mg 2
F12 = −F21 = − 2 ∫ ∫ dmg1dmg 2ˆμ =
possible to build a similar system with 3 r 0 0
or more GCCs, without material boxes. mg1mg 2 mi1mi 2
Consider for example, a surface with = −G ˆ
μ = −χ air χ air G ˆμ (59)
several radioactive sources (Am-241, for r2 r2
example). The alpha particles emitted At 100km altitude the air pressure is
from the Am-241 cannot reach besides 5.691×10−3 torr and ρ(air) = 5.998×10−6 kg.m−3 [12].
10cm of air. Due to the trajectory of the By ionizing the air surround the
alpha particles, three or more successive spacecraft, for example, by means of an
layers of air, with different electrical oscillating electric field, E osc , starting
conductivities σ 1 , σ 2 and σ 3 , will be
from the surface of the spacecraft ( See
established in the ionized region (See Fig. 13) it is possible to increase the air
Fig.11 (b)). It is easy to see that the conductivity near the spacecraft up to
gravitational shielding effect produced by σ (air) ≅ 106 S .m−1 . Since f = 1Hz and, in
these three layers is similar to the effect
produced by the 3 GCCs shown in Fig. this case σ (air ) >> ωε , then, according to
11 (a).
Eq. (11), nr = μσ(air)c 2 4πf . From
It is important to note that if F is
force produced by a thruster then the Eq.(56) we thus obtain
spacecraft acquires acceleration ⎧ ⎡ σ B4 ⎤⎫⎪
m ⎪
a spacecraft given by [1] χair = g(air) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + (air) 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (60)
mi(air) ⎪ ⎢ 4πfμ0ρ(air)c ⎥
F F ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
a spacecraft = = Then for B = 763T the Eq. (60) gives
M g (spacecraft) χ Al M i (inside) + mi ( Al )
Therefore if χ Al ≅ 10 −9 ;
and mi ( Al ) = 100 Kg (inertial mass of the
M i(inside) = 104 Kg
{ [ ]}
χ air = 1 − 2 1+ ~ 104 B 4 − 1 ≅ −108 (61)
aluminum shell) then it will be necessary By substitution of χ air ≅ −108 into Eq.,
F = 10kN to produce
(59) we get
a spacecraft = 100m .s −2 r r
Note that the concept of Gravitational
m m
F12 = −F21 = −1016 G i1 2 i 2 μ̂ (62)
r
Thrusters leads directly to the
Gravitational Turbo Motor concept (See
Fig. 12).
15
−8
If mi1 ≅ mi 2 = ρ air V1 ≅ ρ air V2 ≅ 10 kg , and aspect of the flight dynamics of a
Gravitational Spacecraft.
r = 10 −3 m we obtain Before starting the flight, the
r r
F12 = −F21 ≅ −10−4 N (63) gravitational mass of the spacecraft, M g ,
These forces are much more intense must be strongly reduced, by means of a
than the inter-atomic forces (the forces gravity control system, in order to
which maintain joined atoms, and r
produce – withr a weak thrust F , a strong
molecules that make the solids and
acceleration, a , given by [1]
liquids) whose intensities, according to r
r F
the Coulomb’s law, is of the order of a=
1-1000×10-8N. Mg
Consequently, the air around the In this way, the spacecraft could be
spacecraft will be strongly compressed strongly accelerated and quickly to reach
upon their surface, making an “air shell” very high speeds near speed of light.
that will accompany the spacecraft If the gravity control system of the
during its displacement and will protect spacecraft is suddenly turned off, the
the aluminum shell of the direct attrition gravitational mass of the spacecraft
with the Earth’s atmosphere. becomes immediately equal to its inertial
In this way, during the flight, the mass, M i , (M g′ = M i ) and the velocity
attrition would occur just between the “air r r
shell” and the atmospheric air around V becomes equal to V ′ . According to
her. Thus, the spacecraft would stay free the Momentum Conservation Principle,
of the thermal effects that would be we have that
produced by the direct attrition of the M gV = M g′ V ′
aluminum shell with the Earth’s Supposing that the spacecraft was
atmosphere. traveling in space with speed V ≈ c , and
Another interesting effect produced that its gravitational mass it was
by the magnetic field B of the M g = 1Kg and M i = 10 4 Kg then the
spacecraft is the possibility of to lift a
velocity of the spacecraft is reduced to
body from the surface of the Earth to the
Mg Mg
spacecraft as shown in Fig. 14. By V′ = V= V ≈ 10−4 c
ionizing the air surround the spacecraft, ′
Mg Mi
by means of an oscillating electric field, Initially, when the velocity of the
E osc , the air conductivity near the r
spacecraft is V , its kinetic energy is
Ek = (Mg −mg )c2. Where Mg = mg 1 − V 2 c2 .
spacecraft can reach, for example,
σ (air ) ≅ 10 6 S .m −1 . Then for f = 1Hz ;
At the instant in which the gravity control
B = 40.8T and ρ(air) ≅ 1.2kg.m−3 (300K and system of the spacecraft is turned off,
1 atm) the Eq. (56) yields the kinetic energy becomes
Ek′ = (Mg′ − m′g )c . Where Mg′ = m′g 1 − V ′2 c2 .
2
χ air = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + 4.9 ×10−7 B4 − 1⎤⎥⎫⎬ ≅ −0.1 We can rewritten the expressions of
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ E k and E k′ in the following form
Ek = (MgV − mgV )
Thus, the weight of the body becomes c2
Pbody = mg (body) g = χ air mi (body) g = mi(body) g ′ V
Ek′ = (M g′V ′ − m′gV ′)
Consequently, the body will be lifted on c2
the direction of the spacecraft with V′
acceleration Substitution of M gV = M g′ V ′ = p ,
g ′ = χ air g ≅ +0.98m.s −1
Let us now consider an important
16
mgV = p 1−V c and m′gV ′ = p 1 − V ′ c into
2 2 2 2 Obviously this electromagnetic
pulse (EMP) will induce heavy currents
the equations of E k and E k′ gives in all electronic equipment that mainly
( ) pcV contains semiconducting and conducting
2
Ek = 1 − 1 − V 2 c 2 materials. This produces immense heat
E ′ = (1 − c )
2 that melts the circuitry inside. As such,
pc
1 − V ′2 2
while not being directly responsible for
V′
k
the loss of lives, these EMP are capable
Since V ≈ c then follows that of disabling electric/electronic systems.
Therefore, we possibly have a new type
E k ≈ pc of electromagnetic bomb. An
electromagnetic bomb or E-bomb is a
On the other hand, since V ′ << c we get well-known weapon designed to disable
( ) pcV ′ electric/electronic systems on a wide
2
E k′ = 1 − 1 − V ′ 2 c 2 = scale with an intense electromagnetic
⎛ ⎞
pulse.
⎜ ⎟ Based on the theory of the GCC it
⎟ pc ≅ ⎛⎜ V ′ ⎞⎟ pc
2
⎜
≅ 1−
1
is also possible to build a Gravitational
⎜ V ′2 ⎟ V′ ⎝ 2c ⎠
⎜ 1 + 2 + ... ⎟ Press of ultra-high pressure as shown in
⎝ 2c ⎠ Fig.15.
Therefore we conclude that E k >> E k′ . The chamber 1 and 2 are GCCs
Consequently, when the gravity control with air at 1×10-4torr, 300K
system of the spacecraft is turned off, (σ (air ) ≈ 10 S .m ; ρ (air ) = 5 × 10 kg .m −3 .
6 −1 −8
)
occurs an abrupt decrease in the kinetic
Thus, for f = 10 Hz and B = 0.107T we
energy of the spacecraft, ΔE k , given by
have
⎧ ⎡ σ (air) B 4 ⎤⎫
ΔEk = Ek − Ek′ ≈ pc ≈ M g c 2 ≈ 1017 J ⎪ ⎢
χ air = ⎨1− 2 1+
⎪
−1⎥⎬ ≅ −118
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4πfμ0 ρ(air) c
2 2 ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
By comparing the energy ΔE k with the
inertial energy of the spacecraft, The gravity acceleration above the
E i = M i c 2 , we conclude that air of the chamber 1 is
r
ΔE k ≈
Mg
Ei ≈ 10 − 4 M i c 2
g1 = χ stellχ air gˆμ ≅ +1.15×103ˆμ (64)
Mi Since, in this case, χ steel ≅ 1 ; μ̂ is an
The energy ΔE k (several megatons) unitary vector in the opposite direction of
r
must be released in very short time g.
interval. It is approximately the same Above the air of the chamber 2 the
amount of energy that would be released gravity acceleration becomes
in the case of collision of the spacecraft ‡ .
r
However, the situation is very different of g2 = (χ stell ) (χair ) gˆμ ≅ −1.4 × 105ˆμ (65)
2 2
stars (at least 8M sun at birth). It requires high to f 4 (Eq. 87). Thus, for example,
−8
temperatures ( > 5×108 K ) and densities if f = 10 Hz , the current necessary to
produce the nuclear reactions will be
( > 3 × 10 9 kg .m −3 ). The principal reactions are:
23 i rms = 130 A .
Na + p + 2.24 MeV
12
C + 12C → 20
Ne + α + 4.62 MeV IV.CONCLUSION
24
Mg + γ +13.93 MeV The process described here is clearly
In the case of Carbon nuclei ( C) of a thin 12 the better way in order to control the gravity.
This is because the Gravity Control Cell in
carbon wire ( σ ≅ 4 ×104 S.m−1 ; ρ = 2.2 ×103 S.m−1 ) this case is very easy to be built, the cost is
Eq. (86) becomes low and it works at ambient temperature.
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ e2 The Gravity Control is the starting point for
⎪ ⎢ −39 jrms
⎥⎬ >
⎨1− 2 1+ 9.08×10 −1 the generation of and detection of Virtual
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎪ 16πε0Gm2p
⎦⎭ Gravitational Radiation (Quantum
whence we conclude that the condition for Gravitational Transceiver) also for the
the 12C + 12C fusion reactions occur is construction of the Gravitational Motor and
3 the Gravitational Spacecraft which includes
jrms > 1.7 ×1018 f 4 (87) the system for generation of artificial gravity
If the electric current through the carbon wire presented in Fig.10 and the Gravitational
has Extremely-Low Frequency (ELF), for Thruster (Fig.11). While the Gravitational
example, if f = 1μHz , then the current Transceiver leads to a new concept in
Telecommunication, the Gravitational Motor
density, j rms , must have the following value:
changes the paradigm of energy conversion
jrms > 5.4 ×1013 A.m−2 (88) and the Gravitational Spacecraft points to a
Since j rms = i rms S where S = πφ 2 4 is the new concept in aerospace flight.
area of the cross section of the wire, we can
conclude that, for an ultra-thin carbon wire
22
g
2 g2
1 χ 2 Hg plasma
fELF(2)
g1
χ1Hg plasma
fELF(1)
mg (Hg )
g1 =
plasma
g
mi (Hg plasma )
Electrodes
Low-density plasma ~ ELF Voltage Source
Electrodes
(a)
mg (Hg )
g1 =
plasma
g
mi (Hg plasma )
g ~
ELF Voltage Source
(b)
(c)
Gravitational Shielding
Spacecraft
a Mg
g’ = χair g
g = G mg / r2
mg
The gravity accelerations on the spacecraft (due to the rest of the Universe) can be controlled by
means of the gravitational shielding, i.e.,
g’i = χair gi i = 1, 2, 3 … n
Thus,
Fis= Fsi = Mg g’i = Mg (χair gi)
Then the inertial forces acting on the spacecraft (s) can be strongly reduced. According to the Mach’s
principle this effect can reduce the inertial properties of the spacecraft and consequently, leads to a new
concept of spacecraft and aerospace flight.
f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3
g1/g 1
g1/g
1.0V
g1/g
-1
1.5V
-2
f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3
g2/g
1.5V
g2/g 1
g2/g 1.0V
-1
-2
f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3
g2/g
1.5V
gi/g 1
g1/g
1.5V
-1
-2
Inductor
Air at ultra-low pressure
Steel Box
g ′′ = χ air g ′
g ′ = χ steel g
(a)
g 3 = χ 3 χ 2 χ1 g
χ3 GCC 3
g 2 = χ 2 χ1 g
Steel Boxes χ2 GCC 2
g1 = χ 1 g
χ1 GCC 1
(b)
Fig. 8 – (a) Gravity Control Cell (GCC) filled with air at ultra-low pressure.
(b) Gravity Control Battery (Note that if χ1 = χ 2−1 = −1 then g ′′ = g )
31
g’’= g
Gravity Control Cell
(Steel box)
R
g’
r
Massive Rotor
r
g
Superconducting
Ring
FM
Mg
Superconducting mg
Box Fm
μ̂
Fig. 10 – The Gravitational Spacecraft – Due to the Meissner effect, the magnetic field
B is expelled from the superconducting shell. Similarly, the magnetic field BGCC, of the
GCC stay confined inside the superconducting box.
33
Gas
Mg mg a μ
gas
GCC GCC GCC
FM Fm
Gas
Material boxes
(a)
σ3 <σ2 (χair 3)
Am - 241
g
(b)
Gas Helix
HIGH
GAS
Gas
Eosc
dmg2
dF12 r
dF21
Air Layer 1 Air Layer 2
dmg1
Spacecraft
Fig. 13 – Gravitational forces between two layers of the “air shell”. The electric field Eosc
provides the ionization of the air.
36
Eosc
Spacecraft
μ̂
r
( )
g ′ = χ air gμˆ ≅ + 0.98m.s −2 μˆ
χair
Eosc
φinn
m2 H
Sτ B g 2 ≅ −1.4 × 10 6 m .s −2
m g = −9.81m .s −2 H
S
P=R/S
Graviphotons
v=∞
GCC
Coil
i Real Gravitational Waves
v=c
f
GCC GCC
Graviphotons
v=∞
i i
f f
103atoms
Dielectric 102atoms
103atoms
f Graviphotons f
v=∞
Dielectric
(108 atoms)
Transmitter Receiver
(a)
Conductor Conductor
Microantenna
(b)
Fig. 17 – Quantum Gravitational Microantenna
40
(iM )(im ) M g mg
F = −G = +G
g g
v
2
r r2
Crystal
F F
iMg Mg = Mi
Imaginary body
img (Mi = inertial mass)
(a)
Crystal
χair ≅ 10-2
micro-crystals
⏐ Gravitational Shielding ⏐
Display
(c)
Fig.18 – Method and device using GCCs for obtaining images of imaginary bodies.
41
χ > 0.159
⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞h
qm = χ ⎜ ⎟ qm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
⎛V ⎞ h associated to the
qi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟ q i = 0*
material particle
⎝ c ⎠λ
E, f ρ,σ
h h
qr = χ qr ≅
λ λ
real photon
imaginary photon
associated to the
q i = [1 − χ ]
h qi = 0 real photon
λ
(a)
* There are a type of neutrino, called "ghost” neutrino, predicted by General Relativity, with zero mass
and zero momentum. In spite its momentum be zero, it is known that there are wave functions that
describe these neutrinos and that prove that really they exist.
χ < 0.159
⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞ h
qm = χ ⎜ ⎟ qm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
⎛V ⎞ h qi = 0 associated to the
qi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
qr = χ qr ≅
λ λ
real photon
imaginary photon
associated to the
q i = [1 − χ ]
h qi = 0 real photon
λ
(b)
Fig. 19 – The phenomenon of reduction of the momentum. (a) Shows the reduction of
momentum for χ > 0.159 . (b) Shows the effect when χ < 0.159 . Note that in both cases, the
material particles collide with the cowl with the momentum q m = χ (V c )(h λ ) , and the
h
photons with q r = χ . Therefore, that by making χ ≅ 0 , it is possible to block high-energy
λ
particles and ultra-intense fluxes of radiation.
42
χ=
mg
mi0
{ [
≅ 1−2 1+ 0.13I DC
4
−1 ]} ( A19) impedance <2Ω at ELF.
Figure A4 shows the equivalent electric
circuit for the experimental set-up. The
For I DC = 2.2 A , the equation above gives electromotive forces are: ε1 (HP3325A) and ε 2
⎛ mg ⎞
( A 20 )
(12V DC Battery).The values of the resistors are
χ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ≅ −1
⎟ : R1 = 500Ω − 2W ; ri1 < 2Ω ; R2 = 4Ω − 40W ;
⎝ i0 ⎠
m
This means that the gravitational shielding ri 2 < 0.1Ω ; R p = 2 .5 × 10 −3 Ω ; Rheostat (0≤
produced by the aluminum foil can change the R ≤10Ω - 90W). The coupling transformer has the
gravity acceleration above the foil down to following characteristics: air core with diameter
g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g ( A21) φ = 10 mm ; area S = πφ 2 4 = 7.8 × 10 −5 m 2 ;
Under these conditions, the Aluminum foil works
basically as a Gravity Control Cell (GCC). wire#12AWG; N1 = N2 = N = 20; l = 42mm;
In order to check these theoretical L1 = L2 = L = μ0 N (S l ) = 9.3 ×10 H .Thus, we
2 −7
circumstances, the Aluminum foil remains R = 10Ω . In this way, the voltage V p (with
invisible. frequency f = 2 μHz ) applied on the capacitor
Now consider a rigid Aluminum wire # 14
AWG. The area of its cross section is will produce an electric field E p with intensity
If an ELF electric current with thickness h = 3mm . It is important to note that this
frequency f = 2μHz = 2 × 10 Hz passes through
−6 plate cannot be connected to ground (earth), in
other words, cannot be grounded, because, in
this wire, its gravitational mass, given by (A16),
will be expressed by
46
this case, the electric field through it will be null
††
insulation layer with relative permittivity εr
.
According to Eq. A14, when and dielectric strength k . A voltage source is
connected to the Aluminum foil in order to provide
p =Vp
Emax max
h = 0.036 V / m, f = 2μHz and
a voltage V0 (rms) with frequency f . Thus, the
σ Al = 3 . 82 × 10 7 S / m , ρ Al = 2700kg / m3 electric potential V at a distance r , in the
(Aluminum), we get interval from r0 to a , is given by
m ( Al )
χ = ≅ − 0 .9
m i ( Al ) V=
1 q
( A23)
4πε r ε 0 r
Under these conditions, the maximum current
density through the plate with thickness h will be In the interval a < r ≤ b the electric potential is
E0 =
1 q
( A26)
resistance of the plate is very small, i.e.,
4πε r ε 0 r02
R plate = h σ Al A ≅ 2 × 10−9 Ω . By comparing (A26) with (A25), we obtain
V0
Note that the area A of the plate (where
the Gravitational Shielding takes place) can have E0 = ( A27)
r0
several geometrical configurations. For example,
it can be the area of the external surface of an Vb at r = b is
The electric potential
ellipsoid, sphere, etc. Thus, it can be the area of
1 q ε r V 0 r0
the external surface of a Gravitational Spacecraft. Vb = = ( A28 )
In this case, if A ≅ 100m , for example, the
2 4πε 0 b b
maximum dissipated power will be Consequently, the electric field Eb is given by
Pmax ≅ 15.4kW , i.e., approximately 154W / m 2 . 1 q ε rV0 r0
All of these systems work with Extra-Low Eb = = ( A29)
4πε 0 b 2 b2
( −3
)
Frequencies f <<10 Hz . Now, we show that,
From r = r0 up to r = b = a + d the electric
by simply changing the geometry of the surface
of the Aluminum foil, it is possible to increase the field is approximately constant (See Fig. A7).
working frequency f up to more than 1Hz. Along the distance d it will be called E air . For
Consider the Aluminum foil, now with r > a + d , the electric field stops being constant.
several semi-spheres stamped on its surface, as Thus, the intensity of the electric field at
shown in Fig. A7 . The semi-spheres have r = b = a + d is approximately equal to E0 ,
radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and are joined one to
i.e., Eb ≅ E 0 . Then, we can write that
another. The Aluminum foil is now coated by an
ε rV0 r0 V0
≅ ( A30)
††
When the voltage Vp is applied on the capacitor, the b2 r0
charge distribution in the dielectric induces positive whence we get
and negative charges, respectively on opposite sides of
the Aluminum plate with thickness h. If the plate is not b ≅ r0 ε r ( A31)
connected to the ground (Earth) this charge Since the intensity of the electric field through the
distribution produces an electric field Ep=Vp/h through air, E air , is Eair ≅ Eb ≅ E0 , then, we can write that
the plate. However, if the plate is connected to the
q ε rV0 r0
ground, the negative charges (electrons) escapes for Eair =
1
= 2 ( A32)
the ground and the positive charges are redistributed 4πε0 b 2 b
along the entire surface of the Aluminum plate making
Note that ε r refers to the relative permittivity of
null the electric field through it.
47
the insulation layer, which is covering the 1 3
⎛ Eair ⎞ ⎛b⎞
( A39)
2 2
Aluminum foil. σ air = 2α⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
If the intensity of this field is greater than ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝a⎠
the dielectric strength of the air 3 × 10 V / m ( 6
) If the insulation layer has thickness
there will occur the well-known Corona effect. Δ = 0.6 mm , ε r ≅ 3.5 (1- 60Hz),
Here, this effect is necessary in order to increase
the electric conductivity of the air at this region k = 17kV / mm (Acrylic sheet 1.5mm thickness),
(layer with thickness d). Thus, we will assume and the semi-spheres stamped on the metallic
ε rV min
r V min surface have r0 = 0.9 mm (See Fig.A7) then
min
Eair = 0 0
= 0
= 3×106 V / m
b 2
r0 a = r0 + Δ = 1.5 mm. Thus, we obtain from Eq.
and (A33) that
ε rV max
r V max
V0min = 2.7kV
max
Eair = 0 0
= = 1×107 V / m ( A33)
0
b 2
r0 V0max = 9kV ( A40)
The electric field E min
air ≤ E air ≤ E max
air will From equation (A31), we obtain the following
produce an electrons flux in a direction and an value for b :
ions flux in an opposite direction. From the b = r0 ε r = 1.68×10−3 m ( A41)
viewpoint of electric current, the ions flux can be
Since b = a + d we get
considered as an “electrons” flux at the same
direction of the real electrons flux. Thus, the d = 1.8 × 10 −4 m
current density through the air, j air , will be the Substitution of a , b , d and A(32) into (A39)
double of the current density expressed by the produces
1 1
well-known equation of Langmuir-Child
3 3 3
σ air = 4.117×10−4 Eair = 1.375×10−2 V0
2 2
4
j = εrε0
2e V 2
= α
V2
= 2.33×10−6 V
2
( A34) Substitution of σ air , E air (rms ) and
9 me d2 d2 d2 ρ air = 1.2 kg .m −3 into (A14) gives
where ε r ≅ 1 for the air; α = 2.33 × 10 −6
is the
mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
called Child’s constant. = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 air2 air3 −1⎥⎬ =
Thus, we have mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ ρair f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
3 ⎩ ⎣
V2
jair = 2α 2 ( A35) ⎧⎪ ⎡ 5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
−21 V0
d = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 4.923×10 − 1⎥⎬ ( A42)
where d , in this case, is the thickness of the air ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
layer where the electric field is approximately
For V0 = V0 = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the result is
max
constant and V is the voltage drop given by
1 q 1 q mg (air)
V = Va − Vb = − = ≅ −1.2
4πε 0 a 4πε 0 b mi0(air)
⎛ b − a ⎞ ⎛ ε r r0 d ⎞
= V0 r0ε r ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟V0 ( A36) Note that, by increasing V0 , the values of
⎝ ab ⎠ ⎝ ab ⎠ E air and σ air are increased. Thus, as show
By substituting (A36) into (A35), we get (A42), there are two ways for decrease the value
3 3 3
2α ⎛ ε r r0dV0 ⎞ 2α ⎛ ε r r0V0 ⎞
2 2
⎛b⎞ 2 of m g (air ) : increasing the value of V0 or
jair = ⎜ ⎟ = 1⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =
d 2 ⎝ ab ⎠ d 2 ⎝ b2 ⎠ ⎝ a⎠ decreasing the value of f .
3 Since E0
max
= 107 V / m = 10kV / mm and
2α ⎛ b ⎞2
( A37)
3
= 1 Eair⎜ ⎟
2
Δ = 0.6 mm then the dielectric strength of the
d2 ⎝ a⎠ insulation must be ≥ 16.7kV / mm . As
According to the equation of the Ohm's vectorial mentioned above, the dielectric strength of the
Law: j = σE , we can write that acrylic is 17kV / mm .
σair =
jair
( A38) It is important to note that, due to the
strong value of E air (Eq. A37) the drift velocity
Eair
Substitution of (A37) into (A38) yields vd , (vd = jair ne = σ air Eair ne) of the free
charges inside the ionized air put them at a
48
distance x = vd t = 2 fvd ≅ 0.4m , which is much means of a convenient process, several semi-
−4
spheres can be stamped on its surface. The
greater than the distance d =1.8 ×10 m .
semi-spheres have radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and
Consequently, the number n of free charges
decreases strongly inside the air layer of are joined one to another. Next, take an acrylic
thickness d ‡‡ , except, obviously, in a thin layer, sheet (A4 format) with 1.5mm thickness (See
very close to the dielectric, where the number of Fig.A8 (a)). Put a heater below the Aluminum
free charges remains sufficiently increased, to plate in order to heat the Aluminum (Fig.A8 (b)).
When the Aluminum is sufficiently heated up, the
maintain the air conductivity with σ air ≅ 1.1S / m
acrylic sheet and the Aluminum plate are
(Eq. A39). pressed, one against the other, as shown in Fig.
The thickness h of this thin air layer close A8 (c). The two D devices shown in this figure are
to the dielectric can be easily evaluated starting used in order to impede that the press
from the charge distribution in the neighborhood compresses the acrylic and the aluminum to a
of the dielectric, and of the repulsion forces distance shorter than y + a . After some seconds,
established among them. The result is remove the press and the heater. The device is
h = 0.06e 4πε 0 E ≅ 4 × 10−9 m . This is, therefore, ready to be subjected to a voltage V0 with
the thickness of the Air Gravitational Shielding. If frequency f , as shown in Fig.A9. Note that, in
the area of this Gravitational Shielding is equal to
this case, the balance is not necessary, because
the area of a format A4 sheet of paper,
the substance that produces the gravitational
i.e., A = 0.20 × 0.291= 0.0582m , we obtain the
2
shielding is an air layer with thickness d above
following value for the resistance R air of the the acrylic sheet. This is, therefore, more a type
of Gravity Control Cell (GCC) with external
Gravitational Shielding: Rair = h σair A≅ 6×10−8 Ω.
gravitational shielding.
Since the maximum electrical current through this It is important to note that this GCC can be
air layer is i max = j max A ≅ 400 kA , then the made very thin and as flexible as a fabric. Thus, it
maximum power radiated from the Gravitational can be used to produce anti- gravity clothes.
( ) 2
These clothes can be extremely useful, for
Shielding is Pair max
= Rair iair
max
≅ 10kW . This example, to walk on the surface of high gravity
means that a very strong light will be radiated planets.
from this type of Gravitational Shielding. Note that Figure A11 shows some geometrical
this device can also be used as a lamp, which will forms that can be stamped on a metallic surface
be much more efficient than conventional lamps. in order to produce a Gravitational Shielding
Coating a ceiling with this lighting system effect, similar to the produced by the semi-
enables the entire area of ceiling to produce light. spherical form.
This is a form of lighting very different from those An obvious evolution from the semi-
usually known. spherical form is the semi-cylindrical form shown
in Fig. A11 (b); Fig.A11(c) shows concentric
max
Note that the value Pair ≅ 10kW , defines the metallic rings stamped on the metallic surface, an
power of the transformer shown in Fig.A10. Thus, evolution from Fig.A11 (b). These geometrical
the maximum current in the secondary is forms produce the same effect as the semi-
i smax = 9kV 10 kW = 0.9 A . spherical form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using
concentric metallic rings, it is possible to build
Above the Gravitational Shielding, σ air is Gravitational Shieldings around bodies or
reduced to the normal value of conductivity of the spacecrafts with several formats (spheres,
( )
atmospheric air ≈ 10 −14 S / m . Thus, the power ellipsoids, etc); Fig. A11 (d) shows a Gravitational
Shielding around a Spacecraft with ellipsoidal
radiated from this region is
( ) σ A=
form.
= (d − h ) i air
max max 2
Pair air
The previously mentioned Gravitational
= (d − h )Aσ (E ) ≅ 10
Shielding, produced on a thin layer of ionized air,
max 2 −4 has a behavior different from the Gravitational
air air W
Now, we will describe a method to coat the Shielding produced on a rigid substance. When
Aluminum semi-spheres with acrylic in the the gravitational masses of the air molecules,
necessary dimensions (Δ = a − r0 ) , we propose
inside the shielding, are reduced to within the
range + 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , they go to
the following method. First, take an Aluminum
the imaginary space-time, as previously shown in
plate with 21cm × 29.1cm (A4 format). By
this article. However, the electric field E air stays
‡‡
Reducing therefore, the conductivity σ air , to the at the real space-time. Consequently, the
molecules return immediately to the real space-
normal value of conductivity of the atmospheric air.
49
time in order to return soon after to the imaginary since the shielding does not stop to work, due
space-time, due to the action of the electric to its extremely short permanence at the
field E air . imaginary space-time. Under these
circumstances, the gravitational mass of the
In the case of the Gravitational Shielding Gravitational Shielding can be reduced to
produced on a solid substance, when the
molecules of the substance go to the imaginary m g ≅ 0 . For example, m g ≅ 10 −4 kg . Thus, if
space-time, the electric field that produces the the inertial mass of the Gravitational Shielding is
effect, also goes to the imaginary space-time
together with them, since in this case, the
mi 0 ≅ 1kg , then χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −4 . As we
substance of the Gravitational Shielding is rigidly have seen, this means that the inertial effects on
the spacecraft will be reduced by χ ≅ 10 . Then,
connected to the metal that produces the electric −4
field. (See Fig. A12 (b)). This is the fundamental
in spite of the effective acceleration of the
difference between the non-solid and solid −2
spacecraft be, for example, a = 10 m.s , the
5
Gravitational Shieldings.
Now, consider a Gravitational Spacecraft effects on the crew of the spacecraft will be
that is able to produce an Air Gravitational equivalent to an acceleration of only
Shielding and also a Solid Gravitational mg
Shielding, as shown in Fig. A13 (a) §§ . Assuming a′ = a = χ a ≈ 10m.s −1
that the intensity of the electric field, E air ,
mi 0
This is the magnitude of the acceleration upon
necessary to reduce the gravitational mass of
the passengers in a contemporary commercial
the air molecules to within the range
jet.
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , is much smaller Then, it is noticed that Gravitational
than the intensity of the electric field, E rs , Spacecrafts can be subjected to enormous
accelerations (or decelerations) without imposing
necessary to reduce the gravitational mass of any harmful impacts whatsoever on the
the solid substance to within the range spacecrafts or its crew.
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , then we Now, imagine that the intensity of the
conclude that the Gravitational Shielding made of electric field that produces the Gravitational
ionized air goes to the imaginary space-time Shielding around the spacecraft is increased up
before the Gravitational Shielding made of solid to reaching the value E rs that reduces the
substance. When this occurs the spacecraft does gravitational mass of the solid Gravitational
not go to the imaginary space-time together with Shielding to within the range
the Gravitational Shielding of air, because the air + 0.159 m i < m g < −0.159 mi . Under these
molecules are not rigidly connected to the
spacecraft. Thus, while the air molecules go into circumstances, the solid Gravitational Shielding
the imaginary space-time, the spacecraft stays in goes to the imaginary space-time and, since it is
the real space-time, and remains subjected to the rigidly connected to the spacecraft, also the
effects of the Gravitational Shielding around it, spacecraft goes to the imaginary space-time
together with the Gravitational Shielding. Thus,
§§ the spacecraft can travel within the imaginary
The solid Gravitational Shielding can also be space-time and make use of the Gravitational
obtained by means of an ELF electric current through Shielding around it.
a metallic lamina placed between the semi-spheres As we have already seen, the maximum
and the Gravitational Shielding of Air (See Fig.A13 velocity of propagation of the interactions in the
(a)). The gravitational mass of the solid Gravitational imaginary space-time is infinite (in the real space-
Shielding will be controlled just by means of the
time this limit is equal to the light velocity c ). This
intensity of the ELF electric current. Recently, it was
means that there are no limits for the velocity of
discovered that Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be
the spacecraft in the imaginary space-time. Thus,
added to Alumina (Al2O3) to convert it into a good
the acceleration of the spacecraft can reach, for
electrical conductor. It was found that the electrical
conductivity increased up to 3375 S/m at 77°C in example, a = 109 m.s −2 , which leads the
samples that were 15% nanotubes by volume [12]. It spacecraft to attain velocities
−1
is known that the density of α-Alumina is 3.98kg.m-3 V ≈ 10 m.s (about 1 million times the speed
14
and that it can withstand 10-20 KV/mm. Thus, these of light) after one day of trip. With this velocity,
values show that the Alumina-CNT can be used to after 1 month of trip the spacecraft would have
make a solid Gravitational Shielding. In this case, the 21
traveled about 10 m . In order to have idea of
electric field produced by means of the semi-spheres
this distance, it is enough to remind that the
will be used to control the gravitational mass of the
diameter of our Universe (visible Universe) is of
Alumina-CNT. 26
the order of 10 m .
50
Due to the extremely low density of the then the dielectric strength of the insulation
imaginary bodies, the collision between them must be ≥ 173kV / mm . As shown in the table
cannot have the same consequences of the below *** , 0.1mm - thickness of Mica can
collision between the real bodies. withstand 17.6 kV (that is greater
Thus, for a Gravitational Spacecraft in
than V0max = 15.6kV ), in such way that the
imaginary state, the problem of the collision in
high-speed doesn't exist. Consequently, the dielectric strength is 176 kV/mm.
Gravitational Spacecraft can transit freely in the The Gravitational Thrusters are positioned
imaginary Universe and, in this way, reach easily at the spacecraft, as shown in Fig. A13 (b).
any point of our real Universe once they can Then, when the spacecraft is in the intergalactic
make the transition back to our Universe by only space, the gravity acceleration upon the
increasing the gravitational mass of the gravitational mass m gt of the bottom of the
Gravitational Shielding of the spacecraft in such thruster (See Fig.A13 (c)), is given by [2]
way that it leaves the range of + 0.159 M i Mg
r 10 r
a ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
10
to − 0.159M i .
r
The return trip would be done in similar
way. That is to say, the spacecraft would transit where M g is the gravitational mass in front of
in the imaginary Universe back to the departure
the spacecraft.
place where would reappear in our Universe.
For simplicity, let us consider just the effect
Thus, trips through our Universe that would delay
of a hypothetical volume
millions of years, at speeds close to the speed of
light, could be done in just a few months in the V = 10 × 10 × 10 = 10 m
3 3 7 3
of intergalactic
imaginary Universe. (
matter in front of the spacecraft r ≅ 30m . The )
In order to produce the acceleration of average density of matter in the intergalactic
a ≈ 10 9 m.s −2 upon the spacecraft we propose a medium (IGM) is ρig ≈ 10−26 kg.m−3 ) ††† . Thus,
Gravitational Thruster with 10 GCCs (10
for χ air ≅ −1.6 ×10 we get
4
Gravitational Shieldings) of the type with several
semi-spheres stamped on the metallic surface, as
) (6.67 × 10 )⎛⎜⎜ 10 ⎞
−19
previously shown, or with the semi-cylindrical
form shown in Figs. A11 (b) and (c). The 10
(
a = − − 1.6 × 10 4
10 −11
2
⎟⎟ =
GCCs are filled with air at 1 atm and 300K. If the
⎝ 30 ⎠
insulation layer is made with Mica (ε r ≅ 5.4 ) and = −10 9 m.s − 2
has thickness Δ = 0.1 mm , and the semi- In spite of this gigantic acceleration, the inertial
spheres stamped on the metallic surface have effects for the crew of the spacecraft can be
strongly reduced if, for example, the gravitational
r0 = 0.4 mm (See Fig.A7) then mass of the Gravitational Shielding is reduced
a = r0 + Δ = 0.5 mm. Thus, we get
***
b = r0 εr = 9.295×10−4 m The dielectric strength of some dielectrics can have
different values in lower thicknesses. This is, for
and example, the case of the Mica.
d = b − a = 4.295 ×10 −4 m Dielectric Thickness (mm) Dielectric Strength (kV/mm)
Then, from Eq. A42 we obtain Mica 0.01 mm 200
Mica 0.1 mm 176
mg (air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪ Mica 1 mm 61
χair = = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.758×10−27 air2 air3 −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢⎣ ρair f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ †††
Some theories put the average density of the
⎧⎪ ⎡ V 5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
Universe as the equivalent of one hydrogen atom per
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.0 ×10−18 0 3 −1⎥⎬ cubic meter [13,14]. The density of the universe,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ however, is clearly not uniform. Surrounding and
stretching between galaxies, there is a rarefied plasma
For V0 = V0max = 15.6kV and f = 0.12Hz, the result is [15] that is thought to possess a cosmic filamentary
structure [16] and that is slightly denser than the
mg (air)
χ air = ≅ −1.6 ×104 average density in the universe. This material is called
mi0(air) the intergalactic medium (IGM) and is mostly ionized
hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of
Since E 0max = V0max r0 is now given by electrons and protons. The IGM is thought to exist at a
E0max =15.6kV 0.9mm=17.3kV / mm and Δ = 0.1 mm density of 10 to 100 times the average density of the
Universe (10 to 100 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter,
i.e., ≈ 10 −26 kg.m −3 ).
51
−6
down to m g ≅ 10 kg and its inertial mass is Spacecraft can reach about 50000 km/h in a
few seconds. Obviously, the Gravitational
mi 0 ≅ 100kg . Then, we get Shielding of the spacecraft will reduce strongly
the inertial effects upon the crew of the
χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −8
. Therefore, the inertial spacecraft, in such way that the inertial effects of
effects on the spacecraft will be reduced by this strong acceleration will not be felt. In
χ ≅ 10−8 , and consequently, the inertial effects on addition, the artificial atmosphere, which is
possible to build around the spacecraft, by means
the crew of the spacecraft would be equivalent to of gravity control technologies shown in this
an acceleration a′ of only article (See Fig.6) and [2], will protect it from the
[ ( )] χ
atmosphere. In this case, it is sufficient
only χ air ≅ −10 in order to obtain:
‡‡‡ ′ = χ air
a10 10
a 0′ = χ air
10
− GM g r ′ 2 s
ρ atmV
a = −(χ air ) G
10
r 2
≅ where [χ (− GM
10
air g )]
r ′ 2 < a10 , since r′ > r .
) ( ) ≅ 10
Thus, for a10 ≅ 10 9 m.s −2 and χ s ≈ 10 −8 we
10
(
≅ −(− 10) 6.67 × 10 −11
1.2 10 7 4
m.s −2 ′ < 10m.s −2
(20)2 conclude that a10 . This means that
With this acceleration the Gravitational ′ << a10 . Therefore, we can write that the
a10
resultant on the micro-thruster can be expressed
‡‡‡
This value is within the range of values of χ by means of the following relation
(χ < − 10 3
)
. See Eq . A15 , which can be produced by
R ≅ F10 = χ air
10
F0
means of ELF electric currents through metals as
Aluminum, etc. This means that, in this case, if
convenient, we can replace air inside the GCCs of the Figure A15 (c) shows a Micro-Gravitational
Gravitational Micro-thrusters by metal laminas with Thruster with 10 Air Gravitational Shieldings (10
ELF electric currents through them. GCCs). Thin Metallic laminas are placed after
52
each Air Gravitational Shielding in order to retain 1 3
⎛ Eair
⎞2⎛ b⎞2 1
the electric field E b = V0 x , produced by metallic σair=2α⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =0.029V02 (A46)
surface behind the semi-spheres. The laminas ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a⎠
with semi-spheres stamped on its surfaces are Note that b = r0 ε r ( H2O) . Therefore, here the
connected to the ELF voltage source V0 and the
value of b is larger than in the case of the acrylic.
thin laminas in front of the Air Gravitational
Consequently, the electrical conductivity of the air
Shieldings are grounded. The air inside this
layer will be larger here than in the case of
Micro-Gravitational Thruster is at 300K, 1atm.
acrylic.
We have seen that the insulation layer of a
GCC can be made up of Acrylic, Mica, etc. Now, Substitution of σ (air ) , E air (rms) and
we will design a GCC using Water (distilled ρ air = 1.2kg .m −3 into Eq. A14, gives
water, ε r ( H 2O ) = 80 ) and Aluminum semi-
radius r0 = 1 . 3 mm .
mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ V5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
cylinders with Thus,
for Δ = 0.6mm , the new value of a is a = 1.9mm . =⎨1−2⎢ 1+4.54×10−20 03 −1⎥⎬ ( A47)
mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
Then, we get ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
b = r0 εr(H2O) = 11.63×10−3m ( A43)
For V0 = V0 = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the result
max
d = b − a = 9.73×10−3m ( A44)
and is
1 q mg (air)
Eair = = ≅ −8.4
4πεr(air)ε 0 b 2 mi0(air)
V0 r0 This shows that, by using water instead of acrylic,
= ε r( H ) = the result is much better.
2O
ε r(air)b 2 In order to build the GCC based on the
calculations above (See Fig. A16), take an Acrylic
V0 r0 V0
= ≅ = 1111.1 V0 ( A45) plate with 885mm X 885m and 2mm thickness,
ε r(air) r0 then paste on it an Aluminum sheet with
895.2mm X 885mm and 0.5mm thickness(note
Note that
that two edges of the Aluminum sheet are bent as
V0 r0 shown in Figure A16 (b)). Next, take 342
E( H2O) =
ε r ( H2O) Aluminum yarns with 884mm length and
2.588mm diameter (wire # 10 AWG) and insert
and
them side by side on the Aluminum sheet. See in
V0 r0 Fig. A16 (b) the detail of fixing of the yarns on the
E(acrylic) =
ε r (acrylic) Aluminum sheet. Now, paste acrylic strips (with
13.43mm height and 2mm thickness) around the
Therefore, E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) are much Aluminum/Acrylic, making a box. Put distilled
smaller than E air . Note that for V0 ≤ 9kV the water (approximately 1 litter) inside this box, up to
a height of exactly 3.7mm from the edge of the
intensities of E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) are not acrylic base. Afterwards, paste an Acrylic lid
sufficient to produce the ionization effect, which (889mm X 889mm and 2mm thickness) on the
increases the electrical conductivity. box. Note that above the water there is an air
Consequently, the conductivities of the water and layer with 885mm X 885mm and 7.73mm
−1 thickness (See Fig. A16). This thickness plus the
the acrylic remain << 1 S.m . In this way, with
acrylic lid thickness (2mm) is equal to
E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) much smaller than E air ,
d = b − a = 9.73mm where b = r0 ε r(H2O) =11.63mm
and σ ( H 2O ) << 1 , σ (acrylic ) << 1 , the decrease in
and a = r0 + Δ = 1.99 mm , since r0 = 1.3mm ,
both the gravitational mass of the acrylic and the
gravitational mass of water, according to Eq.A14, ε r ( H 2O ) = 80 and Δ = 0.6mm .
is negligible. This means that only in the air layer Note that the gravitational action of the
the decrease in the gravitational mass will be electric field E air , extends itself only up to the
relevant. distance d , which, in this GCC, is given by the
Equation A39 gives the electrical
sum of the Air layer thickness (7.73mm) plus the
conductivity of the air layer, i.e.,
thickness of the Acrylic lid (2mm).
Thus, it is ensured the gravitational effect
on the air layer while it is practically nullified in
53
the acrylic sheet above the air layer, since
E (acrylic ) << E air and σ (acrylic ) << 1 .
With this GCC, we can carry out an
experiment where the gravitational mass of the
air layer is progressively reduced when the
voltage applied to the GCC is increased (or when
the frequency is decreased). A precision balance
is placed below the GCC in order to measure the
mentioned mass decrease for comparison with
the values predicted by Eq. A(47). In total, this
GCC weighs about 6kg; the air layer 7.3grams.
The balance has the following characteristics:
range 0-6kg; readability 0.1g. Also, in order to
prove the Gravitational Shielding Effect, we can
put a sample (connected to a dynamometer)
above the GCC in order to check the gravity
acceleration in this region.
In order to prove the exponential effect
produced by the superposition of the
Gravitational Shieldings, we can take three
similar GCCs and put them one above the other,
in such way that above the GCC 1 the gravity
acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the GCC2
g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3 g ′′′ = χ 3 g .
Where χ is given by Eq. (A47).
It is important to note that the intensity of
the electric field through the air below the GCC is
much smaller than the intensity of the electric
field through the air layer inside the GCC. In
addition, the electrical conductivity of the air
below the GCC is much smaller than the
conductivity of the air layer inside the GCC.
Consequently, the decrease of the gravitational
mass of the air below the GCC, according to
Eq.A14, is negligible. This means that the GCC1,
GCC2 and GCC3 can be simply overlaid, on the
experiment proposed above. However, since it is
necessary to put samples among them in order to
measure the gravity above each GCC, we
suggest a spacing of 30cm or more among them.
54
Dynamometer
50 mm
g g
g′ = χ g
Sample
Aluminum foil Foam Board
GCC
Battery 12V
R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
10Ω - 90W Coupling
Transformer
Function Generation
Flexible Copper wire
HP3325A # 12 AWG
ε1
R1
500Ω - 2W
Figure A2 – Experimental Set-up 1.
55
Gum
(Loctite Super Bonder)
Aluminum foil
Foam Board
GCC
ri1
ε1 ~ Rp
f = 2 μHz
Wire # 12 AWG
Gravitational
R1 Shielding
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2
(a)
ε 1 = Function Generator HP3325A(Option 002 High Voltage Output)
ri1 < 2Ω; R1 = 500Ω − 2 W ; ε 2 = 12V DC; ri 2 < 0.1Ω (Battery );
R2 = 4Ω − 40W ; R p = 2.5 × 10 −3 Ω; Reostat = 0 ≤ R ≤ 10Ω − 90W
I1max = 56mA (rms ); I 2max = 3 A ; I 3max ≅ 3 A (rms )
Coupling Transformer to isolate the Function Generator from the Battery
• Air core 10 - mm diameter; wire # 12 AWG; N1 = N 2 = 20; l = 42mm
I1 ε2 T
+ − ri 2
I2 R
ri1
−5
ε1 GCC l = 1cm → Rφ = 5.23 × 10 Ω
~ l
0.5 2 h =3mm
f = 2 μHz
d
i
Wire # 12 AWG e
l
e Al 200 mm
R1 c
t
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2 r
P # 12 AWG i
c
(b)
R = 0 ⇒ V pmax = 1.1 × 10−4V Gravitational
Shielding
R = 10 ⇒ V pmin = 4.0 × 10−5V
j
ELF electric current Wire
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪
− 27 μr j
4
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758 ×10 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ σρ 2 f 3 ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎭
Figure A5 – An ELF electric current through a wire, that makes a spherical form as shown above,
reduces the gravitational mass of the wire and the gravity inside sphere at the same proportion
χ = m g mi 0 (Gravitational Shielding Effect). Note that this spherical form can be transformed into
an ellipsoidal form or a disc in order to coat, for example, a Gravitational Spacecraft. It is also
possible to coat with a wire several forms, such as cylinders, cones, cubes, etc. The characteristics
of the wire are expressed by: μ r , σ , ρ ; j is the electric current density and f is the frequency.
58
Dynamometer
Battery 12V
R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
Coupling
Transformer
Function Generation
HP3325A Flexible Copper wire
# 12 AWG
ε1
R1
Figure A6 – Experimental set-up 2.
59
r0
Aluminum Foil
~ V0 , f
Heater
(b)
Press
D D
y+a
(c)
Δ=0.6 mm
r0 =0.9 mm a = 1.5 mm
(d)
Dynamometer
50 mm
g g
GCC
g′ = χ g
Sample
Acrylic/Aluminum
High-voltage V0
Rheostat Oscillator
Transformer f > 1Hz
Gravitational Shielding
d
R
V0
GCC
Acrylic /Aluminum
V0max = 9 kV
Oscillator
V0min = 2.7 kV ~ f > 1Hz
(a)
Acrylic
Pin wire
Aluminum
Connector
(High-voltage)
(b)
10kV
Figure A10 – (a) Equivalent Electric Circuit. (b) Details of the electrical connection with the
Aluminum plate. Note that others connection modes (by the top of the device) can produce
destructible interference on the electric lines of the E air field.
63
(a) (b)
Metallic Rings
Metallic base
(c)
Eair
Gravitational Shielding εr
Metallic Rings
Oscillator f
Transformer
V0
Dielectric layer
Ionized air (d)
Figure A11 – Geometrical forms with similar effects as those produced by the semi-spherical form – (a)
shows the semi-spherical form stamped on the metallic surface; (b) shows the semi-cylindrical form (an
obvious evolution from the semi-spherical form); (c) shows concentric metallic rings stamped on
the metallic surface, an evolution from semi-cylindrical form. These geometrical forms produce
the same effect as that of the semi-spherical form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using concentric
metallic rings, it is possible to build Gravitational Shieldings around bodies or spacecrafts with
several formats (spheres, ellipsoids, etc); (d) shows a Gravitational Shielding around a Spacecraft
with ellipsoidal form.
64
Dielectric
Metal Dielectric Metal (rigidly connected to the spacecraft)
Spacecraft E
Spacecraft E
(a) (b)
Figure A12 – Non-solid and Solid Gravitational Shieldings - In the case of the Gravitational
Shielding produced on a solid substance (b), when its molecules go to the imaginary space-time,
the electric field that produces the effect also goes to the imaginary space-time together with
them, because in this case, the substance of the Gravitational Shielding is rigidly connected (by
means of the dielectric) to the metal that produces the electric field. This does not occur in the
case of Air Gravitational Shielding.
65
Micro-Gravitational Thruster
(b)
Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Intergallactic
medium
(IGM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
m gt r
Mg
Mg ρ igmV
a = χ 10 G = χ 10 G
r2 r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ igm∼10-26kg.m-3
(c)
Figure A13 – Double Gravitational Shielding and Micro-thrusters – (a) Shows a double
gravitational shielding that makes possible to decrease the inertial effects upon the spacecraft
when it is traveling both in the imaginary space-time and in the real space-time. The solid
Gravitational Shielding also can be obtained by means of an ELF electric current through a metallic
lamina placed between the semi-spheres and the Gravitational Shielding of Air as shown above. (b)
Shows 6 micro-thrusters placed inside a Gravitational Spacecraft, in order to propel the
spacecraft in the directions x, y and z. Note that the Gravitational Thrusters in the spacecraft
must have a very small diameter (of the order of millimeters) because the hole through the
Gravitational Shielding of the spacecraft cannot be large. Thus, these thrusters are in fact Micro-
thrusters. (c) Shows a micro-thruster inside a spacecraft, and in front of a volume V of the
intergalactic medium (IGM). Under these conditions, the spacecraft acquires an acceleration a in
the direction of the volume V.
66
Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Interstellar
medium
(ISM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ismV
a = χ 10 G 2
= χ 10 G
r r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ ism∼10-21kg.m-3
(a)
Volume V
of the
Interplanetary
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings medium
(IPM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ipmV
a=χ G 10
=χ G10
Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ ipm∼10-20kg.m-3
(b)
Volume V
of the
Earth’s
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings
atmospheric
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ atmV
a = χ 10 G = χ 10 G
Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ atm∼1.2kg.m-3
(c)
Figure A14 – Gravitational Propulsion using Micro-Gravitational Thruster – (a) Gravitational
acceleration produced by a gravitational mass Mg of the Interstellar Medium. The density of the
Interstellar Medium is about 105 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium (b)
Gravitational acceleration produced in the Interplanetary Medium. (c) Gravitational acceleration
produced in the Earth’s atmosphere. Note that, in this case, ρatm (near to the Earth’s surface)is about
1026 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium.
67
r
F’0 F2 =χair2F0 F’2=χair2F’0 F0 r
F1 =χairF0 F’1 =χairF’0
Mg Mg
S2 S1
F’0 = F0 => R = (F’0 – F2) + (F1 – F’1 ) + (F’2 – F0) = 0
(a)
Micro-Gravitational Thruster
with 10 gravitational shieldings
Gravitational Shielding
r’ χ s ≅ −10 −8 a’0 r
a’0 =χs(-GMg /r’2) a10=χair10a0 a0 = - GMg/r2
Mg Mg
R ≅ F10 = χ 10
air F0
Metal
Mica
(b) Grounded Metallic laminas
1 GCC
Air Gravitational Shielding
x
10mm
ELF
~
V0 ~ 400 mm
(c)
Figure A15 – Dynamics and Structure of the Micro-Gravitational Thrusters - (a) The Micro-Gravitational
Thrusters do not work outside the Gravitational Shielding, because, in this case, the resultant upon the thruster is
( )
null due to the symmetry. (b) The Gravitational Shielding χ s ≅ 10 −8 reduces strongly the intensities of the
gravitational forces acting on the micro-gravitational thruster, except obviously, through the hole in the
gravitational shielding. (c) Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 Air Gravitational Shieldings (10GCCs). The
grounded metallic laminas are placed so as to retain the electric field produced by metallic surface behind the
semi-spheres.
68
0.885 m
Sample
Any type of material; any mass
Acrylic Box
(2mm thickness) g’= χ g
2 mm
d = 9.73 mm Air layer mg (air) = χ mi (air) 7.73 mm
Distilled Water a = 1.9 mm
3.2 mm
1.8 mm
2 mm
Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness) V0max = 9 kV
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) Balance
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) ~ 2 Hz
Transformer
g
0.885 m
0.884 m
1mm 1mm
Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness)
Balance
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) 1.5mm
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) 0.5 mm
3.6mm
0.885 m
70
cm Sample 5Kg
mg Any type of material; any mass
g ′′′ = χ 3 g
GCC 3 Balance
70
cm 5Kg
mg
g ′′ = χ 2 g
GCC 2 Balance
70
cm 5Kg
mg
g′ = χ g
GCC 1 Balance
Fig. A17 – Experimental set-up. In order to prove the exponential effect produced by the
superposition of the Gravitational Shieldings, we can take three similar GCCs and put them one above
the other, in such way that above the GCC 1 the gravity acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the
GCC2 g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3 g ′′′ = χ 3 g . Where χ is given by Eq. (A47). The arrangement
above has been designed for values of mg < 13g and χ up to -9 or mg < 1kg and χ up to -2 .
70
given by (
Under this circumstance σ << ωε , we can )
substitute Eq. 15 and 34 into Eq. 7. Thus, we get
q = (C1 + C2 + C3 +...+ Cn )V = n(εr(water)ε0 ) V (B1)
A
d ⎧⎪ ⎡ μ ε 3 E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
m g (air ) = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + air 2 air 2 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (air )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ c ρ air ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
In Fig. I we show a GCC with two capacitors
connected in parallel. It is easy to see that the ⎧⎪ ⎡ E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric charge density σ 0 on each area A0 = az
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 9.68 × 10 − 57 2 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (air ) (B 5 )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρ air ⎥⎦ ⎭⎪
of the edges B of the thin laminas (z is the thickness
of the edges B and a is the length of them, see
Fig.B2) is given by The density of the air at 10-4 Torr and 300K is
ρ air = 1 . 5 × 10 − 7 kg . m − 3
= n (ε r ( water )ε 0 ) (B 2 )
q A
σ0 = V
A0 azd Thus, we can write
Thus, the electric field E between the edges B is
m g (air )
2σ 0 ⎛ ε r ( water ) ⎞ A χ = =
E= = 2 n⎜ ⎟
⎜ ε r (air ) ⎟ azd
V (B 3) m i (air )
ε r (air )ε 0 ⎝ ⎠
Since A = L x L y , we can write that = ⎧⎨1 − 2 ⎡ 1 + 4 . 3 × 10 − 43 E 4 − 1⎤ ⎫⎬ (B 6 )
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎦⎥ ⎭
P = m g g 1 = −1.2m g g
****
It is easy to see that by substituting the water for
Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) the dimensions L x , L y of the
capacitors can be strongly reduced due to
ε r (BaTiO3) = 1200 .
71
Lamina
Edge B of the
Gravitational
Thin Lamina
Shielding (0.1mm thickness)
εr (air) g1 = χ g χ<1
Vacuum Chamber
(INOX) E Encapsulating
(10- 4 Torr, 300K) (EPOXI)
B B
g
Parallel plate
Capacitors Insulating holder
Dielectric:
Bidistilled Water
εr (water) = 81 d = 10 mm
V (60Hz)
Vmax=220V
Lx
q = (C1+C2+...+Cn) V =
= n [εr (water) / εr (air)] [A/A0] V / d
εr (water) = 81 ; εr (air) ≅ 1
Figure B1 – Gravity Control Cell (GCC) using a battery of capacitors. According to Eq. 7 , the
electric field, E, through the air at 10-4 Torr; 300K, in the vacuum chamber, produces a gravitational
shielding effect. The gravity acceleration above this gravitational shielding is reduced to χg where χ
< 1.
72
Gravitational Shielding Lx
Ly E a
Lamina Lamina
Vacuum Chamber
EPOXI
Thin laminas
Thickness = z
Length = a
Top view
A0 = a z ; A = Lx Ly
+P
Sample −P
Any type of material
Any mass
Gravitational g1 = χ g χ<1
Shielding
GCC
↓g
mgg1 = -χ g mg
Elementar Motor
GCC
Figure B3 – Experimental arrangement with a GCC using battery of capacitors. By means of this
set-up it is possible to check the weight of the sample even when it becomes negative.
74
REFERENCES
1. DeAquino, F. 2010. Mathematical Foundations
15. Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl. Phys. Lett.
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity.
83, 1228.
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology.
11(1), pp.173-232.
16. Davidson, K. & Smoot, G. (2008)
Wrinkles in Time. N. Y: Avon, 158-163.
2. Freire, G. F. O and Diniz, A. B. (1973)
Ondas Eletromagnéticas, Ed. USP,p.26.
17. Silk, Joseph. (1977) Big Bang. N.Y,
Freeman, 299.
3. Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)
Physics, J. Willey & Sons, Portuguese
18. Jafelice, L.C. and Opher, R. (1992). The
Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.
origin of intergalactic magnetic fields
due to extragalactic jets. RAS.
4. Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo,
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-
McGraw-Hill, p.255 and 269.
bib query? Bib code = 1992 MNRAS.
257. 135J. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
5. GE Technical Publications (2007),
80044 – F20T12/C50/ECO, GE Ecolux ®T12. 19. Wadsley, J., et al. (2002). The Universe
in Hot Gas. NASA.
6. Aplin, K. L. (2000) PhD thesis, The http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap
University of Reading, UK 020820. html. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
7. Aplin K. L (2005) Rev. Sci. Instrum. 76,
104501.
Abstract: The existence of imaginary mass associated to the neutrino is already well-known.
Although its imaginary mass is not physically observable, its square is. This amount is found
experimentally to be negative. Recently, it was shown that quanta of imaginary mass exist
associated to the electron and the photon too. These imaginary masses have unusual
properties that violate the Parity Conservation Principle. The non-conservation of the parity is
also found in the weak interactions, and possibly can be explained by means of the existence of
the imaginary masses. Also protons and neutrons would have imaginary masses associated to
them and, in this way, atoms and molecules would also have imaginary masses directly
proportional to their atomic and molecular masses. The Parity Conservation Principle holds that
the material particles are not able to distinguish their right from their left. The non-conservation
of the parity would necessarily imply capability of "choice". Thus, as the particles with imaginary
mass don't conserve the parity, they would have the elementary capability of “choosing between
their right or left”. Where there is “choice” isn’t there also psychism, by definition? This
fundamental discovery shows that, in some way, the consciousnesses are related to the
imaginary masses. This fact, make it possible to redefine Psychology on a Quantum Physics
basis.
Key words: Quantum Psychology, Quantized Fields, Unification and Mass Relations,
Quantum Mechanics, Bose-Einstein Condensation, Origin of the Universe.
PACs: 03.70.+k; 12.10.Kt; 14.80.Cp; 03.65.-w; 03.75.Nt; 98.80.Bp.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the last decades it has become evident that the theoretical foundations of
Natural Sciences are based on Physics. Today’s Chemistry is completely based on
Quantum Mechanics, Quantum Statistics, Thermodynamics and Kinetic Physics. Also
Biology becomes progressively based on Physics, as more and more biological
phenomena are being described on the basis of Quantum Physics. Modern Biophysics
is now considered a branch of Physics and no longer a secondary part of Biology and
Physiology. As regards Psychology, there are recently several authors making use of
Quantum Physics in order to explain psychic phenomena [1,2].
The idea of psyche associated with matter dates back to the pre-Socratic period
and is usually called panpsychism. Remnants of organized panpsychism may be found
in the Uno of Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s Divine Flux. Scholars of Miletus’s school
were called hylozoists, that is, “those who believe that matter is alive”. More recently,
we will find the panpsychistic thought in Spinoza, Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin,
among others. The latter one admitted the existence of proto-conscious properties at
level of elementary particles.
Generally, the people believe that there is some type of psyche associated to the
animals, and some biologists agree that even very simple animals like the ameba and
the sea anemone are endowed with psychism. This led several authors to consider the
possibility of the psychic phenomena to be described in a theory based on Physics
[3,4,5,6].
This work presents a possible theoretical foundation for Psychology based on
Quantum Physics, starting from discoveries published in a recent article [7], where it is
shown that there is a quantum of imaginary mass associated to the electron, which
would be equivalent to an elementary particle that does not conserves the parity. Thus,
besides its inertial mass the electron would have an imaginary mass that would have
elementary capacity of “choice”. The theory here presented describes the structures
2
and the interaction between these imaginary particles and also explain their relations
with the matter on all levels, from the atom to man. In addition, it gives us a better
understanding of life and a more complete cosmological view, which lead us to
understand our relationship with ourselves, with others, with the Universe and with
God.
2. THEORY
It was shown [7] that quanta of imaginary mass exist associated to the
electron and the photon and that these imaginary masses would have psychic
properties (elementary capacity of “choice”). Thus, we can say that, besides its
inertial mass, the electron would have a psychic mass, given by
⎛ hf electron ⎞
mΨelectron = mg (imaginary)electron =
⎜ 4
⎟ i = 43 mi (real)electron i (01)
⎝ c ⎠
23
Where mi (real )electron = 9.11 × 10 −31 kg is the real inertial mass of the electron. In the
case of the photons, it was shown that the imaginary gravitational mass of the
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
photon is: m g (imaginary ) photon =
⎜ 2 ⎟ i . Therefore, the psychic mass associated
3 ⎝c ⎠
to a photon with frequency f is expressed by the following equation:
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
m Ψ photon = m g (imaginary ) photon =
⎜ 2⎟ i (02 )
3⎝c ⎠
The equation of quantization of mass [7], in the generalized form is expressed
by: m g (imaginary ) = n 2 m g (imagynary )(min ) . Thus, we can also conclude that the psychic
mass is also quantized, due to m Ψ = m g (imaginary ) , i.e.,
m Ψ = n 2 m Ψ (min ) (03)
Where
mΨ (min ) = 4
3
(hf min )
c2 i = 4
3
mi (real )min i (04)
The minimum quantum of real inertial mass in the Universe, mi (real )min , is given
by [7]:
mi (real )min = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9 × 10 −73 kg (05)
By analogy to Eq. (01), the expressions of the psychic masses associated to the
proton and the neutron are respectively given by:
Where f proton and f neutron are respectively the frequencies of the DeBroglie’s
waves associated to the proton and the neutron.
Thus, from a quantum viewpoint, the psychic particles are similar to the
material particles, so that we can use the Quantum Mechanics to describe the
psychic particles. In this case, by analogy to the material particles, a particle
with psychic mass mΨ will be described by the following expressions:
r r
pψ = hkψ (08)
Eψ = hωψ (09)
r r
Where pψ = mΨV is the momentum carried by the wave and Eψ its energy;
r
kψ = 2π λψ is the propagation number and λψ = h m Ψ V the wavelength and
ωψ = 2πfψ its cyclic frequency.
The variable quantity that characterizes DeBroglie’s waves is called Wave
Function, usually indicated by Ψ . The wave function associated to a material
particle describes the dynamic state of the particle: its value at a particular point
x, y, z, t is related to the probability of finding the particle in that place and
instant. Although Ψ does not have a physical interpretation, its square Ψ 2
or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a particular point x, y, z, t is proportional to the
probability of experimentally finding the particle in that place and instant.
( )
ΨΨ = Ψ0 e Ψ Ψ
(13)
− 2π i h ( E t − p x )
1
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other; besides superposition, there is also the possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their wave
functions.
5
In the electrons “virtual” transition mentioned before, the “listing” of all the
possibilities of the electrons is described, as we know, by Schrödinger’s wave equation.
Otherwise, it is general for material particles. By analogy, in the case of psychic
particles, we may say that the “listing” of all the possibilities of the psyches involved in
the relationship will be described by Schrödinger’s equation – for psychic case, i.e.,
p Ψ2
∇ 2 ΨΨ + ΨΨ = 0
h2
Because the wave functions are capable of intertwining themselves, the quantum
systems may “penetrate” each other, thus establishing an internal relationship where all
of them are affected by the relationship, no longer being isolated systems but
becoming an integrated part of a larger system. This type of internal relationship, which
exists only in quantum systems, was called Relational Holism [10].
It is a proven quantum fact that a wave function may collapse, and that, at this
moment, all the possibilities that it describes are suddenly expressed in reality. This
means that, through this process, particles can be suddenly materialized. Similarly, the
collapse of the psychic wave function must suddenly also express in reality all the
possibilities described by it. This is, therefore, a point of decision in which there occurs
the compelling need of realization of the psychic form. Thus, this is moment in which
the content of the psychic form realizes itself in the space-time. For an observer in
space-time, something is real when it is under a matter or radiation form. Therefore, the
content of the psychic form may realize itself in space-time exclusively under the form
of radiation, that is, it does not materialize. This must occur when the Materialization
Condition is not satisfied, i.e., when the content of the psychic form is undefined
(impossible to be defined by its own psychic) or it does not contain enough psychic
mass to materialize 2 the respective psychic contents.
Nevertheless, in both cases, there must always be a production of “virtual”
photons to convey the psychic interaction to the other psychic particles, according to
the quantum field theory, only through this type of quanta will interaction be conveyed,
since it has an infinite reach and may be either attractive or repulsive, just as
electromagnetic interaction which, as we know, is conveyed by the exchange of
“virtual” photons.
If electrons, protons and neutrons have psychic mass, then we can infer that the
psychic mass of the atoms are Phase Condensates 3 . In the case of the molecules the
situation is similar. More molecular mass means more atoms and consequently, more
psychic mass. In this case the phase condensate also becomes more structured
because the great amount of elementary psyches inside the condensate requires, by
stability reasons, a better distribution of them. Thus, in the case of molecules with very
large molecular masses (macromolecules) it is possible that their psychic masses
already constitute the most organized shape of a Phase Condensate, called Bose-
Einstein Condensate 4 .
2
By this we mean not only materialization proper but also the movement of matter to realize its psychic
content (including radiation).
3
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers, super
fluids, superconductors and magnets are examples of phase condensates more structured.
4
Several authors have suggested the possibility of the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the brain,
and that it might be the physical base of memory, although they have not been able to find a suitable
mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis. Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates in
living tissues abound (Popp, F.A Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New Scientist, May89, p.41;
Rattermeyer, M and Popp, F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
6
In the above expression, A is due to the product ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 will be always
positive. From equations (17) and (14) we get
m Ψ1 m Ψ 2
A = ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = k 2 ρ Ψ1 ρ Ψ 2 = k 2 (18)
V1 V2
5
Quantum Mechanics tells us thatΨ does not have a physical interpretation nor a simple meaning and
also it cannot be experimentally observed. However such restriction does not apply to Ψ , which is
2
known as density of probability and represents the probability of finding the body, described by the wave
function Ψ , in the point x, y, z at the moment t. A large value of Ψ 2 means a strong possibility to find
the body, while a small value of Ψ means a weak possibility to find the body.
2
7
The psychic interaction can be described starting from the psychic mass
because the psychic mass is the source of the psychic field. Basically, the
psychic mass is gravitational mass, since m Ψ = m g (imaginary ) . In this way, the
equations of the gravitational interaction are also applied to the Psychic
Interaction. That is, we can use Einstein’s General Relativity equations, given
by:
8πG
(
Rik = 4 Ti k − 12 δ ik T ) (19)
c
in order to describe the Psychic Interaction. In this case, the expression of the
energy-momentum tensor, Ti k , must have the following form [11]:
Ti k = ρ Ψ c 2 μ i μ k (20 )
The psychic mass density, ρ Ψ , is a imaginary quantity. Thus, in order to
homogenize the above equation it is necessary to put ρ Ψ because, as we
know, the module of an imaginary number is always real and positive.
Making on the transition to Classical Mechanics [12] one can verify that
Eqs. (19) are reduced to:
ΔΦ = 4πG ρ Ψ (21)
This is, therefore, the equation of the psychic field in nonrelativistic Mechanics.
With respect to its form, it is similar to the equation of the gravitational field, with
the difference that now, instead of the density of gravitational mass we have the
density of psychic mass. Then, we can write the general solution of Eq. (21), in
the following form:
ρ Ψ dV
Φ = −G ∫ (22)
r2
This equation expresses, with nonrelativistic approximation, the potential of the
psychic field of any distribution of psychic mass.
Particularly, for the potential of the field of only one particle with psychic
mass mΨ1 , we get:
G mΨ1
Φ=− (23)
r
Then the force produced by this field upon another particle with psychic mass
mΨ 2 is
r r ∂Φ mΨ1 mΨ 2
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = − mΨ 2 = −G (24)
∂r r2
By comparing equations (24) and (18) we obtain
r r VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −G A 12 22 (25)
k r
In the vectorial form the above equation is written as follows
r r VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −GA 12 22 μ̂ (26 )
k r
Versor μ̂ has the direction of the line connecting the mass centers (psychic
mass) of both particles and oriented from mΨ1 to mΨ 2 .
In general, we may distinguish and quantify two types of mutual affinity:
positive and negative (aversion). The occurrence of the first type is synonym of
8
psychic attraction, (as in the case of the atoms in the water molecule) while the
aversion is synonym of repulsion. In fact, Eq. (26) shows that the forces
r r
FΨ12 and FΨ 21 are attractive, if A is positive (expressing positive mutual affinity
between the two psychic bodies), and repulsive if A is negative (expressing
negative mutual affinity between the two psychic bodies). Contrary to the
interaction of the matter, where the opposites attract themselves here, the
opposites repel themselves.
A method and device to obtain images of psychic bodies have been
previously proposed [13]. By means of this device, whose operation is based on
the gravitational interaction and the piezoelectric effect, it will be possible to
observe psychic bodies.
Expression (18) can be rewritten in the following form:
m m
A = k 2 Ψ1 Ψ 2 (27)
V1 V2
The psychic masses mΨ1 and mΨ 2 are imaginary quantities. However, the product
mΨ1 .mΨ 2 is a real quantity. One can then conclude from the previous expression
that the degree of mutual affinity between two consciousnesses depends
basically on the densities of their psychic masses, and that:
1) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then A > 0 (positive mutual affinity between them)
2) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then A > 0 (positive mutual affinity between them)
3) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then A < 0 (negative mutual affinity between them)
4) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then A < 0 (negative mutual affinity between them)
3. UNIFIED COSMOLOGY
individual consciousnesses from Itself so that the latter could evolve and
manifest Its same creating attributes, then we can infer that, in order for them to
evolve, such consciousness would need a Universe, and this might have been
the main reason for its creation. Therefore, the origin of the Universe would be
related to the generation of said consciousness and, consequently, the
materialization of the primordial Universe must have taken place at the same
epoch when the Supreme Consciousness decided to individualize the
postulated consciousness, hereinafter called Primordial Consciousness.
For having been directly individualized from the Supreme Consciousness,
the primordial consciousness certainly contained in themselves, although in a
latent state, all the possibilities of the Supreme Consciousness, including the
germ of independent will, which enables original starting points to be
established. However, in spite of the similarity to Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousness could not have the understanding of themselves. This
self-understanding only arises with the creative mental state that such
consciousnesses can only reach by evolution.
Thus, in the first evolutionary period, the primordial consciousness must
have remained in total unconscious state, this being then the beginning of an
evolutionary pilgrimage from unconsciousness to superconsciousness.
The evolution of the primordial consciousness in this unconsciousness
period takes place basically through psychic relationship among them
(superposition of psychic wave functions, having or not intertwining). Thus, the
speed at which they evolved was determined by what they obtained in these
relationships.
After the origin of the first planets, some of them came to develop
favorable conditions for the appearance of macromolecules. These
macromolecules, as we have shown, may have a special type of consciousness
formed by a Bose-Einstein condensate (Individual Material Consciousness). In
this case, since the molecular masses of the macromolecules are very large,
they will have individual material consciousness of large psychic mass and,
therefore, access to a considerable amount of information in its own
consciousness. Consequently, macromolecules with individual material
consciousness are potentially very capable and some certainly already can
carry out autonomous motions, thus being considered as “living” entities.
However, if we decompose one of these molecules so as to destroy its
individual consciousness, its parts will no longer have access to the information
which “instructed” said molecule and, hence, will not be able to carry out the
autonomous motions it previously did. Thus, the “life” of the molecule
disappears – as we can see, Delbrück’s Paradox is then solved 6 .
The appearance of “living” molecules in a planet marks the beginning of
the most important evolutionary stage for the psyche of matter, for it is from the
combination of these molecules that there appear living beings with individual
material consciousness with even larger psychic masses.
Biologists have shown that all living organisms existing on Earth come
from two types of molecules – aminoacids and nucleotides – which make up the
fundamental building blocks of living beings. That is, the nucleotides and
6
This paradox ascribed to Max Delbrück (Delbrück, Max., (1978) Mind from Matter? American Scholar,
47. pp.339-53.) remained unsolved and was posed as follows: How come the same matter studied by
Physics, when incorporated into a living organism, assumes an unexpected behavior, although not
contradicting physical laws?
12
aminoacids are identical in all living beings, whether they are bacteria, mollusks
or men. There are twenty different species of aminoacids and five of
nucleotides.
In 1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey proved that aminoacids could be
produced from inert chemical products present in the atmosphere and oceans in
the first years of existence of the Earth. Later, in 1962, nucleotides were created
in laboratory under similar conditions. Thus, it was proved that the molecular
units making up the living beings could have formed during the Earth’s primitive
history.
Therefore, we can imagine what happened from the moment said
molecules appeared. The concentration of aminoacids and nucleotides in the
oceans gradually increased. After a long period of time, when the amount of
nucleotides was already large enough, they began to group themselves by
mutual psychic attraction, forming the molecules that in the future will become
DNA molecules.
When the molecular masses of these molecules became large enough,
the distribution of elementary psyches in their consciousnesses took the most
orderly possible form of phase condensate (Bose-Einstein condensate) and
such consciousnesses became the individual material consciousness.
Since the psychic mass of the consciousnesses of these molecules is
very large (as compared with the psychic mass of the atoms), the amount of
self-accessible knowledge became considerable in such consciousnesses and
thus, they became apt to instruct the joining of aminoacids in the formation of
the first proteins (origin of the Genetic Code). Consequently, the DNA’s
capability to serve as guide for the joining of aminoacids in the formation of
proteins is fundamentally a result of their psychism.
In the psychic of DNA molecules, the formation of proteins certainly had a
definite objective: the construction of cells.
During the cellular construction, the most important function played by the
consciousnesses of the DNA molecules may have been that of organizing the
distribution of the new molecules incorporated to the system so that the
consciousnesses of these molecules jointly formed with the consciousness of
the system a Bose-Einstein condensate. In this manner, more knowledge would
be available to the system and, after the cell is completed, the latter would also
have an individual material consciousness.
Afterwards, under the action of psychic interaction, the cells began to
group themselves according to different degrees of positive mutual affinity, in an
organized manner so that the distribution of their consciousnesses would also
form Bose-Einstein condensates. Hence, collective cell units began to appear
with individual consciousnesses of larger psychic masses and, therefore, with
access to more knowledge. With greater knowledge available, these groups of
cells began to perform specialized functions to obtain food, assimilation, etc.
That is when the first multi-celled beings appeared.
Upon forming the tissues, the cells gather structurally together in an
organized manner. Thus, the tissues and, hence, the organs and the organisms
themselves also possess individual material consciousnesses.
The existence of the material consciousness of the organisms is proved
in a well-known experiment by Karl Lashley, a pioneer in neurophysiology.
Lashley initially taught guinea pigs to run through a maze, an ability they
remember and keep in their memories in the same way as we acquire new
13
skills. He then systematically removed small portions of the brain tissue of said
guinea pigs. He thought that, if the guinea pigs still remembered how to run
through the maze, the memory centers would still be intact.
Little by little he removed the brain mass; the guinea pigs, curiously
enough, kept remembering how to run through the maze. Finally, with more
than90% of their cortex removed, the guinea pigs still kept remembering how to
run through the maze. Well, as we have seen, the consciousness of an
organism is formed by the concretion of all its cellular consciousnesses.
Therefore, the removal of a portion of the organism cells does not make it
disappear. Their cells, or better saying, the consciousnesses of their cells
contribute to the formation of the consciousness of the organism just as the
others, and it is exactly due to this that, even when we remove almost all of the
guinea pigs’ cortex, they were still able to remember from the memories of their
individual material consciousnesses. In this manner, what Lashley’s experiment
proved was precisely the existence of individual material consciousnesses in
the guinea pigs.
Another proof of the existence of the individual material
consciousnesses in organisms is given by the regeneration phenomenon, so
frequent in animals of simple structure: sponges, isolated coelenterates, worms
of various groups, mollusks, echinoderms and tunicates. The arthropods
regenerate their pods. Lizards may regenerate only their tail after autoctomy.
Some starfish may regenerate so easily that a simple detached arm may, for
example, give origin to a wholly new animal.
The organization of the psychic parts in the composition of an organism’s
individual material consciousness is directly related to the organization of the
material parts of the organism, as we have already seen. Thus, due to this
interrelationship between body and consciousness, any disturbance of a
material (physiological) nature in the body of the being will affect its individual
material consciousness, and any psychic disturbance imposed upon its
consciousness affects the physiology of its body.
When a consciousness is strongly affected to the extent of unmaking the
Bose-Einstein’s condensate, which gives it the status of individual
consciousness, there also occurs the simultaneous disappearance of the
knowledge made accessible by said condensation. Therefore, when a cell’s
consciousness no longer constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, there is also
the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge that instructs and maintains
the cellular metabolism. Consequently, the cell no longer functions thus
initiating its decomposition (molecular disaggregation).
Similarly, when the consciousness of an animal (or plant) no longer
constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, the knowledge that instructs and
maintains its body functioning also disappears, and it dies. In this process, after
the unmaking of the being’s individual consciousness, there follows the
unmaking of the individual consciousnesses of the organs; next will be the
consciousnesses of their own cells which no longer exit. At the end there will
remain the isolated psyches of the molecules and atoms. Death, indeed,
destroys nothing, neither what makes up matter nor what makes up psyche.
As we have seen, all the information available in the consciousnesses of
the beings is also accessible by the consciousnesses of their organs up to their
molecules’. Thus, when an individual undergoes a certain experience, the
information concerning it not only is recorded somewhere in this consciousness
14
but also pervades all the individual consciousnesses that make up its total
consciousness. Consequently, psychic disturbances imposed to a being reflect
up to the level of their individual molecular consciousnesses, perhaps even
structurally affecting said molecules, due to the interrelationship between body
and consciousness already mentioned here.
Therefore, one can expect that there may occur modifications in the
sequences of nucleotides of DNA molecules when the psychism of the
organism to which they are incorporated is sufficiently affected.
It is known that such modifications in the structure of DNA molecules may
also occur because of the chemical products in the blood stream ( as in the
case of the mustard gas used in chemical warface) or by the action of radiation
sufficiently energetic.
Modifications in the sequences of nucleotides in DNA molecules are
called mutations. Mutations as we know, determine hereditary variations which
make up the basis of Darwin’s theory of evolution.
There may occur “favorable” and unfavorable” mutation to the individuals;
the former enhances the individuals’ possibility of survival, whereas the latter
decrease such possibility.
The theory of evolution is established as a consequence of individuals’
efforts to survive in the environment where they live. This means that their
descendants may become different from their ancestors. This is the mechanism
that leads to the frequent appearance of new species. Darwin believed that the
mutation process was slow and gradual. Nevertheless, it is known today that
this is not the general rule, for there are evidences of the appearance of new
species in a relatively short period of time [14]. We also know that the
characteristics are transmitted from parents to offsprings by means of genes
and that the recombination of the parents’ genes, when genetic instructions are
transmitted by such genes.
However, it was shown that the genetic instructions are basically
associated with the psychism of DNA molecules. Consequently, the genes
transmit not only physiological but also psychic differences.
Thus, as a consequence of genetic transmission, besides the great
physiological difference between individuals of the same species, there is also a
great psychic dissimilarity.
Such psychic dissimilarity associated with the progressive enhancement
of the individual’s psychic quantities may have given rise, in immemorial time, to
a variety of individuals (most probably among anthropoid primates) which
unconsciously established a positive mutual affinity with primordial
consciousnesses must have been attracted to the Earth. Thus, the relationship
established among them and the consciousnesses of said individuals is
enhanced.
In the course of evolutionary transformation, there was a time when the
fetuses of said variety already presented such a high degree of mutual affinity
with the primordial consciousnesses attracted to the Earth that, during
pregnancy, the incorporation of primordial consciousnesses may have occurred
in said fetuses.
In spite of absolute psychic mass of the fetus’s material consciousness
being much smaller than that of the mother’s consciousness, the degree of
positive mutual affinity between the fetus’s consciousness and the primordial
consciousness that is going to be incorporated is much greater than that
15
between the latter and the mother’s, which makes the psychic attraction
between the fetus’s consciousness and primordial consciousness much
stronger than the attraction between the latter and the mother’s. That is the
reason why primordial consciousness incorporates the fetus. Thus, when these
new individuals are born, they bring along, besides their individual material
consciousness, an individualized consciousness of the Supreme
Consciousness. This is how the first hominids were born.
Having been directly individualized from Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousnesses constitutes as perfect individualities and not as
phase condensates as the consciousnesses of matter. In this manner, they do
not dissociate upon the death of those that incorporated them. Afterwards, upon
the action of psychic attraction, they were again able to incorporate into other
fetuses to proceed with their evolution.
These consciousnesses (hereinafter called human consciousness)
constitutes individualities and, therefore, the larger their psychic mass the more
available knowledge they will have and, consequently, greater ability to evolve.
Just as the human race evolves biologically, human consciousnesses
have also been evolving. When they are incorporated, the difficulties of the
material world provide them with more and better opportunities to acquire
psychic mass (later on we will see how said consciousnesses may gain or lose
psychic mass). That is why they need to perform successive reincorporations.
Each reincorporation arises as a new opportunity for said consciousnesses to
increase their psychic mass and thus evolve.
The belief in the reincarnation is millenary and well known, although it has
not yet been scientifically recognized, due to its antecedent probability being
very small. In other words, there is small amount of data contributing to its
confirmation. This, however, does not mean that the phenomenon is not true,
but only that there is the need for a considerable amount of experiments to
establish a significant degree of antecedent probability.
The rational acceptance of reincarnation entails deep modifications in
the general philosophy of the human being. For instance, it frees him from
negative feelings, such as nationalistic or racial prejudices and other response
patterns based on the naive conception that we are simply what we appear to
be.
Darwin’s lucid perception upon affirming that not only the individual’s
corporeal qualities but also his psychic qualities tend to improve made implicit in
his “natural selection” one of the most important rules of evolution: the psychic
selection, which basically consists in the survival of the most apt
consciousnesses. Psychic aptitude means, in the case of human
consciousnesses, mental quality, i.e., quality of thinking.
Further on, we will see that the human consciousnesses may gain or lose
psychic mass from the Supreme consciousness, respectively due to the mode
of resonance (quality) of their thoughts. This means that the consciousnesses
that cultivate a greater amount of bad-quality thoughts will have a lesser chance
of psychic survival than the others. A human consciousness that permanently
cultivates bad-quality thoughts progressively loses psychic mass and may even
be extinguished.
With the progressive disappearance of psychically less apt
consciousnesses, it will be increasingly easy for the more apt consciousnesses
to increase their psychic masses during reincorporation periods. There will be a
16
consciousness which gave rise to the bad-quality thought and those receptive to
the psychic radiations coming from this type of thoughts will lose psychic mass.
We must observe, however, that our thoughts are not limited only to
harming or benefiting ourselves, since they also can, as we have already seen,
induce similar thoughts in other consciousnesses, thus affecting them. In this
case, it is important to observe that the psychic radiation produced by the
induced thoughts may return to the consciousness which initially produced the
bad-quality thought, inducing other similar thoughts in it, which evidently cause
more loss of psychic mass in said consciousness.
The fact of our thoughts not being restricted to influencing ourselves is
highly relevant because it leads us to understand we have a great responsibility
towards the others as regards what we think.
Let us now approach the intensity of thoughts. If two thoughts have the
same psychic form and equal psychic masses, they have the same psychic
density and, consequently, the same intensity, from the psychic viewpoint.
However, if one of them has more psychic mass than the other, it will evidently
have a larger psychic density and, thus, will be more intense.
The same thought repeated with different intensities in a consciousness –
in a time period much shorter than the lifetime of thought – has its psychic mass
increased due to the fusion of the psychic masses corresponding to each
repetition. The fusion is caused by a strong psychic attraction between them,
because the inertial thought and the repeated ones have high degree of positive
mutual affinity.
It is then possible by this process that the thought may appear with
enough psychic mass to materialize when its wave function collapses.
If the process is jointly shared with other consciousnesses, the thoughts
in these consciousnesses evidently correspond to different dynamics states in
the same thought. Thus, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer to the different dynamic
states that the same thought may assume, then its general dynamic state,
according to the superposition principle, may be described by a single wave
function ΨΨ , given by:
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn
Therefore, everything happens as if there were only a single thought
described by ΨΨ , with psychic mass determined by the set of psychic masses
of all the similar thoughts repeated in the various consciousnesses. In this
manner, it is possible that in this process the thought materializes even faster
than in the case of a single consciousness.
It was shown that the consciousnesses may increase their psychic
masses by cultivating good-quality thoughts and avoiding the bad-quality
thoughts ones. However, both the cultivation of good thoughts and the ability to
instantly perceive nature in our thoughts to quickly repel the bad-quality
thoughts result in a slow and difficult process.
The fact of intense enough mental images being capable of materializing
suggests that we must be careful with mental images of fear. Thus more than
anything else, it is imperative to avoid their repetition in our consciousnesses,
because at each repetition they acquire more psychic mass.
Great are the possibilities encompassed in the consciousnesses, just as
many are the effects of psychic interaction. At cellular level, the intervention of
19
7
When a spermatozoon penetrates the ovum, an egg is formed. Roughly twelve to
fourteen hours later, the egg divides into two identical cells. This is the beginning of the
phase where the embryo is called morula. Six days later, in the blastula phase, the
external cells fix the embryo to the uterus. The cells inside the blastula remain equal to
each other and are known as internal cellular mass.
20
In eight weeks of life, all organs are practically formed in the embryo.
From there on, it begins to be called fetus.
The embryo’s material individual consciousness is formed by the
consciousnesses of its cells united in a Bose-Einstein condensate. As more
cells become incorporated into the embryo, its material consciousness acquires
more psychic mass. This means that this type of consciousness will be greater
in the fetus than in the embryo and even greater in the child.
Thus, the psychic mass of the mother-fetus consciousness progressively
increases during pregnancy, consequently increasing the psychic attraction
between this consciousness and that new one about to incorporate. In normal
pregnancies, this psychic attraction also increases due to the habitual increase
in the degree of positive mutual affinity between said consciousnesses.
Since the embryo's consciousness has greater degree of positive mutual
affinity with the consciousness that is going to incorporate, then the embryo's
consciousness becomes the center of psychic attraction to where the human
consciousness destined to the fetus will go.
When the psychic attraction becomes intense enough, human
consciousness penetrates the mother-fetus consciousness, forming with it a
new Bose–Einstein condensate. From that instant on, the fetus begins to have
two consciousnesses: the individual material one and the human consciousness
attracted to it.
It easy to see that the psychic attraction upon this human consciousness
tends to continue, being progressively compressed until effectively incorporating
the fetus. When this takes place, it will be ready to be born.
It is probably due to this psychic compression process that the
incorporated consciousness suffers amnesia of its preceding history. Upon
death, after the psychic decompression that arises from the definitive
disincorporation of the consciousness, the preceding memory must return.
It was shown that particles of matter perform transitions to the imaginary
space-time when their gravitational masses reach the gravitational mass
ranging between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i [7]. Under these circumstances, the
total energy of the particle becomes imaginary and consequently it disappears
from our ordinary space-time. Since imaginary mass is equal to psychic mass
we can infer that the particle makes a transition to the psychic space-time.
The consciousnesses are in the psychic space-time. Therefore, if material
bodies can become psychic bodies and to interact with others psychic bodies in
this space-time, then they reach a new part of the Universe where the
consciousnesses live and from where they come in order to incorporate the
human fetus, and to where they should return, after the death of the material
bodies. Consequently, the transition to the psychic space-time is a door for us
to visit the spiritual Universe.
21
REFERENCES
[4] Young, A.M. (1976) The Geometry of Meaning, Delacorte Press, N.Y;
Young, A.M. The Reflexive Universe: Evolution of Consciousness, Delacorte
Press, N.Y.
[6] Bohm, D. (1980) A New Theory of Relation of Mind and Matter, The Journal
of the American Society of Psychical Research, Vol. 80, Nº 2, p.129.
[10] Teller, P. Relational Holism and Quantum Mechanics, British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science, 37, 71-81.
[14] Grant, P.R., and Grant, B.R. (1995). Predicting microevolutionary responses
to directional selection on heritable variation. Evolution 49:241-251.
The Gravitational Spacecraft
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 1997-2010 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved
There is an electromagnetic factor of correlation between gravitational mass and inertial mass,
which in specific electromagnetic conditions, can be reduced, made negative and increased in
numerical value. This means that gravitational forces can be reduced, inverted and intensified
by means of electromagnetic fields. Such control of the gravitational interaction can have a lot
of practical applications. For example, a new concept of spacecraft and aerospace flight arises
from the possibility of the electromagnetic control of the gravitational mass. The novel
spacecraft called Gravitational Spacecraft possibly will change the paradigm of space flight
and transportation in general. Here, its operation principles and flight possibilities, it will be
described. Also it will be shown that other devices based on gravity control, such as the
Gravitational Motor and the Quantum Transceivers, can be used in the spacecraft,
respectively, for Energy Generation and Telecommunications.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction 02
2. Gravitational Shielding 02
Appendix A 26
Appendix B 58
Appendix C 66
Appendix D 71
References 74
2
1. Introduction
GCC (1)
This shows that this small motor
can be used, for example, to substitute χar(1)= -n = mg(ar)/mi(ar)
the conventional motors used in the g
cars. It can also be coupled to an
electric generator in order to produce
electric energy. The conversion of the
Fig. 1 – Gravitational Motor - The first Gravity Control Cell
rotational mechanical energy into (GCC1) changes the local gravity from g to g ′ = −ng , propelling
electric energy is not a problem since the left side of the rotor in contrary direction to the motion of the
right side. The second GCC changes the gravity back again to g i.e.,
it is a problem technologically from g ′ = −ng to g , in such a way that the gravitational change
resolved several decades ago. Electric occurs just on the region shown in figure above.
Note that, in this case, if χ air is the particle is reduced by means of the
r absorption of an amount of
negative, the acceleration a g will have
electromagnetic energy U , for
a direction contrary to the versor μ̂ , example, then we have
i.e., the body will be attracted in the
direction of the GCCs, as shown in χ=
Mg ⎧
(
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2 ) 2 ⎫
− 1⎤⎥⎬
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Fig.5. In practice, this will occur when This shows that the energy U
the air inside the GCCs is sufficiently continues acting on the particle turned
ionized, in such a way that imaginary. In practice this means that
σ air ≅ 103 S.m−1 . Thus, if the internal electromagnetic fields act on
thickness of the GCCs is now d =1 mm imaginary particles. Therefore, the
and if f = 1 Hz ; ρ air ≅ 1 kg.m −3 and internal electromagnetic field of a
Vrms ≅ 10 KV , we will then have GCC remains acting upon the particles
χair ≅ −105 . Therefore, for Mg ≅ Mi ≅ 100kg inside the GCC even when their
gravitational masses are in the range
and, for example, r0 ≅ 10 m the
+ 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i , turning them
gravitational acceleration acting on the
imaginaries. This is very important
body will be ab ≈ 0.6m.s −2 . It is obvious
because it means that the GCCs of a
that this value can be easily increased gravitational spacecraft remain
or decreased, simply by varying the working even when the spacecraft
voltage Vrms . Thus, by means of this becomes imaginary.
Gravitational Lifter, we can lift or Under these conditions, the
lower persons or materials with great gravity accelerations acting on the
versatility of operation. imaginary spacecraft, due to the rest of
It was shown [1] that, when the the Universe will be, as we have see,
gravitational mass of a particle is given by
reduced into the range, + 0.159 M i to g i′ = χ g i i = 1,2,..., n
− 0.159M i , it becomes imaginary, i.e., Where χ = M g (imaginary ) and
M i (imaginary )
its masses (gravitational and inertial) g i = − Gm gi (imaginary ) ri 2 . Thus, the
becomes imaginary. Consequently, the gravitational forces acting on the
particle disappears from our ordinary spacecraft will be given by
Universe, i.e., it becomes invisible for
us. This is therefore a manner of to Fgi = M g (imaginary ) g i′ =
obtain the transitory invisibility of
persons, animals, spacecraft, etc. ( )
= M g (imaginary ) − χGm gj (imaginary ) r j2 =
However, the factor ( )
= M g i − χGm gi i ri 2 = + χGM g m gi ri 2 . (20)
χ = M g (imaginary) M i (imaginary) remains real
because Note that these forces are real. By
calling that, the Mach’s principle says
M g (imaginary ) M gi Mg that the inertial effects upon a particle
χ= = = = real
M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi are consequence of the gravitational
interaction of the particle with the rest
12
of the Universe. Then we can conclude It is easy to show that the
that the inertial forces acting on the gravitational forces between two thin
spacecraft in imaginary state are also layers of air (with masses m g1 and
real. Therefore, it can travel in the m g 2 ) around the spacecraft , are
imaginary space-time using the
expressed by
gravitational thrusters. r r m m
F12 = −F21 = −(χ air ) G i1 2 i 2 μˆ (21)
2
r
Mg
Note that these forces can be strongly
GCC 1 χ air
increased by increasing the value of
GCC 2 χ air χ air . In these circumstances, the air
around the spacecraft would be
rb strongly compressed upon the external
surface of the spacecraft creating an
atmosphere around it. This can be
particularly useful in order to
minimize the friction between the
spacecraft and the atmosphere of the
planet in the case of very high speed
ab movements of the spacecraft. With the
atmosphere around the spacecraft the
μ friction will occur between the
r 2 r Mg atmosphere of the spacecraft and the
ab ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
2
rb
atmosphere of the planet. In this way,
the friction will be minimum and the
Fig.5 – The Gravitational Lifter – If the air inside the
GCCs is sufficiently ionized, in such way that spacecraft could travel at very high
σ air ≅ 103 S.m−1 and the internal thickness of the speeds without overheating.
GCCs is now d =1 mm then, if f =1 Hz;
However, in order for this to occur,
it is necessary to put the gravitational
ρ air ≅ 1 kg.m and Vrms ≅ 10 KV ,
−3
we have
shielding in another position as shown
χair ≅ −10 . Therefore, for M g ≅ M i ≅ 100kg and
5
in Fig.2. Thus, the values of χ airB
r0 ≅ 10 m the gravity acceleration acting on the
and χ airA will be independent (See
body will be ab ≈ 0.6m.s −2 .
Fig.6). Thus, while inside the
It was also shown [1] that gravitational shielding, the value of
imaginary particles can have infinity χ airB is put close to zero, in order to
velocity in the imaginary space-time. strongly reduce the gravitational mass
Therefore, this is also the upper limit of the spacecraft (inner part of the
of velocity for the gravitational shielding), the value of χ airA must be
spacecrafts traveling in the imaginary reduced to about − 10 8 in order to
space-time. On the other hand, the strongly increase the gravitational
travel in the imaginary space-time can attraction between the air molecules
be very safe, because there will not be around the spacecraft. Thus, by
any material body in the trajectory of
the spacecraft.
13
substituting χ airA ≅ −10 intoEq.21,
8
we 5. The Imaginary Space-time
get
r r mm The speed of light in free space
F12 = −F21 = −1016 G i1 2 i 2 μˆ (22) is, as we know, about of 300.000 km/s.
r
If, mi1 ≅ mi 2 = ρ air V1 ≅ ρ air V2 ≅ 10−8 kg and The speeds of the fastest modern
airplanes of the present time do not
r = 10 −3 m then Eq. 22 gives
r r reach 2 km/s and the speed of rockets
F12 = −F21 ≅ −10−4 N (23) do not surpass 20 km/s. This shows
These forces are much more intense how much our aircraft and rockets are
than the inter-atomic forces (the forces slow when compared with the speed of
that unite the atoms and molecules) the light.
intensities of which are of the order of The star nearest to the Earth
1 − 1000 × 10 −8 N . Consequently, the air (excluding the Sun obviously) is the
around the spacecraft will be strongly Alpha of Centaur, which is about of 4
compressed upon the surface of the light-years distant from the Earth
spacecraft and thus will produce a (Approximately 37.8 trillions of
crust of air which will accompany the kilometers). Traveling at a speed about
spacecraft during its displacement and 100 times greater than the maximum
will protect it from the friction with speed of our faster spacecrafts, we
the atmosphere of the planet. would take about 600 years to reach
Gravitational Shielding Alpha of Centaur. Then imagine how
(GCC)
many years we would take to leave our
E rms own galaxy. In fact, it is not difficult
to see that our spacecrafts are very
χ airB
Atmosphere slow, even for travels in our own solar
of the
Spacecraft system.
Gravitational One of the fundamental
Spacecraft χ airA characteristics of the gravitational
spacecraft, as we already saw, is its
capability to acquire enormous
accelerations without submitting the
crew to any discomfort.
Impelled by gravitational
thrusters gravitational spacecrafts can
Fig. 6 – Artificial atmosphere around the gravitational acquire accelerations until 10 8 m.s −2 or
spacecraft - while inside the gravitational shielding more. This means that these
the value of χ airB is putted close to zero, in order to spacecrafts can reach speeds very
strongly reduces the gravitational mass of the close to the speed of light in just a few
spacecraft (inner part of the shielding), the value of
χ airA must be reduced for about − 108 in order to
seconds. These gigantic accelerations
strongly increase the gravitational attraction between can be unconceivable for a layman,
the air molecules around the spacecraft. however they are common in our
Universe. For example, when we
submit an electron to an electric field
14
of just 1 Volt / m it acquires an impracticable. Besides, to travel at
acceleration a , given by such a speed would be very dangerous,
because a shock with other celestial
a=
( )(
eE 1.6 × 10 −19 C 1 V / m
=
)
≅ 1011 m.s − 2
bodies would be inevitable. However,
me 9.11 × 10 −31 as we showed [1] there is a possibility
of a spacecraft travel quickly far
As we see, this acceleration is about beyond our galaxy without the risk of
100 times greater than that acquired by being destroyed by a sudden shock
the gravitational spacecraft previously with some celestial body. The solution
mentioned. is the gravitational spacecraft travel
By using the gravitational through the Imaginary or Complex
shieldings it is possible to reduce the Space-time.
inertial effects upon the spacecraft. As It was shown [1] that it is
we have shown, they are reduced by possible to carry out a transition to the
the factor χ out = M g M i . Thus, if the Imaginary space-time or Imaginary
Universe. It is enough that the body
inertial mass of the spacecraft is
has its gravitational mass reduced to a
M i = 10.000kg and, by means of the
value in the range of + 0.159 M i
gravitational shielding effect the
to − 0.159M i . In these circumstances,
gravitational mass of the spacecraft is
reduced to M g ≈ 10 −8 M i then , in spite the masses of the body (gravitational
and inertial) become imaginaries and,
of the effective acceleration to be
so does the body. (Fig.7).
gigantic, for example, a ≈ 10 9 m.s −2 , the
Consequently, the body disappears
effects for the crew of the spacecraft
from our ordinary space-time and
would be equivalents to an
appears in the imaginary space-time.
acceleration a′ of only
In other words, it becomes invisible
a′ =
Mg
Mi
( )( )
a = 10 −8 10 9 ≈ 10m.s − 2 for an observer at the real Universe.
Therefore, this is a way to get
This acceleration is similar to that temporary invisibility of human
which the passengers of a beings, animals, spacecrafts, etc.
contemporary commercial jet are Thus, a spacecraft can leave our
subjected. Universe and appear in the Imaginary
Therefore the crew of the Universe, where it can travel at any
gravitational spacecraft would be speed since in the Imaginary Universe
comfortable while the spacecraft there is no speed limit for the
would reach speeds close to the speed gravitational spacecraft, as it occurs in
of light in few seconds. However to our Universe, where the particles
travel at such velocities in the cannot surpass the light speed. In this
Universe may note be practical. Take way, as the gravitational spacecraft is
for example, Alpha of Centaur (4 propelled by the gravitational
light-years far from the Earth): a round thrusters, it can attain accelerations up
trip to it would last about eight years. to 10 9 m.s −2 , then after one day of trip
Trips beyond that star could take then with this acceleration, it can
several decades, and this obviously is
15
of the spacecraft in such way that it
leaves the range of + 0.159 M i
to − 0.159M i . Thus the spacecraft can
transition reappear in our Universe near its
( −0.159 > mg > +0.159 ) target.
ΔtAB =1 second
B
The return trip would be done in
similar way. That is to say, the
1 light-year
Vmax = ∞ Vmax = c spacecraft would transit in the
imaginary Universe back to the
ΔtAB =1 year
departure place where would reappear
dAB = 1 light-year in our Universe and it would make the
photon approach flight to the wanted point.
Thus, trips through our Universe that
would delay millions of years, at
transition speeds close to the speed of light,
( −0.159 < mg < +0.159 ) mg A could be done in just a few months in
Gravitational Spacecraft
the imaginary Universe.
Fig. 7 – Travel in the Imaginary Space-time. What will an observer see when
in the imaginary space-time? It will
reach velocities V ≈ 1014 m.s −1 (about 1 see light, bodies, planets, stars, etc.,
million times the speed of light). With everything formed by imaginary
this velocity, after 1 month of trip the photons, imaginary atoms, imaginary
spacecraft would have traveled protons, imaginary neutrons and
about 10 21 m . In order to have idea of imaginary electrons. That is to say,
this distance, it is enough to remind the observer will find an Universe
that the diameter of our Universe similar to ours, just formed by
(visible Universe) is of the order particles with imaginary masses. The
of 10 26 m . term imaginary adopted from the
Due to the extremely low Mathematics, as we already saw, gives
density of the imaginary bodies, the the false impression that these masses
collision between them cannot have do not exist. In order to avoid this
the same consequences of the collision misunderstanding we researched the
between the dense real bodies. true nature of that new mass type and
Thus for a gravitational matter.
spacecraft in imaginary state the The existence of imaginary mass
problem of the collision doesn't exist associated to the neutrino is well-
in high-speed. Consequently, the known. Although its imaginary mass is
gravitational spacecraft can transit not physically observable, its square
freely in the imaginary Universe and, is. This amount is found
in this way reach easily any point of experimentally to be negative.
our real Universe once they can make Recently, it was shown [1] that quanta
the transition back to our Universe by of imaginary mass exist associated to
only increasing the gravitational mass the photons, electrons, neutrons, and
16
protons, and that these imaginary indicated by Ψ . The wave function
masses would have psychic properties associated to a material particle
(elementary capability of “choice”). describes the dynamic state of the
Thus, the true nature of this new kind particle: its value at a particular point
of mass and matter shall be psychic x, y, z, t is related to the probability of
and, therefore we should not use the finding the particle in that place and
term imaginary any longer. instant. Although Ψ does not have a
Consequently from the above exposed physical interpretation, its square Ψ 2
we can conclude that the gravitational (or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a particular
spacecraft penetrates in the Psychic point x, y, z, t is proportional to the
Universe and not in an “imaginary” probability of experimentally finding
Universe. the particle in that place and instant.
In this Universe, the matter Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the
would be, obviously composed by probability P of finding the particle
psychic molecules and psychic atoms described by Ψ , the integral of Ψ 2 on
formed by psychic neutrons, psychic the whole space must be finite –
protons and psychic electrons. i.e., the inasmuch as the particle is someplace.
matter would have psychic mass and Therefore, if
consequently it would be subtle, much +∞
7. Instantaneous Interestelar
Communications
GCC GCC
Acknowledgement
2 ⎝ ⎠ or
where kr is the real part of the
r W =ε E2 ( A9)
propagation vector k (also called For σ >> ωε , Eq. (A4) gives
r
phase constant ); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ 2ω
v= ( A10)
and σ, are the electromagnetic μσ
characteristics of the medium in which Then, from Eq. (A7) we get
the incident (or emitted) radiation is
propagating( ε = εrε0 ; ε 0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ⎡ ⎛ 2ω ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ωε ⎞
W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH2 + 12 μH2 = ⎜ ⎟μH2 + 12 μH2 ≅
; μ = μ r μ 0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). It is ⎣ ⎝ μσ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝σ ⎠
known that for free-space ≅ 12 μH2 ( A11)
σ = 0 and ε r = μ r = 1 . Then Eq. (A4)
gives Since E = vB = vμH , we can rewrite
v=c (A11) in the following forms:
From (A4), we see that the index of B2
W ≅ ( A12 )
refraction nr = c v is given by 2μ
or
ε μ ⎛ σ ⎞ 2
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
c 2
( A5) W ≅⎜ ⎟E ( A13 )
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 4ω ⎠
By comparing equations (A8) (A9)
Equation (A4) shows that (A12) and (A13), we can see that Eq.
ω κ r = v .Thus, E B = ω k r = v , i.e., (A13) shows that the best way to
E = vB = vμH ( A6) obtain a strong value of W in practice
Then, Eq. (A3) can be rewritten in the is by applying an Extra Low-
following form: Frequency (ELF) electric field
( )
W = 12 ε v2μ μH2 + 12 μH2 ( A7) (w = 2πf << 1Hz ) through a medium
For σ << ωε , Eq. (A4) reduces to with high electrical conductivity.
Substitution of Eq. (A13) into
c Eq. (A2), gives
v= ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎞ E 4 ⎤⎥⎪
3
ε r μr ⎪ μ ⎛ σ
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 − 1 ⎬mi0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Then, Eq. (A7) gives
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ0 ⎞⎛ μrσ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
3
⎪ ⎜ ⎟E − 1⎥⎬mi0 =
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟
3 2 ⎜ 2 3 ⎟
⎡ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎤ 2 1 ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 256π c ⎠⎝ ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH + 2 μH 2 = μH 2
ε μ
⎣ ⎝ r r⎠ ⎦ ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪
⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟E 4 − 1⎥⎬mi0
This equation can be rewritten in the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
following forms: ( A14)
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average
value for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because
28
E varies sinusoidaly ( E m is the ⎧⎪ ⎡ I4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.89 × 10−25 DC4 − 1⎥⎬mi 0 =
maximum value for E ). On the other ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ S ⎥⎦⎪⎭
{ [ ]}
hand, E rms = E m 2 . Consequently we
can change E 4 by E rms 4
, and the = 1 − 2 1 + 0.13I DC
4
− 1 mi 0 ( A18)
equation above can be rewritten as Then,
{ [ ]}
follows mg
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ χ= ≅ 1−2 1+ 0.13I DC
4
−1 ( A19)
⎪ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4 mi0
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟Erms − 1⎥⎬mi0
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
Substitution of the well-known For I DC = 2.2 A , the equation above
equation of the Ohm's vectorial Law: gives
j = σE into (A14), we get ⎛ mg ⎞
χ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ≅ −1
⎟ ( A 20 )
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ ⎝ mi0 ⎠
−27 μr jrms
4
= − + ×
mg ⎨1 2⎢ 1 1.758 10 − 1⎥⎬mi0 ( A15) This means that the gravitational
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ2 f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎭ shielding produced by the aluminum
where j rms = j 2 . foil can change the gravity
Consider a 15 cm square acceleration above the foil down to
Aluminum thin foil of 10.5 microns
thickness with the following g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g ( A21)
characteristics: μr =1 ; σ = 3.82×107 S.m−1 ;
ρ = 2700 Kg .m −3 . Then, (A15) gives Under these conditions, the Aluminum
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ foil works basically as a Gravity
j4
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 6.313×10−42 rms3
− 1⎥⎬mi0 ( A16) Control Cell (GCC).
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ In order to check these
Now, consider that the ELF electric theoretical predictions, we suggest an
current I = I DC + i 0 sin ω t , (i0 << I DC ) experimental set-up shown in Fig.A2.
passes through that Aluminum foil. A 15cm square Aluminum foil
Then, the current density is of 10.5 microns thickness with the
I rms I DC following composition: Al 98.02%; Fe
jrms = ≅ ( A17) 0.80%; Si 0.70%; Mn 0.10%; Cu
S S
where 0.10%; Zn 0.10%; Ti 0.08%; Mg
0.05%; Cr 0.05%, and with the
( )
S = 0.15m 10.5 × 10 −6 m = 1.57 × 10 −6 m 2 following characteristics: μr =1;
σ = 3.82×10 S.m ; ρ = 2700Kg.m , is fixed
7 −1 −3
ELF .
Figure A4 (a) shows the The new expression r
for the
r
equivalent electric circuit for the inertial forces, (Eq.5) Fi = M g a , shows
experimental set-up. The that the inertial forces are proportional
electromotive forces are: ε1 (HP3325A) to gravitational mass. Only in the
and ε 2 (12V DC Battery).The values particular case of m g = m i 0 , the
of the resistors are expression above reduces to the well-
: R1 = 500Ω − 2W ; ri1 < 2Ω ; R2 = 4Ω − 40W known
r
Newtonian expression
r
; ri 2 < 0.1Ω ; R p = 2.5 × 10 −3 Ω ; Rheostat Fi = m i 0 a . The equivalence between
gravitational and inertial forces (Fi ≡ Fg )
r r
(0≤ R ≤10Ω - 90W). The coupling
transformer has the following [1] shows then that a balance measures
characteristics: air core with diameter the gravitational mass subjected to
30
acceleration a = g . Here, the decrease than − 0.159M i , or when it becomes
in the gravitational mass of the greater than + 0.159 M i .
Aluminum foil will be measured by a Equation (A18) shows that the
pan balance with the following gravitational mass of the Aluminum
characteristics: range 0-200g; foil, mg ( Al ) , goes close to zero when
readability 0.01g.
I 3 ≅ 1.76 A . Consequently, the gravity
The mass of the Foam Board
plate is: ≅ 4.17 g , the mass of the acceleration above the Aluminum foil
also goes close to zero since
Aluminum foil is: ≅ 0.64 g , the total
g ′ = χ g = mg ( Al ) mi 0 ( Al ) . Under these
mass of the ends and the electric wires
of connection is ≅ 5 g . Thus, initially circumstances, the Aluminum foil
remains invisible.
the balance will show ≅ 9.81g .
Now consider a rigid Aluminum
According to (A18), when the electric
wire # 14 AWG. The area of its cross
current through the Aluminum foil section is
(resistance rp* = l σS = 2.5 ×10−3 Ω ) reaches
the value I 3 ≅ 2.2 A , we will get S = π (1.628 × 10 −3 m ) 4 = 2.08 × 10 −6 m 2
2
m g ( Al ) ≅ − mi 0 ( Al ) . Under these
circumstances, the balance will show: If an ELF electric current with
frequency f = 2μHz = 2 ×10−6 Hz passes
9.81g − 0.64 g − 0.64 g ≅ 8.53g through this wire, its gravitational
mass, given by (A16), will be
and the gravity acceleration g ′ above expressed by
the Aluminum foil, becomes ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
−42 jrms
g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g . mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 6.313×10 −1⎥⎬mi0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
It was shown [1] that, when the ⎭
gravitational mass of a particle is ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
−25 I DC
reduced to the gravitational mass = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 7.89×10 −1⎥⎬mi0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ S 4 ⎥⎦⎪
ranging between + 0.159 M i to ⎭
V
( A35)
2
jair = 2α
d2 d = 1.8 × 10 −4 m
where d , in this case, is the thickness
of the air layer where the electric field Substitution of a , b , d and A(32) into
is approximately constant and V is the (A39) produces
voltage drop given by 1 1
1 q 1 q
V = Va − Vb = − =
4πε 0 a 4πε 0 b
Substitution of σ air , E air (rms ) and
⎛ b − a ⎞ ⎛ ε r r0 d ⎞
= V0 r0ε r ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟V0 ( A36) ρ air = 1.2 kg .m −3 into (A14) gives
⎝ ab ⎠ ⎝ ab ⎠
By substituting (A36) into (A35), we mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 air2 air3 −1⎥⎬ =
get mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ ρair f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
3 3 3
⎩ ⎣
2α ⎛ ε r dV ⎞ 2 2α ⎛ ε r V ⎞ 2 ⎛ b ⎞ 2
jair = 2 ⎜ r 0 0 ⎟ = 1 ⎜ r 02 0 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎧⎪ ⎡ V 5.5 ⎤⎪⎫
d ⎝ ab ⎠ d 2 ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 4.923×10−21 0 3 −1⎥⎬ ( A42)
3
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
2α ⎛ b ⎞2
( A37)
3
= 1 Eair⎜ ⎟
2
For V0 = V0max = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the
d2 ⎝ a⎠
result is
According to the equation of the mg (air)
Ohm's vectorial Law: j = σE , we can ≅ −1.2
mi0(air)
write that
Note that, by increasing V0 the
j
σair = air ( A38) values of E air and σ air are increased.
Eair
Substitution of (A37) into (A38) yields Thus, as show (A42), there are two
1 3 ways for decrease the value of m g (air ) :
⎛ E ⎞2 ⎛ b ⎞2
σ air = 2α⎜ air ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ( A39) increasing the value of V0 or
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝a⎠
If the insulation layer has decreasing the value of f .
34
Since E = 10 V / m = 10kV / mm and
max
0
7
Gravitational Shielding is
Δ = 0.6 mm then the dielectric strength max
Pair = ( ) ≅ 10kW . This means that
max 2
Rair iair
of the insulation must be ≥ 16.7kV / mm . a very strong light will be radiated
As mentioned above, the dielectric from this type of Gravitational
strength of the acrylic is 17kV / mm . Shielding. Note that this device can
It is important to note that, due also be used as a lamp, which will be
to the strong value of E air (Eq. A37) much more efficient than conventional
the drift velocity vd , lamps.
(vd = jair ne = σ air Eair ne) of the free Coating a ceiling with this
charges inside the ionized air put them lighting system enables the entire area
at a distance x = vd t = 2 fvd ≅ 0.4m , which is of ceiling to produce light. This is a
much greater than the distance form of lighting very different from
d =1.8 ×10−4 m. Consequently, the number
those usually known.
n of free charges decreases strongly
Note that the value Pair max
≅ 10kW ,
inside the air layer of thickness d ††† , defines the power of the transformer
except, obviously, in a thin layer, very shown in Fig.A10. Thus, the
close to the dielectric, where the maximum current in the secondary is
number of free charges remains i smax = 9kV 10 kW = 0.9 A .
sufficiently increased, to maintain the Above the Gravitational
air conductivity with σ air ≅1.1S / m (Eq. Shielding, σ air is reduced to the
A39). normal value of conductivity of the
The thickness h of this thin air atmospheric air (≈ 10 −14 S / m ) . Thus, the
layer close to the dielectric can be power radiated from this region is
easily evaluated starting from the
charge distribution in the max
Pair ( ) σ A=
= (d − h ) i air
max 2
air
neighborhood of the dielectric, and of
the repulsion forces established among = (d − h )Aσ (E ) ≅ 10
air
max 2
air
−4
W
them. The result is
h = 0.06e 4πε 0 E ≅ 4 × 10 m . −9
This is, Now, we will describe a method
therefore, the thickness of the Air to coat the Aluminum semi-spheres
Gravitational Shielding. If the area of with acrylic in the necessary
this Gravitational Shielding is equal to dimension (Δ = a − r0 ) . First, take an
the area of a format A4 sheet of paper, Aluminum plate with 21cm × 29.1cm
i.e., A = 0.20 × 0.291 = 0.0582m 2 , we obtain (A4 format). By means of a convenient
the following value for the resistance process, several semi-spheres can be
R air of the Gravitational Shielding: stamped on its surface. The semi-
spheres have radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and
R air = h σ air A ≅ 6 × 10 −8 Ω . Since the
maximum electrical current through are joined one to another. Next, take
an acrylic sheet (A4 format) with
this air layer is i max = j max A ≅ 400 kA , then
1.5mm thickness (See Fig.A8 (a)).
the maximum power radiated from the Put a heater below the Aluminum plate
†††
Reducing therefore the conductivity, σ air , to the
in order to heat the Aluminum (Fig.A8
normal value of the conductivity of atmospheric air. (b)). When the Aluminum is
35
sufficiently heated up, the acrylic sheet around bodies or spacecrafts with
and the Aluminum plate are pressed, several formats (spheres, ellipsoids,
one against the other, as shown in Fig. etc); Fig. A11 (d) shows a
A8 (c). The two D devices shown in Gravitational Shielding around a
this figure are used in order to impede Spacecraft with ellipsoidal form.
that the press compresses the acrylic The previously mentioned
and the aluminum to a distance shorter Gravitational Shielding, produced on a
than y + a . After some seconds, remove thin layer of ionized air, has a
the press and the heater. The device is behavior different from the
ready to be subjected to a voltage V0 Gravitational Shielding produced on a
with frequency f , as shown in Fig.A9. rigid substance. When the
Note that, in this case, the balance is gravitational masses of the air
not necessary, because the substance molecules, inside the shielding, are
reduced to within the range
that produces the gravitational
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , they go to
shielding is an air layer with thickness
d above the acrylic sheet. This is, the imaginary space-time, as
therefore, more a type of Gravity previously shown in this article.
Control Cell (GCC) with external However, the electric field E air stays at
gravitational shielding. the real space-time. Consequently, the
It is important to note that this molecules return immediately to the
GCC can be made very thin and as real space-time in order to return soon
flexible as a fabric. Thus, it can be after to the imaginary space-time, due
used to produce anti- gravity clothes. to the action of the electric field E air .
These clothes can be extremely useful, In the case of the Gravitational
for example, to walk on the surface of Shielding produced on a solid
high gravity planets. substance, when the molecules of the
Figure A11 shows some substance go to the imaginary space-
geometrical forms that can be stamped time, the electric field that produces
on a metallic surface in order to the effect, also goes to the imaginary
produce a Gravitational Shielding space-time together with them, since in
effect, similar to the produced by the this case, the substance of the
semi-spherical form. Gravitational Shielding is rigidly
An obvious evolution from the connected to the metal that produces
semi-spherical form is the semi- the electric field. (See Fig. A12 (b)).
cylindrical form shown in Fig. A11 This is the fundamental difference
(b); Fig.A11(c) shows concentric between the non-solid and solid
metallic rings stamped on the metallic Gravitational Shieldings.
surface, an evolution from Fig.A11 Now, consider a Gravitational
(b). These geometrical forms produce Spacecraft that is able to produce an
the same effect as the semi-spherical Air Gravitational Shielding and also a
form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using Solid Gravitational Shielding, as
concentric metallic rings, it is possible
to build Gravitational Shieldings
36
‡‡‡
shown in Fig. A13 (a) . Assuming time. Under these circumstances,
that the intensity of the electric field, the gravitational mass of the
E air , necessary to reduce the Gravitational Shielding can be reduced
gravitational mass of the air molecules to m g ≅ 0 . For example, m g ≅ 10 −4 kg .
to within the range Thus, if the inertial mass of the
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , is much Gravitational Shielding is mi 0 ≅ 1kg ,
smaller than the intensity of the then χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −4 . As we have
electric field, E rs , necessary to reduce seen, this means that the inertial
the gravitational mass of the solid effects on the spacecraft will be
substance to within the range reduced by χ ≅ 10−4 . Then, in spite of the
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , then we effective acceleration of the spacecraft
conclude that the Gravitational be, for example, a = 105 m.s −2 , the effects
Shielding made of ionized air goes to on the crew of the spacecraft will be
the imaginary space-time before the equivalent to an acceleration of only
Gravitational Shielding made of solid mg
a′ = a = χ a ≈ 10m.s −1
substance. When this occurs the mi 0
spacecraft does not go to the This is the magnitude of the
imaginary space-time together with the acceleration upon the passengers in a
Gravitational Shielding of air, because contemporary commercial jet.
the air molecules are not rigidly Then, it is noticed that
connected to the spacecraft. Thus, Gravitational Spacecrafts can be
while the air molecules go into the subjected to enormous accelerations
imaginary space-time, the spacecraft (or decelerations) without imposing
stays in the real space-time, and any harmful impacts whatsoever on
remains subjected to the effects of the the spacecrafts or its crew.
Gravitational Shielding around it, Now, imagine that the intensity
since the shielding does not stop to of the electric field that produces the
work, due to its extremely short Gravitational Shielding around the
permanence at the imaginary space- spacecraft is increased up to reaching
‡‡‡
the value E rs that reduces the
The solid Gravitational Shielding can also be
obtained by means of an ELF electric current through gravitational mass of the solid
a metallic lamina placed between the semi-spheres Gravitational Shielding to within the
and the Gravitational Shielding of Air (See Fig.A13
(a)). The gravitational mass of the solid Gravitational range + 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi . Under
Shielding will be controlled just by means of the these circumstances, the solid
intensity of the ELF electric current. Recently, it was
discovered that Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be Gravitational Shielding goes to the
added to Alumina (Al2O3) to convert it into a good imaginary space-time and, since it is
electrical conductor. It was found that the electrical
conductivity increased up to 3375 S/m at 77°C in rigidly connected to the spacecraft,
samples that were 15% nanotubes by volume [12]. It also the spacecraft goes to the
is known that the density of α-Alumina is imaginary space-time together with the
3.98×103kg.m-3 and that it can withstand 10-20
KV/mm. Thus, these values show that the Alumina- Gravitational Shielding. Thus, the
CNT can be used to make a solid Gravitational spacecraft can travel within the
Shielding.
37
imaginary space-time and make use of departure place where would
the Gravitational Shielding around it. reappear in our Universe. Thus, trips
As we have already seen, the through our Universe that would delay
maximum velocity of propagation of millions of years, at speeds close to the
the interactions in the imaginary speed of light, could be done in just a
space-time is infinite (in the real few months in the imaginary Universe.
space-time this limit is equal to the In order to produce the
light velocity c ). This means that there acceleration of a ≈ 10 9 m.s −2 upon the
are no limits for the velocity of the spacecraft we propose a Gravitational
spacecraft in the imaginary space- Thruster with 10 GCCs (10
time. Thus, the acceleration of the Gravitational Shieldings) of the type
spacecraft can reach, for example, with several semi-spheres stamped on
a = 109 m.s −2 , which leads the spacecraft the metallic surface, as previously
to attain velocities V ≈ 1014 m.s −1 (about shown, or with the semi-cylindrical
1 million times the speed of light) after form shown in Figs. A11 (b) and (c).
one day of trip. With this velocity, The 10 GCCs are filled with air at 1
after 1 month of trip the spacecraft atm and 300K. If the insulation layer is
would have traveled about10 21 m . In made with Mica (ε r ≅ 5.4) and has
order to have idea of this distance, it is thickness Δ = 0.1 mm , and the semi-
enough to remind that the diameter of spheres stamped on the metallic
our Universe (visible Universe) is of surface have r0 = 0.4 mm (See Fig.A7)
the order of 10 26 m . then a = r0 + Δ = 0.5 mm. Thus, we get
Due to the extremely low b = r0 εr = 9.295×10−4 m
density of the imaginary bodies, the
and
collision between them cannot have
d = b − a = 4.295 ×10 −4 m
the same consequences of the collision
Then, from Eq. A42 we obtain
between the real bodies.
⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
Thus, for a Gravitational χair =
mg (air)
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.758×10−27 air2 air − 1⎥⎬ =
Spacecraft in imaginary state, the mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢⎣ ρair f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
problem of the collision in high-speed ⎧⎪ ⎡ V 5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
doesn't exist. Consequently, the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.0 ×10−18 0 3 −1⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎭⎪
Gravitational Spacecraft can transit
freely in the imaginary Universe and, For V0 = V0max = 15.6kV and f = 0.12Hz, the
in this way, reach easily any point of result is
our real Universe once they can make
the transition back to our Universe by mg (air)
χ air = ≅ −1.6 ×104
only increasing the gravitational mass mi0(air)
of the Gravitational Shielding of the
spacecraft in such way that it leaves Since E 0max = V0max r0 is
now given by
the range of + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i . 0.9mm=17.3kV / mm and Δ = 0.1 mm
E0max =15.6kV
The return trip would be done in then the dielectric strength of the
similar way. That is to say, the insulation must be ≥ 173kV / mm . As
spacecraft would transit in the
imaginary Universe back to the
38
§§§
shown in the table below , 0.1mm -
) (6.67 × 10 )⎛⎜⎜ 1030 ⎞
−19
)1.2(10 ) ≅ 10
a10 = χ air
10
a 0 where a 0 = −G M g r 2 is the
(
7
≅ −(− 10) 6.67 × 10 −11
10 4
m.s −2 gravitational acceleration acting on
(20) 2
this article (See Fig.6) and [2], will where [χ (− GM g r ′ )] < a10 , since r ′ > r .
10
air
2
protect it from the heating produced Thus, for a10 ≅ 10 9 m.s −2 and χ s ≈ 10 −8 we
by the friction with the Earth’s conclude that a10′ < 10m.s −2 . This means
that a10′ << a10 . Therefore, we can write
††††
This value is within the range of values of χ
that the resultant on the micro-thruster
(χ < − 10 3
)
. See Eq . A15 , which can be produced by
can be expressed by means of the
means of ELF electric currents through metals as
Aluminum, etc. This means that, in this case, if following relation
convenient, we can replace air inside the GCCs of the
Gravitational Micro-thrusters by metal laminas with
ELF electric currents through them. R ≅ F10 = χ air
10
F0
40
Figure A15 (c) shows a Micro- E (acrylic ) are not sufficient to produce
Gravitational Thruster with 10 Air the ionization effect, which increases
Gravitational Shieldings (10 GCCs). the electrical conductivity.
Thin Metallic laminas are placed after Consequently, the conductivities of the
each Air Gravitational Shielding in water and the acrylic remain << 1 S.m−1.
order to retain the electric In this way, with E (H 2O ) and E (acrylic )
field E b = V0 x , produced by metallic
much smaller than E air , and σ ( H 2O ) << 1 ,
surface behind the semi-spheres. The
laminas with semi-spheres stamped on σ (acrylic ) << 1 , the decrease in both the
its surfaces are connected to the ELF gravitational mass of the acrylic and
voltage source V0 and the thin laminas the gravitational mass of water,
in front of the Air Gravitational according to Eq.A14, is negligible.
Shieldings are grounded. The air This means that only in the air layer
inside this Micro-Gravitational the decrease in the gravitational mass
Thruster is at 300K, 1atm. will be relevant.
We have seen that the insulation Equation A39 gives the electrical
layer of a GCC can be made up of conductivity of the air layer, i.e.,
1 3
Acrylic, Mica, etc. Now, we will ⎛ E ⎞2 ⎛ b ⎞2 1
σair = 2α⎜ air⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =0.029V02 ( A46)
design a GCC using Water (distilled ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a⎠
water, ε r (H 2O ) = 80 ) and Aluminum semi- Note that b = r0 εr(H2O) . Therefore, here
cylinders with radius r0 = 1 .3 mm . Thus, the value of b is larger than in the case
for Δ = 0.6mm , the new value of a of the acrylic. Consequently, the
is a = 1.9mm . Then, we get electrical conductivity of the air layer
b = r0 εr(H2O) = 11.63×10−3m ( A43) will be larger here than in the case of
d = b − a = 9.73×10−3m ( A44) acrylic.
and Substitution of σ (air ) , E air (rms)
Eair =
1 q
=
and ρ air = 1.2kg .m −3 into Eq. A14, gives
4πεr(air)ε 0 b 2 mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ V5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
V0 r0 =⎨1−2⎢ 1+4.54×10−20 03 −1⎥⎬ ( A47)
= ε r( H ) = mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
2O
ε r(air)b 2
For V0 = V0max = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the
V0 r0 V0
= ≅ = 1111.1 V0 ( A45) result is
ε r(air) r0
mg (air)
Note that ≅ −8.4
mi0(air)
V0 r0
E( H2O) = This shows that, by using water
ε r ( H2O)
instead of acrylic, the result is much
and
better.
V0 r0
E(acrylic) = In order to build the GCC based
ε r (acrylic)
on the calculations above (See Fig.
Therefore, E (H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) are much A16), take an Acrylic plate with
smaller than E air . Note that for 885mm X 885m and 2mm thickness,
V0 ≤ 9kV the intensities of E ( H 2O ) and then paste on it an Aluminum sheet
41
with 895.2mm X 885mm and 0.5mm frequency is decreased). A precision
thickness(note that two edges of the balance is placed below the GCC in
Aluminum sheet are bent as shown in order to measure the mentioned mass
Figure A16 (b)). Next, take 342 decrease for comparison with the
Aluminum yarns with 884mm length values predicted by Eq. A(47). In total,
and 2.588mm diameter (wire # 10 this GCC weighs about 6kg; the air
AWG) and insert them side by side on layer 7.3grams. The balance has the
the Aluminum sheet. See in Fig. A16 following characteristics: range 0-6kg;
(b) the detail of fixing of the yarns on readability 0.1g. Also, in order to
the Aluminum sheet. Now, paste prove the Gravitational Shielding
acrylic strips (with 13.43mm height Effect, we can put a sample (connected
and 2mm thickness) around the to a dynamometer) above the GCC in
Aluminum/Acrylic, making a box. Put order to check the gravity acceleration
distilled water (approximately 1 litter) in this region.
inside this box, up to a height of In order to prove the exponential
exactly 3.7mm from the edge of the effect produced by the superposition of
acrylic base. Afterwards, paste an the Gravitational Shieldings, we can
Acrylic lid (889mm X 889mm and 2mm take three similar GCCs and put them
thickness) on the box. Note that above one above the other, in such way that
the water there is an air layer with above the GCC 1 the gravity
885mm X 885mm and 7.73mm acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the
thickness (See Fig. A16). This GCC2 g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3
thickness plus the acrylic lid thickness g ′′′ = χ 3 g . Where χ is given by Eq.
(2mm) is equal to d = b − a = 9.73mm
(A47).
where b = r0 ε r ( H 2O ) = 11.63mm and
It is important to note that the
a = r0 + Δ = 1.99 mm , since r0 = 1.3mm , intensity of the electric field through
ε r ( H 2O ) = 80 and Δ = 0.6mm . the air below the GCC is much smaller
Note that the gravitational action than the intensity of the electric field
of the electric field E air , extends itself through the air layer inside the GCC.
only up to the distance d , which, in In addition, the electrical conductivity
this GCC, is given by the sum of the of the air below the GCC is much
Air layer thickness (7.73mm) plus the smaller than the conductivity of the air
thickness of the Acrylic lid (2mm). layer inside the GCC. Consequently,
Thus, it is ensured the the decrease of the gravitational mass
gravitational effect on the air layer of the air below the GCC, according to
while it is practically nullified in the Eq.A14, is negligible. This means that
acrylic sheet above the air layer, since the GCC1, GCC2 and GCC3 can be
E (acrylic ) << E air and σ (acrylic ) << 1 . simply overlaid, on the experiment
proposed above. However, since it is
With this GCC, we can carry out
an experiment where the gravitational
necessary to put samples among them
mass of the air layer is progressively in order to measure the gravity above
reduced when the voltage applied to each GCC, we suggest a spacing of
the GCC is increased (or when the 30cm or more among them.
42
Dynamometer
50 mm
g g
g′ = χ g
Sample
Aluminum foil Foam Board
GCC
Battery 12V
R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
10Ω - 90W Coupling
Transformer
Function Generation
Flexible Copper wire
HP3325A # 12 AWG
ε1
R1
500Ω - 2W
Fig. A2 – Experimental Set-up 1.
43
Gum
(Loctite Super Bonder)
Aluminum foil
Foam Board
GCC
ri1
ε1 ~ Rp
f = 2 μHz
Wire # 12 AWG
Gravitational
R1 Shielding
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2
(a)
ε 1 = Function Generator HP3325A(Option 002 High Voltage Output)
ri1 < 2Ω; R1 = 500Ω − 2 W ; ε 2 = 12V DC; ri 2 < 0.1Ω (Battery );
R2 = 4Ω − 40W ; R p = 2.5 × 10 −3 Ω; Reostat = 0 ≤ R ≤ 10Ω − 90W
I1max = 56mA (rms ); I 2max = 3 A ; I 3max ≅ 3 A (rms )
Coupling Transformer to isolate the Function Generator from the Battery
• Air core 10 - mm diameter; wire # 12 AWG; N1 = N 2 = 20; l = 42mm
I1 ε2 T
+ − ri 2
I2 R
ri1
−5
ε1 GCC l = 1cm → Rφ = 5.23 × 10 Ω
~ l
0.5 2 h =3mm
f = 2 μHz
d
i
Wire # 12 AWG e
l
e Al 200 mm
R1 c
t
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2 r
P # 12 AWG i
c
(b)
R = 0 ⇒ V pmax = 1.1 × 10−4V Gravitational
Shielding
R = 10 ⇒ V pmin = 4.0 × 10−5V
j
ELF electric current Wire
⎧⎪ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758 ×10− 27 r2 3 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ σρ f ⎦⎥ ⎭⎪
Fig. A5 – An ELF electric current through a wire, that makes a spherical form as shown above,
reduces the gravitational mass of the wire and the gravity inside sphere at the same proportion
χ = m g mi 0 (Gravitational Shielding Effect). Note that this spherical form can be transformed into
an ellipsoidal form or a disc in order to coat, for example, a Gravitational Spacecraft. It is also
possible to coat with a wire several forms, such as cylinders, cones, cubes, etc. The characteristics
of the wire are expressed by: μ r , σ , ρ ; j is the electric current density and f is the frequency.
46
Dynamometer
Battery 12V
R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
Coupling
Transformer
Function Generation
HP3325A Flexible Copper wire
# 12 AWG
ε1
R1
Fig. A6 – Experimental set-up 2.
47
r0
Aluminum Foil
~ V0 , f
Heater
(b)
Press
D D
y+a
(c)
Δ=0.6 mm
r0 =0.9 mm a = 1.5 mm
(d)
Fig A8 – Method to coat the Aluminum semi-spheres with acrylic (Δ = a − r0 = 0.6mm ) .
(a)Acrylic sheet (A4 format) with 1.5mm thickness and an Aluminum plate (A4) with several
semi-spheres (radius r0 = 0.9 mm ) stamped on its surface. (b)A heater is placed below the
Aluminum plate in order to heat the Aluminum. (c)When the Aluminum is sufficiently heated
up, the acrylic sheet and the Aluminum plate are pressed, one against the other (The two D
devices shown in this figure are used in order to impede that the press compresses the acrylic
and the aluminum besides distance y + a ). (d)After some seconds, the press and the heater are
removed, and the device is ready to be used.
49
Dynamometer
50 mm
g g
GCC
g′ = χ g
Sample
Acrylic/Aluminum
High-voltage V0
Rheostat Oscillator
Transformer f > 1Hz
Fig. A9 – Experimental Set-up using a GCC subjected to high-voltage V 0 with frequency f > 1Hz .
Note that in this case, the pan balance is not necessary because the substance of the Gravitational
Shielding is an air layer with thickness d above the acrylic sheet. This is therefore, more a type of
Gravity Control Cell (GCC) with external gravitational shielding.
50
Gravitational Shielding
d
R
V0
GCC
Acrylic /Aluminum
V0max = 9 kV
Oscillator
V0min = 2.7 kV ~ f > 1Hz
(a)
Acrylic
Pin wire
Aluminum
Connector
(High-voltage)
(b)
10kV
Fig. A10 – (a) Equivalent Electric Circuit. (b) Details of the electrical connection with the
Aluminum plate. Note that others connection modes (by the top of the device) can produce
destructible interference on the electric lines of the E air field.
51
(a) (b)
Metallic Rings
Metallic base
(c)
Eair
Gravitational Shielding εr
Metallic Rings
Oscillator f
Transformer
V0
Dielectric layer
Ionized air (d)
Fig. A11 – Geometrical forms with similar effects as those produced by the semi-spherical form – (a)
shows the semi-spherical form stamped on the metallic surface; (b) shows the semi-cylindrical form (an
obvious evolution from the semi-spherical form); (c) shows concentric metallic rings stamped on
the metallic surface, an evolution from semi-cylindrical form. These geometrical forms produce
the same effect as that of the semi-spherical form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using concentric
metallic rings, it is possible to build Gravitational Shieldings around bodies or spacecrafts with
several formats (spheres, ellipsoids, etc); (d) shows a Gravitational Shielding around a Spacecraft
with ellipsoidal form.
52
Dielectric
Metal Dielectric Metal (rigidly connected to the spacecraft)
Spacecraft E
Spacecraft E
(a) (b)
Fig. A12 – Non-solid and Solid Gravitational Shieldings - In the case of the Gravitational
Shielding produced on a solid substance (b), when its molecules go to the imaginary space-time,
the electric field that produces the effect also goes to the imaginary space-time together with
them, because in this case, the substance of the Gravitational Shielding is rigidly connected (by
means of the dielectric) to the metal that produces the electric field. This does not occur in the
case of Air Gravitational Shielding.
53
Micro-Gravitational Thruster
(b)
Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Intergallactic
medium
(IGM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
m gt r
Mg
Mg ρ igm V
a = χ 10 G 2
= χ 10 G
r r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ igm∼10-26kg.m-3
(c)
Fig. A13 – Double Gravitational Shielding and Micro-thrusters – (a) Shows a double
gravitational shielding that makes possible to decrease the inertial effects upon the spacecraft
when it is traveling both in the imaginary space-time and in the real space-time. The solid
Gravitational Shielding also can be obtained by means of an ELF electric current through a metallic
lamina placed between the semi-spheres and the Gravitational Shielding of Air as shown above. (b)
Shows 6 micro-thrusters placed inside a Gravitational Spacecraft, in order to propel the
spacecraft in the directions x, y and z. Note that the Gravitational Thrusters in the spacecraft
must have a very small diameter (of the order of millimeters) because the hole through the
Gravitational Shielding of the spacecraft cannot be large. Thus, these thrusters are in fact Micro-
thrusters. (c) Shows a micro-thruster inside a spacecraft, and in front of a volume V of the
intergalactic medium (IGM). Under these conditions, the spacecraft acquires an acceleration a in
the direction of the volume V.
54
Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Interstellar
medium
(ISM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ismV
a = χ 10 G 2
= χ 10 G
r r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ ism∼10-21kg.m-3
(a)
Volume V
of the
Interplanetary
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings medium
(IPM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ipmV
a=χ G 10
=χ G10
Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ ipm∼10-20kg.m-3
(b)
Volume V
of the
Earth’s
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings
atmospheric
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ atmV
a = χ 10 G = χ 10 G
Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ atm∼1.2kg.m-3
(c)
Fig. A14 – Gravitational Propulsion using Micro-Gravitational Thruster – (a) Gravitational
acceleration produced by a gravitational mass Mg of the Interstellar Medium. The density of the
Interstellar Medium is about 105 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium (b)
Gravitational acceleration produced in the Interplanetary Medium. (c) Gravitational acceleration
produced in the Earth’s atmosphere. Note that, in this case, ρatm (near to the Earth’s surface)is about
1026 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium.
55
r
F’0 F2 =χair2F0 F’2=χair2F’0 F0 r
F1 =χairF0 F’1 =χairF’0
Mg Mg
S2 S1
F’0 = F0 => R = (F’0 – F2) + (F1 – F’1 ) + (F’2 – F0) = 0
(a)
Micro-Gravitational Thruster
with 10 gravitational shieldings
Gravitational Shielding
r’ χ s ≅ −10 −8 a’0 r
a’0 =χs(-GMg /r’2) a10=χair10a0 a0 = - GMg/r2
Mg Mg
R ≅ F10 = χ 10
air F0
Metal
Mica
(b) Grounded Metallic laminas
1 GCC
Air Gravitational Shielding
x
10mm
ELF
~
V0 ~ 400 mm
(c)
Fig. A15 – Dynamics and Structure of the Micro-Gravitational Thrusters - (a) The Micro-
Gravitational Thrusters do not work outside the Gravitational Shielding, because, in this case, the resultant
( )
upon the thruster is null due to the symmetry. (b) The Gravitational Shielding χ s ≅ 10 −8 reduces strongly
the intensities of the gravitational forces acting on the micro-gravitational thruster, except obviously, through
the hole in the gravitational shielding. (c) Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 Air Gravitational Shieldings
(10GCCs). The grounded metallic laminas are placed so as to retain the electric field produced by metallic
surface behind the semi-spheres.
56
0.885 m
Sample
Any type of material; any mass
Acrylic Box
(2mm thickness) g’= χ g
2 mm
d = 9.73 mm Air layer mg (air) = χ mi (air) 7.73 mm
Distilled Water a = 1.9 mm
3.2 mm
1.8 mm
2 mm
Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness) V0max = 9 kV
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) Balance
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) ~ 2 Hz
Transformer
g
0.885 m
0.884 m
1mm 1mm
Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness)
Balance
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) 1.5mm
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) 0.5 mm
3.6mm
0.885 m
70
cm Sample 5Kg
mg Any type of material; any mass
g ′′′ = χ 3 g
GCC 3 Balance
70
cm 5Kg
mg
g ′′ = χ 2 g
GCC 2 Balance
70
cm 5Kg
mg
g′ = χ g
GCC 1 Balance
Fig. A17 – Experimental set-up. In order to prove the exponential effect produced by the
superposition of the Gravitational Shieldings, we can take three similar GCCs and put them one above
the other, in such way that above the GCC 1 the gravity acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the
GCC2 g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3 g ′′′ = χ 3 g . Where χ is given by Eq. (A47). The arrangement
above has been designed for values of mg < 13g and χ up to -9 or mg < 1kg and χ up to -2 .
58
APPENDIX B: Gravity Control Cells (GCCs) made from
Semiconductor Compounds.
‡‡‡‡
www.coorstek.com
62
Aluminum
2mm
150mm
3mm 150mm
200mm
5mm
150mm
3mm
200mm
150mm
Aluminum
Aluminum
190mmX150mmX1mm
Duracap
150mmX150mmX1mm
Acrylic 1kg
150mmX40mmX1mm
Wood
Bosch 20 mm
ELF Wave Voltage red 20 mm Balance
Generator coil 20 mm
(a)
Sample
1kg
Bosch
ELF Wave Voltage red Balance
Generator coil
(b)
− V DC
+
Gravitational Thrusters
z
y x
col 1 col 2
(a)
Capacitor of Gravitational Mass Control dielectric
(CGMC)
(b)
n dielectrics
n 321
g n = χ dielectric
n
g g
Inertial Shielding
(c)
Fig.B4 – Gravitational Propulsion System and Inertial Shielding of the Gravitational Spacecraft
– (a) eight gravitational thrusters are placed inside a Gravitational Spacecraft, in order to propel the
spacecraft along the directions x, y and z. Two gravitational thrusters are inside the columns 1 and 2, in
order to rotate the spacecraft around the y-axis. The functioning of the Gravitational Thrusters is shown
in Fig.A14. The gravitational mass of the spacecraft is controlled by the Capacitor of Gravitational
Mass Control (CGMC). Note that the CGMC can have the spacecraft's own form, as shown in (b). In
order to strongly reduce the inertial effects upon the crew of the spacecraft, we can build an inertial
shielding, with several CGMCs, as shown above (c). In this case, the gravity upon the crew will be
given by g n = χ dielectric
n
g , where g is the gravity acceleration out of the spacecraft (in a given direction)
and χ dielectric = m g mi 0 ; m g and mi 0 are, respectively, the gravitational mass and the inertial mass of
the dielectric. Under these conditions the inertial effects upon the crew will be reduced by χ dielectric
n
.
Thus, for example, if n = 10 and χ dielectric ≅ 0.2 , the inertial effects will be reduced
10
by χ dielectric ≅ 1 × 10 −7 . If the maximum thrust produced by the thrusters is F = 10 5 N , then the intensities
of the inertial forces upon the crew will not exceed 0.01N .
66
APPENDIX C: Longer-Duration Microgravity Environment
Produced by Gravity Control Cells (GCCs).
The acceleration experienced by deep vertical mine shaft in Japan that
an object in a microgravity has been converted to a drop facility.
environment, by definition, is one- Drop towers are used for
millionth (10-6) of that experienced at experiments that only need a short
Earth’s surface (1g). Consequently, a duration of microgravity, or for an
microgravity environment is one initial validation for experiments that
where the acceleration induced by will be carried out in longer duration
gravity has little or no measurable of microgravity.
effect. The term zero-gravity is,
obviously inappropriate since the
quantization of gravity [1] shows that
the gravity can have only discrete
values different of zero [1, Appendix B].
Only three methods of creating a
microgravity environment are
currently known: to travel far enough
into deep space so as to reduce the
effect of gravity by attenuation, by
falling, and by orbiting a planet.
The first method is the simplest
in conception, but requires traveling an Aircraft can fly in parabolic arcs
enormous distance, rendering it most to achieve period of microgravity of
impractical with the conventional 20 to 25 seconds with g-level of
spacecrafts. The second method, approximately 0.02 g. The airplane
falling, is very common but climbs rapidly until its nose is about
approaches microgravity only when 45-degree angle to the horizon then the
the fall is in a vacuum, as air resistance engines are cut back. The airplane
will provide some resistance to free slows; the plane remains in free fall
fall acceleration. Also it is difficult to over the top of the parabola, then it
fall for long enough periods of time. nose-dives to complete the parabola,
There are also problems which involve creating microgravity conditions.
avoiding too sudden of a stop at the Aircraft parabolic flights give
end. The NASA Lewis Research the opportunity to perform medical
Center has several drop facilities. One experiments on human subjects in real
provides a 132 meter drop into a hole microgravity environment. They also
in the ground similar to a mine shaft. offer the possibility of direct
This drop creates a reduced gravity intervention by investigators on board
environment for 5.2 seconds. The the aircraft during and between
longest drop time currently available parabolas. In the mid-1980s, NASA
(about 10 seconds) is at a 490 meter KC-135, a modified Boeing 707,
67
provided access to microgravity and potential loss of data.
environment. A parabolic flight Unmanned capsules, platforms or
provided 15 to 20 seconds of 0.01 g or satellites, such as the European
less, followed by a 2-g pull out. On a retrievable carrier Eureka, DLR's
typical flight, up to 40 parabolic retrievable carrier SPAS, or the
trajectories can be performed. The Russian Photon capsules, the US
KC-135 can accommodate up to 21 Space Shuttle (in connection with the
passengers performing 12 different European Spacelab laboratory or the
experiments. In 1993, the Falcon-20 US Spacelab module), provide weeks
performed its first parabolic flight with or months of microgravity.
microgravity experiment on board. A space station, maintaining a
This jet can carry two experimenters low earth orbit for several decades,
and perform up to 3 experiments. Each greatly improves access to
flight can make up to 4 parabolic microgravity environment for up to
trajectories, with each parabola lasting several months.
75 seconds, with 15 to 20 seconds of Thus, microgravity environment
microgravity at 0.01g or less. can be obtained via different means,
providing different duration of
microgravity. While short-duration
microgravity environments can be
achieved on Earth with relative
easiness, longer-duration microgravity
environments are too expensive to be
obtained.
Here, we propose to use the Gravity
Control Cells (GCCs), shown in this
The third method of creating a work, in order to create longer-
microgravity environment is orbiting a duration microgravity environments.
planet. This is the environment As we have seen, just above a GCC
commonly experienced in the space the gravity can be strongly reduced
shuttle, International Space Station, (down to 1μg or less). In this way, the
Mir (no longer in orbit), etc. While this gravity above a GCC can remain at the
scenario is the most suitable for >>1m
Real Space-time
Real Transceiver 2 Virtual photons
(b) v→∞
Fig. D2 – (a) Antenna with Gravitational
Transducer. (b) Transceivers operating with
imaginary antennas (instantaneous Virtual Transceivers
communications at any distance, including
astronomical distances). (b)
Let us now consider the case Fig. D3 – (a) Instantaneous communications
where a transceiver is totally turned between the real Universe and the imaginary
into imaginary (Fig.D3). In order to Universe.(b) Instantaneous communications
convert real antennas into imaginary between two Virtual Transceivers in the
antennas, we have used the imaginary Universe.
gravitational shielding effect, as we
have already seen. Now, it is necessary
74
References
[1] De Aquino, F.(2010) Mathematical Foundations [16] Wadsley, J., et al. (2002). The Universe
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, in Hot Gas. NASA.
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap
11(1), June 2010, pp.173-232. Physics/0212033. 020820.html. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means [17] Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl Phys. Lett.
of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra- 83, 1228.
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and [18] Xianping Lu, Ove Nilsson, Jochen.
Technology, 11(2) November 2010, pp.178- Fricke, Richard W. Pekala,” Thermal and
247, Physics/0701091. electrical conductivity of monolithic
. [3] Isham, C. J. (1975) Quantum Gravity, in carbon aerogels”, Journal of Applied
Oxford Symposium, OUP. Physics, 73, 2, 581-584 (Jan 1993).
[4] Isham, C.J., (1997) “Structural Problems [19] Worsley, M.A et al., (2010) Synthesis of
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory’’, in Graphene Aerogel with High Electrical
M, Francaviglia, G, Longhi, L, Lusanna, Conductivity , J. Am. Chem. Soc., 132
and E, Sorace, eds., Proceedings of the (40), pp 14067–14069.
14th International Conference on [20] Bryning, M., Milkie, D., Islam, M.,
General Relativity and Gravitation, Hough, L., Kikkawa, J. and Yodh, A.
167-209,(World Scientific, Singapore, 1997).
(2007), Carbon Nanotube Aerogels.
[5] Mach, E., (1893) The Science of Mechanics, AdvancedMaterials,19: 661–664.
London, p.229-38. doi: 10.1002/adma.200601748.
[6] Bohm, D. (1951) Quantum Theory,
Prentice-Hall, N.Y, p.415.
[7] D’Espagnat, B. The Question of Quantum
Reality, Scientific American, 241,128.
[8] Teller, P. Relational Holism and
Quantum Mechanics, British Journal for
the Philosophy of Science, 37, 71-81.
[9] De Aquino, F. (2008) “Physical
Foundations of Quantum Psychology”,
http://htpprints.yorku.ca/archive/00000297
[10] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969)
Theorie du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow,
Portuguese version (1974) Ed. Hemus,
S.Paulo, pp.396-397.
[11] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)
Physics, J. Willey & Sons,
Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.
[12] Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl. Phys. Lett.
83, 1228.
[13] Davidson, K. & Smoot, G. (2008)
Wrinkles in Time. N. Y: Avon, 158-163.
[14] Silk, Joseph.(1977) Big Bang. N.Y,
Freeman,299.
[15] Jafelice, L.C. and Opher, R. (1992). The
origin of intergalactic magnetic fields
due to extragalactic jets. RAS.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-
bib query? Bib code = 1992 MNRAS.
257. 135J. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
1
i osc ε2
+ −
R
I DC
f = 1μHz
i rms ≅ I DC
I = I DC + i osc
REFERENCES
The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) is currently the most important
facility used to generate extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic radiation in the ionosphere.
In order to produce this ELF radiation the HAARP transmitter radiates a strong beam of high-
frequency (HF) waves modulated at ELF. This HF heating modulates the electrons’ temperature in the
D region ionosphere and leads to modulated conductivity and a time-varying current which then
radiates at the modulation frequency. Recently, the HAARP HF transmitter operated with 3.6GW of
effective radiated power modulated at frequency of 2.5Hz. It is shown that high-power ELF radiation
generated by HF ionospheric heaters, such as the current HAARP heater, can cause Earthquakes,
Cyclones and strong localized heating.
.
Key words: Physics of the ionosphere, radiation processes, Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Storms.
PACS: 94.20.-y ; 94.05.Dd ; 91.30.Px ; 91.30.Nw; 92.60.Qx
dz ω
P = mg g (1) v= = =
c
(5)
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟
2
2 ⎝ ⎠
It arises from the mentioned law that the
gravity acceleration (or simply the gravity)
produced by a body with gravitational mass where kr is the real part of the
r
M g is given by propagation vector k (also called phase
r
constant ); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are
GM g
g= (2 ) the electromagnetic characteristics of the
r2 medium in which the incident radiation is
propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
The physical property of mass has two
distinct aspects: gravitational mass mg and μ = μ r μ 0 , where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ).
inertial mass mi. The gravitational mass From (5), we see that the index of
produces and responds to gravitational fields; refraction nr = c v , for σ >> ωε , is given
it supplies the mass factor in Newton's by
famous inverse-square law of μrσ
( )
gravity F = GM g m g r . The inertial mass
2 nr =
4πfε 0
(6)
is the mass factor in Newton's 2nd Law of
Motion (F = mi a ) . These two masses are not Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (4) yields
3
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Van Allen belts
⎪ ⎛ μσD ⎞
⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg ⎢
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜
⎜ 4πρ cf ⎟ ⎥ (7)
mi0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
It was shown that there is an additional Outer
effect - Gravitational Shielding effect - Inner
belt
produced by a substance whose gravitational belt
mass was reduced or made negative [18].
0 3600km 6600km
This effect shows that just beyond the
Earth
substance the gravity acceleration g 1 will be
reduced at the same proportion χ 1 = m g mi 0 ,
i.e., g1 = χ 1 g , ( g is the gravity acceleration Magnetic
axis
before the substance). Consequently, after a
second gravitational shielding, the gravity
will be given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where Fig.1 – Van Allen belts
χ 2 is the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the
second gravitational shielding. In a wave is absorbed by the ionospheric plasma,
generalized way, we can write that after the modulating the local conductivity σ . The
nth gravitational shielding the gravity, g n , current density j = σE 0 radiates ELF
will be given by electromagnetic waves that pass through the
Van Allen belts producing two Gravitational
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g Shieldings where the densities are minima,
i.e., where they are approximately equal to
density of the interplanetary medium near
The dependence of the shielding Earth. The quasi-vacuum of the
effect on the height, at which the samples are interplanetary space might be thought of as
placed above a superconducting disk with beginning at an altitude of about 1000km
radius rD = 0.1375 m , has been recently above the Earth’s surface [20]. Thus, we can
measured up to a height of about 3m [19]. assume that the densities ρi and ρo
This means that the gravitational shielding respectively, at the first gravitational
effect extends, beyond the disk, for shielding Si (at the inner Van Allen belt) and
approximately 20 times the disk radius. at So (at the outer Van Allen belt) are
ρo ≅ ρi ≅ 0.8 ×10−20 kg.m−3 (density of the
3. Gravitational Shieldings in the Van Allen
belts interplanetary medium near the Earth [21]).
The parallel conductivities, † σ 0i
The Van Allen belts are torus of and σ0o , respectively at Si and So, present
plasma around Earth, which are held in place values which lie between those for metallic
by Earth's magnetic field (See Fig.1). The conductors and those for semiconductors
existence of the belts was confirmed by the [20], i.e., σ 0i ≅ σ 0o ~ 1S / m . Thus, in these
Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 missions in early two Gravitational Shielding, according to Eq.
1958, under Dr James Van Allen at the (7), we have, respectively:
University of Iowa. The term Van Allen belts
refers specifically to the radiation belts ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
surrounding Earth; however, similar ⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
χi = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 4.1×10 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬
⎢
(8)
4 Di
radiation belts have been discovered around ⎜ f ⎠⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎪
other planets. ⎩ ⎭
Now consider the ionospheric heating
with HF beam, modulated at ELF (See Fig.
2). The amplitude-modulated HF heating †
Conductivity in presence of the Earth’s magnetic field
4
d ~ 100km
6,600 km
3,600 km
Inner Van Allen belt Si
ELF radiation
~10× d ~1,000km
mair g’sun
E g
60km
ρ air < 0.01kg.m −3
ELF – modulated 30km
HF heating radiation ρ air ~ 0.7kg .m −3
Fig. 2 – Ionospheric Gravitational Shieldings - The amplitude-modulated HF heating wave is absorbed by the
ionospheric plasma, modulating the local conductivity σ 0 . The current density j = σ 0 E 0 (E0 is the Electrojet
Electric Field), radiates ELF electromagnetic waves (d is the length of the ELF dipole). Two gravitational shieldings
(So and Si) are formed at the Van Allen belts. Then, the gravity due to the Sun, after the shielding Si, becomes g’sun
=χoχi gsun. The effect of the gravitational shielding reaches ~ 20 × rD = ~ 10 × d ≅ 1,000km .
5
‡
The mass of the air column above 30km height is
negligible in comparison with the mass of the air
column below 30km height, whose average density is
~0.7kg./m3.
6
Note that, by reducing the diameter
Curst
of the HF beam radiation, it is possible to
Earth’s reduce dipole length (d) and consequently to
atmosphere
reduce the reach of the Gravitational
Air column
Shielding, since the effect of the gravitational
shielding reaches approximately18 times the
dipole length. By reducing d, we also reduce
p − Δp p Core
Sun the area S a , increasing consequently the
Mantle value of χ o χ i (See Eq. (18)). This can cause
Earth
an increase in the velocity V0 air (See Eq. (22)).
On the other hand, if the dipole length
(d) is increased, the reach of the
Gravitational Shielding will also be
Fig. 3 - The decrease in the gravitational potential energy
of the air column, Δ E p , produces a decrease Δ p in the
increased. For example, by increasing the
local pressure p (Principle of Bernoulli). Then the
value of d for d = 101km , the effect of the
pressure equilibrium between the Earth’s mantle and the Gravitational Shielding reaches
Earth’s atmosphere, in the region corresponding to the air approximately 1010 km , and can surpass the
column, is broken. This is equivalent to an increase of
surface of the Earth or the Oceans (See
pressure Δ p in the region of the mantle corresponding to
the air column. This phenomenon is similar to an
Fig.2). In this case, the decrease in the
Earthquake, which liberates an amount of energy equal to gravitational potential energy at the local, by
ΔE p . analogy to Eq.(15), is
ΔEp = (1− χo χi )m rsegsun (21)
The magnitude M s in the Richter
scales, corresponding to liberation of an where m is the mass of the soil, or the mass
of the ocean water, according to the case.
amount of energy, ΔEp ~ 1019 joules, is obtained The decrease, ΔE p , in the gravitational
by means of the well-known equation: potential energy increases the kinetic energy
1019 = 10 (5+1.44M s ) (18) of the local at the same ratio, in such way
which gives M s = 9.1 . That is, an Earthquake that the mass m acquires a kinetic
with magnitude of about 9.1 in the Richter energy E k = ΔE p . If this energy is not enough
scales. to pluck the mass m from the soil or the
The decrease in the gravitational ocean, and launch it into space, then E k is
potential energy in the air column whose converted into heat, raising the local
mass is m air gives to the air column an initial temperature by ΔT , the value of which can
kinetic energy E k = 12 mairV02air = ΔE p , where be obtained from the following expression:
ΔE p is given by (15). Ek
≅ kΔT (22)
In the previously mentioned HAARP N
conditions, Eq.(11) gives (1 − χ o χ i ) ~ 10 −4 . where N is the number of atoms in the
volume V of the substance considered;
Thus, from (15), we obtain
k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K is the Boltzmann
ΔE p ~ 10 −4 mair rse g sun (19)
constant. Thus, we get
Thus, the initial air speed V0 air is ( )
Ek 1− χ o χ i m rse g sun
ΔT ≅ = =
−4
V0air ≅ 10 g sunrse ~ 10 m / s ~ 400km/ h
2
(20) Nk (nV )k
This velocity will strongly reduce the (1− χ χ ) ρ rse g sun
pressure in the air column (Bernoulli = o i
(23)
nk
principle) and it is sufficient to produce a where n is the number of atoms/m3 in the
powerful Cyclone around the air column substance considered.
(Coriolis Effect).
7
In the previously mentioned HAARP It was experimentally observed that
conditions, Eq. (11) gives (1 − χ o χ i ) ~ 10 −4 . ELF radiation escapes from the Earth–
Thus, from (23), we obtain ionosphere waveguide and reaches the Van
Allen belts [25-28]. In the ionospheric
6.4 × 10 27
ΔT ≅ ρ (24) spherical cavity, the ELF radiation power
n density, D , is related to the energy density
For most liquid and solid substances inside the cavity, W , by means of the well-
the value of n is about 10 28 atoms / m 3 , and known expression:
ρ ~ 10 3 kg / m 3 . Therefore, in this case, Eq. c
D= W (25)
(24) gives 4
ΔT ≅ 640K ≅ 400°C where c is the speed of light, and
This means that, the region in the soil or in W= 1 ε E2 . The electric field E , is given by
2 0
the ocean will have its temperature increased q
by approximately 400°C. E=
4πε 0 r⊕2
By increasing PELF or decreasing the
frequency, f , of the ELF radiation, it is where q = 500,000C [24] and r⊕ = 6.371×106 m .
possible to increase ΔT (See Eq.(16)). In this Therefore, we get
way, it is possible to produce strong E = 110.7V / m,
localized heating on Land or on the Oceans. W = 5.4 ×10−8 J / m3 ,
This process suggests that, by means
D ≅ 4.1 W / m 2 (26)
of two small Gravitational Shieldings built
with Gas or Plasma at ultra-low pressure, as The area, S , of the cross-section of the cavity
12
shown in the processes of gravity control is S = 2πr⊕ d = 2.4 × 10 m 2 . Thus, the ELF
[22], it is possible to produce the same radiation power is P = DS ≅ 9.8 × 1012 W . The
heating effects. Thus, for example, the water total power escaping from the Earth-
inside a container can be strongly heated ionosphere waveguide, Pesc , is only a fraction of
when the container is placed below the
this value and need to be determined.
mentioned Gravitational Shieldings.
When this ELF radiation crosses the
Let us now consider another source of
Van Allen belts the Gravitational Shieldings
ELF radiation, which can activate the
So and Si can be produced (See Fig.4).
Gravitational Shieldings So and Si.
So
It is known that the Schumann d⊕
resonances [23] are global electromagnetic
resonances (a set of spectrum peaks in the Si ELF
radiation
extremely low frequency ELF), excited by
lightning discharges in the spherical
resonant cavity formed by the Earth’s surface Crust
and the inner edge of the ionosphere (60km Mantle
from the Earth’s surface). The Earth– Outer
ionosphere waveguide behaves like a core
resonator at ELF frequencies and amplifies Inner Reach of the Gravitational Shielding
the spectral signals from lightning at the
core ~ 10 × d ⊕ = 126 ,000 km
resonance frequencies. In the normal mode Earth
descriptions of Schumann resonances, the
fundamental mode (n = 1) is a standing wave
in the Earth–ionosphere cavity with a Fig.4 – ELF radiation escaping from the Earth–
ionosphere waveguide can produce the Gravitational
wavelength equal to the circumference of the Shieldings So and Si in the Van Allen belts.
Earth. This lowest-frequency (and highest-
intensity) mode of the Schumann resonance The ELF radiation power densities Di and
occurs at a frequency f1 = 7.83Hz [24].
Do , respectively in Si and So, are given by
8
Di =
Pesc
(27) speed Voc will be null. After a time
4πri2 interval, the progressive increasing of the
and power density of the ELF radiation makes
χ o χ i greater than 1. Equation (29) shows
Do =
Pesc
(28)
4πro2 that, at this moment, the velocity Voc
where ri and ro are respectively, the resurges, but now in the opposite direction.
distances from the Earth’s center up to the The Earth's magnetic field is generated
Gravitational Shieldings Si and So . by the outer core motion, i.e., the molten iron
Under these circumstances, the kinetic in the outer core is spinning with angular
energy related to the mass, m oc , of the speed, ϖ oc , and it's spinning inside the Sun’s
Earth’s outer core § , with respect to the Sun’s magnetic field, so a magnetic field is
center, considering the effects produced by generated in the molten core. This process is
the Gravitational Shieldings So and Si ** is called dynamo effect.
( )
Ek = 1 − χ o χ i moc rse g sun = 12 mocVoc2 (29)
Since Eq. (31) tells us that the
factor (1− χ o χ i ) is currently very close to zero,
Thus, we get
(
Voc = 1 − χ o χ i rse g sun ) (30)
we can conclude that the moment of the
reversion of the Earth’s magnetic field is
The average radius of the outer core very close.
is roc = 2.3 × 10 6 m . Then, assuming that the
average angular speed of the outer core, ϖ oc , 5. Device for moving very heavy loads.
has the same order of magnitude of the
Based on the phenomenon of reduction
average angular speed of the Earth’s
of local gravity related to the Gravitational
crust, ϖ ⊕ , i.e., ϖ oc ~ ϖ ⊕ = 7.29 × 10 −5 rad / s , Shieldings So and Si, it is possible to create a
then we get Voc = ϖ oc roc ~ 10 2 m / s . Thus, Eq. device for moving very heavy loads such as
(30) gives large monoliths, for example.
(1− χ o
)
χ i ~ 10−5 (31) Imagine a large monolith on the
Earth’s surface. At noon the gravity
This relationship shows that, if the acceleration upon the monolith is basically
power of the ELF radiation escaping from given by
the Earth-ionosphere waveguide is g R = g − g sun
progressively increasing (for example, by the
increasing of the dimensions of the holes in where gsun = −GMsun rse2 = 5.92×10−3 m/ s2 is the
the Earth-ionosphere waveguide †† ), then as gravity due to the Sun at the monolith and
soon as the value of χ o χ i equals 1, and the g = 9.8m/ s2 .
If we place upon the monolith a mantle
§
The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is composed of a with a set of n Gravitational Shieldings
number of different layers. An outer silicate solid inside, the value of g R becomes
crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that g R = g − χ n g sun
is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner
core. The outer core is made of liquid iron and nickel. This shows that, it is possible to reduce g R
**
down to values very close to zero, and thus to
Note that the reach of the Gravitational Shielding transport very heavy loads (See Fig.5). We
is ~ 10 × d ⊕ = 126,000km . will call the mentioned mantle of
††
The amount of ELF radiation that escapes from the Gravitational Shielding Mantle. Figure 5
Earth-ionosphere waveguide is directly proportional to
the number of holes in inner edge of the ionosphere shows one of these mantles with a set of 8
and the dimensions of these holes. Thus, if the amount Gravitational Shieldings. Since the mantle
of holes or its dimensions are increasing, then the thickness must be thin, the option is to use
power of the ELF radiation escaping from the Earth- Gravitational Shieldings produced by layers of
ionosphere waveguide will also be increased. high-dielectric strength semiconductor [22].
When the Gravitational Shieldings are active the
9
Mantle
χ 8 g Sun
g
χ 8 g Sun
g
(a) (b)
High-dielectric strength
semiconductor dielectric
metallic 10 μm 100μm
foils
~ 1 mm
Fig. 5 – Device for transporting very heavy loads. It is possible to transport very heavy loads by
using a Gravitational Shielding Mantle - A Mantle with a set of 8 semiconductor layers or more (each
layer with 10μm thickness, sandwiched by two metallic foils with 10μm thickness). The total thickness of the
mantle (including the insulation layers) is ~1mm. The metallic foils are connected to the ends of an ELF
voltage source in order to generate ELF electromagnetic fields through the semiconductor layers. The
objective is to create 8 Gravitational Shieldings as shown in (c). When the Gravitational Shieldings are active
the gravity due to the Sun is multiplied by the factor χ 8 , in such way that the gravity resultant upon the
monoliths (a) and (b) becomes g R = g − χ 8 g Sun . Thus, for example, if χ = −2.525 results g R = 0.028m / s 2 .
Under these circumstances, the weight of the monolith becomes 2.9 × 10 −3 of the initial weight.
10
gravity due to the Sun is multiplied by the the total charge[24], then Q = ηAσ q = ηq n
factor χ 8 , in such way that the gravity resultant ( q n = Aσ q is the normal amount of charge in
upon the monolith becomes g R = g − χ 8 g Sun . the area A ).
Thus, for example, if χ = −2.525 the result is By substituting (33) into (32), we get
g R = 0.028m / s 2 . Under these circumstances,
3
the weight of the monolith becomes 2.9 × 10 −3 of ⎛ Qr ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2ε A⎟
3 3
the initial weight. 2α ⎛ Q ⎞ 2
V2 ⎝ 0 ⎠
jw = 2 j = 2α 2 = 2α = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ (34)
r r2 r ⎝ 2ε 0 A⎠
6. Gates to the imaginary spacetime in the
Earth-ionosphere waveguide.
Since Ew = σ Q 2ε 0 and j w = σ w E w , we can
It is known that strong densities of write that
electric charges can occur in some regions of ⎡ 3
⎤
3
the upper boundary of the Earth-ionosphere ⎢ 2α ⎛ Q ⎞ 2 ⎥ Q
σ w Ew = jw Ew =
3 4 3
⎜ ⎟ =
waveguide, for example, as a result of the ⎢ r ⎜⎝ 2ε 0 A ⎟⎠ ⎥ 2ε 0 A
lightning discharges [29]. These anomalies ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
increase strongly the electric field E w in the 0.18α 3Q5.5 0.18α 3σ Q5.5 ( )5.5
0.18α 3 ησq
= = = =
mentioned regions, and possibly can produce r1.5ε 05.5 A5.5 r1.5ε 05.5 r1.5ε 05.5
a tunneling effect to the imaginary
spacetime. = 2.14×1016η 5.5 (35)
The electric field E w will produce an The electric field E w has an oscillating
electrons flux in a direction and an ions flux component, E w1 , with frequency, f , equal to
in an opposite direction. From the viewpoint the lowest Schumann resonance frequency
of electric current, the ions flux can be f1 = 7.83 Hz . Then, by using Eq. (7), that can
considered as an “electrons” flux at the same be rewritten in the following form [18]:
direction of the real electrons flux. Thus, the ⎧ ⎡
mg ⎪ μrσ3E4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 2 3 −1⎥⎬ (36)
current density through the air, j w , will be χ=
the double of the current density expressed mi ⎪ ⎢ ρ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
by the well-known equation of Langmuir-
Child we can write that
3 3 3 mg ⎧ ⎡
⎪ μ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
4
j = εrε0
2e V 2
= α
V2
= 2.33×10−6 V
2
(32) χw = = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 rw 2 w 3 w1 −1⎥⎬ (37)
9 me r2 r2 r2
mi ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρw f1 ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
where ε r ≅ 1 for the air; α = 2.33 × 10 −6 is By substitution of Eq. (35), μ rw = 1 ,
the called Child’s constant; r , in this case, is ρ w = 1 × 10 −2 kg / m 3 and f1 = 7.83Hz into the
the distance between the center of the charges expression above, we obtain
and the Gravitational Shieldings S w1 and S w 2
χw = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 7.84×10−10η5.5 −1⎤⎫⎬ (38)
( )
(see Fig.6) ( r = 12 1.4×10−15m = 7×10−16m); V is the ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
voltage drop given by The gravity below S w 2 will be
σQ decreased by the effect of the Gravitational
V = Ewr = r=
Qr
(33) Shieldings S w1 and S w 2 , according to the
2ε 0 2ε 0 A
where Q is the anomalous amount of charge following expression
in the region with area A , i.e.,
σ Q = Q A = ησ q , η is the ratio of
(g − χ w1 χ w2 g sun )
proportionality, and σ q = q 4πR2 ≅ 9.8×10−10C / m2 where χ w1 = χ w 2 = χ w . Thus, we get
is the normal charge density ; q = 500,000C is
11
60 km
Earth-Ionosphere waveguide
Reach of the Gravitational Shielding
~10 X d
g g − χ w 1 χ w 2 g sun g
d
ground
Fig. 6 - Gravitational Shieldings S w1 and S w2 produced by strong densities of electric charge in the
upper boundary of the Earth-Ionosphere.
12
Δg = (1 − χ )g ⊕
χg
⊕
g⊕
(a)
Δg = (1− χ)g ⊕
χg ⊕
g⊕
(b)
Δg = (1 − χ )g ⊕
χg ⊕
g⊕
(c)
Fig. 7 – Three main types of movements: (a) Divergent (tectonic plates diverge). (b) Convergent
(plates converge). (c) Transform (plates slide past each other). Earthquakes occur when the obstacle
breaks (due to the sudden release of stored energy).
17
References
[1] Rietveld, M. T. , Stubbe, P. and Kopka, H., (1987), On [17] Isham, C.J., (1997) “Structural Problems Facing
the frequency dependence of ELF/VLF waves produced Quantum Gravity Theory’’, in M, Francaviglia, G,
by modulated ionospheric heating, Radio, Sci., J., 24, 270. Longhi, L, Lusanna, and E, Sorace, eds., Proceedings
of the 14th International Conference on General
[2] Papadopoulos, K., Sharma, A., and Chang, C. L.,(1989), Relativity and Gravitation, 167-209,(World
On the efficient operation of the plasma antenna driven Scientific, Singapore, 1997).
by modulation of ionospheric currents, Comments
Plasma Phys. Control Fusion, 13, 1. [18] De Aquino, F.(2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
[3] Ferraro et al., (1989) Measurements of extremely low Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
frequency signals from modulation of the polar 11(1), June 2010, pp.173-232.
electrojet above Fairbanks, Alaska, IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propag., 37, 802. [19] Modanese, G., (1996), Updating the Theoretical
Analysis of the Weak Gravitational Shielding
[4] Papadopoulos, K., at al., (1990), On the efficiency of Experiment, supr-con/9601001v2.
ionospheric ELF generation, Radio Sci., 25, 1311.
[20] Van Allen, J. A., (1961), The Earth and Near Space,
[5] Mc Carrick, M. D. et al., (1990) Excitation of ELF Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, Vol. 17, Nº5, p.218.
waves in the Schuman resonance range by modulated
HF heating of the polar electrojet, Radio Sci., 25, 1291. [21] Martin, M., and Turychev, S.G., (2004), Measuring the
Interplanetary Medium with a Solar Sail, Int. J. Mod.
[6] Stubbe, P., and Kopka, H., (1977) Modulation of the Phys.D13, 899-906. astro-ph/0308108v2.
polar electrojet by powerful HF waves, J. Geophys.
Res., 82, 2319-2325. [22] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
[7] Getmantsev, G.G., et al. (1974), Combination frequencies Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
in the interaction between high-power short-wave 11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.
radiation and ionospheric plasma, Sov. Phys. JETP,
Engl. Trans., 20 , 229-232. [23] Schumann W. O. (1952). "Über die strahlungslosen
Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von
[8] Tripathi, V. K., Chang. C. L., and Papadopoulos, K., einer Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle umgeben
(1982), Excitation of the Earth ionosphere waveguide ist". Zeitschrift und Naturfirschung 7a: 149–154
by an ELF source in the ionosphere, Radio Sci, 17, 1321.
[24] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric
[9] Barr, R., and Stubbe, P. (1984), ELF and VLF radiation Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.
from the “polar electrojet antenna”, Radio Sci.,19,1111.
[10] Rietveld, M. T. , Koptka, H., and Stubbe, P. (1986), D- [25] Carpenter, D. L., and T. R. Miller (1976), Ducted
Region characteristics deduced from pulsed ionospheric magnetospheric propagation of signals from the Siple,
heating under auroral electrojet conditions, J. Atmos. Antarctica, VLF transmitter, J. Geophys. Res., 81(16),
Terr. Phys., 48, 311. 2692– 2700.
[11] Barr, R., and Stubbe, P. (1991), ELF radiation from the [26] Helliwell, R. A., D. L. Carpenter, and T. R. Miller
Tromso “super heater” facility, Geophys. Res. Lett., 18,1035. (1980), Power threshold for growth of coherent VLF
signals in the magnetosphere, J. Geophys. Res.,
[12] Milikh, G.M., et al., (1999), ELF emission generated by 85(A7), 3360– 3366.
the HAAARP HF heater using varying frequency and
polarization, Radiophys. Quantum Electr., 42, 728-735. [27] Cohen, M. B., (2009), ELF/VLF Phased array generation
via frequency-matched steering of a continuous HF
[13] Moore, R. C., et al., (2007) ELF waves generated by ionospheric heating beam, PHD thesis, p.13.
modulated HF heating of the auroral electrojet and
observed at a ground distance of ~4400km, J. Geophys. [28] Golkowski, M. et al., (2008), Magnetospheric
Research, 112, A05309. amplification and emission triggering by ELF/VLF
waves injected by the 3.6 MW HAARP ionospheric
[14] Jin, G., Spasojevic, and Inan, U. S., (2009), heater, J. Geophys. Res., 113 (A10201),
Relationship between electrojet current strength and doi:10.1029/2008JA013, 157.
ELF signal intensity in modulated heating experiments,
J. Geophys, Res., 114, A08301, doi: 10.1029/2009JA014122.
[29] Cummer, S.A., (2000) Modeling Electromagnetic
[15] Cohen, M. B., M. Golkowski, and U. S. Inan (2008), Propagation in the Earth-ionosphere Waveguide,
Orientation of the HAARP ELF ionospheric dipole IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., Vol. 48, 9, p.1427.
and the auroral electrojet, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35,
L02806, doi.10.1029/2007GL032424. [30] De Aquino, F. (1998),The Gravitational Spacecraft,
E. Spacecraft Journal, 27,pp.6-13.
[16] Isham, C. J. (1975) Quantum Gravity, in Oxford http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9904018.
Symposium, OUP.
The Universal Quantum Fluid
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved
The quantization of gravity showed that the matter is also quantized, and that there is an elementary quantum of
matter, indivisible, whose mass is ± 3.9 ×10−73 kg . This means that any body is formed by a whole number of these
particles (quantization). It is shown here that these elementary quanta of matter should fill all the space in the
Universe forming a Quantum Fluid continuous and stationary. In addition, it is also explained why the
Michelson-Morley experiment was not able to detect this Universal Quantum Fluid.
quantization and that the quantization H 0 = 1.75 × 10 −18 s −1 is the Hubble constant,
process had many ambiguities. Then, a new
we can conclude that the number of these
approach has been proposed starting from the
particles in the Observable Universe is
generalization of the action function * . The MU
result has been the derivation of a theoretical nU = ≅ 10125 particles (1)
mi 0(min )
background, which finally led to the so-
sought quantization of gravity and of matter By dividing this number by VU , we get
[3]. The quantization of matter shows that nU
≅ 10 46 particles / m 3 (2)
there is an elementary quantum of matter VU
whose mass is ± 3.9 ×10−73 kg . This means that Obviously, the dimensions of the
there are no particles in the Universe with elementary quantum of matter depend on its
masses smaller than this, and that any body is state of compression. In free space, for
formed by a whole number of these particles. example, its volume is VU nU .
Here, it will be shown that these elementary
Consequently, its “radius” is RU 3 nU ≅10−15m.
quanta of matter should fill all the space in
the Universe, forming a quantum fluid If N particles with diameter φ fill all
continuous and stationary. In addition, it is space of 1m 3 then Nφ 3 = 1 . Thus, if
also explained why the Michelson-Morley
φ ≅ 10 −15 m then the number of particles, with
experiment found no evidence of the existence
of the universal fluid [4]. A modified this diameter, necessary to fill all 1m 3 is
Michelson-Morley experiment is proposed in N ≅ 10 45 particles . Since the number of
order to observe the displacement of the elementary quantum of matter in the
interference bands.
Universe is nU VU ≅ 1046 particles/ m3 we can
2. The Universal Quantum Fluid
The quantization of gravity showed conclude that these particles fill all space in
that the matter is also quantized, and that the Universe, forming a Quantum Fluid
continuous and stationary, the density of
*
The formulation of the action in Classical Mechanics
which is
nU m i 0 (min )
extends to Quantum Mechanics and has been the basis ρ CUF = ≅ 10 − 27 kg / m 3 (3)
for the development of the Strings Theory. VU
Note that this density is smaller than the
2
density of the Intergalactic Medium be detected. That is to say that the
( )
ρ IGM ≅ 10 −26 kg / m 3 . propagation of these photons through the
The density of the Universal Quantum Universal Quantum Fluid is equivalent to its
Fluid is clearly not uniform along the propagation in the free space. In practice, it
Universe, since it can be strongly works as if there was not the Universal
compressed in several regions (galaxies, Quantum Fluid. This conclusion is highly
stars, blackholes, planets, etc). At the normal important, because it can easily explain why
state (free space), the mentioned fluid is in the historical Michelson-Morley
invisible. However, at supercompressed experiment there was no displacement of the
state, it can become visible by giving origin interference bands namely because the
to the known matter, since matter, as we have wavelength of the light used in the Michelson-
seen, is quantized and consequently, formed Morley experiment was λ = 5×10−7 m fact that led
by an integer number of elementary quantum Michelson to conclude that the hypothesis of
of matter with mass mi 0(min ) . Inside the a stationary ether was incorrect. Posteriorly,
proton, for example, there are several experiments [7-13] have been carried
out in order to check the Michelson-Morley
np = mp mi0(min) ≅10 elementary quanta of matter
45
experiment, but the results basically were the
at supercompressed state, with volume same obtained by Michelson.
V proton n p and “radius” Rp 3 np ≅10−30m . Thus, actually there was no
displacement of the interference bands in the
Therefore, the solidification of the
Michelson-Morley experiment because the
matter is just a transitory state of this
wavelength used in the experiment
Universal Quantum Fluid, which can turn
back into the primitive state when the was λ = 5 ×10−7 m , which is a value clearly
cohesion conditions disappear. much greater than 10 −14 m , and therefore,
Due to the cohesion state of the does not satisfy the condition
elementary quanta of matter in the Universal −14
λ ≤ 2πΔx ≈10 m derived from the Uncertainty
Quantum Fluid, any amount of linear Principle. The substitution of light used in
momentum transferred to any elementary the Michelson-Morley experiment by
quantum of matter propagates totally to the
radiation with λ ≤ 10−14m is clearly
neighboring and so on, in such way that,
impracticable. However, the Michelson-
during the propagation of the momentum, the
Morley experiment can be partially modified
elementary quanta of matter do not move, in
so as to yield the displacement of the
the same way as the intermediate spheres in
interference bands. The idea is based on the
Newton’s pendulum (the well-known device
generalized expression for the momentum
that demonstrates conservation of momentum
obtained recently[3], which is given by
and energy) [5, 6]. Thus, whether it is a
photon that transfers its momentum to the
p = M gV (4)
elementary quanta of matter, then the where Mg = mg 1−V 2 c2 is the relativistic
momentum variation due to the incident
photon is Δp = h λ , where λ is its gravitational mass of the particle and V its
wavelength. As we have seen, the diameter velocity; mg = χ mi0 the general expression
of the elementary quantum of matter is of the correlation between the gravitational
Δx ≈ 10 −15 m . According to the Uncertainty and inertial mass; χ is the correlation
Principle the variation Δp can only be factor[3].Thus, we can write
detected if ΔpΔx ≥ h . In order to satisfy this mg χ mi0
condition we must have λ ≤ 2πΔx ≈ 10 m . −14 = (5)
1−V 2 c 2 1 −V 2 c 2
This means that momentum variations, in the
elementary quanta of matter, caused by Therefore, we get
photons with wavelength λ > 10 −14 m cannot
3
M g = χ Mi (6 )
(1 − χ ) ⎛⎜ V ⎞⎟ h and (1 − χ ) hf , are
The Relativistic Mechanics tells us that ⎝ c ⎠λ
transferred to the imaginary particle
p=
UV
2
(7 ) associated to the real particle † (material
c
where U is the total energy of the particle. particles or real photons) that penetrated the
This expression is valid for any velocity V of mentioned region.
the particle, including V = c . It was previously shown that, when the
By comparing Eq. (7) with Eq. (4) we gravitational mass of a particle is reduced to
obtain a range between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i ,
U = M gc2 (8) i.e., when χ < 0.159 , it becomes
It is a well-known experimental fact that imaginary[3], i.e., the gravitational and the
M i c 2 = hf (9) inertial masses of the particle becomes
imaginary. Consequently, the particle disappears
Therefore, by substituting Eq. (9) and Eq. (6) from our ordinary space-time. It goes to the
into Eq. (4), gives Imaginary Universe. On the other hand, when the
p=
V
χ
h
(10) gravitational mass of the particle becomes greater
c λ than + 0.159 M i , or less than − 0.159M i , i.e.,
Note that this expression is valid for any when χ > 0.159 , the particle return to our
velocity V of the particle. In the particular
Universe.
case of V = c , it reduces to Figure 1 (a) clarifies the phenomenon of
p= χ
h
(11) reduction of the momentum for χ > 0.159 , and
λ
Figure 1 (b) shows the effect in the case of
By comparing Eq. (10) with Eq. (7), we
χ < 0.159 . In this case, the particles become
obtain
U = χ hf (12) imaginary and, consequently, they go to the
imaginary space-time when they penetrate the
Note that only for χ = 1 Eq. (11) and Eq. electric field E . However, the electric field E
(12) are reduced to the well=known stays in the real space-time. Consequently, the
expressions of DeBroglie (q = h λ ) and particles return immediately to the real space-
Einstein (U = hf ) . time in order to return soon after to the imaginary
space-time, due to the action of the electric
Equations (10) and (12) show, for field E . Since the particles are moving at a
example, that any real particle (material direction, they appear and disappear while they
particles, real photons, etc) that penetrates a are crossing the region, up to collide with the
region (with density ρ , conductivity σ and plate (See Fig.1) with a momentum,
relative permeability μ r ), where there is an pm = χ ⎜
⎛ V ⎞ h , in the case of a material
⎟
electromagnetic field (E , B ) , will have its ⎝ c ⎠ λ
h
momentum p and its energy U reduced by particle, and p r = χ in the case of a photon.
λ
the factor χ , where χ is given by[3]: If this photon transfers its momentum
mg
⎧ ⎡ 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ Δp ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
⎤⎫ (
to elementary quanta of matter Δx ≈10−15 m , )
χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ −1 ⎬ = then the momentum variation due to the
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜⎝ mi0c ⎟⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭ incident photon is Δp = χ h λ . According to
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ the Uncertainty Principle the variation Δp
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ 3⎞
−27⎜ μrσ ⎟ 4 4 ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+1.758×10
⎜ ⎟
c Brms −1⎥⎬ (13) can only be detected if ΔpΔx ≥ h , i.e., if
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎪
2 3
⎦⎭ λ ≤ 2π χ Δx (14)
where B rms is the rms value of the magnetic We conclude, then, that the interaction
field B . between the light used in the Michelson-
The remaining amount of momentum
†
and energy, respectively given by As previously shown, there are imaginary particles
associated to each real particle[3].
4
(
Morley experiment λ = 5×10 m and the−7
) −3
plasma at 6 ×10 Torr and 318.15 K , and an
Universal Quantum Fluid just can be ELF magnetic field with frequency f = 1Hz
detected, and to produce of the displacement and intensity Brms ≥ 0.32T is applied through
of the interference bands, if this plasma (Fig. 2), then the displacement of
χ ≥ 8 × 10 7 (15) the interference bands should appear.
In order to satisfy this condition in the It is important to note that due to the
Michelson-Morley experiment, we must modify Gravitational Shielding effect [3], the gravity
the medium where the experiment is performed above the magnetic field is given by
(for example substituting the air by low-pressure
χ g ≥ 7.8 × 108 m.s −2 . This value, extends
Mercury plasma), and apply through it an
electromagnetic field with frequency f . Under above the vacuum chamber for
these conditions, according to Eq. (13), the value approximately 10 times its length. In order to
of χ will be given by eliminate this problem we can replace the
ELF magnetic field, B , shown in Fig. 2, by
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μr σ 3 ⎞ 4 4 ⎤⎫ two ELF magnetic fields, B1 and B2 , sharing
⎪ ⎟c Brms −1⎥⎪⎬ (16)
χ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 2 3⎟ ⎥⎪ the same frequency, f = 1Hz . The field, B1 , is
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎦⎭
placed vertically through the region of the
If the low-pressure Mercury plasma is experimental set-up. The field, B2 , is also
at P = 6 ×10−3Torr= 0.8N.m−2 and T ≅ 318.15 K placed vertically, just above B1 (See Fig. 3).
[14], then the mass density, according to the Thus, the gravity above B2 is given by
well-known Equation of State, is
χ1 χ 2 g where χ1 = m g1 mi1 and
PM 0
ρ= ≅ 6.067 × 10 −5 kg.m −3 (17) χ 2 = m g 2 mi 2 are respectively, the
ZRT
where M 0 = 0.2006kg.mol−1 is the molecular correlation factors in the Gravitational
mass of the Hg; Z ≅ 1 is the compressibility Shieldings 1 and 2, produced by the ELF
factor for the Hg plasma; magnetic fields B1 and B2 , respectively. In
R = 8.314 joule.mol . K
−1 0 −1
is the gases order to become χ 1 χ 2 g = g we must make
universal constant. χ 2 = 1 χ1 = 1 − 8 × 10 7 . According to Eq.
The electrical conductivity of the Hg (19), this value can be obtained if
plasma, under the mentioned conditions, has Brms(2) = 5.331481522× 10−5 T and Brms(1) = 0.32T .
already been calculated [15], and is given by
Note that the value of Brms (2 ) is less than the
σ ≅ 3.419 S .m −1 (18)
By substitution of the values of ρ and σ into value of the Earth’s magnetic field
Eq. (16) yields ( B ⊕ ≅ 6 × 10 −5 T ). However, this is not a
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫ problem because the steel of the vacuum
⎪ ⎢ 17 Brms ⎪
χ = ⎨1− 2 1+1.5471×10 −1⎥⎬ (19) chamber works as a magnetic shielding,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎪
3
f
⎦⎭ isolating the magnetic fields inside the
vacuum chamber.
By comparing with (15), we get
4
Brms
≥ 0.01037 (20)
f3
Thus, for f = 1Hz , the ELF magnetic field
must have the following intensity:
χ > 0.159
⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞ h
pm = χ ⎜ ⎟ pm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
pi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎛V ⎞ h pi = 0 * associated to the
⎝c⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
pr = χ pr ≅
λ λ
real photon
imaginary photon
associated to the
p i = [1 − χ ]
h pi = 0 real photon
λ
(a)
* There are a type of neutrino, called "ghost” neutrino, predicted by General Relativity, with zero mass
and zero momentum. In spite its momentum be zero, it is known that there are wave functions that
describe these neutrinos and that prove that really they exist.
χ < 0.159
⎛V ⎞ h pi = 0
pm = χ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
pi = 0
pi = [1− χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎛V ⎞ h associated to the
⎝c⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
pr = χ pr ≅
λ λ
real photon
imaginary photon
associated to the
p i = [1 − χ ]
h pi = 0 real photon
λ
(b)
Fig. 1 –The correlation factor in the expression of the Momentum. (a) Shows the
momentum for χ > 0.159 . (b) Shows the effect when χ < 0.159 . Note that in both cases,
the material particles collide with the cowl with the momentum p m = χ (V c ) λh , and
h
the photons with p r = χ .
λ
6
Vacuum
Manometer Chamber
Hg
Plasma Hg Plasma ( 6 ×10−3Torr, 318.15K ) Movable
Mirror
Vacuum
Pump
B
f = 1Hz
Brms ≥ 0.32T
Coherent
Light source
Detector
Vacuum
Chamber
Steel χ1 χ 2 g = g
χ2
N2 L2
B2
χ1
Wire
B1 N1 L1
Region of the experimental set-up
Fig. 3 – Cross-section of the vacuum chamber showing the magnetic fields B1 and B2 .
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
B1 = μ 0 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟i1 ; B2 = μ 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟i 2
⎝ L1 ⎠ ⎝ L2 ⎠
8
References
[1] Isham, C. J. (1975) Quantum Gravity, in Oxford
Symposium, OUP.
Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), also known as supercapacitors, electrochemical double layer
capacitors, or ultracapacitors, are electrochemical capacitors that have an unusually high energy density when
compared to common capacitors, typically on the order of thousands of times greater than a high capacity
electrolytic capacitor. It is shown here that when an EDLC is fully charged its gravitational mass is considerably
greater than when it is discharged.
Key words: Supercapacitors, Energy storage systems, Experimental tests of gravitational theories
PACS: 88.80.fh; 84.60.Ve , 04.80.Cc
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ nr(layer)μ0 ⎛ CV ⎞2 ⎤ ⎥⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (5)
⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣8ε r(layer)ρlayer ⎝ S ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
χ = −1.14 (6 )
− + +
− −
+ +
− − +
− + + +
− − +
+
+ − − + −
E− E− + E
+
E+
− +
− + +
−
− +
− +
− + +
− −
+ + +
−
− − +
−
d
References
[1] Becker, H.I., (1957) Low voltage electrolytic capacitor,
US Patent 2800616 (A), 1957-07-23.
Science and Religion have always observed the events from their exclusive viewpoint. It was necessary
the arising of a bond that would make possible the unification of them. This bond was revealed in the last
decades by Quantum Physics, which has shown us that some physical laws extend beyond the material
world, pointing to the existence of the spiritual world. Thus, the spiritual world exists now no longer as
supernatural one, but as world as real as our material world. This discovery marked the beginning of the
understanding of the spiritual world nature and its relationship with the material world. Starting from this
knowledge, here widely detailed, it is now possible to understand the eternal puzzles: where have we
come from, because here we are, and where do we go.
Key words: Science, Religion, Spiritual World, Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology, Quantum
Consciousness.
1. Introduction
The Spiritual World has always been considered something supernatural. Only recently,
with the advent of Quantum Physics, the first evidences of its existence arose. However, it was
the theoretical background derived from Quantum Gravity [1] that has shown that our Real
Universe is contained in an Imaginary Universe. Here, the terms real and imaginary are
borrowed from mathematics (real and imaginary numbers). In addition, it has been possible to
show that the Imaginary Energy has the same characteristics of the Psychic Energy, that is, both
are equivalent. This means that the Imaginary Universe is in fact the Psychic Universe. This
discovery was the starting point for understanding the nature of the Spiritual World and beings
it contains. It also made possible the acquisition of a strong knowledge about the relationship of
the beings of the Spiritual World with us, and with our Material World. This knowledge, which
leads us beyond the Material Universe, is widely detailed in this work.
It is known that the De Broglie waves are characterized by a variable quantity called the
wave function, denoted by the symbolψ. While the frequencies of the De Broglie waves are
determined by a simple form, the value of ψ is usually very complicated. The value of Ψ 2 (or
ΨΨ * ) calculated for a particular point x, y, z, t is proportional to the probability of finding the
particle experimentally in that place and time 1 .
Thus, each particle has a particular wave function, which describes the particle fully.
Roughly, it is similar to the "identity card" of the particle, containing all information about the
particle or the body.
Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the probability P of finding the particle described by Ψ , the
integral of Ψ 2 on the whole space must be finite – inasmuch as the particle is someplace.
Therefore, if
+∞
∫− ∞ Ψ
2
dV = 0 (01 )
The interpretation is that the particle does not exist. However, if
1
Interpretation by Max Born in 1926.
2
+∞
∫− ∞ Ψ
2
dV = ∞ (02 )
the particle will be everywhere simultaneously.
Despite the fact that the De Broglie waves are normally associated to material particles
and, in general associated to material bodies, it is known that they are also associated to exotic
particles that cannot even be detected, such as a type of neutrinos called "ghost” neutrinos,
predicted by General Relativity. These are called "ghost” neutrinos, because they have zero
mass and zero momentum, and cannot be detected. But even so, it is known that there are wave
functions that describe them, which means that they exist and can be present in any place. As a
rough analogy, it is like a person who, despite of existing and possessing an identity card, is
never seen by anyone. The existence of a wave function associated with the "ghost” neutrino is
very important, because, in this context, we can conclude that even a thought may have a wave
function associated with it.
It is a proven quantum fact that the wave function Ψ may "collapse" and, in that instant,
the possibilities that it describes, suddenly express themselves in reality. The moment of the
"collapse" of the wave function is then a decision point where the pressing need of realization
of the possibilities described by the wave function occurs.
For an observer in our universe something is real when it is in the form of matter or
radiation. Therefore, it can occur that the possibilities described by the wave function realize
themselves in the form of radiation, i.e., they did not materialize. This obviously must occur
when the energy that forms the content described by the wave function is not equal to the
amount of energy needed for its materialization.
Then consider any thought. A thought is a psychic body, with a well-defined psychic
energy, and, as such, with a wave function of its own as any other psychic body. When its wave
function collapses, two possibilities may occur: (a) the psychic energy contained in the thought
is not sufficient to materialize its content - in this case, the collapse of the wave function is
realized in the form of radiation: (b) the psychic energy is sufficient for its materialization - in
this case, the collapse of the wave function content will be fully materialized.
However, in both cases, there must always be production of "virtual" photons to
communicate the psychic interaction to other bodies of the universe, because, according to the
quantum theory, only through this type of quanta, can the interaction be communicated, since it
has infinite range just in the same way as the electromagnetic interaction has, which we know is
communicated by exchanging "virtual" photons. The term "virtual" derives from the principle of
uncertainty due to the impossibility to detect these photons. This is a limitation imposed by
Nature proper.
It can be easily seen that this materialization process, although theoretically possible,
requires enormous amounts of psychic energy, because, according to Einstein's famous equation
E = mc2, even a tiny object contains an enormous amount of energy. Moreover, one can
conclude that materializations of this type could only be produced by great consciousness with
large psychic energy. In addition, it is evident, in this context, that the larger the amount of
psychic energy of a consciousness the greater its chances of realization.
This is a materialization process that can explain the materialization of the Primordial
Universe. In addition, it becomes evident that the Psychic Energy is a type of mother-energy or
Universal Fluid, which can produce anything.
Since it is in the continuum 4-dimensional (space-time) that the realization of the wave
functions which describe the psychic bodies occurs, then we can assume that they are generated
in a continuum that, despite of containing all psychic forms, also interpenetrates the space-time
continuum. Let us call it, hereafter, Psychic Continuum. By definition this continuum should
also contain the Supreme Consciousness. Therefore, it should be infinite.
3
Then, from the above we can see that an accurate description of the universe cannot
exclude the psychic energy, psychic particles and psychic bodies. That is, the situation calls for
a cosmology that includes the psyche in the description of the Universe, thus complementing the
traditional cosmology that is only a matter of cosmology. This idea is not new; it has existed for
some time and seems to have arisen mainly in Princeton and Pasadena in the USA in the 70s [2]
as a result of the joint effort of eminent physicists, biologists, psychologists and theologians as
well. [3].
In traditional cosmology, the universe comes from a big bang where everything that
exists would be concentrated in a tiny particle with the size of a proton and an enormous mass
equal to the mass of the Universe at the instant before the Big Bang,. But its origin is not
explained, nor the why of its critical volume.
The critical volume, in our opinion denotes knowledge of what would happen from these
initial conditions, a fact which points to the existence of a Creator. In this case, the
materialization process described above would explain the materialization of the Primordial
Universe. That is, the Primordial Universe arose at the exact moment that the primordial wave
function collapsed (initial instant) realizating the contents of the psychic form generated in the
consciousness of the Creator when He thought of creating the universe.
The psychic form described by this primordial wave function must then have been
generated in a consciousness with psychic energy much larger than that needed to materialize
the Universe. This enormous consciousness in turn, not only would be the biggest of all
consciences, but also would be the substratum of everything that exists, and obviously
everything that exists would be wholly contained therein, including all space-time.
Based on the General Theory of Relativity and the recent cosmological observations, it is
known that the Universe occupies a space of positive curvature. This space, as we know, is
"closed in itself", its volume is finite, but rest well understood, the space has no boundaries, it is
unlimited. Thus, if the consciousness which we refer to contains all the space, its volume is
necessarily infinite, and therefore contains an infinite psychic energy.
This means that it contains all the psychic energy that exists and therefore, any other
consciousness will be contained in it. Thus, we can conclude that it is the Supreme
Consciousness, and there is no other like it: it is unique. In addition, since it contains all the
psychic energy, it can accomplish everything that it wants, and therefore is omnipotent.
Previously, we showed in the article "Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology" the
manifestation of knowledge, or auto-accessible knowledge in a consciousness, should be related
to its quantity of psychic energy. In the Supreme Consciousness, whose psychic energy is
infinite, the manifestation of the knowledge is total, thus, necessarily, it must be omniscient.
Being omniscient, we cannot doubt its justice or goodness. Thus, God is supremely just and
good. Moreover, as it also contains all the time, with past, present and future merging into it in
an eternal present, so that the time will not flow as it does for us, in the four-dimensional
continuum called space-time, as "we see" the future changing continuously into present and the
present into past. Similarly, an observer in five-dimensional continuum would not have access
to all time as the Supreme Consciousness, but his dimensional "vision" of the time would
certainly be wider than that of the observer positioned in the four-dimensional continuum [3]. In
this context, only the Supreme Consciousness would have a perfect "vision" of all dimensional
levels.
When we speak of creation of the universe, the use of the verb to create means that
anything that was not came to be; assuming therefore, the concept of time flow. For the
Supreme Consciousness however, the instant of the creation coincides with all the other times,
not existing neither before nor after the creation, and in this way, questions like "What did the
Supreme Consciousness do before creation?” are not justified.
4
We can also infer from the above that the existence of the Supreme Consciousness has
no defined limit (beginning and end), which gives It the peculiar qualities of uncreated and
eternal.
Being eternal, its wave function ψ never collapses. Moreover, as it has infinite psychic
energy, the value of ψ will also be infinite. In this way, according to Quantum Mechanics, it
means that the Supreme Consciousness is simultaneously everywhere, or omnipresent.
All conclusions presented here about the Supreme Consciousness were mathematically
demonstrated in the article "Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum
Gravity" [1], and represent nothing more than a formal finding of what was already accepted by
most religions.
It is then justified the intuitive feeling that people have about the existence of God, and
reveals that God is the Supreme Consciousness, the first cause of all things.
Although we can understand this and, thus, learn that God is psychic energy, we can say
nothing about the nature of psychic energy. Likewise, we do not know the nature of electric
charge, etc. This is a limitation imposed by the Creator Himself.
The option of the Supreme Consciousness in materializing the Primordial Universe into a
critical volume, as we have seen, means that It knew what would happen from that initial
condition. Therefore It also knew how the universe would behave under existing laws. Thus, the
laws were not created for the Universe, and therefore are not "laws of Nature" or "laws that have
been placed in Nature" as Descartes wrote. They already existed as an intrinsic part of the
Supreme Consciousness; Thomas Aquinas had a very clear understanding about this. He speaks
of the Eternal Law, "... those exist in the mind of God and rules the entire Universe."
The Supreme Consciousness had then complete freedom to choose the initial conditions
of the Universe. But opted for the concentration of the early Universe in the critical volume in
order that its development should be performed in the most convenient way for the purposes It
had in mind, according to laws inherent in its very nature. This responds to Einstein's famous
question: "What level of choice would God have had to build the universe?"
It seems that Newton was the first to realize the divine option. In his book Opticks, he
gives us a perfect view of how he imagined the creation of the Universe:
"It seems to me that God, at the beginning, first gave way to matter in solid particles, compacted
[...] in such way that best contribute to the purpose He had in mind ..."
For what purpose the Supreme Consciousness created the universe? This is a question that
seems difficult to answer. However, if we assume the natural desire of the Supreme
Consciousness of procreating, that is, of generating individual consciousness from itself so that
they could evolve and express themselves creating attributes to Her, then, we can infer that in
order to evolve, such consciousness would need a Universe, and this may have been the main
reason for its creation. Thus, the origin of the Universe would be related to the generation of
said consciousness and, consequently, the materialization of the Primordial Universe must have
occurred at the same time at which the Supreme Consciousness decided to individualize the
Primordial Consciousnesses.
As the Supreme Consciousness occupies all the space, it follows that it cannot be
displaced by another consciousness, and not for himself. Therefore, the Supreme Consciousness
is immovable.
As Augustine says (Gen. Ad lit vii, 20), "The Creator does not move either in time or
space."
The immobility of God had been deemed necessary also by Thomas Aquinas, "we can
infer be necessary that the God who puts into motion all the objects, it is immovable." (Summa
Theologica).
5
Due to fact that they were individualized directly from the Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousnesses certainly contained in themselves - albeit in a latent state, all the
possibilities of the Supreme Consciousness, including the germ of independent will that allows
the establishment of original points of departure. However, although similar to the Supreme
Consciousness, the primordial consciousnesses could have no understanding of themselves.
This understanding comes only with the creative mental state that the consciousnesses can only
achieve by evolution.
Thus, in the first evolutionary period, the primordial consciousnesses must have
remained in complete unconsciousness. It was then, the beginning of a pilgrimage from
unconsciousness to the superconsciousness.
Basically, in the Universe there are two types of radiation: the real radiation constituted
by of real photon, and the “virtual” radiation constituted by "virtual" photons. Previously, we
talked about the "virtual" quanta, which are responsible for the interaction among the psychic
particles. According to the Uncertainty Principle, “virtual” quanta cannot be observed
experimentally. However, since they are interaction quanta, their effects may be verified in the
very particles or bodies subjected to the interactions.
Obviously, only one specific type of interaction occurs between two particles if each one
absorbs the quanta of said interaction emitted by the other; otherwise, the interaction will be
null. Thus, the null interaction between psychic bodies particularly means that there is no
mutual absorption of the “virtual” psychic photons (psychic interaction quanta) emitted by
them. That is, the emission spectrum of each one of them does not coincide with the absorption
spectrum of the other.
It was shown that, in all interactions (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear and
weak nuclear), the "virtual" quanta are "virtual" photons [1].
It is obvious, then, that an interaction between two particles only occurs if each of them
absorbs the "virtual" photons emitted by the other, otherwise the interaction will be zero. Thus,
the null interaction means specifically that the emission spectrum of each particle does not
coincide with the absorption spectrum of the other.
By analogy with material bodies, the emission spectra of which are, as we know, identical
to the absorption spectra, also the psychic bodies must absorb radiation within the spectrum they
emit. Specifically, in the case of human consciousness, their thoughts cause them to become
emitters of psychic radiation in certain frequency spectra and, consequently, receivers in the
same spectra. Thus, when a human consciousness, by its thoughts, is receptive to a radiation
coming from a certain thought, said radiation will be absorbed by the consciousness (resonance
absorption). Under these circumstances, the radiation absorbed must stimulate – through the
Resonance Principle – said consciousness to emit in the same spectrum, just as it happens with
matter.
Nevertheless, in order for that emission to occur in a human consciousness, it must be
preceded by the individualization of thoughts identical with that which originated the radiation
absorbed, because obviously only identical thoughts will be able to reproduce - when they
collapse - the spectrum of “virtual” psychic radiations absorbed.
These induced thoughts – such as the thoughts of consciousnesses themselves – must
remain individualized for a period of time Δt (lifetime of the thought) after which its wave
functions collapse, thus producing the “virtual” psychic radiation in the same spectrum of
frequencies absorbed.
The Supreme Consciousness, just as other consciousnesses, has Its own spectrum of
absorption determined by Its thoughts – which make up the standard of a good-quality thought.
6
Thus, the concept of good-quality thoughts is immediately established. That is, they are
resonant thoughts in the Supreme Consciousness. Thus, only thoughts of this kind, produced in
human consciousnesses, may induce the individualization of similar thoughts in the Supreme
Consciousness.
In this context, a system of judgment is established in which the good and the evil are
psychic values, with their origin in free thought. The good is related to the good-quality
thoughts, which are thoughts resonant in the Supreme Consciousness. The evil, in turn, is
related to the bad-quality thoughts, non-resonant in the Supreme Consciousness.
Consequently, the moral derived thereof results from the Law itself, inherent in the
Supreme Consciousness and, therefore, this psychic moral must be the fundamental moral.
Thus, fundamental ethics is neither biological nor located in the aggressive action, as thought by
Nietzsche. It is psychic and located in the good-quality thoughts. It has a theological basis and,
in it, the creation of the Universe by a pre-existing God is of an essential nature, opposed, for
instance, to Spinoza’s “geometrical ethics”, which eliminated the ideas of Creation of the
Universe by a pre-existing God, the main underpinning of Christian theology and philosophy.
However, it is very close to Aristotle’s ethics, to the extent that, from it, we understand that we
are what we repeatedly do (think) and that excellence is not an act, but a habit (Ethics, II, 4).
According to Aristotle: ‘” the goodness of a man is a work of the soul towards excellence in a
complete lifetime: … it is not a day or a short period that makes a man fortunate and happy. “
(Ibid, I, 7).
The “virtual” psychic radiation coming from a thought may induce several similar
thoughts in the consciousness absorbing it, because each photon of radiation absorbed carries in
itself the electromagnetic expression of the thought which produced it and, consequently, each
one of them stimulates the individualization of a similar thought. However, the amount of
thoughts induced is, of course, limited by the amount of psychic mass of the consciousness
proper.
In the specific case of the Supreme Consciousness, the “virtual” psychic radiation coming
from a good-quality thought must induce many similar thoughts. On the other hand, since
Supreme Consciousness involves human consciousness, the induced thoughts appear in the
surroundings of the very consciousness which induced them. These thoughts are then strongly
attracted by said consciousness and fuse therewith, for, just as the thoughts generated in a
consciousness have a high degree of positive mutual affinity [4] with it, they will also have the
thoughts induced by it.
The fusion of these thoughts in the consciousness obviously determines an increase in its
psychic mass. We then conclude that the cultivation of good-quality thoughts is highly
beneficial to the individual. Reversally, the cultivation of bad-quality thoughts makes
consciousness lose psychic mass.
When bad-quality thoughts are generated in a consciousness, they do not induce identical
thoughts in Supreme Consciousness, because the absorption spectrum of Supreme
Consciousness excludes psychic radiations coming from bad-quality thoughts. Thus, such
radiation directs itself to other consciousnesses; however, it will only induce identical thoughts
in those that are receptive in the same frequency spectrum. When this happens and right after
the wave functions corresponding to these induced thoughts collapse and materialize said
thoughts or change them into radiation, the receptive consciousness will lose psychic mass,
similarly to what happens in the consciousness which first produced the thought. Consequently,
both the consciousness which gave rise to the bad-quality thought and those receptive to the
psychic radiations coming from this type of thoughts will lose psychic mass.
We must observe, however, that our thoughts are not limited only to harming or
benefiting ourselves, since they also can, as we have already seen, induce similar thoughts in
other consciousnesses, thus affecting them. In this case, it is important to observe that the
7
psychic radiation produced by the induced thoughts may return to the consciousness which
initially produced the bad-quality thought, inducing other similar thoughts in it, which evidently
cause more loss of psychic mass in said consciousness.
The fact that our thoughts are not restricted to influencing ourselves is highly relevant,
because it leads us to understand we have a great responsibility towards other persons as regards
what we think.
possibility of intertwining their wave functions 2 . When this happens, there occurs the so-called
Phase Relationship according to quantum-mechanics concept.
In the electrons “virtual” transition mentioned before, the “listing” of all the possibilities
of the electrons is described, as we know, by Schrödinger’s wave equation. Otherwise, it is
general for material particles. By analogy, in the case of psychic particles, we may say that the
“listing” of all the possibilities of the psyches involved in the relationship will be described by
Schrödinger’s equation – for psychic case, i.e.,
p2
∇ 2 Ψ Ψ + Ψ2 Ψ Ψ = 0 (09 )
h
Because the wave functions are capable of intertwining themselves, the quantum systems
may “penetrate” each other, thus establishing an internal relationship where all of them are
affected by the relationship, no longer being isolated systems but becoming an integrated part of
a larger system. This type of internal relationship, which exists only in quantum systems, was
called Relational Holism [7].
The idea of psyche associated with matter dates back to the pre-Socratic period and is
usually called panpsychism. Remnants of organized panpsychism may be found in the Uno of
Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s Divine Flux. Scholars of Miletus’s school were called hylozoists,
that is, “those who believe that matter is alive”. More recently, we will find the panpsychistic
thought in Spinoza, Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin, among others. The latter one admitted
the existence of proto-conscious properties at level of elementary particles.
Generally, the people believe that there is some type of psyche associated to the animals,
and some biologists agree that even very simple animals like the ameba and the sea anemone are
endowed with psychism. This led several authors to consider the possibility of the psychic
phenomena to be described in a theory based on Physics [8-11].
The fact that an electron carries out “virtual” transitions to several energetic levels before
performing the real transition [5] clearly shows a “choice” made by the electron. Where there is
“choice” isn’t there also psyche, by definition?
An elementary psyche associated to the electron would be an entity very similar to the
elementary electric charge associated to the electron, whose existence was necessary to
postulate for the establishment of electromagnetic theory. However, the elementary psyche has
unique characteristics. Being a discrete quantity (quantum) of the Supreme Consciousness,
which is omniscient, it must also contain within it all knowledge. In the Supreme
Consciousness, whose psychic energy is infinite, the manifestation of this knowledge is total. In
the case of the elementary psyche, would be minimal by definition, remaining the rest of the
knowledge in a latent state.
But still this knowledge would be sufficient, for example, for electrons to define their
orbital position (energy level) around the nuclei when they were electromagnetically attracted
by the such nuclei.
How else could they have the knowledge of the exact orbit to stay? The electrosphere of
atoms is a complex and accurate structure, and in no way could have been created randomly. Its
construction undoubtedly involves knowledge.
Due to the fact that the formation of the electrosphere of the atoms is an organized
process, the psyches of the electrons is also grouped in an organized manner, specifically in
phase condensates, forming, what we can define as the Individual Consciousnesses of the
atoms. Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of imprecisely-structured phase
condensates. Lasers, superfluids, superconductors, and magnets are examples of better-
structured phase condensates.
2
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other. Besides superposition, there is also the possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their wave
functions.
10
If electrons, protons and neutrons have psychic mass, then we can infer that the psychic
mass of the atoms are Phase Condensates. In the case of the molecules the situation is similar.
More molecular mass means more atoms and consequently, more psychic mass. In this case the
phase condensate also becomes more structured because the great amount of elementary
psyches inside the condensate requires, by stability reasons, a better distribution of them. Thus,
in the case of molecules with very large molecular masses (macromolecules) it is possible that
their psychic masses already constitute the most organized shape of a Phase Condensate, called
Bose-Einstein Condensate 3 .
The fundamental characteristic of a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we know, that the
various parts making up the condensed system not only behave as a whole but also become a
whole, i.e., in the psychic case, the various consciousnesses of the system become a single
consciousness with psychic mass equal to the sum of the psychic masses of all the
consciousness of the condensate. This obviously, increases the available knowledge in the
system since it is proportional to the psychic mass of the consciousness. This unity confers an
individual character to this type of consciousness. For this reason, from now on they will be
called Individual Material Consciousness.
It derives from the above that most bodies do not possess individual material
consciousness. In an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of elementary psyches in the iron
molecules does not constitute Bose-Einstein condensate; therefore, the iron rod does not have an
individual consciousness. Its consciousness is consequently, much more simple and constitutes
just a phase condensate imprecisely structured made by the consciousness of the iron atoms.
The existence of consciousnesses in the atoms is revealed in the molecular formation,
where atoms with strong mutual affinity (their consciousnesses) combine to form molecules. It
is the case, for instance of the water molecules, in which two Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen
atom. Well, how come the combination between these atoms is always the same: the same
grouping and the same invariable proportion? In the case of molecular combinations the
phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the chemical substances either mutually attract or repel
themselves, carrying out specific motions for this reason. It is the so-called Chemical Affinity.
This phenomenon certainly results from a specific interaction between the consciousnesses.
From now on, it will be called Psychic Interaction.
After the formation of the first planets, some of them came to develop favorable conditions for the
appearance of macromolecules. These macromolecules, as we have shown, may have a special type of
consciousness formed by a Bose-Einstein condensate (Individual Material Consciousness). In this case,
since the molecular masses of the macromolecules are very large, they will have individual material
consciousness of large psychic mass and, therefore, have access to a considerable amount of information
in its own consciousness. Consequently, macromolecules with individual material consciousness are
potentially very capable of, and some certainly already can carry out, autonomous motions, thus being
considered as “living” entities.
However, if we decompose one of these molecules so as to destroy its individual
consciousness, its parts will no longer have access to the information which “instructed” said
molecule and, hence, will not be able to carry out the autonomous motions it previously did.
Thus, the “life” of the molecule disappears – as we can see, Delbrück’s Paradox is then solved 4 .
3
Several authors have suggested the possibility of the Bose-Einstein condensate occur in the brain, and
that it might be the physical base of memory, although they have not been able to find a suitable
mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis. Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates in
living tissues abound (Popp, F.A Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New Scientist, May89, p.41;
Rattermeyer, M and Popp, F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
4
This paradox ascribed to Max Delbrück (Delbrück, Max., (1978) Mind from Matter? American Scholar,
47. pp.339-53.) remained unsolved and was posed as follows: How come the same matter studied by
Physics, when incorporated into a living organism, assumes an unexpected behavior, although not
contradicting physical laws?
11
The appearance of “living” molecules in a planet marks the beginning of the most
important evolutionary stage for the psyche of matter, for it is from the combination of these
molecules that there appear living beings with individual material consciousness with even
larger psychic masses.
Biologists have shown that all living organisms existing on Earth come from two types of
molecules – aminoacids and nucleotides – which make up the fundamental building blocks of
living beings. That is, the nucleotides and aminoacids are identical in all living beings, whether
they are bacteria, mollusks or men. There are twenty different species of aminoacids and five of
nucleotides.
In 1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey proved that aminoacids could be produced from
inert chemical products present in the atmosphere and oceans in the first years of existence of
the Earth. Later, in 1962, nucleotides were created in laboratory under similar conditions. Thus,
it was proved that the molecular units making up the living beings could have formed during the
Earth’s primitive history.
Therefore, we can imagine what happened from the moment said molecules appeared.
The concentration of aminoacids and nucleotides in the oceans gradually increased. After a long
period of time, when the amount of nucleotides was already large enough, they began to group
themselves by mutual psychic attraction, forming the molecules that in the future will become
DNA molecules.
When the molecular masses of these molecules became large enough, the distribution of
elementary psyches in their consciousnesses took the most orderly possible form of phase
condensate (Bose-Einstein condensate) and such consciousnesses became the individual
material consciousness.
Since the psychic mass of the consciousnesses of these molecules is very large (as
compared with the psychic mass of the atoms), the amount of self-accessible knowledge in such
consciousnesses became considerable and, thus, they became apt to instruct the joining of
aminoacids in the formation of the first proteins (origin of the Genetic Code). Consequently, the
DNA’s capability to serve as guide for the joining of aminoacids in the formation of proteins is
fundamentally a result of their psychism.
In the psychic of DNA molecules, the formation of proteins certainly had a definite
objective: the construction of cells.
During the cellular construction, the most important function played by the
consciousnesses of the DNA molecules may have been that of organizing the distribution of the
new molecules incorporated to the system so that the consciousnesses of these molecules jointly
formed with the consciousness of the system a Bose-Einstein condensate. In this manner, more
knowledge would be available to the system and, after the cell is completed, the latter would
also have an individual material consciousness.
Afterwards, under the action of psychic interaction, the cells began to group themselves
according to different degrees of positive mutual affinity, in an organized manner so that the
distribution of their consciousnesses would also form Bose-Einstein condensates. Hence,
collective cell units began to appear with individual consciousnesses of larger psychic masses
and, therefore, with access to more knowledge. With greater knowledge available, these groups
of cells began to perform specialized functions to obtain food, assimilation, etc. That is when
the first multi-celled beings appeared.
Upon forming the tissues, the cells gather structurally together in an organized manner.
Thus, the tissues and, hence, the organs and the organisms themselves also possess individual
material consciousnesses.
The existence of the material consciousness of the organisms is proved in a well-known
experiment by Karl Lashley, a pioneer in neurophysiology.
12
Lashley initially taught guinea pigs to run through a maze, an ability they remember and
keep in their memories in the same way as we acquire new skills. He then systematically
removed small portions of the brain tissue of said guinea pigs. He thought that, if the guinea
pigs still remembered how to run through the maze, the memory centers would still be intact.
Little by little he removed the brain mass; the guinea pigs, curiously enough, kept
remembering how to run through the maze. Finally, with more than90% of their cortex
removed, the guinea pigs still kept remembering how to run through the maze. Well, as we have
seen, the consciousness of an organism is formed by the concretion of all its cellular
consciousnesses. Therefore, the removal of a portion of the organism cells does not make it
disappear. Their cells, or better saying, the consciousnesses of their cells contribute to the
formation of the consciousness of the organism just as the others, and it is exactly due to this
fact that, even when we remove almost all of the guinea pigs’ cortex, they were still able to
remember from the memories of their individual material consciousnesses. In this manner, what
Lashley’s experiment proved was precisely the existence of individual material consciousnesses
in the guinea pigs.
Another proof of the existence of the individual material consciousnesses in organisms is
given by the regeneration phenomenon, so frequent in animals of simple structure: sponges,
isolated coelenterates, worms of various groups, mollusks, echinoderms and tunicates. The
arthropods regenerate their pods. Lizards may regenerate only their tail after autotomy. Some
starfish may regenerate so easily that a simple detached arm may, for example, give origin to a
wholly new animal.
The organization of the psychic parts in the composition of an organism’s individual
material consciousness is directly related to the organization of the material parts of the
organism, as we have already seen. Thus, due to this interrelationship between body and
consciousness, any disturbance of a material (physiological) nature in the body of the being will
affect its individual material consciousness, and any psychic disturbance imposed upon its
consciousness affects the physiology of its body.
When a consciousness is strongly affected to the extent of unmaking the Bose-
Einstein’s condensate, which gives it the status of individual consciousness, there also occurs
the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge made accessible by said condensation.
Therefore, when a cell’s consciousness no longer constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, there
is also the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge that instructs and maintains the
cellular metabolism. Consequently, the cell no longer functions thus initiating its decomposition
(molecular desegregation).
Similarly, when the consciousness of an animal (or vegetables) no longer constitutes a
Bose-Einstein condensate, the knowledge that instructs and maintains its body functioning also
disappears, and it dies. In this process, after the unmaking of the being’s individual
consciousness, there follows the unmaking of the individual consciousnesses of the organs; next
will be the consciousnesses of their own cells which no longer exist. At the end there will
remain the isolated psyches of the molecules and atoms. Death, indeed, destroys nothing,
neither what makes up matter nor what makes up psyche.
As we have seen, all the information available in the consciousnesses of the beings is
also accessible by the consciousnesses of their organs up to their molecules’. Thus, when an
individual undergoes a certain experience, the information concerning it not only is recorded
somewhere in this consciousness but also pervades all the individual consciousnesses that make
up its total consciousness. Consequently, psychic disturbances imposed to a being reflect up to
the level of their individual molecular consciousnesses, perhaps even structurally affecting said
molecules, due to the interrelationship between body and consciousness already mentioned here.
13
5. The Spirits
As we have already seen, the origin of the spirits is related to the natural desire of the Supreme
Consciousness to procreate, that is, of generating individual consciousnesses in itself so that
they could evolve and express the same creative attributes pertinent to Her. In this way, the
nature of Spirits is the same of the Supreme Consciousness.
By definition the consciousnesses, the thought, etc., are psychic bodies, i.e., psychic
energy locally concentrated. In the material world, we can not distinguish the form of thoughts
probably because the density of concentrated psychic energy is so low that would be equivalent
to a fluid with a density much lower than the densities of gases. We know that we can only see a
body if the light emitted by it can be detected by our eyes. The solids and liquids generally
reflect light well and this makes them visible. The gases, on the contrary, are only visible in a
state of high density, as in the case of the clouds. In a state of low density, like the wind,
become invisible, because, practically, do not reflect the rays of light. In the case of thoughts,
whose density would be much lower than the density of the gases, we also cannot distinguish its
shape. The same is true in the case of Spirits. Thus, it becomes very difficult for us to see the
Spirits. However, as the concentration of energy in spirits is greater than the thoughts it is
possible that we can see traces of its forms in certain circumstances. This would then
15
correspond to the vision of figures, flashes, etc. Thus, the perfect vision of the forms of the
spirits will probably only be possible for an observer in the Spiritual World.
As concerns the ubiquity of the Spirits, it is necessary to use the Quantum Physics in
order to understand it. We start from the Uncertainty Principle, under the form obtained in 1927
by Werner Heisenberg, i.e.,
Δ xΔ p ≥ h (10 )
This expression shows that the product of the uncertainty Δx in the position of a particle in a
certain instant by the uncertainty Δp in its momentum is equal or greater than the Planck’s
constant h. We cannot measure simultaneously both, position and momentum, with perfect
accuracy. If we reduce Δp , then Δx will be increased and vice-versa. Such uncertainties are not
in our appliances, but in Nature.
A mathematical approach more accurate than the one proposed by Heisenberg presents
to the uncertainty principle the following relationship:
ΔxΔp ≥
h
(11)
2π
When we want to correlate the uncertainty ΔE in the energy with the uncertainty Δt in the time
interval it is customary to write the Uncertainty Principle in the following form:
ΔE Δt ≈ h (12 )
where h = h 2π .
According to this expression, an event in which an amount of energy ΔE is not
conserved is not prohibited, provided that the duration of the event does not exceed Δt . This
means that it can occur variations of energy in a system, that even in principle are impossible to
determine them. The emission of a meson by a nucleus that does not change its mass - clear
violation of the principle of conservation of energy - can occur if the nucleon reabsorb the
meson (or similar) in a time interval less than h ΔE = h mπc2 , ( mπ is the mass of the meson).
Therefore, it can also occur that a material particle moves temporarily to a certain position
without actually leaving your starting position. In this case, it is said that the particle made a
Virtual Transition to a certain position.
The designation virtual must not lead the reader to imagine that the transition was not
made. It is effectively carried out: it is real. But, according to the uncertainty principle, it is
impossible to be observed. This is a limitation imposed by Nature.
However, although we cannot observe the virtual transitions, their occurrence can often
be detected by the produced effects.
The psychic particles can also perform virtual transitions, since the uncertainty principle
also applies to them.
This means, therefore, that quanta of human consciousnesses (from the minds’ conscious,
subconscious and unconscious) can perform "temporary exits" but without leaving them
effectively.
These transitions correspond to virtual transitions of the own minds where the quanta are
originated, since these, when individualized, form Bose-Einstein condensates with the mind
where they are originated, and therefore, share all the knowledge and attributes relevant to it.
During pseudo-medical deaths, projections, etc., people report later that they "saw"
themselves out of the body, a clear indication of virtual transitions originating from the
conscious and subconscious. In dreams, besides such transitions, there are also indications of
transitions from the unconscious.
According to Feynman’s Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Interaction [14], no energy
is spent in virtual transitions, which can occur around at any distance. Moreover, as is easily
concluded from the uncertainty principle, one single quantum can perform several virtual
16
transitions simultaneously. It all depends on how quickly it makes the transitions. Therefore,
through this process, the quanta of human consciousnesses or it all may go to several places
simultaneously. We conclude, therefore, that a spirit can be in several places at a time. But of
course this is not a division of Spirit, but himself present simultaneously in several places.
Incarnation of Spirits
The great dissimilarity associated with the progressive enhancement of the individual’s
psychic quantities may have given rise, in immemorial time, to a variety of individuals (most
probably among anthropoid primates) which unconsciously established a positive mutual
affinity with Primordial Spirits, previously mentioned.
As this affinity was developed with the psychic enhancement, it is expected that natural
selection has made it much higher in the offspring of this variety. Thus, due to the psychic
interaction, several Primordial Spirits must have been attracted to the Earth. With this, the
relationship established among them and the material consciousnesses of said individuals was
intensified.
In the course of evolutionary transformation, there was a time when the fetuses of said
variety already presented such a high degree of mutual affinity with the primordial
consciousnesses attracted to the Earth that, during pregnancy, the incorporation of Primordial
Spirits may have occurred in said fetuses 5 .
This phenomenon should not have occurred only on Earth, may also have occurred in the
same way on other planets with evolutionary conditions similar to Earth's. The belief that this
phenomenon occurred only in the incarnation of Spirits on Earth would question the wisdom of
God, favoring only the Earth and excluding thousands of other worlds.
As we have already seen, these Spirits constitute perfect individualities and, therefore, as
greater their psychic energy greater auto-knowledge accessible and, consequently, they will
have greater opportunities to evolve.
Thus, also the Spirits evolve as the human race evolved biologically.
Just as the consciousnesses of the children have a high degree of positive mutual affinity
with the consciousnesses of their parents, and among themselves (principle of familiar
formation), the embryo cells, by having originated from cellular duplication, have a high degree
of positive mutual affinity. The embryo cells result, as we know, from the cellular duplication of
a single cell containing the paternal and maternal genes and, hence, have a high degree of
positive mutual affinity.
Thus, under the action of psychic interaction the cells of the internal cellular mass start
gathering into small groups, according to the different degrees of mutual affinity.
When there is a positive mutual affinity between two consciousnesses there occurs the
intertwining between their wave functions, and a Phase Relationship is established among them.
Consequently, since the degree of positive mutual affinity among the embryo cells is high, also
the relationship among them will be intense, and it is exactly this what enables the construction
of the organs of the future child. In other words, when a cell is attracted by certain group in the
embryo, it is through the cell-group relationship that determines where the cell is to aggregate to
5
When incarnated, the Spirit is commonly called of Soul. However, considering that while incarnated the
Spirit form a Bose-Einstein condensate with the material consciousness of the body, we can define the
Soul as the individual consciousness of being, i.e., a Bose-Einstein condensate containing the incarnated
Spirit and material consciousness of the body.
17
the group. In this manner, each cell finds its correct place in the embryo; that is why observers
frequently say that, ”the cells appear to know where to go”, when experimentally observed.
The cells of the internal cellular mass are capable of originating any organ, and are hence
called totipotents; thus, the organs begin to appear. In the endoderm, there appear the urinary
organs, the respiratory system, and part of the digestive system; in the mesoderm are formed the
muscles, bones, cartilages, blood, vessels, heart, kidneys; in the ectoderm there appear the skin,
the nervous system, etc.
Thus, it is the mutual affinity among the consciousnesses of the cells that determines the
formation of the body organs and keeps their own physical integrity. For this reason, every body
rejects cells from other bodies, unless the latter have positive mutual affinity with their own
cells. The higher the degree of cellular positive mutual affinity, the faster the integration of the
transplanted cells and, therefore, the less problematic the transplant. In the case of cells from
identical twins, this integration takes place practically with no problems, since said degree of
mutual affinity is very high.
In eight weeks of life, all organs are practically formed in the embryo. From there on, it
begins to be called fetus.
The embryo’s material individual consciousness is formed by the consciousnesses of its
cells united in a Bose-Einstein condensate. As more cells become incorporated into the embryo,
its material consciousness acquires more psychic mass. This means that this type of
consciousness will be greater in the fetus than in the embryo and even greater in the child.
Thus, the psychic mass of the mother-fetus consciousness progressively increases during
pregnancy, consequently increasing the psychic attraction between this consciousness and that
new one about to incorporate. In normal pregnancies, this psychic attraction also increases due
to the habitual increase in the degree of positive mutual affinity between said consciousnesses.
Since the embryo's consciousness has greater degree of positive mutual affinity with the
consciousness that is going to incorporate, then the embryo's consciousness becomes the center
of psychic attraction to where the human consciousness (Spirit) destined to the fetus will go.
When the psychic attraction becomes intense enough, human consciousness penetrates the
mother consciousness, forming with it a new Bose–Einstein condensate. From that instant on,
the fetus begins to have two consciousnesses: the individual material one and the human
consciousness attracted to it.
However, this should only occur after eight weeks, when all organs are practically formed
in the embryo, and it is called fetus. This is a critical period in which the imperfections of matter
can cause fetal death. Thus, the Spirit waits to complete formation of the fetus. If the fetus can
not be structured conveniently, it will naturally be aborted and the Spirit will look for another
body to reincarnate.
We conclude, therefore, that the initial eight weeks are a period imposed by Nature
herself to finish the building of the fetus and test whether it will be able to be used by the Spirit
that want to incarnate. Thus, in this period of "construction" of the fetus, both the Spirit and the
mother, based on free will, also have the freedom to give up the process. In this case, breaks
easily the Bose-Einstein condensate, and the Spirit and both the mother can restart on other
basis, making sure they have fully exercised their rights and have not harmed or caused harm to
either party involved in the process.
However, if the fetus is able, the process to continue the psychic attraction between
material consciousness of the fetus and the Spirit that want to incarnate, accepted by the mother
and by said Spirit, will progressively increase. In this way, with the psychic attraction, this
human consciousness tends to continue, being progressively compressed until effectively
incorporating the fetus. When this takes place, it will be ready to be born.
18
It is probably due to this psychic compression process that the incorporated consciousness
suffers amnesia of its preceding history. Upon death, after the psychic decompression that arises
from the definitive disincorporation of the consciousness, the preceding memory must return.
We have already seen that, when the gravitational mass, Mg, of a body is smaller than
−0.159Mi or larger than +0.159 Mi it is in the Material World. However, if its gravitational mass
is reduced to the range between −0.159Mi < Mg < +0.159 Mi, it performs a transition to the
Psychic World or Spiritual World. [1] When this occurs, its real gravitational mass, m g (real ) , is
totally converted into imaginary gravitational mass, m g (imaginaria ) , due to the Principle of
Conservation of Energy.
On the other hand, it was shown that the psychic mass, mΨ , is equal to the imaginary
gravitational mass[1] , i.e.,
m Ψ = m g (imaginaria ) (13)
Thus, when a body perform a transition to the Psychic World, its real gravitational mass
m g (real ) , is totally converted into psychic mass.
mΨ = m g (imaginaria) ≡ m g (real )
Since the mass is quantized, the body performs a transition to a quantum level
correspondent to its psychic mass (See Fig.1). Thus, the body goes to a region corresponding to
the gravitational mass that it acquired in the Material World.
According to the new concepts of spacecraft and aerospatial flight shown in the book
Física dos UFOs 6 , the called Gravitational Spacecrafts must use the Psychic Universe in order
to viabilize trips that would require much time in the Material Universe.
As the mentioned spacecrafts just perform transition to the Psychic Universe if and only if
its gravitational masses are reduced to the range −0.159Mi < Mg < +0.159 Mi, then, with
negative gravitational mass in the range −0.159Mi < Mg, they perform the transition, and their
gravitational masses would be transformed into negative gravitational mass. Thus, they will
enter the Psychic Universe by the zone energetically located in the range −∞ < MΨ < 0 (See Fig.
1). In the case of the gravitational mass of the spacecraft be reduced to the positive range, i.e.,
0< Mg < +0.159 Mi, the spacecraft will enter the Psychic Universe by zone of positive energy of
the psychic spectrum.
Only after the discovery of the correlation between the gravitational mass and the
inertial mass could the finding of negative gravitational mass be achieved, making it possible to
find ways to obtain it. It is clear, then, that the common material in the Material Universe is the
existence of bodies with positive gravitational mass. Similarly, in the Psychic Universe, the
common is to find psychic bodies with positive psychic mass. Thus, to find the World of Spirits,
a Gravitational Spacecraft must enter the Psychic Universe with positive psychic mass.
When a spirit disincarnates, he does not makes a transition to the Spiritual Universe
because, due to its own nature, the Spirit is already in the Spiritual Universe. Thus, the Spirit
just turn off the material body which they lived. As it leaves the Material World with a given
positive psychic mass 7 , mΨ − acquired during its evolution, and during its recent reincarnation
in the Material World − it should proceed to the region of the World of Spirits corresponding to
its psychic mass. Thus, as the evolutionary degree of each Spirit is defined by the amount of
6
See at www.frandeaquino.org
7
It is fact that the presence of negative psychic energy in the Spirits would cause a decrease in its total psychic
energy, which would imply involution (since the addition of positive psychic energy implies in evolution) and, as we
have seen, the Spirits do not involute.
19
psychic mass contained in the Spirit 8 , then the Spirits proceed precisely to the regions that
correspond to their evolutionary degrees, and there, brought together by mutual affinity, they
continue the evolutionary process and wait for the time of new reincarnation. Driven by the
need for progress, this is therefore the destiny of Spirits.
Thus, in the World of Spirit there is a natural selection that brings together Spirits with
the same level of evolution, and that does not allow the less evolved access to more evolved
regions. The most evolved Spirits, however, can transit through the lower regions, making the
already mentioned "virtual" transitions. In this way, they may intervene with less evolved
regions.
+ ∞ + ∞
M g M Ψ
Transição
UNIVERSO UNIVERSO
0 0
MATERIAL ESPÍRITUAL
− ∞ − ∞
Fig. 1 – When the gravitational mass, Mg, of a body is in
the range −0.159Mi > Mg > +0.159 Mi it is in the Material
Universe. However, If Mg is reduced to the range −0.159Mi
< Mg < +0.159 Mi, then it makes a transition to the Psychic
Universe (or Spiritual) with its gravitational mass converted
to in psychic mass. Since the mass is quantized, the body
performs a transition to a quantum level correspondent to its
psychic mass. Thus, it follows to a region correspondent to
the gravitational mass, which it acquired in the Material
Universe.
By doing the good, spirits acquire more psychic mass, and thus, more latent powers are
awaken, which facilitates their achievements, and makes them happier9 . But they should not
occupy themselves only with their personal improvement, since life in the Spirit World, such as
life in the Material World, is a continuous occupation. We can also conclude from the above
8
As already seen, the Spirits were individualized in the Supreme Consciousness, and therefore brought with them, in
a latent state, the same attributes pertinent to Her. With the progressive evolution of the Spirit, these attributes are
being awakened, so that the degree of evolution of a Spirit is directly related to the quantity of attributes it aroused.
On the other hand, the number of attributes in a Spirit is directly correlated to the amount of mass psychic of the
Spirit. Thus, more psychic mass the Spirit has greater the amount of attributes awakened and, therefore, more
evoluted is the Spirit.
9
The happiness of the good Spirits certainly consists in knowing more and more; not having hate,
jealousy, envy, or any of the passions that make the misery of men. They don't experience needs or
suffering, or the anxieties of material life, and this in itself is synonymous of great happiness.
20
that even the spirits of the highest order, in having nothing more to improve, do not cease their
activities, once the eternal idleness would also be an eternal punishment.
We have seen that the realization of what we want requires an expenditure of psychic
energy proportional to the nature of desire. In other words, in order to have what we want
realized through the collapse of its wave function, it is necessary an expenditure of psychic
energy sufficient for its accomplishment. As the density of material bodies is much greater than
the density of psychic bodies, the realization of our desires in the Material Universe usually
requires much more the psychic energy than in the Psychic Universe. Thus, life in the World of
Spirit becomes much easier and more enjoyable than in the Material World. But the difficulties
of the Material World are what allow the Spirits to progress in their evolution, and that might
have been the main reason for the creation of the Material Universe.
The possibility of transition to the Psychic Universe increased the likelihood of close
encounters with beings from other planets in our ordinary Universe, and also with the people
who live in planets of the Psychic Universe, since Gravitational Spacecraft trips can also be
carried over in this Universe, as already shown. The characteristics associated to the subtle
psychic mass indicate that the life of these beings should not be finite as the lives of the humans.
This makes us think that maybe life in the Psychic Universe be the real life while our brief life
in this Universe has only specific goals such as, for example, a learning period.
The Psychic Universe, by its very nature, it is constituted of photons, atoms and
molecules psychics. This means that all types of photons, atoms and molecules that exist here
may have its corresponding counterparts in the Psychic Universe. Therefore, all we have here
can exist there with a similar form. However, considering the characteristics associated to the
subtle psychic mass, we can conclude that life here may be an imperfect copy of the life there.
We have already seen that the Real Universe, where we live, is contained in the Psychic
Universe (Imaginary Universe), so the real space-time that corresponds to the Real Universe is
within the Imaginary space-time, which forms the Psychic Universe, where the Spirits live. By
definition, in the imaginary space-time both the space coordinates and the time coordinate are,
obviously, imaginary. This means that the time in the Universe of the Spirits (imaginary time) is
different from the real time of our Universe.
Only recently the concept of imaginary time was considered by physicists. Difficult to
understand, but deemed essential to connect the Statistical Mechanics to Quantum Mechanics,
the concept of imaginary time also became instrumental in Quantum Cosmology, where it was
introduced in order to eliminate singularities (points where the curvature of space-time becomes
infinite), which occur in the real time (See Hartle-Hawking state [15]). Twenty-two years ago,
Hawking popularized the concept of imaginary time in his book: A Brief History of Time [16].
The imaginary time is not imaginary in the sense that it does not exist. Nor is it a
mathematical artifice. No, it really exists, however, it has different characteristics of the time
which we are used to.
The existence of the imaginary time is mathematically sustained by a mechanism called
Wick Rotation 10 , which transform the metrics of the Minkowski space-time
( )
ds 2 = − dt 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (14)
into the metrics of the Euclidean space-time
ds 2 = dτ 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (15)
where τ = it ; i = − 1 is called imaginary unit, which defines the imaginary numbers in the
form z = a + bi , where a and b are real numbers, called respectively, the real part of “z” and
the imaginary part of “z”.
10
It is the called rotation because when we multiply an imaginary number by i the result, on the Cartesian plane, is
equivalent to a rotation of 900 of the vector that represents the number. Assim, − dt2 = − dt. dt = i2 dt. dt = i(i
dt). dt = dτ . 2
21
From the definition of complex numbers follows that they can interpreted as points in the
Cartesian plane (where conventionally we mark on the x-axis the real part and on the y-axis the
→
imaginary part of a imaginary number “z”) or, as vectors OZ whose origin “O” is at the origin
of the Cartesian grid, and the point “Z” with the coordinates (a, b). (See Fig. 2).
Thus, imaginary numbers can be conceived as a new type of number perpendicular to the
real numbers. This leads to the possibility of expressing mathematically imaginary time in a
direction perpendicular to the common real time. In this model, the imaginary time is a function
of real time and vice versa (See Fig.3). Thus, the imaginary time appears as a new dimension
that makes a right angles to real time, and thereby, as Hawking showed [17], it has much more
possibilities than the real time, which always flows from past to future, and only may have a
beginning and an end.
Im
b Z
0 a Re
(a)
Im
b Z
Z’ a
-b 0 a Re
(b)
t Im
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t Re
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Universo Imaginário
espaço-tempo plano
Universo Real
espaço-tempo curvo
Conclusion
Both the traditional physicists and most people recognize that there are phenomena where
matter does not act alone, i.e., which involves also what we call psychism (consciousness,
thought). These phenomena had hitherto been relegated to the professional affair of experts
other than the traditional physicists. However, in recent decades, Quantum Physics has shown
us that some physical laws are stretched beyond the Material World, revealing the existence of
the Spiritual World. Thus, the Spiritual World arises not as a supernatural world 11 , but as
something as real as our Material World. On the other hand, this knowledge paved the way for
Physics to study psychic phenomena using the same criteria adopted for the study of physical
phenomena. In other words, it was evident that psychic phenomena could also be described by
the laws of Physics. This unification is the basis for the Grand Unification of Science and
Religion. Thereafter, both could no longer follow on separately. It was clear that Science could
more accurately describe the truth postulated by Religion.
In this context, the Religion - absorbed by Science, must leave the scene just as the purely
philosophical Cosmology gave way, in the past century, to Quantum Cosmology, when
Quantum Physics discovered the laws that accurately describe the structures of the Universe.
The unification of Science and Religion is highly relevant because it will eliminate the
spread of religious beliefs that have caused so much harm to Humanity in recent millennia.
Now, the truth postulated by Religion will be transmitted by Science in schools and universities,
and the human beings will understand it and use it, such as they use and understand, for
example, the electric current, knowing that it can cause harm and also benefits for its users.
It would be too much presumptuous to believe that, due to the simple revelation of this
new knowledge, the human nature could change suddenly. It will certainly take several decades
for a complete assimilation of such truth.
It will then be taught to people from early stages of learning, the fundamental importance
of the quality of our thoughts, since it is from them that the psychic interaction is defined and,
11
In the eyes of the general public, all phenomena of unknown cause become readily supernatural,
wonderful and miraculous: the cause, once known, shows that the phenomenon, for more extraordinary it
may seems, is nothing but a consequence of one or more natural laws. It is in this way that the set of
supernatural facts is reduced with the Science progress.
24
References
Recently, evidence indicating cosmological variations of the fine structure constant, α, has been
reported. This result led to the conclusion that possibly the physical constants and the laws of
physics vary throughout the universe. However, it will be shown here that variations in the value of
the elementary electric charge, e, can occur under specific conditions, consequently producing
variations in the value of α.
Key words: Fine Structure Constant, Elementary Electric Charge, Cosmology, Physics of Black-Holes.
PACS: 06.20. Jr, 98.80.-k, 98.80.Jk, 04.70.-s.
2
electron and Te ≅ 6.2 ×1031K is its internal
α=
e
=
1
(1) temperature (temperature of the Universe
4πε 0 hc 137.03599958(52) when the electron was created);
−23
k =1.38×10 J /º K is the Boltzmann constant.
However, recently, Webb, J.K et al., [2] Thus, according to Eq. (3), the value of
using data of the Very Large Telescope
χ e is given by χ e = −1.8 × 1021 . Then,
(VLT) and of the ESO Science archive,
noticed small variation in the value of α in according to Eq. (2), the electric charge of
several distant galaxies. This led to the the electron is
conclusion that α is not a constant [2- 4].
It will be shown here, that variations in q e = 4πε 0 G m ge (im ) i =
the value of the elementary electric charge, e,
(
= 4πε 0 G χ e m i 0 e (im )i = )
( )
can occur under specific conditions,
consequently producing variations in the = 4πε 0 G − χ e 2 m i 0 e (real )i 2 =
4πε G (χ )
3
value of α. This effect may be explained
starting from the expression recently = 0 e
2 m i 0 e (real ) = −1.6 × 10 −19 C
3
obtained for the electric charge [5], i.e.,
q = 4πε 0 G m g (im ) i (2 ) As we know, the absolute value of this
charge is called the elementary electric
where m g (im ) are the imaginary gravitational
charge, e .
mass of the elementary particle; Since the internal temperature of the
−12
ε 0 = 8.854×10 F / m is the permittivity of the particle can vary, we then conclude that χ is
free space and G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N .m 2 .kg −1 is not a constant, and consequently the value of
the universal constant of gravitation. e also cannot be a constant in the Universe.
For example, in the case of the Its value will depend on the local conditions
electron, it was shown [5] that that can vary the internal temperature of the
particle. The gravitational compression, for
⎧ example, can reduce the volume V of the
⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪ particles, diminishing their internal
mge(im) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(im) = temperature T to a temperature
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ T ′ according to the well-known equation:
= χ e mi 0e(im) (3) T ′ = (V ′ V )T [6]. This decreases the value of
U (im) , decreasing consequently the value of
2
χ . Equation (2) shows that e is proportional
to χ , i.e.,
e = 4πε 0 G m g (im ) i =
(
= 4πε 0 G χ m i 0 (im )i = )
(
= 4πε 0 G − χ 2 )
m i 0 (real )i 2 =
4πε G (χ )
3
= 0
2 m i 0 (real )
3
Extremely large
White-hole
Fig. 1 – A spatial dipole that can explain the dipole variation of α reported by Webb. J.K. et
al.
4
References
[1] P. J. Mohr, and B. N. Taylor, (2000) Rev. Mod. Phys.,
72, 351
[2] Webb, J.K. et al., (2011) Phys. Rev. Lett., 107, 191101.
Recently, the OPERA neutrino experiment at the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory has
measured the velocity of neutrinos from the CERN CNGS beam over a baseline of about 730
km. The experiment shows that neutrinos can have superluminal velocities. This result could, in
principle, be taken as a clear violation of the Special Relativity. However, it will be show here
that neutrinos can actually travel at velocities faster than light speed, without violating Special
Relativity.
References
[1] Eidelman, S. et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys. Lett. B
592, 1 (2004) and (2005) partial update for edition 2006
(URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov).
For quite a long time it has been where μ γ = mγ c h , with the real variables
known that the effects of a nonzero photon μ γ and mγ . However, according to Eq. (1)
rest mass can be incorporated into
electromagnetism through the Proca mγ is an imaginary mass. Then, μ γ must be
equations [1-2]. It is also known that also an imaginary variable. Thus, μ γ2 is a
particles with imaginary mass can be
described by a real Proca field with a negative real number similarly to mγ2 .
negative mass square [3-5]. They could be Consequently, we can write that
generated in storage rings, jovian m γ2 c 2 4 ⎛ 2π ⎞
2
magnetosphere, and supernova remnants. μγ =
2
= ⎜ ⎟
4
= k r2 (6 )
The existence of imaginary mass associated h 2
3⎝ λ ⎠ 3
to the neutrino is already well-known. It has whence we recognize k r = 2π λ as the real
r
been reported by different groups of part of the propagation vector k ;
experimentalists that the mass square of the r
neutrino is negative [6]. Although the k = k = kr + iki = kr2 + ki2 (7)
imaginary mass is not a measurable amount, Substitution of Eq. (6) into Proca
its square is [7]. Recently, it was shown that equations, gives
an imaginary mass exist associated to the r ρ 4 2
∇⋅E = − kr φ (8 )
electron and the photon too [8]. The photon ε0 3
imaginary mass is given by r
(
m γ = 23 hf c 2 i ) (1) ∇⋅B = 0 (9 )
r
r ∂B
This means that the photon has null real ∇×E = − (10 )
mass and an imaginary mass, mγ , expressed ∂t
r
r r ∂E 4 2 r
by the previous equation. ∇ × B = μ 0 j + μ 0ε 0 − kr A (11)
Proca equations may be found in many ∂t 3
textbooks [9-11]. They provide a complete In four-dimensional space these
and self-consistent description of equations can be rewritten as
electromagnetic phenomena [12].r In the ⎛ 2 1 ∂2 4 2 ⎞ r
presence of sources ρ and j , these
⎜∇ −
⎜ − k r
⎟ Aμ = − μ 0 j μ
⎟ (12 )
⎝ c 2
∂ t 2
3 ⎠
equations may be written as (in SI units) r
where Aμ and j μ are the 4-vector of
r ρ
∇⋅E = − μ γ2φ (2 ) potential ( A, iφ c ) and the current density
ε0
r (rj, icρ ), respectively. In free space the above
∇⋅B = 0 (3 ) equation reduces to
r
r ∂B
∇×E = − (4 )
∂t ⎛ 2 1 ∂2 4 2 ⎞
r
r
r
⎜∇ −
⎜ − k r ⎟⎟ Aμ = 0 (13 )
r ∂E 2
∂ 2
∇ × B = μ 0 j + μ 0ε 0 − μ γ2 A (5 ) ⎝ c t 3 ⎠
∂t
2
−4
which is essentially the Klein-Gordon becomes relevant if r > 10 m . Then, if we
equation for the photon. take r = 0.1m , the result is
Therefore, the presence of a photon in
a static electric field modifies the wave
equation for all potentials (including the
2
(k r r ) = 4π ⎛⎜ r ⎞⎟ = 0.73
Coulomb potential) in the form 3 3⎝λ ⎠
and
⎛ 2 1 ∂2 ⎞ ρ
⎜∇ −
⎜
4
− k r2 ⎟⎟φ = − (14 ) ⎡ ⎤ −
2
(k r r )
⎝ c ∂t
2 2
3 ⎠ ε0 ⎢1 +
2
(k r r )⎥e
3
= 0.83
For a point charge, we obtain ⎣ 3 ⎦
1 q − 3 (k r r )
2
φ (r ) = e (15 ) Therefore, a deviation of 17% in respect to
4πε 0 r the value predicted by the Coulomb’s law.
and the electric field Then, why the above deviation is not
experimentally observed? Theoretically
⎡ ⎤ −
2
(k r r ) because of the presence of Schumann
E (r ) =
q
⎢
4πε 0 r 2 ⎣
1 +
2
3
(k )
r ⎥e
r
⎦
3
(16 ) (
radiation f 1 = 7 . 83 Hz , λ 1 = 3 . 8 × 10 7 m )
[14-15]. According to Eq. (18),
Note that only in the absence of the photon for λ1 = 3.8 × 10 m , the deviation only
7
2
(k r r )
3 and
only becomes significant if ⎤ − 3 (k r r )
2
⎡
r > ~ 10 −4 λ (18) ⎢1 +
2
(k r ⎥
r ) e = 0.999999999
⎣ 3 ⎦
This means that the Coulomb’s law is a good Now, if we put the experiment inside an
approximation when r < ~10−4 λ . However, if aluminum box whose thickness of the walls
r > ~ 10−4 λ , the expression of the force are equal to 21cm * the experiment will be
shielded for the Schumann radiation. By
departs from the prediction of Maxwell’s putting inside the box a photons source of
equations. λ ≈ 1m , and making r = 0.1m , then it will be
The lowest-frequency photons of the possible to observe the deviation previously
primordial radiation of 2.7K is about computed of 17% in respect to the value
108 Hz [13]. Therefore, the wavelength of predicted by the Coulomb’s law.
these photons is λ ≈ 1m . Consider the
presence of these photons in a terrestrial *
The thickness δ necessary to shield the experiment
experiment designed to measure the force for Schumann radiation can be calculated by means of
between two electric charges separated by a the well-known expression [16]: δ = 5 z = 10 2πμσf
distance r . According to Eq. (18), the where μ and σ are, respectively, the permeability
deviation from the Coulomb’s law only and the electric conductivity of the material; f is the
frequency of the radiation to be shielded.
3
References
[1] Proca A 1936 J. Phys. Radium Ser. VII 7 347–53
Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Experimental studies of gravity, Electromagnetic wave propagation.
PACS: 04.50.Kd , 04.80.-y, 41.20.Jb, 75.70.-i.
It was shown that the gravitational be strongly reduced simply by making the
mass mg and inertial mass mi are correlated radiation cross a conductive foil.
by means of the following factor [1]: From Electrodynamics we know that
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ when an electromagnetic wave with
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p
⎟
⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) frequency f and velocity c incides on a
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ material with relative permittivity ε r ,
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the relative magnetic permeability μ r and
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
particle and Δp is the variation in the
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
of light. refraction of the material, given by [8]
When Δp is produced by the ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it v 2 ⎝ ⎠
is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , the Eq. (3) reduces to
(1) becomes μrσ
nr = (4)
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ 4πε0 f
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪ Thus, the wavelength of the incident
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ radiation becomes
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ λ 4π
⎛λ ⎞ v c f
(5)
2
⎪ ⎪ λmod = = = =
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2) f nr nr μfσ
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial v=c v = c/nr
mass mi 0 .
It is easily seen that m g cannot be
strongly reduced simply by using nr
electromagnetic waves with wavelength λ λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
because λ0 is very smaller than 10 −10 m .
However, it is known that the wavelength of
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
a radiation can be strongly reduced simply by
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reducing its velocity. strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
There are several ways to reduce the
Now consider a 1GHz ( λ ≅ 0.3m )
velocity of an electromagnetic radiation. For
radiation incident on Aluminum foil with
example, by making light cross an ultra cold
atomic gas, it is possible to reduce its velocity σ = 3.82×107 S / m and thickness ξ = 10.5μm .
down to 17m/s [2-7]. Here, it is shown that the According to Eq. (5), the modified
velocity of an electromagnetic radiation can wavelength is
2
4π power of the radiation flux incident on the
λmod = = 1.6 × 10 −5 m (6) foil.
μfσ When an electromagnetic wave incides
Consequently, the wavelength of the 1GHz on the Aluminum foil, it strikes on N f front
atoms, where N f ≅ (nS f )φ atom . Thus, the
radiation inside the foil will be
λmod =1.6 ×10−5 m and not λ ≅ 0.3m .
wave incides effectively on an area
It is known that a radiation with
S = N f S a , where S a = 14 πφ atom
2
is the cross
frequency f, propagating through a material
with electromagnetic characteristics ε, μ and section area of one Aluminum atom. After these
σ , has the amplitudes of its waves decreased collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the
in e−1=0.37 (37%), when it passes through a other atoms of the foil (See Fig.2).
distance z, given by
1
z= (7)
⎛
ω 2 εμ⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) − 1⎟
1 2 ⎞
⎝ ⎠
The radiation is totally absorbed at a atom
Sa
distance δ≅5z [8]. foil
Wave
In the case of the 1GHz radiation
propagating through the Aluminum foil Eq. Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the foil.
(7), gives Thus, the total number of collisions in the
z=
1
= 2.57×10−6 = 2.57μm (8) volume Sξ is
πμσ f Ncollisions= N f + ncollisions= nSφatom + (nSξ − nSφatom) =
Since the thickness of the Aluminum foil is = nSξ (11)
ξ = 10.5μm then, we can conclude that, The power density, D , of the radiation on
practically all the incident 1GHz radiation is the foil can be expressed by
absorbed by the foil.
If the foil contains n atoms/m3, then D=
P
=
P
(12 )
S N f Sa
the number of atoms per area unit is nξ .
The same power density as a function of the
Thus, if the electromagnetic radiation with
power P0 radiated from the antenna, is given by
frequency f incides on an area S of the foil
P
it reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total D = 02 (13)
area of the foil, S f , then the total number of 4πr
where r is the distance between the antenna
atoms reached by the radiation is N = nS f ξ . and the foil. Comparing equations (12) and
The number of atoms per unit of volume, n , (13), we get
is given by ⎛ N f Sa ⎞
N0 ρ
P = ⎜⎜ ⎟P
2 ⎟ 0
(14)
n= (9) ⎝ 4πr ⎠
A We can express the total mean number
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
the following equation
Avogadro’s number ; ρ is the matter density
ntotal photons N collisions
of the foil (in kg/m3) and A is the atomic n1 = (15 )
mass. In the case of the Aluminum N
( )
ρ = 2700kg / m3 , A = 26.98kmole the result is
Since in each collision is transferred a
momentum h λ to the atom, then the total
n Al = 6.02 × 1028 atoms / m3 (10) momentum transferred to the foil will be
The total number of photons inciding on the Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
foil is ntotal photons = P hf 2 , where P is the with Eq. (1), we can write that
3
−5
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ λmod = 1.6 ×10 m . Thus, by substitution of
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1 ⎬ = λ by λmod into Eq. (22), we get the
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ following expression
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ m g ( Al )
λ0 ⎤ (23)
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪ ≅ −1
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (16) mi 0( Al )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ r
⎦⎭ r
Since P = m g g then the result is
Since Eq. (11) gives N collisions = nSξ , we get r r r
⎛ P ⎞
P( Al ) = mg ( Al ) g ≅ −mi 0( Al ) g (24)
ntotal = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ )
photons N collisions (17 ) This means that, in the mentioned conditions,
⎝ hf ⎠ the weight force of the Aluminum foil is
Substitution of Eq. (17) into Eq. (16) yields inverted.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ It was shown [1] that there is an
mg ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (18)
⎢ additional effect of Gravitational Shielding
⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
produced by a substance whose gravitational
⎩ mass was reduced or made negative. This
Substitution of Eq. (14) into Eq. (18) gives effect shows that just above the substance the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravity acceleration g 1 will be reduced at the
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f Sa P0 ⎞⎛ nSξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (19) same ratio χ 1 = m g mi 0 , i.e., g1 = χ1 g , ( g
2 2⎟
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ 4π r f ⎠⎝ mi0c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦
⎥
⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎭ is the gravity acceleration bellow the
Substitution of N f ≅ (nS f )φatomand S = N f Sa substance). This means that above the
Aluminum foil the gravity acceleration will
into Eq. (19) it reduces to be modified according to the following
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ expression
⎡⎛ n3S 2f Sa2φatom
2
P0ξ ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (20)
mg ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ ⎛ mg ( Al ) ⎞
mi0 ⎪
⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ 4π r mi0cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2 2
⎥⎪
g1 = χ1 g = ⎜ ⎟g
⎜ mi 0( Al ) ⎟
(25)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎝ ⎠
In the case of a 20cm square Aluminum foil, where the factor χ 1 = m g ( Al ) mi 0 ( Al ) will be
with thickness ξ = 10.5μm , we get given Eq. (21).
mi0 =1.1×10−3 kg, S f = 4×10−2 m2 , φatom≅10−10m2 In order to check the theory presented
here, we propose the experimental set-up
Sa ≅10−20m2 , n = n Al = 6.02 × 10 28 atoms / m 3 ,
shown in Fig. 3. The distance between the
Substitution of these values into Eq. (20), Aluminum foil and the antenna is r = 1m .
gives The maximum output power of the 1GHz
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ transmitter is 32W CW. A 10g body is
mg( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ P0 ⎞ 1⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜8.84×10 2 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (21)
11 placed above Aluminum foil , in order to
mi0( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ r f ⎠ λ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪ check the Gravitational Shielding Effect. The
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎭ distance between the Aluminum foil and the
Thus, if the Aluminum foil is at a distance 10g body is approximately 10 cm. The
r = 1m from the antenna, and the power alternative device to measure the weight
radiated from the antenna is P0 = 32W , and variations of the foil and the body (including
the frequency of the radiation is f = 1GHz the negative values) uses two balances (200g
then Eq.(21) gives / 0.01g) as shown in Fig .3.
In order to check the effect of a second
⎧ ⎤⎫
mg( Al) ⎪ ⎡⎢
2
⎡2.8×10−5 ⎤ ⎪ Gravitational Shielding above the first
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (22)
mi0( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ one(Aluminum foil), we can remove the 10g
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭ body, putting in its place a second Aluminum
In the case of the Aluminum foil and 1Ghz foil, with the same characteristics of the first
radiation, Eq. (6) shows that one. The 10g body can be then placed at a
4
distance of 10cm above of the second
Aluminum foil. Obviously, it must be
Sa = 1
2 [4π (φ atom
2
]
2) = 2 πφ1 2
atom
−20
≅ 1× 10 m ,2
10g
10 cm Nylon thread
Aluminum foil
Transmitter
1GHz Balances
Coaxial
32W CW 200g / 0.01g
50 Ω 1m
Antenna 100g 100g
1m
PVC tube
Monolith
1 g
Dielectric
2 Six sets of Gravitational Shieldings
Each one with three (N = 3) Gravitational Shieldings
Aluminum foil
3
Capacitor Plates
(Aluminum)
(a)
Monolith
g g g g g g g
(b)
Fig. 4 – System with six sets of Gravitational Shieldings for moving very heavy loads.
For Vrms = 37KV , d = 1.6mm, S f = 2.7m 2 , N = 2 and η = 3 Eq. (30) gives χ = −0.36 and Eq. (31)
shows that g R = χ 3 g ≅ −0.46m / s 2 . The sign (-) shows that the gravity acceleration above the six
sets of Gravitational Shieldings becomes repulsive in respect to the Earth. Thus, by controlling the
value of χ it is possible to make the total mass of the monolith slightly negative in order to the
monolith can float and, in this way, it can be displaced and carried to anywhere with ease.
7
References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
Key words: DNA, Modified theories of gravity, Experimental studies of gravity, Memory of Water.
PACS: 87.14.gk , 04.50.Kd , 04.80.-y, 41.20.Jb.
4π
Wave
λmod = = 8.4 ×104 m (6) Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the water.
μfσ Thus, the total number of collisions in the
Consequently, the wavelength of the 7 Hz volume Sξ is
radiation inside the water will be
λmod = 8.4 ×104 m and not λ ≅ 4.3 × 10 7 m .
3
( )
Ncollisions= N f + ncollisions= nS f δ + nSξ − nS f δ = ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n3 S 2f Sm2 φm2 Dξ ⎞ 1 ⎤
(9) ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg
= nSξ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
mi0 ⎪ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0 cf 2 ⎟ λ⎥
The power density, D , of the radiation on the ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
water can be expressed by ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
D=
P
=
P
(10 ) ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎡⎛ n3 Sm2 φm2 S D ⎞ 1 ⎤
S N f Sm ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜
f ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪ (16)
⎟ λ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ ρ cf 2
⎥⎪
We can express the total mean number ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
of collisions in each molecule, n1 , by means of ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
the following equation
ntotal photons N collisions In the case of the water, we can take the
n1 = (11) following values: n = 3.34 × 10 molecules/ m ;
28 3
N
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is S f ≅ 1.9×10−5 m2 ( S f is the area of the
transferred to the molecule, then the total horizontal cross-section of the test tube);
momentum transferred to the water will be Sm ≅ 7×10−21m2 ; φm ≅ 1× 10−10 m ; ξ (height of
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance water inside the test tube). Substitution of
with Eq. (1), we can write that these values into Eq. (16), gives
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎡ λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2 ⎫ ⎧ ⎡
⎡⎛ ⎞ 1⎤
2 ⎤⎫
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1 ⎬ =
⎢ mg(water) ⎪ ⎢ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜1.1×10 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (17)
9 D
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ ⎢ f ⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ mi0(water) ⎪ ⎣⎢⎝ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎢⎣
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ In the case of a 7Hz radiation, Eq.
λ0 ⎤ (6)
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (12) shows that λmod = 8.4 ×104 m .
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ Thus, by
⎦⎭ substitution of λ by λmod into Eqs. (17) , we
Since Eq. (9) gives N collisions = nSξ , we get get the following expression
ntotal
⎛ P ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ )
photons N collisions
⎝ hf ⎠
(13) mg (water)
mi0(water)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 + 7.1×104 D2 − 1 ]} (18)
Substitution of Eq. (13) into Eq. (12) yields Now, considering that the water is inside a
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ solenoid, which produces a weak ELF
mg ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (14)
⎢ electromagnetic field with E m and Bm , then
⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ we can write that [4]
⎩
Em2 2
vwater Bm2 cBm2
Substitution of P given by Eq. (10) into Eq. D= = = (19)
(14) gives 2μ0 vwater 2μ0 vwater 2μ0 n(water)
Equation (4) shows that for f = 7 Hz ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ n r (water ) = 506.7 .Substitution of this value
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f Sm D ⎞⎛ nSξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (15)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2 into Eq.(19) gives
⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣ D = 2.3 × 1011 Bm2
Substitution of this value into Eq. (19) gives
Substitution of N f ≅ (nS f )φm and S = N f Sm
into Eq. (15) the result is mg(water)
mi0(water)
{ [ ]}
≅ 1− 2 1+ 3.7×1027 Bm4 −1 (20)
4
*
Due to the small distance between the two test tubes. The
tubes were then placed near to one another inside a
horizontally oriented solenoid.
6
References
[1] L. Montagnier, J. Aissa, E. Del Giudice, C. Lavalee,
A. Tedeschi, and G. Vitiello, “DNA Waves and
Water,” (2010) http://arxiv.org/pdf/1012.5166
1. Introduction 2. Theory
Note that S f is not equal to Sα because the Equation (4) shows that, for f = 7.83 Hz ,
area is not continuous, but expressed by nr ( Ni ) = 2 × 10 8 .Substitution of this value into
S f = nS p , where S p is the area of the cross- Eq.(19) gives
section of one Ni particle, and n is the D = 5.9 × 10 5 Bm2 (21)
number of particles in the front area, which Substitution of this value into Eq. (18) gives
is expressed by n = x (n pφ p S α ) , x << 1 ,
where n pφ p S α is the number of particles
χ=
mg( Ni)
mi0( Ni)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 +1.3×1033 x4 Bm4 −1 ]}
(22)
inside area Sα ; n p is the number of Ni The value of Bm is limited by the
particles/m , given by n p = N p S α ξ where
3
ionization energy of the atoms, which is, as
N p = Sα ξ V p + Vv ; V p is the mean volume of we known, the energy required to remove
electrons from atoms. Since the minimum
one Ni particle and VV is the void volume, energy required for the electron to leave the
corresponding to that particle. This volume atom is: Umin = − e2 4πε0φmax = 7.7×10−19 joules
can be calculated considering one sphere
then, for the ionization does not occur, the
with φ p - diameter inside a cube whose edge
energy of the wave (hf ) must be smaller than
is φ p . The result is VV ≅ 0.48φ p3 . The mean U min . Thus, it follows that
size of the particles is φ p = 0.75μm . Thus, hf 2 Sa < U min f Sa ⇒ D < U min f Sa ≅ f
V p ≅ 2.2 × 10 −19 m 3 and S p ≅ 4 .4 × 10 −13 m 2 . According to Eq. (19), D max = cB max
2
2μ 0 .
Consequently, V p + VV ≅ 4.2 × 10−19 m2 . Then, Then, the result is
we get n p = 2.4 × 1018 particles/ m3 . Now, we Bmax < 9 × 10 −8 f
In the case of f = 7.83 Hz , we conclude that
can calculate the value of S f :
Bmax < 2 × 10−7 T (23)
( ) (
S f = x n pφ p S α S p ≅ x 1.5 × 10 −3 m 2) −7
Assuming that Bmax ≅ 2 × 10 T then Eq. (22)
yields
Substitution of this value jointly with
n( Ni) = 9.02×1028molec/ m3 ; φ( Ni) =1.24×10−10m;
χ=
mg ( Ni)
mi0( Ni)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 + 2.1×106 x 4 − 1 (24)]}
Sα =πα2 4 =1.9×10−3 m2 ; S( Ni) ≅ 1.2 ×10−20 m2 ; Since x << 1 , we can conclude that there is
no significant variation in the gravitational
ρ ( Ni ) = 8800 kg .m − 3 ; f = 7 . 83 Hz (Note mass of the Nickel powder.
that, this is lowest-frequency mode of the However, if the air inside the Nickel
Schumann resonance. Therefore, in practice, powder is evacuated by means of a vacuum
is not necessary to provide the 7.83 Hz pump, and after Hydrogen (or Deuterium,
5
Tritium, Helium, etc) is injected into the D= cBm2 2 μ 0 nr ( H ) , where n r ( H ) ≅ 1 . Thus,
Nickel powder (See Fig.4) then, the area S f
we get D = 1.2 × 1014 Bm2 . Substitution of this
to be considered, in order to calculate the
expression into Eq. (26) yields
{ [ ]}
gravitational mass of the Hydrogen, is the
mg (H )
surface area of the Nickel powder, which χ= = 1 − 2 1 + 2.1 × 10 76 Bm4 − 1 (27)
can be obtained by multiplying the specific mi 0( H )
surface area of the Nickel powder † It is known that, at any time in the
( ~ 4 × 10 3 m 2 / Kg ) by the total mass of the spherical resonant cavity formed by the
(
Nickel powder ( m i 0 ( Ni ) = ρ ( Ni ) πα 2 4 ξ ). ) Earth’s surface and the inner edge of the
ionosphere (60km from the Earth’s surface)
Thus, we get S f ≅ 4 × 10 3 ρ ( Ni ) S α ξ . there is a drop voltage of 200KV. This,
The characteristics of the Nickel prevail produces an electric field with intensity
on those of the Hydrogen, in the Ni-H E m ≅ 3V / m , which gives Bm ≅ 1×10−8 T .
systems, because the Nickel amount is much Substitution of this value into Eq. (27), yields
larger than the Hydrogen amount. Thus, we
must take the values of ρ , μ r , and σ equal χ ≅ −2 ×1022 (28)
Thus, the gravitational forces between two
to ρ ( Ni ) , μ r ( Ni ) and σ ( Ni ) respectively, in
protons (hydrogen nuclei) becomes
order to calculate m g ( H ) , in Ni-H systems. In F = − Gmgp
2
r 2 = − χ 2Gmip2 r 2 ≅ −7×10−20 r 2
addition, since n = N0ρ A and Comparing with the electrostatic repulsion
λmod = 4π μfσ we can conclude that also forces between the nuclei, which is given by
n ≡ n( Ni ) and λ mod = λ mod ( Ni ) = 0 .19 m . Fe = e2 4πε0 r 2 = 2.3 ×10−28 r 2
Therefore, in order to obtain the expression We conclude that the intensities of the
m g ( H ) mi 0( H ) we can take Eq. (17) only gravitational forces overcome the intensities
of the electrostatic repulsion forces between
substituting S f for the expression above the nuclei. This is sufficient to produce their
( )
obtained S f ≅ 4 × 10 3 ρ ( Ni ) S α ξ . Thus we fusion.
get α
mg(H)
=
mi0(H)
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛⎜ n( Ni) ρ( Ni) Sαξ S( Ni)φ( Ni) D⎞⎟ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ S=EmXBm
3 2 2 2
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ξ
For ξ = 0.1m (length of the Ni-H cylinder in
Focardi experiment) Eq.(25) gives
{ [ ]} Metal tube Nickel powder
m g (H )
χ= = 1 − 2 1 + 1.5 × 10 48 D 2 − 1 (26)
+
Hydrogen
mi 0( H )
Based on Eq. (19), we can write that
strongly increases the gravitational masses of the Then, the number of H atoms inside the
Hydrogen nuclei ( m gp = χmi 0 p ) and their Nickel powder is given by
respective electrons ( m ge = χmi 0 e ). Thus, the
gravitational force between a nucleus (proton) nH VH = nH S f δ H ≅ 8.3 ×1024 ρ H α 2ξ
and the corresponding electron is given by
F pe = − χ 2 Gmi 0 p mi 0e r 2 and the gravitational where δ H = Δ Ni − φ Ni ≅ 1nm ; φ Ni is the
force between two Hydrogen nuclei is diameter of Ni atom; Δ Ni is the average
F pp = − χ Gmi 0 p mi 0 p r .
2 2
Therefore, two molecular separation in the Ni. Then, we get
well-known types of fusions can occur, i.e., n H V H = n H S f δ H ≅ 6.4 × 1018 atoms . Thus,
p + e− → n +ν e (29) the total energy realized in the p-p fusions is
p + p → d + ν e + e + + 0.42MeV (30) E=
nH VH
(0.42MeV) =
Due to the strong gravitational attraction, the 2
6.4 × 1018
following fusions occur instantaneously:
= (0.42MeV) = 1.3 ×1024 eV ≅
d +ν e → n + p +ν e 2
and ≅ 2.1× 105 J ≅ 0.05 Kwh
n + e+ → p +ν e
These reactions are widely known because This energy correspond to a power of
they have been studied extensively due to 0.05Kwh h = 50W , which is the same value
their importance in astrophysics and neutrino detected in the Focardi’s experiments.
physics [13–16]. Thus, the term p +ν e + e+ in This explains the anomalous heat
Eq. (30) reduces instantaneously to production in Ni-H Systems detected in the
Focardi’s experiments.
p + p +ν e +ν e .
Since the 7.83 Hz electromagnetic
In these fusion reactions, neutrons (Eq. field (Schumann resonances) does not
(29)), neutrinos and antineutrinos, and disappear when the device is switched off,
energy (0.42MeV at each fusion of two the energy conversion can remain running
Hydrogen nuclei) are produced. Note that for long period after it is switched off
there is no gamma ray emission during the because, when the device is switched off, the
process. The evidence of neutron emission value of the electrical conductivity of the Ni-
during energy production in Ni-H systems H system, which was approximately equal to
has been reported by Battaglia, A. et al., [17]. σ Ni , slowly decreases, tending to σ H , which
In order to calculate the number of
Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside the Nickel is much smaller than 1. When the electrical
powder we will calculate the density of the conductivity becomes smaller than ωε the
Hydrogen. According to Focardi’s value of nr becomes approximately equal to
experiments, the pressure of the Hydrogen is 1. Consequently, λmod becomes equal to
P = 0.051atm = 5.166×103 N / m2 at temperature c f = 3.8 × 10 7 m and, according to Eq.(17),
T = 400K . Thus, according to the well-kwon the result is χ ≅ 1 .
Equation of State ρ = PM 0 ZRT , we get
This explain why in the Focardi’s
ρH =
(5.166 × 10 N / m )(2 × 10 kg.mol ) =
3 2 −3 −1
experiment the device remained running for
(~ 1)(8.314 joule.mol .K )(400 K )
−1 −1 twenty four days after being switched off.
It is evident that the discovery of this
= 3.1 × 10 −3 kg / m 3 energy conversion device is highly relevant.
Thus, the number of Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside However, this system is not an efficient
the Nickel powder is energy source if compared to the
Gravitational Motor [18], which can provide
7
219KW/m3 while the Ni-H system only very place of the target (For example,
20Kw/m3 (by increasing α from 5cm up to inside a house or apartment at the target
100cm). Furthermore, the Gravitational city.). This means that, in the most of cases
Motor converts gravitational energy into missiles are not necessary to launch them. In
rotational mechanical energy directly from addition, they cannot be easily detected
the gravitational field, while the Ni-H system during their building because the necessary
needs to produce vapor in order to convert materials are trivial, and there is no
the energy into rotational mechanical energy. radioactive material.
nH VH
E= (12.5MeV) =
2
8.4 ×1024 ρ H α 2ξ
= (12.5MeV) ≅ (2)
2
≅ 5.2 ×1031 ρ H α 2ξ eV ≅ 8.2 × 1013 J ≅ 20 kilotons
‡
The d + d fusion reaction has two branches that occur with
nearly equal probability: (T + p + 4.03MeV and 3He + n +
3.27MeV ). Then, a deuteron d is produced by the fusion of
the proton p (produced in the first branch) with the neutron
(produced in the second branch). Next, occurs the fusion of
this deuteron with the tritium T produced in the first branch,
i.e., (d + T → 23 He + n + 17.6 MeV). Thus, we count the d +
d fusion energy as Efus = (4.03+17.6+3.27)/2 = 12.5 MeV.
8
References
[1] Fleischmann M., Hawkins, M. and Pons S., (1989) J.
Electroanal. Chem., 261, 301.
[15] Butler. M. and Chen, J. W., (2001) Phys. Lett. B 520 , 87.
1. Introduction
2. Theory
ξ
Consider the Ni-H system showed in
Fig. 1. In a previous paper [4] it was showed
that, if the air inside the Nickel powder is Metal tube
evacuated by means of a vacuum pump
(down to P = 0.051atm = 5.166×103 N / m2 at
temperature T = 400K ) and after Hydrogen
is injected into the Nickel powder, then, the Fig.1 – Ni-H system. Note that, on Earth, the system
number of Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside the Nickel is subjected to a 7.83 Hz electromagnetic field. This
powder is field is what naturally exists inside the spherical
resonant cavity formed by the Earth’s surface and the
inner edge of the ionosphere. (Schumann resonance).
nH = N0 ρH AH 2 = 1.94×1029 ρH atoms/ m3
2
Thus, the total energy realized in the protons conventional nuclear bombs. Basically,
fusions is * these bombs are made of Nickel powder
nHVH 8.3×1024 ρHα 2ξ (99%), liquid deuterium and Mumetal. These
E= = (0.42MeV) ≅ (1) materials can be easily obtained. Due to the
2 2
simplicity of its construction, these bombs
≅ 1.7×1030 ρHα 2ξ eV ≅ 2.7×1011ρHα 2ξ Joules can be built at the very location of the target
It is easy to see that a Ni-H System can (For example, inside a house or apartment at
be transformed into a Hydrogen bomb, the target city.). This means that, in most of
simply increasing the volume of the Ni-H cases missiles are not necessary to deliver
cylinder and substituting the Hydrogen by a them, except for launching the Ni-H bomb at
liquid deuterium LD (12.5 MeV of energy is the height of explosion (<1Km ‡ ) when
produced at each fusion of two deuterium necessary.
nuclei † ). For example, if α = 0.27m, ξ = 2 Thus, the Ni-H bomb so far seems to be
m (See Fig.2), and, if a liquid deuterium the simplest atomic bomb ever to be built. It
( ρ H = 67.8 kg.m−3 [5]) is injected into the Ni can be made by every nation, in such a way
powder, then the total energy realized in the that, peace in the World will be reached in
fusions becomes the future due to the equilibrium of forces
among nations.
Figure 3 shows the Ni-H bomb. It is
8.4 × 1024 ρ H α 2ξ
E= (12.5MeV) ≅ (2) enveloped by a Mumetal box in order to
2 avoid the action of the 7.83Hz
≅ 5.2 × 1031 ρ H α 2ξ eV ≅ 8.3 × 1013 J ≅ 20 kilotons electromagnetic field that naturally exists
inside the spherical resonant cavity formed
The Hiroshima’s atomic bomb had 20 by the Earth’s surface and the inner edge of
kilotons. the ionosphere. (Schumann resonance [6, 7]).
When the mumetal shielding is exploded the
α =0.27 m 7.83Hz electromagnetic field acts on the core
of the Ni-H bomb and it explodes.
Mumetal boxes
Metal tube
LD
Control
Fig.2 – The core of the Ni-H bomb of 20
Detonator
kilotons. Mumetal
Shielding
It is important to note that this bomb
Explosives
type is much easier to build than the in order to
explode the Nickel
powder
*
0.42MeV are realized at each fusion of two Hydrogen Mumetal
nuclei. shielding
†
The d + d fusion reaction has two branches that occur with
nearly equal probability: (T + p + 4.03MeV and 3He + n +
3.27MeV ). Then, a deuteron d is produced by the fusion of
the proton p (produced in the first branch) with the neutron
(produced in the second branch). Next, occurs the fusion of
this deuteron with the tritium T produced in the first branch, Fig.3 – The Ni-H bomb of 20 kilotons.
i.e., (d + T → 23 He + n + 17.6 MeV). Thus, we count the d +
d fusion energy as Efus = (4.03+17.6+3.27)/2 = 12.5 MeV.
‡
Hiroshima 600m above. Nagasaki 500m above.
3
References
Detonation velocities, greater than that generated by high explosives (~104m/s), can be achieved by using the
gravitational technology recently discovered. This possibility leads to the conception of powerful shockwave
weapons. Here, we show the design of a portable gravitational shockwave weapon, which can produce
detonation velocities greater than 105m/s, and detonation pressures greater than 1010N/m2 .
Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Detonation waves, Shockwaves, Nozzle flow.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 47.40.Rs, 47.40.-x, 47.60.Kz.
1. Introduction
The most important single property of TNT has a detonation velocity of 6,900m/s;
an explosive is the detonation velocity. It is Military explosives used to destroy strong
the speed at which the detonation wave concrete and steel structures have a
travels through the explosive. Typical detonation velocity of 7,000 to 8,000 m/s [3].
detonation velocities in solid explosives often
range beyond 3,000 m/s to 10,300 m/s [1]. 2. Theory
At the front of the detonation zone, an
energy pulse or “shockwave” is generated The contemporary greatest challenge
and transmitted to the adjacent region. of the Theoretical Physics was to prove that,
The shockwave travels outward as a Gravity is a quantum phenomenon. The
compression wave, moving at or near quantization of gravity showed that the
detonation velocity. When the intensity of the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi
shockwave exceeds the compression strength are correlated by means of the following
of the materials they are destroyed. If the factor [4]:
mass of the body is too large the wave energy
is simply absorbed by the body [2]. ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
The pressure produced in the explosion χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p
⎟
⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
zone is called Detonation Pressure. It mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
expresses the intensity of the generated ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
shockwave. A high detonation pressure is
necessary when blasting hard, dense bodies. where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
Detonation pressures of high explosives are in particle and Δp is the variation in the
6 2 7 2
the range from 10 N/m to over 10 N/m [3]. particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
Here, we show the design of a portable of light.
shockwave weapon, which uses the When Δp is produced by the
Gravitational Shielding Effect (BR Patent
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008) in
order to produce detonations velocities is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
greater than 100,000m/s, and detonation (1) becomes
pressures greater than 1010N/m2. It is
important to remember that an aluminum- ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ h m c ⎞ ⎪
nitrate truck bomb has a relatively low = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ i 0
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
detonation velocity of 3,500 m/s (sound mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
speed is 343.2m/s) * . High explosives such as
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
λ
2
⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
0
(2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
*
When a shockwave is created by high explosives it ⎣ ⎦⎭
will always travel at high supersonic velocity from its
point of origin.
2
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie μrσ
nr = (5)
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial 4πε0 f
mass mi 0 .
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
It was shown that there is an radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
effect - produced by a substance whose
λ 4π
gravitational mass was reduced or made λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
negative [5]. The effect extends beyond f nr nr μfσ
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a
certain distance from it (along the central
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect v=c v = c/nr
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where nr
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
acceleration before the gravitational
shielding). Consequently, after a second Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
contains n molecules/m3, then the number of
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
molecules per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
reaches nSξ molecules. If it incides on the
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3)
total area of the lamina, S f , then the total
number of molecules reached by the
This possibility shows that, by means radiation is N = nS f ξ . The number of
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
can make particles acquire enormous molecules per unit of volume, n , is given by
N0 ρ
accelerations. In practice, this can lead to the
conception of powerful particles accelerators,
n= (7)
A
kinetic weapons or weapons of shockwaves.
From Electrodynamics we know that where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules / kmole is
when an electromagnetic wave with the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
frequency f and velocity c incides on a density of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the
material with relative permittivity ε r , molar mass.
relative magnetic permeability μ r and When an electromagnetic wave incides
on the lamina, it strikes on N f front
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of ( )
molecules, where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the
refraction of the material, given by [6] “diameter” of the molecule. Thus, the
electromagnetic wave incides effectively on an
ε μ area S = Nf Sm , where S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ section area of one molecule. After these
collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to other molecules (See Fig.2).
3
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎢ (
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ n Sξ
⎢
)
⎥⎪
⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (13)
λ ⎥⎦
molecule
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩
Sm
Wave
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. (13) gives
= nmSξ (8) ( )
Substitution of N f ≅ n S f φm and S = N f Sm
into Eq. (14) results
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n3 S 2f Sm2 φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢ ⎢⎜⎝ mi0(l ) cf 2 ⎟ λ⎥
⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
S N f Sm ⎣
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
We can express the total mean number
where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each molecule, n1 , by means
Now, considering that the lamina is
of the following equation
inside a ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [7]
ntotal N collisions
n1 =
photons
(10 )
N n r (l ) E 2
D= (16 )
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is 2μ 0 c
transferred to the molecule, then the total
momentum transferred to the lamina will be Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
with Eq. (1), we can write that mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )n3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ m
0 i0(l )c2 2 ⎟
f ⎥
⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡
λ ⎤
2 ⎤⎫ ⎢
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎡ ⎪ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N) 0 ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Now assuming that the lamina is a
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ cylindrical air lamina (diameter = α ;
λ0 ⎤
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) thickness = ξ) where nr (l ) ≅ 1 ;
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ n = N 0 ρ (l ) A = 2 .6 × 10 25 molecules / m 3 ;
m g (l ) ⎧
⎪
⎡ E4 ⎤⎫
⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1+ ~ 2 4 2 − 1⎥ ⎬ (19)
⎢
{ [
χ >> 1 − 2 1+ ~ 10−9 Erms
4
−1 ]} (23)
mi 0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ Sα f λ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
For example, if E rms ≅ 10 4 V / m we
The injection of atomized water increases the get
electrical conductivity of the mean, making it
greater than the conductivity of water χ >> −103 (24)
(σ >> 0.005S / m) . Under these conditions,
the value of λ , given by Eq. (6), becomes Therefore, according to Eq. (3) the
gravitational acceleration produced by the
gravitational mass M g = 4.23kg , just after
5
the 7 cylindrical air lamina (r7 = 150mm ) ,
th
will be given by
GM g
g 7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7 >> +1013 m / s 2 (25)
r72
Tungsten Carbide
ρWC = 15,800 kg.m-3
Mg = 4.23 kg
40 mm radius
Nozzle
Ruby-orifice
(0.38 mm diameter) Spherical
Filter detonation
Capacitor plates
HV Transformer E
g7
1 2 A 7 12 D 2 1 α
Mg
ELF Battery
Oscillator ξ
r7 = 150 mm
Water
Fig. 3 – Portable Weapon of Gravitational Shockwaves. Note that there are two sets of
Gravitational Shieldings (GS): the set A (accelerator) with 7 GS and the set D (decelerator) with 12
GS. The objective of the set D, with 12 GCC, is to reduce strongly the value of the external gravity
along the axis of the tube (in the opposite direction of the acceleration g 7 ). In this case, the value
of the external gravity, g ext , is reduced by the factor χ d12 g ext , where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the
opening of the tube (α ) of the weapon is positioned on the Earth surface then g ext = 9.81m / s 2 is
reduced to χ d12 g ext and, after in the set A, it is increased by χ 7 . Without the set D, the back of the
weapon can explode.
7
References
[1] Cooper, P. W.(1996) Explosives Engineering, New
York: Wiley-VCH.
We show that it is possible to produce strong gravitational accelerations on the free electrons of a
conductor in order to obtain electrical current. This allows the conversion of gravitational energy directly
into electrical energy. Here, we propose a system that can produce several tens of kilowatts of electrical
energy converted from the gravitational energy.
Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Electric fields effects on material flows, Electron tubes, Electrical instruments.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 83.60.Np , 84.47.+w, 07.50.-e.
1. Introduction
In a previous paper [1], we have Here, it is shown that the electrical flow can
proposed a system to convert gravitational also be achieved by means of gravitational
energy into rotational kinetic energy forces (F = me g ) . The Gravitational
(Gravitational Motor), which can be Shielding Effect (BR Patent Number:
converted into electrical energy by means of PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008 [4]), shows that
a conventional electrical generator. Now, we a battery of Gravitational Shieldings can
propose a novel system to convert strongly intensify the gravitational
gravitational energy directly into electrical acceleration in any direction and, in this way,
energy. it is possible to produce strong gravitational
It is known that, in some materials, accelerations on the free electrons of a
called conductors, the free electrons are so conductor in order to obtain electrical
loosely held by the atom and so close to the current.
neighboring atoms that they tend to drift
randomly from one atom to its neighboring 2. Theory
atoms. This means that the electrons move in
all directions by the same amount. However, From the quantization of gravity it
if some outside force acts upon the free follows that the gravitational mass mg and
electrons their movement becomes not the inertial mass mi are correlated by means
random, and they move from atom to atom at of the following factor [1]:
the same direction of the applied force. This
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
flow of electrons (their electric charge) mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
through the conductor produces the electrical χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
current, which is defined as a flow of electric ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
charge through a medium [2]. This charge is where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
typically carried by moving electrons in a particle and Δp is the variation in the
conductor, but it can also be carried by ions
in an electrolyte, or by both ions and particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
electrons in a plasma [3]. of light.
Thus, the electrical current arises in a When Δp is produced by the
conductor when an outside force acts upon absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
the free electrons. This force is called, in a is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
generic way, of electromotive force (EMF). (1) becomes
Usually, it is of electrical nature (F = eE ) .
2
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
2
mg ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞ ⎪
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
c 2
(4)
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ μrσ
⎪ ⎛ λ0 ⎞
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ ⎪
(2) nr = (5)
4πε0 f
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ Thus, the wavelength of the incident
where λ0 = h mi 0 c is the De Broglie radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial λ 4π
mass mi 0 . λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
It has been shown that there is an
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
effect - produced by a substance whose
v=c v = c/nr
gravitational mass was reduced or made
negative [5]. The effect extends beyond
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a nr
certain distance from it (along the central
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
acceleration before the gravitational contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
shielding). Consequently, after a second atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way, area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by of atoms reached by the radiation is
N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3) volume, n , is given by
N0 ρ
This possibility shows that, by means n= (7)
A
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
can make particles acquire enormous where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
accelerations. In practice, this can lead to the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
conception of powerful particles accelerators,
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
kinetic weapons or weapons of shockwaves.
mass(kg/kmole).
From Electrodynamics we know that
When an electromagnetic wave incides
when an electromagnetic wave with
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
material with relative permittivity ε r , ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
relative magnetic permeability μ r and the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
refraction of the material, given by [6]
3
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions ⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12)
with the other atoms (See Fig.2). ⎝ hf ⎠
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)
⎢
mi 0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives
d = 14 mm
α=8mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm
Air 3.847kV
Mg 60Hz
r0=9mm
1 Aluminum
Air 7.827kV
Air 2 60Hz 100 mm
Iron rod
EA(rms) r+
(8 mm diameter,
100 mm height) A Inductor
Fe +Fp+Fn = 0
18 1 turn (inner radius: r =5mm)
ΣF=0
19
is = 58.6A, # 1 AWG Cable
T 500AWG
xB = 100 mm B 2.2kV 220V 60Hz
128.9 kW
2.5m T 60Hz
Np =100 turns
1 Ns =10 turns
Air Nucleus
2 i=4A
# 14 AWG μ r = 60
(iron cast)
D 5Ω
80W
Air 17
Relay
18 20V
1μHz
BS Initialization
source ~
Converter
60Hz / 1μHz
Transformer
Fig. 3 – A Gravitational EMF Source (Developed from a process patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5)
6
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2
is reduced ⎛ M gs ⎞
Fe = mge ae = χ Be me ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (28)
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased ⎝ r0 ⎠
by χ 19 . Since the system is designed for
χ = −6.4138 , then the gravity acceleration ⎛ M gs ⎞
Fp = mgp a p = χ Bp m p ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (29)
on the sphere becomes ⎝ r0 ⎠
χ χd gext = 2.1×10 m/ s , this value is much
19 18 −20 2
⎧⎪ ⎤⎫⎪
rms
⎡ 45.56π 2 re4 nriron 2
E4
χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (40) whence we obtain
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ μ 2 2 4 4 2
0 em c f λ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ B rms = 2 .5 m T (49 )
Electrodynamics tells us that Consequently, Eq. (44) and (45) yields
E rms = vBrms = (c n r (iron ) )Brms , and Eq. (19) χ Be = −3666.3 (50)
gives λ = λmod = (4π μironσ iron f ) . Substitution of and
these expressions into Eq. (40) yields
8
χ Bn ≅ χ Bp ≅ 0.999 (51)
In order to the forces Fe and F p have ⎛m ⎞ M gs
je = σ iron ⎜ e ⎟ χ Be χ 19G 2
contrary direction (such as occurs in the ⎝ e ⎠ r0
case, in which the nature of the electromotive
force is electrical) we must have χ Be < 0 Since σ iron = 1.03 × 10 7 S / m , χ = −6.4138 ,
and χ Bn ≅ χ Bp > 0 (See equations (28) (29) χ Be = −3666 .3 , M gs = 3.04 × 10 −3 kg and
and (30)), i.e., r0 = 9mm , we obtain
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ je = 1.164×106 A / m2
⎨ 1− 2⎢ 1+ 8 .49×10 4 Brms
2
−1 ⎥⎬ < 0 (52)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f ⎥
⎦⎪⎭ Given that Sα = πα 2 4 = 5.03 × 10−5 m 2 we get
and
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ isource = je Sα ≅ 58.6 A
⎨ 1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35 ×10−9 Brms
2
−1⎥⎬ > 0 (53)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f ⎥
⎦⎪⎭ The resistance of the Iron rod is
This means that we must have ⎛ xB ⎞
Rsource = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.93 × 10 −4 Ω
0.06 f < B rms < 151 .86 f (54 ) ⎝ σ iron Sα ⎠
In the case of f = 1μHz = 10 −6 Hz the result is Thus, the dissipated power by the Iron rod is
6.5×10−5 T < Brms < 0.151T (55) Pd = Rsource isource
2
≅ 0.66W (56)
Note the cylindrical format (1turn, Note that this Gravitational EMF
r = 5mm ) of the inductor (Figs. 3 and 6). By source is a Current Source. As we known, a
using only 1 turn it is possible to eliminate Current Source is a device that keeps
the capacitive effect between the turns. This invariable the electric current between its
is highly relevant in this case because the terminals. So, if the source is connected to an
extremely-low frequency f = 1μHz would external load, and the resistance of the load
strongly increase the capacitive reactance varies, then the own source will increase or
( X C ) associated to the inductor. When a decrease its output voltage in order to
maintain invariable the value of the current in
current i passes through this inductor, the the circuit.
value of B inside the Iron rod is given by
B = μ r μ0i xB where x B = 100mm is Rsource
inductor’s length and μ r = 4000 (very pure
Iron). However, the effective permeability is
defined as μr(eff) = μr 1+(μr −1) Nm, where N m is
Vsource ~ isource V R
the average demagnetizing factor [11]. Since Load
the iron rod has 5mm diameter and 100mm
height, then we obtain the factor
γ = 100mm / 5mm = 20 which gives N m = 0.02 Fig. 4 – Current Source
(See table V[12]). Therefore, we obtain
Based on Kirchhoff’s laws we can
μr (eff ) = 49.4 . Thus, for Brms = 2.5mT (See Eq.
express the electric voltage between the
(49)) ,i.e., B = μ r (eff ) μ 0 i x B = 2.5mT , the value terminals of the Current Source, Vs , by means
of i must be i = 4 A . Then, the resistor in of the following relation (See Fig.4):
Fig.3. must have 20V 4 A = 5Ω . The V source = R source i source + V
dissipated power is 80W. where V is the voltage applied on the
Let us now calculate the current charge.
density through the Iron rod (Fig. 3). The transformer T connected to
According to Eq. (39) we have Gravitational EMF Source (See Fig. 3) is
9
designed * to make the voltage Since σ iron = 1.03×10 S / m
7
and
V = 2.2kV @60Hz. Since Rsource isource <<V , then χ Be = −3666.3 , then the value of je is
we can write that V source ≅ V . Thus, in the ⎛m ⎞ M gs
primary circuit, the voltage is je = σ iron ⎜ e ⎟ χ Be χ 19G 2 =
⎝ e ⎠ r0
V p = V source ≅ V = 2.2kV and the current is
= 5.29 × 105 A / m 2
i p = isource = 58.6 A ; the winding turns ratio
and
is N p N s = 10 ; thus, in the secondary circuit isource = je Sα ≅ 1.66 A
the output voltage is Vs = 220V @ 60 Hz and
the current is is = 586A . Consequently, the The resistance of the iron rod is given by
source output power is ⎛ xB ⎞
Rsource = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3.1× 10 −4 Ω
P = V s i s = 128 .9 kW
⎝ σ iron Sα ⎠
Note that, in order to initializing the Thus, the dissipated power by the Iron rod is
Gravitational EMF Source, is used an Pd = Rsourceisource
2
≅ 0.9mW
external source, which is removed after the
initialization of the Gravitational EMF In the case of the miniaturized source, the
Source. iron rod has 2mm diameter and 10mm
Now it will be shown that this height, then we obtain the factor
Gravitational EMF source can be γ = 10mm / 2mm = 5 which gives
miniaturized. N m = 0.06 (See table V[12]). Therefore, we
We start making x B = 10mm and obtain μ r (eff ) = 16.6 .
ξ = 0.5mm ; α = 2mm, d A = 8mm , d D = 16mm Since Vs = V A( rms) = VD( rms) = 26mV and
and r0 = 1.5mm (See Fig. 5). The sphere with the resistance of the resistor R1 is
2mm diameter is now of Tungsten carbide 21.6mΩ / 31mW (See Fig.5), then the current
(W+Cobalt) with 15,630kg / m3 density. from the first source is i = 1.2A. Thus, we get
Then M gs = 6.54×10−5 kg and Sα = 3.14×10 m .
−6 2
B = μr (eff ) μ0i xB = 2.5mT .
Thus, for f = 1μHz Eq.(24) gives Since the current through the second
{ [
χ = 1− 2 1+ 0.1822E(4A)rms −1 ]} (57) source is isource = 1.66 A , and, if the voltage
required by the charge, is V = 3.7V (usual
For VA(rms) = 26mV and d A = 8mm we get lithium batteries’ voltage), then the source
E( A )rms = 3.250V / m , and Eq. (57) yields voltage is given by
χ = −6.236 Vsource = Rsource i source + V ≅ 3.7V
For VD(rms) = 26mV and d D = 16mm we get Consequently, the miniaturized source can
provide the power:
E ( D )rms = 1.625V / m and χ d = −0.01 . P = V source i sorce = (3 . 7V )1 .66 A ≅ 6 . 1W
This is the magnitude of the power of lithium
*
The impedances are respectively, batteries used in mobiles. Note that the
( )
Z p ≅ 2πfL p = 2πf μ r μ 0 N p2 A p l p = 14.36Ω miniaturized source of Gravitational EMF
Z s ≅ 2πfLs = 2πf (μ μ )
r 0 N As l s = 6.154 × 10 Ω
2
s
−4 does not need to be recharged and it
occupies a volume (8mm x 70mm x 80mm.
Z p (total ) = Z p + Z reflected = Z p + (N p N s )Z s = 37.56Ω See Fig.6) similar to the volume of the
where μr = 60 (iron cast), N p = 100, Ns = 10, mobile batteries. In addition, note that the
l p = l s = 0.18m , φ p = 107.6mm , φs = 136.8mm , dimensions of this miniaturized source can
be further reduced (possibly down to a few
A p = 0 .0091 m 2 , A s = 0 .0147 m 2 . millimeters or less).
10
Metallic ring dA = 8 mm dA = 8 mm
(0.5 mm thickness) dD = 16 mm dD = 16 mm 3.7V DC
α=2mm α=2mm 6.1W
Air Air
ξ = 0.5 mm 1 1
A A V=3.7V
26mV
Iron rod 1μHz 18 18
(2 mm diameter, is=1.66A
10 mm height) 19 19
Printed circuit board Vs=26mV Vs=V=3.7V
xB = 10 mm B i=1.2 A B
2.5m T 2.5m T
Cylindrical Inductor R1
1 turn (inner radius: r = 2mm) 80mm
1 1
26mV Air Air
1μHz 2 2
R1 21.6mΩ / 31mW
D D
26mV
~ Air 17 17
1μHz
18 18
Initialization 70 mm
source
220V 60Hz
128.9 kW
μ r μ0i
B= = 2.5mT
2r 5Ω
80W
i = 4 A; r = 5mm
20V
μ r ≅ 49.4 1μHz
Initialization
source
Transformers and
Converter (60Hz/1μHz)
(inside)
High-power Source
12mm
2
1
Cross-section 6
1
μ r μ0i 26mV
B= = 2.5mT 1μHz
2r 26mV
i = 1.2 A; r = 2mm 1μHz
3.7V DC
μ r ≅ 16 6.1W
80mm
Full wave
Initialization rectifier
source
R1
••
•
Low-power Source
mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3
1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m
q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =
(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
3
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
= 4πε G(
0
2
)
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)
3
where we obtain
References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.
[2] Valkengurg, V., (1992) Basic Electricity, Prompt
Publications, 1-38.
We show that by intensifying the gravitational interaction between electron pairs it is possible to produce
pair binding energies on the order of 10−1eV, enough to keep electron’s pairs (Cooper Pairs) at ambient
temperatures. By means of this method, metals can be transformed into superconductors at ambient
temperature.
Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Theories and models of superconducting state, superconducting materials,
Nonconventional mechanisms.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 74.20.-z, 74.70.-b, 74.20.Mn.
1. Introduction
+ + + +
* εμ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling c 2
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity v 2 ⎝ ⎠
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
2008.
3
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (3) reduces to the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
μrσ Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
nr = (4)
4πε0 f After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
with the other atoms (See Fig.3).
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 2) becomes
λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5)
f nr nr μfσ
atom
Sm
Wave
Fig. 3 – Collisions inside the lamina.
v=c v = c/nr
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2rxe22Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
χBe = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ − 1⎥⎬ (20)
c2μ02me2re18 f 2
+ + ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Tc = 4 × 10 −42 χ Be
2
(28)
χ Be = −1 × 10 22 (29 )
By comparing (29) with (26), we can
conclude that this value of χ e is sufficient
for the creation of the Cooper Pairs, and also
in order that they do not be destructed by the
thermal vibrations due to the temperature up
to Tc = 400 K (~ 127°C ) .
In order to calculate the intensity of the
magnetic field Bm with frequency f ,
necessary to produce the value given by
Eq.(29), it is necessary the substitution of Eq.
(29) into Eq. (21). Thus, we get
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
42 Brms
⎤⎫⎪
⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.8 × 10 2
− 1⎥⎬ ≅ −1× 1022 (30)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Brms > 3T
†
Modern magnetic resonance imaging systems work
with magnetic fields up to 8T [10, 11].
8
mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3
1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m
q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =
(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
3
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
= 4πε G(
0
2
)
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)
3
where we obtain
In this work we show a gravitational separator of isotopes which can be much more effective than those used
in the conventional processes of isotopes separation. It is based on intensification of the gravitational
acceleration, and can generate accelerations tens of times more intense than those generated in the most
powerful centrifuges used for Uranium enrichment.
Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Isotope separation and enrichment, Nonconventional mechanisms.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 28.60.+ s, 74.20.Mn.
1. Introduction
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of ⎧ ⎡
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11)
the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where ⎦⎭
Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom. Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions ⎛ P ⎞
with the other atoms (See Fig.2). ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12)
⎝ hf ⎠
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)
⎢
atom mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives
Thus, the total number of collisions in the
volume Sξ is ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) = ⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
=nmSξ (8)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the into Eq. (14) results
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
S N f Sm 2
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [6]
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 ) n r (l ) E 2
N
D= (16 )
2μ 0 c
4
Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives Inside the Gravitational Separator of
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Isotopes there is a dielectric tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17) the following characteristics: α = 60mm ,
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬ Sα = πα 2 4 = 2 .83 × 10 − 3 m 2 . Inside the
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
tube there is an Aluminum sphere with 30mm
In the case in which the area S f is just the radius and mass M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube
area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) , is filled with air at ambient temperature and
we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that 1atm. Thus, inside the tube, the air density is
mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 )
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18) The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 2μ0ρ(l )c f ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎥
unit of volume, nair , according to Eq.(7), is
⎢
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
given by
If the electrical conductivity of the lamina,
N 0 ρ air
σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23)
AN
λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e.,
The parallel metallic plates (p), shown in
4π
λ = λmod = (19) Fig.3 are subjected to different drop voltages.
μfσ The two sets of plates (D), placed on the
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives extremes of the tube, are subjected to
V( D )rms = 1.64kV at f = 1Hz , while the central
mg (l ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2Sm4φm4σ(l )E4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (20) set of plates (A) is subjected to
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρ(2l )c4 f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭ V( A )rms = 19.7kV at f =1Hz. Since d = 98mm ,
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value then the intensity of the electric field, which
2
for E is equal to 1 E m2 because E varies passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas
2
(each one with 5mm thickness) of the two
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value sets (D), is
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
Consequently we can replace E 4 for E rms
4
, E( D )rms = V( D )rms d = 1.67 × 104 V / m
and the equation above can be rewritten as
follows and the intensity of the electric field, which
m passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas
χ = g (l ) = of the central set (A), is given by
mi0(l )
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 2.012 × 105 V / m
nr2(l )nl6Sα2 Sm4φm4σ (l ) Erms
4
⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎪⎬ (21)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ(l )c f
2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ Note that the metallic rings (5mm
Now consider the system shown in thickness) are positioned in such way to
Fig.3. It was originally designed to convert block the electric field out of the cylindrical
Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
Energy [7]. Here, it works as Separator of of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cells
Isotopes. These systems are basically similar, (GCC) [4]. Thus, the system shown in Fig. 3
except in the core. The core of the original has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each,
system has been replaced by the one shown and one with 7 GCC. The two sets with 18
in Fig.3 and Fig.4 (detailed). GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
the tube (D). They work as gravitational
5
decelerator while the other set with 7 GCC ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
nr2(air)nairSα SmφmσairE(4D)rms
6 2 4 4
(A) works as a gravitational accelerator, χd = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ =
intensifying the gravity acceleration ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρair
2 4 3
cf ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
produced by the mass M gs of the Aluminum
sphere. According to Eq. (3), this gravity,
{ [
= 1− 2 1+1.48×10−17E(4D)rms −1 ]} (25)
after the 7th GCC becomes g7 = χ 7GMgs r02 ,
where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) ;
where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) given by Eq. (21) and
r0 = 35mm is the distance between the nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m ,
center of the Aluminum sphere and the Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88 × 10−20 m2 and f = 60Hz.
surface of the first GCC of the set (A). Since E ( A )rms = 2 . 012 × 10 5 V / m and
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of E ( D )rms = 1.67 × 10 4 V / m , we get
the external gravity along the axis of the
tube. In this case, the value of the external χ = −308.5 (26)
gravity, gext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,
where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the base and
BS of the system is positioned on the Earth
χ d ≅ 10−2 (27)
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2 is reduced
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased It is important to note that the set with
by χ . Since the system is designed for
7 7 GCC (A) cannot be turned on before the
magnetic field B is on. Because the
χ = −308 .5 (See Eq. (26)), then the gravity
gravitational accelerations on the dielectric
acceleration on the sphere becomes chamber and Al sphere will be enormous
χ7χd18gext = 2.6×10−18m/ s2 . This value is much (χ 7 GM gs r02 ≅ 4.4 × 10 9 m / s 2 , and will )
−8
smaller than gsphere= GMgs rs2 = 2.26×10 m / s . 2
explode the device.
Note that there is a uniform magnetic The isotopes inside the Dielectric
field, B , through the core of the Chamber are subjected to the gravity
Gravitational Separator of Isotopes (a acceleration produced by the sphere, and
cylindrical Dielectric Chamber with 60mm increased by the 7 GCC in the region (A). Its
external diameter; 50mm internal diameter value is
and 100mm height). The electrical
conductivity of air, inside the dielectric tube, M gs
is equal to the electrical conductivity of ai = χ 7 g s = χ 7 G ≅ 6.0 × 109 m / s 2 (28)
rs2
Earth’s atmosphere near the land, whose
average value is σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [8]. Comparing this value with the produced in
This value is of fundamental importance in the most powerful centrifuges (at 100,000
order to obtain the convenient values of the rpm), which is of the order of 107m/s2, we
electrical current i and the value of χ and conclude that the accelerations in the
χ d , which are given by Eq. (21), i.e., Gravitational Separator of Isotopes is about
600 times greater than the values of the
centrifuges.
⎧
⎪ ⎡ nr2(air) nair
6
Sα2 S m4 φm4σ air E(4A)rms ⎤⎫⎪ In the case of Uranium enrichment, the
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ = gas UF6 is injected inside this core where it is
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16 πμ ρ 2 4 3
c f ⎥⎪
⎣ 0 air
⎦⎭ strongly accelerated. Thus, the UF6 is
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 1.480×10−17 E(4A)rms − 1 ]} (24) separated by the difference in molecular
weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 (See
Fig.4). The heavier molecules of the gas
6
(238UF6) move towards the cylinder bottom S m by S e = π re2
, ξ by φ m = 2re and
and the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close to
mi 0(l ) by me . The result is
the center. The convection current, produced
by a thermal gradient of about 300°C
between the bottom and the top of the ⎧⎪ ⎡45.56π 2 re4 nr2 E 4 ⎤⎫⎪
cylinder, carries the lighter molecules χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (33)
(235UF6) to the top while the heavier ones ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ μ 2 2 4 4 2
m
0 e c f λ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(238UF6) settle at the bottom, from which they Electrodynamics tells us that
can be continuously withdrawn. The gas E rms = vBrms = (c nr )Brms , and Eq. (19) gives
λ = λmod = (4π μrσ f ). Substitution of
withdrawn at the top of the cylinder is a gas
these
rich in 235U.
The gravitational forces due to the expressions into Eq. (33) yields
gravitational mass of the sphere (M gs ) acting
on electrons (Fe ) , protons (Fp ) and neutrons ⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 re4 Brms ⎤⎫⎪
4
χ Be = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (34)
(Fp ) of the dielectric of the Dielectric ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02 me2c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Chamber, are respectively expressed by the
following relations Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron
we can write that
⎛ M gs ⎞ ⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rp4 Brms ⎤⎫⎪
(29)
4
Fe = mge ae = χ Be me ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ ⎪
⎝ r0 ⎠ χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (35)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ μ ⎥
⎦⎪⎭
m
0 p c f
⎛ M gs ⎞
Fp = mgp a p = χ Bp mp ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (30) ⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rn4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎝ r0 ⎠ χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (36)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎛ M gs ⎞
Fn = mgn an = χ Bnmn ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (31)
⎝ r0 ⎠ The radius of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m
(See Appendix A) and the radius of protons
In order to make null the resultant of these inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m ,
forces in the Dielectric Chamber (and also in
the sphere) we must have Fe = F p + Fn , i.e., rn ≅ r p [9, 10], then we obtain from Eqs. (34)
(35) and (36) the following expressions:
m e χ Be = m p χ Bp + m n χ Bn (32 )
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
Brms ⎤⎫⎪
χ Be = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 8.49×104 −1⎥⎬ (37)
In order to calculate the expressions of ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
χ Be , χ Bp and χ Bn we start from Eq. (17),
for the particular case of single electron in ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
Brms ⎤⎫⎪
the region subjected to the magnetic field B. χ Bn ≅ χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10−9 −1⎥⎬ (38)
In this case, we must substitute nr (l ) by ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
nr = (μrσ 4πε0 f )2 ; nl by 1 Ve = 1 43 πre3 ( re is
1
{1 − 2[ 1 + 8.49 × 10 B 6 4
−1 ]} = 3666.3 (41)
{1 − 2[ 1 + 2.35 × 10 B − 1]}
rms
−7 4
rms
whence we obtain
χ Be = −3666.3 (43)
and
χ Bn ≅ χ Bp ≅ 0.999 (44)
d = 98 mm
α=60mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm
Air
Aluminum sphere
Mg (60 mm diameter)
r0=35mm EA(rms)
Coil
(f = 0.1Hz) 1
Air
Air 2
Core of the
Gravitational
A Separator of Isotopes
(Dielectric Chamber)
6
7
235
UF6
UF6
235
UF6
238
UF6
1
Air
2
Fe
Fe
D
Air 17
18
BS
Fe 235 UF6
UF6
235 235
UF6 UF6
Dielectric
Chamber
235
UF6
238
UF6
238
UF6
238 Fe
UF6 330°C
235
UF6
D
Coil Coil
Fig. 4 – Details of the core of the Gravitational Separator of Isotopes. In the case of Uranium enrichment,
the heavier molecules of the gas (238UF6) move towards the cylinder bottom and the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close
to the center. The convection current, produced by a thermal gradient of about 300°C between the bottom and the top of
the Dielectric Chamber, carries the lighter molecules (235UF6) to the top while the heavier ones (238UF6) settle at the
bottom, from which they can be continuously withdrawn. The gas withdrawn at the top of the chamber is a gas rich in
235
U.
10
1
( A1) 1 Gmge χe
K
f =
2π m f= ( A6)
2π Re3
where m is the inertial mass attached to the The value of χ e varies with the density of
spring and K is the spring constant (in energy [3]. When the electron and the
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force positron are distant from each other and the
exerted by the spring is linear and given by local density of energy is small, the value of
χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
F = − Kx ( A2) the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
where x is the displacement from the particle become very strong due to the
equilibrium position. proximity of their electrical charges e and,
Now, consider the gravitational force: consequently, the value of χ e strongly
For example, above the surface of the Earth, increases. In order to calculate the value of
the force follows the familiar Newtonian
χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
function, i.e., F = − GM g⊕ m g r 2 , where
start from the expression of correlation
M g ⊕ is the mass of Earth, m g is the between electric charge q and gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the mass, obtained in a previous work [3]:
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3)
R⊕3 where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
K
=
K
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4)
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠ qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
into (A1) gives
(
= 4πε0G − χe 2
3
mi0e(real)i 2 =)
1 GMg⊕ χ = 4πε G ( 2
)
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)
f= ( A5) 0 3
2π R⊕3
where we obtain
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)
11
This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
by the strong density of energy produced by χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
under previously mentioned conditions. Thus, the result is
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6)
yields 1 2
⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞ 3
1 Gχ e2 mi0e Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72×10−17 m ( A17)
f= ( A10) ⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2π Re3
Note that these radii, given by
Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
From Quantum Mechanics, we know that
free electrons and free protons (when the
particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) penetrate themselves mutually).
Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in protons is well-known. For example, protons,
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
by R p ≅ 1.2 ×10−15 m [9, 10]. The strong
mi 0e c 2 increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
f= ( A12) (A17) is due to the interaction with the
h
electron of the atom.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we
conclude that
mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3
1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m
q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =
(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
3
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
= 4πε G(
0
2
)
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)
3
where we obtain
12
References
It is described a process for creating new atoms starting from pre-existing atoms. We show that all the elements of
the periodic table can be synthesized, at room temperature, by a gravitational process based on the intensification of
the gravitational interaction by means of electromagnetic fields.
1. Introduction 2. Theory
Rutherford [1] was the first to observe The quantization of gravity showed
the transmutation of the atoms, and also the that the gravitational mass mg and the
first to perform transmutation of the atoms. inertial mass mi are correlated by means of
That gave him a double justification for the following factor [5]:
being labeled an alchemist.
It is currently believed that the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
synthesis of precious metals, a symbolic goal χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
long sought by alchemists, is only possible mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
with methods involving either nuclear ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
reactors or particle accelerators. However, it
will be shown here that all the elements of where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
the periodic table can be synthesized, at room particle and Δp is the variation in the
temperature, by a gravitational process based particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
on the intensification of the gravitational of light.
interaction by means of electromagnetic When Δp is produced by the
fields. The process is very simple, but it
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
requires extremely-low frequency (ELF)
magnetic field with very strong intensity is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
(Brms > 2,500T).
B
(1) becomes
The strongest continuous magnetic m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪
field yet produced in a laboratory had 45 T ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
(Florida State University's National High mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Magnetic Field Laboratory in Tallahassee,
USA) [2]. The strongest (pulsed) magnetic ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ λ0 ⎞ ⎪
field yet obtained non-destructively in a = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
laboratory had about 100T. (National High ⎣ ⎦⎭
Magnetic Field Laboratory, Los Alamos
National Laboratory, USA) [3]. The strongest where λ0 = h mi0 c is the DeBroglie
pulsed magnetic field yet obtained in a
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
laboratory, destroying the used equipment,
but not the laboratory itself (Institute for mass mi 0 .
Solid State Physics, Tokyo) reached 730 T . In general, the momentum variation
The strongest (pulsed) magnetic field ever Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
obtained (with explosives) in a laboratory applied force during a time interval Δt . Note
(VNIIEF in Sarov, Russia, 1998) reached that there is no restriction concerning the
2,800T [4]. nature of the force, i.e., it can be mechanical,
electromagnetic, etc. For example, we can
2
look on the momentum variation Δp as due If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
to absorption or emission of electromagnetic contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
energy by the particle. atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
This means that, by means of electromagnetic radiation with frequency
electromagnetic fields, the gravitational mass f incides on an area S of the lamina it
can be decreased down to become negative reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
and increased (independently of the inertial
area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
mass mi ). In this way, the gravitational
forces can be intensified. Consequently, we of atoms reached by the radiation is
can use, for example, oscillating magnetic N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
fields in order to intensify the gravitational volume, n , is given by
interaction between electrons and protons. N0 ρ
From Electrodynamics we know that n= (6)
A
when an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f and velocity c incides on a where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
material with relative permittivity ε r , Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
relative magnetic permeability μ r and of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is mass(kg/kmole).
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of When an electromagnetic wave incides
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
refraction of the material, given by [6]
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
εμ the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2
μrσ
nr = (4)
4πε0 f
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎢⎝
⎣ f ⎠⎝ i0(l ) ⎟⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥⎥⎪
⎜ m c rewritten in the following form
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ nl6S 4f Sm4φm4ξ 2 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg (l ) ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (19)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4μ02mi20(l )c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
into Eq. (13) results
In order to calculate the expressions of
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ 2 χ Be for the particular case of a electron of
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3 S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (14)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ the electrophere of a atom, subjected to an
mi0(l ) ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ mi0(l ) cf
2 ⎟ λ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ external magnetic field Brms with frequency
⎩ ⎣
4
f , we must substitute in Eq. (19) nl Therefore, we can write that rxp = k xp rp ,
for 1 Ve =1 πr
4 3
3 e
, S f for (SSAe )ρ eVe ( SSAe is where
the specific surface area for electrons in this rxp
k xp = = 25.6
case: SSAe = 12 Ae me = 12 Ae ρe Ve = 2πrxe2 ρeVe ), rp
The electron is similarly deformed by the
S m by S e = π rxe2 , ξ by φm = 2rxe and mi 0(l )
relative movement of the proton in respect to
by me . The result is it. In this case, by analogy, we can write that
e2
rxe = + re = 6.4 × 10 −11 m
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2rxe22Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪ 4πε 0 m e v e
2
Note that k xe ≅ k xp .
Fig. 5 – The deformation of the proton. Substitution of these values into Eq.
(20) gives
198
Hg loses 1 proton and 1 electron and
on the atom, the enormous value of χ Be (See
consequently will be transmuted to 197Au (79
Eq. 21) makes the gravitational force electrons, 79 protons, 118 neutrons) when the
between the electrons greater than the magnetic field is turned off. Besides the
electric force due to its charges, and transformation of mercury into gold, we can
consequently, the electrons are joined in pairs make several transmutations. For example, if
(Cooper pairs)[10]. However, due to the the 197Au is after subjected to the same
vales of χ Be and χ Bp , the gravitational magnetic field it will be transmuted to 196Pt
attraction between the electrons of the K (78 electrons, 78 protons, 118 neutrons).
shell and the protons of the nucleus becomes Similarly, if 110Cd (48 electrons, 48 protons,
greater than the nuclear force, i.e., 62 neutrons) is subjected to the mentioned
m gp mge m p me field it will be transmuted to 109Ag (47
G 2
= χ Bp χ Be G 2 > FN (26) electrons, 47 protons, 62 neutrons). Also 235U
r1 r1 can be easily obtained by this process, i.e., if
Then, the proton more weakly bound to the we subject an amount of 236Np (93 electrons,
nucleus is ejected towards the nearest 93 protons, 143 neutrons) to the magnetic
electron. When they collide, there occurs the field with >2,500 T and frequency 0.1Hz,
formation of one neutron and one neutrino, the 236Np loses 1 proton and 1 electron and
according the well-known reaction consequently will be transmuted to 235U (92
p + e → n + ν e . Since the neutron is beyond electrons, 92 protons, 143 neutrons).
the reach of the nuclear force, it is not
6
From Quantum Mechanics, we know that Note that these radii, given by
Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) free electrons and free protons (when the
particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in penetrate themselves mutually).
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
protons is well-known. For example, protons,
as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
mi 0e c 2
f= ( A12) by R p ≅ 1.2 × 10−15 m [8,9]. The strong
h
increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we (A17) is due to the interaction with the
conclude that electron of the atom.
mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3
1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m
q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =
(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
3
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
= 4πε G(
0
2
)
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)
3
where we obtain
References
[1] Rutherford, E. (1933) The Artificial Transmutation of
the Elements; Rutherford, E. (1937)The Newer Alchemy.
[3] http://gizmodo.com/5896092/the-worlds-most-
powerful-non+destructive-magnet-screams-like-a-
banshee.
Currently the artificial production of diamond is very expensive because it consumes large amounts of energy in order
to produce a single diamond. Here, we propose a new type of press based on the intensification of the gravitational
acceleration. This Gravitational Press can generate pressures several times more intense than the 80GPa required for
ultrafast transformation of graphite into diamond. In addition, due to the enormous pressure that the Gravitational
Press can produce, the "synthesis capsule" may be very large (up to about 1000 cm3 in size). This is sufficient to
produce diamonds with up to 100 carats (20g) or more. On the other hand, besides the ultrafast conversion, the energy
required for the Gravitational Presses is very low, in such a way that the production cost of the diamonds becomes
very low, what means that they could be produced on a large scale.
1. Introduction
After the discovery that diamond was the Cubic press and the split-sphere (BARS)
pure carbon, many attempts were made to press. Typical pressures and temperatures
convert various carbon forms into diamond. achievable are of the order of 10 GPa and
Converting graphite into diamond has been a 2500°C [5].
long held dream of alchemists. The artificial Diamonds may be formed in the
production of diamond was first achieved by Earth’s mantle mainly by direct transition,
H.T Hall in 1955. He used a press capable of graphite to diamond or by systems involving
producing pressures above 10 GPa and carbon dissolved in molten metals. The
temperatures above 2,000 °C [1]. classic high-pressure, high-temperature
Today, there are several methods to synthesis of diamond utilizes molten
produce synthetic diamond. The more widely transition metals as solvent/catalysts.
utilized method uses high pressure and high Converting diamond from graphite in the
temperature (HPHT) of the order of 10 GPa absence of a catalyst requires pressures that
and 2500°C during many hours in order to are significantly higher than those at
produce a single diamond. The fact that this equilibrium coexistence [6-12]. At lower
process requires high pressure and high temperatures, the formation of the metastable
temperatures during a long time means that it hexagonal polymorph of diamond is favored
consumes large amounts of energy, and this instead of the more stable cubic diamond [7,
is the reason why the production cost of 10-12]. These phenomena cannot be
artificial diamond is so expensive. The explained by the concerted mechanism
second method, using chemical vapor suggested in previous theoretical studies [13-
deposition (CVD), creates a carbon plasma 17]. However, recently Michele Parrinello,
over a substrate onto which the carbon atoms Professor of Computational Science at ETH
deposit to form diamond. Other methods Zurich, and his team have developed a
include explosive formation and sonication method by which they have successfully
of graphite solutions [2,3,4]. simulated this phase transition accurately and
In the HPHT method, there are three adequately using computer models [18].
main press designs used to supply the Instead of happening concerted, all at once,
pressure and temperature necessary to the conversion evidently takes place in a step
produce synthetic diamond: the Belt press, by step process involving the formation of a
2
diamond seed in the graphite, which is then where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
transformed completely at high pressure. In particle and Δp is the variation in the
quantitative agreement with the ab initio
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
calculations of Tateyama at al. [19], the
of light.
stability of diamond relative to graphite
When Δp is produced by the
increases with pressure whereas the barrier
separating two phases decreases. Parrinello’s absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
work shows that at a pressure of 80 GPa and is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
temperature between 0 and 1,000K graphite (1) becomes
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
reaches a lattice instability point and 2
⎢ ⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞ ⎪
undergoes an ultrafast transformation to = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
diamond as was previously observed in ab mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
initio simulations by Scandolo et al [20].
Here, we propose a new type of press ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎪
based on the intensification of the gravitational = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
acceleration * . This press can generate pressures ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
several times more intense † than the 80GPa ⎣ ⎦⎭
required for the ultrafast transformation of where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
graphite to diamond. In addition, due to the wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
enormous pressure that the Gravitational Press mass mi 0 .
can produce (>>80GPa), the ceramic cube
("synthesis capsule") can be very large (up to It has been shown that there is an
about 1000 cm3 in size). This is sufficient to additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
produce diamonds up to 100 carats (20g) or effect - produced by a substance whose
more. On the other hand, besides the ultrafast gravitational mass was reduced or made
conversion, the energy required for the negative [22]. The effect extends beyond
Gravitational Presses is very low, in such a way substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a
that the production cost of the diamonds becomes certain distance from it (along the central
very low, what means that they could be axis of gravitational shielding). This effect
produced on a large scale.
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same
2. Theory
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where
From the quantization of gravity it χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
follows that the gravitational mass mg and acceleration before the gravitational
the inertial mass mi are correlated by means shielding). Consequently, after a second
of the following factor gravitational shielding, the gravity will be
[21]: given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by
*
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3)
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
2008.
This possibility shows that, by means
†
The limit is basically determined by the compression of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
resistance of the material of the piston and anvils of the can make particles acquire enormous
Gravitational Press since it can produce pressures far beyond accelerations. In practice, this is the basis to
1000 GPa.
the conception of the Gravitational Press.
3
From Electrodynamics we know that where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 atoms / kmole is the
26
when an electromagnetic wave with
Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
material with relative permittivity ε r , mass(kg/kmole).
relative magnetic permeability μ r and When an electromagnetic wave incides
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
refraction of the material, given by [23] the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4) incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
c 2
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
μrσ
nr = (5) with the other atoms (See Fig.2).
4πε0 f
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
atom
Sm
Wave
v=c v = c/nr Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina.
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields If the electrical conductivity of the lamina,
σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e.,
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)
⎢
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ 4π
⎩ λ = λmod = (19)
μfσ
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
into Eq. (14) results for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
4 4
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦
Consequently we can change E by E ,
⎥⎦⎪
rms
⎢⎣
⎩ ⎭ and the equation above can be rewritten as
where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) . follows
Now, considering that the lamina is mg (l )
inside an ELF electromagnetic field with χ= =
E and B , then we can write that [24] mi0(l )
⎧ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6 Sα2 Sm4φm4σ (l )Erms
4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
n r (l ) E 2 = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (21)
D= (16 ) ⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ(l )c f
2 4 3
⎥⎪
2μ 0 c ⎣ ⎦⎭
Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives Now consider the system
(Gravitational Press) shown in Fig.3.
5
Inside the system there is a dielectric the tube (D). They work as gravitational
tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with the following characteristics: decelerator while the other set with 7 GCC
(A) works as a gravitational accelerator,
α = 60mm , Sα = πα 2 4 = 2 .83 × 10 − 3 m 2 .
intensifying the gravity acceleration
Inside the tube there is an Aluminum sphere produced by the mass M gs of the Aluminum
with 30mm radius and mass
M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube is filled with air sphere. According to Eq. (3), this gravity,
after the 7th GCC becomes
at ambient temperature and 1atm. Thus,
inside the tube, the air density is g 7 = χ GM gs r0 , where χ = mg (l ) mi (l )
7 2
and the intensity of the electric field, which fundamental importance in order to obtain
passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas the convenient values of χ and χ d , which
of the central set (A), is given by
are given by Eq. (21), i.e.,
E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 2.012 × 105 V / m
⎧ ⎡ nr2(air) nair
6
Sα2 S m4 φm4σ air E(4A)rms ⎤⎫⎪
⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ =
Note that the metallic rings (5mm ⎪⎩ ⎢ 16 πμ ρ 2 4 3
c f ⎥⎪
⎣ 0 air
⎦⎭
{ [ ]}
thickness) are positioned in such way to
block the electric field out of the cylindrical = 1 − 2 1 + 1.480× 10−17 E(4A)rms − 1 (24)
air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cell
(GCC) [22]. Thus, the system shown in Fig.
3 has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each
and one with 7 GCC. The two sets with 18
GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
6
⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(air)nairSα SmφmσairE(4D)rms
6 2 4 4 ⎤⎫⎪
χd = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρair
2 4 3
cf ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
{ [
= 1− 2 1+1.48×10−17E(4D)rms −1 ]} (25)
χ = −308.5 (26)
and
χ d ≅ 10−2 (27)
Then, the gravitational acceleration
upon the piston of the Gravitational Press
shown in Fig. 3 is equal to the value of the
gravitational acceleration after the 7th
gravitational shielding, i.e.,
GM gs
g 7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7 ≅ 4.4 × 109 m / s 2 (28)
r02
F m piston g 7
p= = = 2 × 1012 N / m 2 = 2000GPa
S π (0.1) 2
d = 98 mm
α=60mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm
A
6
GM gs
g7 g7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7
r02
1
Air
2
D
Air 17
18
Piston
of
Gravitational Press
(Tungsten Carbide)
Fig. 3 – Gravitational Press (Developed from a process patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5)
8
Anvils
(Tungsten Carbide or
VK10 hard alloy)
References
[1] Hall, H. T. (1960). "Ultra-high pressure apparatus". Rev.
Sci. Instr. 31 (2): 125.
[2] Werner, M; Locher, R (1998). "Growth and application
of undoped and doped diamond films". Rep. Prog. Phys.
61 (12): 1665.
[3] Osawa, E (2007). "Recent progress and perspectives in
single-digit nanodiamond". Diamond and Related
Materials 16 (12): 2018.
[4] Galimov, É. M.; Kudin, A. M.; Skorobogatskii, V. N.;
Plotnichenko, V. G.; Bondarev, O. L.; Zarubin, B. G.;
Strazdovskii, V. V.; Aronin, A. S. et al. (2004).
"Experimental Corroboration of the Synthesis of Diamond
in the Cavitation Process". Doklady Physics 49 (3): 150.
[5] N. Pal'yanov et al. (2002). "Fluid-bearing alkaline
carbonate melts as the medium for the formation of
diamonds in the Earth's mantle: an experimental study".
Lithos 60: 145.
[6] F. P. Bundy(1963) J. Chem. Phys. 38, 631.
[7] F. P. Bundy and J. S. Kasper(1967) J. Chem. Phys. 46, 3437.
[8] F. P. Bundy,W. A. Bassett, M. S.Weathers, R. J. Hemley,
H. K. Mao, and A. F. Goncharov (1996) Carbon, 34, 141.
[9] T. Irifune, A. Kurio, S. Sakamoto, T. Inoue, and
H. Sumiya(2003) Nature 421, 806.
[10] V. F. Britun, A. V. Kurdyumov, and I. A. Petrusha
(2004) Powder Metall. Met. Ceram. 43, 87.
[11] H. Sumiya, H. Yusa, T. Inoue, H. Ofuji, and T. Irifune
(2006) High Pressure Res. 26, 63.
[12] H. Ohfuji and K. Kuroki(2009) J. Mineral. Petrol. Sci.
104, 307.
[13] S. Fahy, S. G. Louie, and M. L. Cohen (1986) Phys.
Rev. B 34, 1191.
[14] S. Fahy, S. G. Louie, and M. L. Cohen (1987) Phys.
Rev. B 35, 7623.
[15]Y. Tateyama, T. Ogitsu, K. Kusakabe, and S. Tsuneyuki
(1996) Phys. Rev. B 54, 14994.
[16] S. Scandolo, M. Bernasconi, G. L. Chiarotti, P. Focher,
and E. Tosatti (1995) Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 4015.
[17] F. Zipoli, M. Bernasconi, and R. Martonak (2004) Eur.
Phys. J. B 39, 41.
[18] Khaliullin, RZ, Eshet, H, Kühne, TD, Jörg Behler, J &
Parrinello, M. (2011) Nucleation mechanism for the
direct graphite-to-diamond phase transition, Nature
Materials, 10, 693–697.
[19] Y. Tateyama, T. Ogitsu, K. Kusakabe, and S.
Tsuneyuki (1996) Phys. Rev. B 54, 14994.
[20] S. Scandolo, M. Bernasconi, G. L. Chiarotti, P. Focher
and E. Tosatti (1995) Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 4015.
[21] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
[22] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.
[23] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-
Hill, p. 270.
[24] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey
& Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.
[25] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,
Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.
Artificial Gravitational Lenses
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
We show that it is possible to produce gravitational lenses at laboratory scale by means of a toroidal
device which strongly intensifies the radial gravitational acceleration at its nucleus, and can make the
acceleration repulsive besides attractive. This means that a light flux through the toroid can become
convergent or divergent from its central axis. These lenses are similar to optical lenses and can be very
useful for telescopes, microscopes, and for the concentration of solar light in order to convert solar
energy into thermal energy.
1. Introduction 2. Theory
λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
3
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)
⎢
⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom ⎩ ⎣⎢
Sm
Wave Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. (13) gives
Now consider the Artificial and the intensity of the electric field, which
Gravitational Lenses shown in Fig.3. passes through the 9 cylindrical air laminas
Basically they are rectangular toroids. of the two sets (A), is given by
Inside them there are two dielectric rings
with ε r ≅ 1 and an Aluminum ring with mass E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 1.97 × 105 V / m
density ρ = 2700kg .m −3 (See Fig.3). The
rectangular toroid is filled with air at ambient Note that the metallic rings (5mm thickness)
temperature and 1atm. Thus, inside the tube, are positioned in such way to block the
the air density is electric field out of the cylindrical air
laminas (also 5mm thickness). The objective
ρ air ≅ 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 ) is to turn each one of these laminas into a
Gravity Control Cell (GCC) [6]. Thus, the
system shown in Fig. 3 has 4 sets of GCC.
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per
Two with 18 GCC each and two with 9 GCC
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is
each. The two sets with 18 GCC each are
given by positioned at the extremes of the tube (D).
They work as gravitational decelerator while
N 0 ρ air
nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23) the other two set with 9 GCC (A) each works
as a gravitational accelerator, intensifying
AN
the gravity acceleration produced by the
Aluminum ring. According to Eq. (3), this
5
gravity after the 9 GCC becomes g 9 = χ g 0 ,
th 9
⎛r −r ⎞
g 0 ≅ −Gπρα⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri −
where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) given by Eq. (21), and ⎝ r0 ⎠
g 0 can be calculated starting from the ⎧ ⎫
expression of the gravitational mass of the ⎪ ⎪
⎪ (re − ri )ri ⎪
half-toroid of Aluminum, M g (1 toroid ) , which is − Gπρα⎨ 2⎬
=
⎪⎡ ⎛ re − ri ⎞ ⎛ re − ri ⎞⎤ ⎪
2
given by ⎪ ⎢2re − ⎜ 2 + r0 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ ⎪
⎩⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎭
πri
dM g (1 toroid) = ρα(re − ri )∫ dz ⎡ (r − r )r ⎤
Mg
∫0 0 − Gπρα⎢ e i 2i ⎥
⎣⎢ (ri + r0 ) ⎦⎥
2
whence
M g ( 1 toroid) = πρα(re − ri )ri (25)
2
In the case of ri >> r0 , the equation above
reduces to
On the other hand, we have that
⎛r −r ⎞
g 0 ≅ −Gπρα ⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri (27)
g G Mg Gαρ (re − ri ) πri ⎝ r0 ⎠
∫0
dg = −
r 2 ∫0
dM g = −
r2 ∫0 dz where ri is the inner radius of the toroid; r0
is the distance between the center of the
whence we get cross-section of the Aluminum ring and the
surface of the first GCC of the set (A); α is
Gπαρ (re − ri )ri
g=− (26) the thickness of the Aluminum ring. Here,
r2 r0 = 35mm and α = 60mm (See Fig. 3 (a)).
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
which gives the value of g produced by the GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
half-toroid at a point inside the nucleus of the the external gravity along the rectangular
toroid, distant r from the center of the cross- toroid of air in D region. In this case, the
section of the rectangular toroid. Thus, the value of the external gravity, gext , is reduced
value of g 0′ (r = r0 ) , due to the first half-
by the factor χ d18 gext , where χ d = 10−2 . For
toroid is
example, if gext = 9.81m / s 2 then this value is
⎛r −r ⎞ reduced to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is
g 0′ ≅ −Gπρα ⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri
⎝ r0 ⎠ increased by χ 9 . Since the system is
designed for χ = −627 .1 , then the gravity
The value of g 0′′ , due to the opposite half- acceleration on the Aluminum ring
toroid is becomes χ 9 χ d18 g ext = 1 .47 × 10 −10 m / s 2 ,
this value is smaller than
⎧ ⎫ g 0 ≅ −Gπρα [(re − ri )ri r0 ] = 9.9 × 10 m.s .
2 −8 −2
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ( re − ri )ri ⎪ The electrical conductivity of air, inside
g 0′′ ≅ −Gπρα⎨ 2⎬ the dielectric tube, is equal to the electrical
⎪⎡ ⎛ re − ri ⎞ ⎛ re − ri ⎞⎤ ⎪
⎪ ⎢2re − ⎜ 2 + r0 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ ⎪
conductivity of Earth’s atmosphere near the
⎩⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎭ land, whose average value is
σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [9]. This value is of
Consequently, the resultant is fundamental importance in order to obtain
the convenient values of χ and χ d , which
are given by Eq. (21), i.e.,
6
⎧ ⎡ Sα2 S m4 φm4σ air E(4A)rms ⎤⎫⎪
2
4 gr
nr2(air) nair (34 )
6
⎪ ⎢ δ =
χ = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥⎬ = c2d
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16 πμ ρ 2 4 3
c f ⎥⎪
⎣ 0 air
⎦⎭
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 6.59 × 10−17 E(4A)rms − 1 ]} (28) For r = r0 we have g = g 0 and equation above
can be rewritten as follows
⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(air)nairSα SmφmσairE(4D)rms
6 2 4 4 ⎤⎫⎪ 4 g 0 r02
χd = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ = δ = (35 )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρair
2 4 3
cf ⎥⎦⎪ c2d
⎭
{ [
= 1− 2 1+ 6.59×10−17E(4D)rms −1 ]} (29) However, considering the symmetry of the
gravitational lenses shown in Fig.3, it is easy
to see that Eq. (35) must be rewritten as
where n r (air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) ; follows
nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m ,
4 g 0 r02 4 g 0 r02
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20m2 and f = 2.5Hz. δ= − 2 (36 )
c2d ′ c d ′′
Since E( A)rms =1.97×10 V / m, E( D)rms = 5.88×10 V / m
5 3
⎛1 1⎞
δ ≅ 0.1⎜ − ⎟ (38)
⎝ d ′ d ′′ ⎠
Light
d′ d ′′
D Mg A g’ Gravitational Lens g’ A Mg D
D and A Sets
of
Gravitational Shieldings Rectangular Toroid
(b)
Rectangular Toroid
Light
D Mg A g’ Gravitational Lens g’ A Mg D
(c)
Fig. 3 – Artificial Gravitational Lens. (a) Cross-section of the Artificial Gravitational Lens. (b)
Cross-section of a Convergent Gravitational Lens. The light rays are gravitationally repelled from
the inner edge of toroid (c) Cross-section of a Divergent Gravitational Lens. The light rays are
gravitationally attracted to the inner edge of toroid.
9
References
[1] Dyson, F.W., Eddington, A.S., and Davidson, C.R.
(1920). A Determination of the Deflection of Light
by the Sun's Gravitational Field, from Observations
Made at the Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. A 220 (571-581): 291–333.
[4] Renn, J., Tilman S., and Stachel, J., (1997). The
Origin of Gravitational Lensing: A Postscript to
Einstein's 1936 Science paper. Science 275
(5297): 184–6.
In this paper we show that it is possible to produce gravitational blueshift and redshift at laboratory scale
by means of a device that can strongly intensify the local gravitational potential. Thus, by using this
device, it is possible to generate electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, from ELF radiation (f <
10Hz) up to high energy gamma-rays. In this case, several uses, such as medical imaging, radiotherapy
and radioisotope production for PET (positron emission tomography) scanning, could be realized. The
device is smaller and less costly than conventional sources of gamma rays.
Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Relativity and Gravitation, Gravitational Redshift and Blueshift.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 95.30.Sf, 98.62.Py.
1. Introduction 2. Theory
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)
⎢
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina.
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives
and the equation above can be rewritten as Note that the metallic rings (5mm
follows thickness) are positioned in such way to
m
χ = g (l ) =
block the electric field out of the cylindrical
mi0(l ) air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cells
⎧ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2 Sm4φm4σ (l ) Erms
4 ⎤⎫ (GCC) [10]. Thus, the system shown in Fig.
⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎪⎬ (21) 3 has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each,
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ(l )c f
2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ and one with 19 GCC. The two sets with 18
Now consider the Gravitational Shift GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
Device shown in Fig.3. the tube (D). They work as gravitational
Inside the device there is a dielectric decelerator while the other set with 19 GCC
tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with the following characteristics: (A) works as a gravitational accelerator,
intensifying the gravity acceleration and the
α = 60mm , Sα = πα 2 4 = 2.83 × 10 −3 m 2 . gravitational potential produced by the mass
Inside the tube there is an Aluminum sphere M gs of the Aluminum sphere. According to
with 30mm radius and mass
Eq. (3) the gravity, after the 19 th GCC
M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube is filled with air
becomes g19 = χ 19 GM gs r12 , and the
at ambient temperature and 1atm. Thus,
inside the tube, the air density is gravitational potential ϕ = χ 19 GM gs r1
ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 ) where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) is given by Eq. (21)
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per and r1 = 35mm is the distance between the
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is center of the Aluminum sphere and the
given by surface of the first GCC of the set (A).
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
5
the external gravity along the axis of the
tube. In this case, the value of the external χ d ≅ 10−2 (27)
gravity, gext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,
where χ d = 10 −2 . For example, if the base Then the gravitational acceleration
after the 19th gravitational shielding of the
BS of the system is positioned on the Earth
set A (See Fig.3) † is
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2 is reduced
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased g19 = χ 19 g1 = χ 19GM gs r12 (28)
by χ . Since the system is designed for
19
and
6
necessary that Δf = −0.999×10 Hz . This 14
− χ 19 GM gs r1
Δf ≅ 2
≅ 3.6 × 10 22 Hz (31)
c
Thus, we get
ED(rms) E
Aluminum sphere
18
(60 mm diameter)
rs
Mg g s ,ϕ s
r1=35mm
1 g1 , ϕ1
Air
Air 2
A EA(rms)
18
χ 19 < 0 ϕ 0 = − GM ⊕ r⊕
19
ϕ = χ 19ϕ1 ϕ0 Photons Source
Photons Beam
(frequency f ) f f0 (frequency f0 )
Fig. 3 – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shift Device (Blueshift and Redshift) – The device
can generate electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, since ELF radiation (f < 10Hz) up to high energy gamma-rays.
8
References
[1] Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John
Archibald (1973-09-15 1973). Gravitation. San
Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
In the last decades, the existence of the Soul has been seriously considered by Quantum Physics. It has
been frequently described as a body of unknown energy coupled to human body by means of a mutual
interaction. The Quantum Physics shows that energy is quantized, i.e., it has discrete values that are
defined as energy levels. Thus, along the life of a person, the energy of its soul is characterized by
several quantum levels of energy. Here, we show by means of application of specific electromagnetic
radiations on the human body, that it is possible to revert the energy of the soul to previous energy levels.
This process can have several therapeutic applications.
Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Microwave fields effects, Therapeutic applications, Quantum information.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 87.50.S-,87.50.st, 03.67.-a.
1. Introduction
Since long the Soul has remained an the quantum number n , (n = 1,2,3,...) [4].
element of strongly consideration by Thus, along the life of a person, the energy of
Religion. Some authors claim that Religion is its Soul is characterized by several quantum
the science of the Soul [1]. Others claim that levels of energy. Here, we show that, by
Soul and Religion are related to evolution. means of application of specific
Sir Julian Huxley, a leading evolutionary electromagnetic radiations on the human
biologist, the first Director-General of body (its Soul), it is possible to revert the
UNESCO and signatory to the Humanist energy of the Soul to previous energy levels.
Manifesto II, wrote: “Human Soul and This process can have several therapeutic
Religion are just the product of evolution” applications.
[2]. This show how important the Soul is for
the Religion. Philosophy also realizes the 2. Theory
importance of the Soul. Plato, drawing on the
words of his teacher Socrates, considered the From the quantization of gravity it
Soul the essence of a person, being that follows that the imaginary gravitational mass
which decides how we behave. As bodies mg (im) and the imaginary inertial mass mi0 (im)
die, the Soul is continually reborn in are correlated by means of the following
subsequent bodies. factor [5]:
Nowadays, Quantum Physics and other
branches of Science are seriously considering
⎧ ⎡
⎛ Δp(im) ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
the existence of the Soul. ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg (im)
It has been frequently described as a χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜
⎜
(1)
mi0(im) ⎢ mi0(im)c ⎟⎠ ⎥
body of unknown energy coupled to human ⎪ ⎢
⎩ ⎣
⎝ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
body by means of a mutual interaction. This
type of energy from the viewpoint of Physics where mi 0(im ) = − 2
mi 0i is the imaginary
has been considered as Imaginary Energy. 3
The term imaginary are borrowed from inertial mass at rest of the particle and
Mathematics (real and imaginary numbers) [3]. Δp(im ) = U (im )nr c = (Ui )nr c is the variation
Quantum Physics shows that energy is in the particle’s imaginary kinetic
quantized, i.e., that it has discrete values that momentum; c is the speed of light. Thus, Eq.
are defined as discrete energy levels that (1) can be rewritten as follows
correspond to all positive integer values of
2
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ If an imaginary lamina with thickness
mg (im) ⎪ 3 ⎛ Unr ⎞ ⎪ to ξ
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎬
2⎟
(2) equal contains n imaginary
mi0(im) ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎥⎪ 3
molecules/m , then the number of molecules
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
per unit area is nξ . Thus, if the
When Δp is produced by the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , f incides on an area S of the lamina it
i.e., U = hf , Eq. (2) becomes
reaches nSξ molecules. If it incides on the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ total area of the lamina, S f , then the total
mg (im ) ⎪ 3 ⎛ λ0 ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (3)
mi 0(im ) ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎝ λmod ⎠ ⎥⎪ number of molecules reached by the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ radiation is N = nS f ξ . The number of
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie molecules per unit volume, n , is given by
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
mass (real) mi 0 and λ mod = λ nr . N0 ρ
From Electrodynamics we know that n= (7)
A
when an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f and velocity c incides on a where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 moleculess / kmole is
material with relative permittivity ε r , the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
relative magnetic permeability μ r and density of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the
molar mass(kg/kmole).
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
When an electromagnetic wave incides
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of on the lamina, it strikes N f front molecules,
refraction of the material, given by [6]
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
εμ the molecule. Thus, the electromagnetic
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
wave incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm ,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
where Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to one molecule. After these collisions, it
μrσ carries out ncollisions with the other molecules
nr = (5) (See Fig.2).
4πε0 f
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
Imaginary molecule
Sm
Wave
v=c v = c/nr
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the imaginary lamina.
R
m g (S ) Note that the time-constant b −2 must be a very
big number, because the values of e a R are
(t 2
−t 2 )
9
mga( S ) enormous in the case of 0<< ta < 3.1 x 10 s
(100years). Thus, if the value of b −2 is not
0
m g (S ) very big then the values of χ S lose their
meaning. A very big number related to the
time is, certainly, the age of the Universe.
tR ta t Thus, we will define the time-constant b −2 as
follows
Fig.4 - The variation of the gravitational mass of
the Soul (Soul energy mg(S)c2) along the life of a
person, and Quantum Reversal from the current b −2 = 4.26 × 1017 s = current age of Universe
energy level to a previous energy level.
For example, if a person is exactly 62 years
Making t = t a (current time in the life of the old ( t a = 1.928 × 10 9 s ), and wants to revert
person), and after t = t R (reversal time * , see its Soul energy to the energy that it had at 5
Fig.4) into Eq. (34), we obtain the following years ago (57 years old, t R = 1.774 × 10 9 s ),
expressions then the value of χ S , according Eq.(39),
must be given by
(35) χ S = e4π b (t −t ) ≅ e51.32 ≅ 1.9 ×1022 (40)
2 2 2
−4π
mia0( S ) = mimax
0 ( S )e
b ta 2 2 2
a
2
R
and
Equation (31) shows that, in order to
(36)
2 2 2
−4π
miR0( S ) = mimax
0 ( S )e
b tR
obtain χ S = −1.9 × 10 22 , is necessary to apply
on the Soul (body) an electromagnetic
By dividing Eq.(35) by Eq. (36), we get radiation with frequency f and power density
D, given by
mia0 ( S ) = miR0 ( S )e −4π b (ta −t R ) (37 ) D ≅ 300 f (41 )
2 2 2 2
critical value Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2 ). Since tRmax = 5.282×108 s ≅ 17years. Therefore, a return
we can relate the radiation density, D , with of approximately 13 years, in the soul energy
the intensity of the electric field, E , by level. Note that, the maximum return possible,
means of the following expression ~ 13.8 years , occurs for t a ≅ 29 years .
D = n r E 2 2 μ 0 c [23], then, considering that
the value of electric field in the forehead of a
person (when emitting delta waves) is
E = V r , where V is the local electric
potential (for ordinary persons V ≈ 150 μV
Delta waves
[24]), and r is the radius of the sphere with
the same volume of the brain (r ≈ 0.1m ) ,
then we can write that
E2 V2
D= = ≈ 10 −9 W / m 2 << Dmin
2 μ 0 c 2 μ 0 cr 2
References
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