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The NEC (1987, 250-83-3) requires a minimum of 8 ft (2. M) to be in contact with the soil. The most common is a 10 ft (3 m) cylindrical rod which meets the code. A minimum diameter of 5 / 8 inch (1. Cm) is required for steel rods.
The NEC (1987, 250-83-3) requires a minimum of 8 ft (2. M) to be in contact with the soil. The most common is a 10 ft (3 m) cylindrical rod which meets the code. A minimum diameter of 5 / 8 inch (1. Cm) is required for steel rods.
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The NEC (1987, 250-83-3) requires a minimum of 8 ft (2. M) to be in contact with the soil. The most common is a 10 ft (3 m) cylindrical rod which meets the code. A minimum diameter of 5 / 8 inch (1. Cm) is required for steel rods.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Formati disponibili
Scarica in formato DOC, PDF, TXT o leggi online su Scribd
Size:Increasing the diameter of the rod does not materially reduce its resis- t ance. Doubli ng the di am et er r educes resistance by less than 10% (Figur e 10). Depth: As a ground rod is dri ven deeper i nto t he eart h, its r esistance is sub- st anti al ly reduced. In general , doubli ng the r od length reduces the resistance by an additional 40% (Figure 11). The NEC (1987, 250-83-3) requires a mini- mum of 8 ft (2.4 m) to be in contact with the soil.The most common is a 10 ft (3 m) cylindrical rod which meets the NEC code.A minimum diameter of5/8 inch (1.59 cm) is required for steel rods and 1/2 inch (1.27 cm) for cop-per or copper clad steel rods (NEC 1987, 250-83-2). Minimum practical diam-eters for driving limitations for 10 ft (3 m) r ods are: •1/2 inch (1.27 cm) in average soil •5/8 inch (1.59 cm) in moist soil •3/4 inch (1.91 cm) in hard soil or more than 10 ft driving depths NOTES FIG URE 1 0 FIG URE 1 1 G rounding Nomograp h 1.Select required resistance on Rscale. 2.Select apparent resistivity on Pscale. 3.Lay straightedge on Rand P scale,and allow to intersect with Kscale. 4. M a rk K scale point. 5. Lay st raight edge on K s cale point & DIA s cale,and al low to inters ect wi th D s cale. 6 . P o i nt o n D s c a l e w i l l b e r o d d e p t h r e q u i r e d f o r r e s i s t a n c e o n R s c a l e . GROUND RESISTANCE VALU ES NEC® 250-84 (1987): Resistance of man-made electr odes: “A single electrode consisting of a rod, pipe, or plate which does not have a resistance to ground of 25 ohms or less shall be augmented by one addition - al rod of any of the types specified in section 250-81 or 250-83. Where multi-ple rod, pipe or plate electrodes are installed to meet the requirements of thissection, they shall be not less than 6 ft (1.83 m) apart.” The National Electrical Code® (NEC) states that the resistance to ground s hall not exceed 25 ohm s.This is an upper limi t and guidel ine, since much lower resistance is required in many instances. “How low in resistance should a ground be?” An arbitrary answer to this inohms is difficult. The lower the gr ound resistance, the safer; and for positive prot ecti on of personnel and equi pment , it is worth the ef fort to aim for less than one ohm. It is generally impractical to r each such a low resistance along a distribution system or a transmission line or in small substations. In some NOTES FIG URE 1 2
regions, resistances of 5 ohms or less may be obtained without much tr
ouble. In other regions, it may be dif ficult to bring resistance of driven grounds below 100 ohms. Accepted industry standard s stipulate that transmission substations should be designed not to exceed 1Ω. In distribution substations, the maximum rec- ommended resistance is for 5 ohms or even 1 ohm. In most cases, the buriedgrid system of any substation will pr ovide the desired resistance. In light industrial or in telecommunication central of fices, 5Ω is often theaccepted value. For lightning protection, the arrestors should be coupledwith a maximum ground resistance of 1Ω. These param et ers can usual ly be met wi th the pr oper application of basicgrounding theory. There will always exist cir cumstances which will makeit difficult to obtain the gr ound resistance required by the NEC® or othersafety standards. When these situations develop, several methods of loweringthe groundresistance can be employed. These include parallel rodsystems, deep driven rod systems utilizing sectional r ods, and chemical treatment of the soil.Additional methods discussed in other publisheddata are buried plates, buried conductors (counterpoise), electricallyconnected building steel, and electrically connected concr ete reinforced steel. Electrically connecting to existing water and gas distribution systems was often considered to yield low ground resistance; however, recent design changes utili zi ng non-metall ic pipes and insul at ing joi nts have made thi s m et hod of obt ai ni ng a low r esi st ance ground questi onable and i n many i nst ances unreli able. The measurement of ground resistances may only be accomplished withspecially designed test equipment. Most instruments use the fall-of-potentialprinciple of alternating current (AC) circulating between an auxiliary elec-trode and the ground electrode under test. The reading will be given in ohms,and represents the resistance of the ground electrode to the surroundingearth. AEMC has also recently introduced clamp-on ground resistance testers. Note: The National Electrical Code® and NEC® are registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association. NOTES 1 INTRODUCTION A bus is a critical element of a power system, as it is thepoint of convergence of many circuits, transmission,generation, or loads. The effect of a single bus fault isequivalent to many simultaneous faults and usually,due to the concentration of supply circuits, involveshigh-current magnitudes. High-speed bus protection isoften required to limit the damaging effects onequipment and system stability or to maintain serviceto as much load as possible. The bus protectiondescribed refers to protection at the bus location,independent of equipment at remote locations. Differential protection is the most sensitive andreliable method for protecting a station bus. Thephasor summation of all the measured current enteringand leaving the bus must be 0 unless there is a faultwithin the protective zone. For a fault not in theprotective zone, the instantaneous direction of at leastone current is opposite to the others, and the sum ofthe currents in is identical to the sum out. A fault onthe bus provides a path for current flow that is notincluded in these summations. This is called thedifferential current. Detection of a difference exceedingthe predictable errors in the comparison is oneimportant basis for bus relaying. In dealing with high-voltage power systems, therelay is dependent on the current transformers in theindividual circuits to provide information to it regard-ing the high-voltage currents.Figure 11- 1 showstypical examples of the location of current transfor-mers that are used for this purpose. The arrowheadsindicate the reference direction of the currents.
1.1Current Transformer Saturation Problem
and Its Solutions on Bus Protection Bus differential relaying is complicated by the fact thatfor an external fault on one circuit, all of the othercircuits connected to the bus contribute to that fault.The current through the circuit breaker for the faultedcircuit will be substantially higher than that for any ofthe other circuits. With this very high current flowingthrough the current transformer and its circuit breaker,there is a very high likelihood that some degree ofsaturation will occur. A saturated current transformerwill not deliver its appropriate current to the bus relay.With the lower currents in the other circuits for thisexternal fault, the degree of saturation is expected to beconsiderably lower. This may lead to a large differ-ential current that will tend to cause the relay to sensean internal fault rather than the actual external faultthat exists. The relay must accommodate this errorcurrent without misoperation. A widely used equivalent diagram for a currenttransformer appears inFigure 11-3b. It consists of aperfect transformation from the high current side tothe low current side (e.g., 600:5). All of the significantimperfections are lumped into Rp, R s, and Xm. The Rsrepresents the internal secondary resistance of the ct(current transformer), and the X represents a currentpath that accommodates the exciting requirements.The ct is assumed to have a uniformly distributedwinding and, therefore, to manifest no significantleakage reactance. When the ct is subjected to excessive flux, the ct is said to ‘‘saturate,’’ meaning that the core of the ct ha
Figure11-1Common bus arrangements with relay input sources
been forced to carry more flux than it can handle. Theflux then spills into the area surrounding the core,causing the magnetizing reactance to have a muchlower value than normal. It can be seen that anycurrent that flows in X subtracts from the perfectlytransformed current, producing a deficiency in thecurrent that is delivered to the devices connected to thect. The black blocks are the polarity markers. A singlepolarity marker has no significance. With two, it isacknowledged that, at the instant of time at whichcurrent is flowinginto the polarity marker on the highcurrent side of the ct, current is flowingout of thepolarity marker on the low current side. Of course, thecurrent reverses every half cycle, but both the high andlow reverse together. Direct current saturation is much more serious thanac saturation because a relatively small amount of dcfrom an asymmetrical fault wave will saturate thecurrent transformer core and appreciably reduce thesecondary output. The L/R ratio of the power-systemimpedance, which determines the decay of the dccomponent of fault current, should strongly influencethe selection of the bus protective relaying. Typically,the dc time constants for the different circuit elementscan vary from 0.01sec for lines to 0.3sec or more forgenerating plants. The nearer a bus location is to astrong source of generation, the greater the L/R ratioand the slower the decay of the resulting dc componentof fault current. Of the several available methods for solving theunequal performance of current transformers, four arein common use: 1.Eliminating the problem by eliminating iron inthe current transformer [a linear coupler (LC)system] 2.Using a multirestraint, variable-percentage dif-ferential relay which is specifically designed tobe insensitive to dc saturation (CA-16 relaysystem) 3.Using a high impedance differential relay with aseries resonant circuit to limit sensitivity to ctsaturation (KAB relay system) 4.Using a Differential Comparator relay withmoderately high impedance to limit sensitivityto ct saturation (RED-521) 1.2Information Required for the Preparation of a Bus Protective Scheme Some bus protection schemes rely on the operation of a remote breaker. It is simple and economic, but slow (zone-2 trip) and may interrupt unnecessarily a tappedload. When local bus protection is applied, thefollowing information is required for the schemeselection, relay selection, and setting calculations: 1.Information about the bus configuration isrequired. The common bus arrangements areas shown inFigure 11- 1, such as single bus,double bus, main-and-transfer bus, ring bus,breaker and a half, bus tie-breaker, double-bus-single-breaker, etc. 2.Maximum and minimum bus fault currents(single-phase-to-ground fault and three-phasefault) 3.Current transformer information, including Current transformer location Current transformer ratios Current transformer accuracy class Current transformer saturation curves 4.Operating speed requirement 1.3Normal Practices on Bus Protection The normal practices on bus protection are 1.There is one set of bus relays per bus section. 2.Use a dedicated ct for bus differential protec-tion. If possible, the connection of meters,auxiliary ct’s, and other relays in differential-type bus schemes should be avoided since thesedevices introduce an additional burden into themain circuit. 3.Lead resistance, as well as ct winding resistance,contributes to ct saturation. Therefore, thelength of secondary lead runs should be heldto a minimum. 4.Usually, the full-ct secondary winding tapshould be used. This has two advantages. Itminimizes the burden effect of the cable and,second, leads by minimizing the secondarycurrent and makes use of the full- voltagecapability of the ct. 5.Normally, there is no bus relay required for thetransfer bus on a main-and-transfer busarrangement. The transfer bus is normallydeenergized and will be included in the mainbus section when it is energized. 6.No bus relay is required for a ring bus becausethe bus section between each pair of circuitbreakers is protected as a part of the connectedcircuit 7.Special arrangements should be considered ifthere is any other apparatus, such as stationservice transformers, capacitor banks, ground-ing transformers, or surge arresters, inside thebus differential zone. 8.There is no simple scheme available for a double-bus-single-breaker arrangement (Fig. 11-1e),because its current transformers are normally located on the line side. Theseapplications greatly benefit from numericalschemes, such as the RED-521. (Refer to Sec.9 of this chapter for more information.) 2BUS DIFFERENTIAL RELAYING WITH OVERCURRENT RELAYS 2.1Overcurrent Differential Protection This differential scheme requires that a time-over-current relay be paralleled with all of the currenttransformers for a particular phase, as shown in Figure 11-2.It is permissible to use auxiliary ct’s to match ratios, but it is preferred that all of the ct’s havethe same ratio on the tap chosen and that the use ofauxiliary ct’s be avoided. In this scheme, the overcurrent relay must be set tooverride the maximum error current that results froman external fault (phase or ground). It may also benecessary to have sufficient time delay to refrain fromtripping during the time that one or more of thecurrent transformers is severely saturated by the dccomponent of the primary current. To assure this,using a simple overcurrent relay, the current transfor- mers must be chosen to have no more than 20 timesrated current flowing in their primary for the worst-case external fault, and each have a burden no morethan the rated value (relaying-accuracy-class voltage/100). The operating time of the relay must not be less than three primary time constants, and its setting mustbe greater than the exciting current of the currenttransformer under worst-case conditions. This mayrequire a setting of 10 or more amperes and a timesetting of, say, 18 cycles. These values may beacceptable for smaller substation buses, but moresophistication and faster relaying speed are generallymandatory for more extensive and higher- voltage buses. In these applications a ‘‘short time’’ or ‘‘extremelyinverse’’ characteristic overcurrent relay is used in theinterests of getting faster tripping speeds at highcurrent. Operating times of 8 to 18 cycles are expected.Although the relay cost is low, the engineering costmay be high because of the usual need for considerablestudy for the application to assure correct operation. 2.2Improved Overcurrent Differential Protection The sensitivity of the overcurrent differential scheme(Fig. 11-2) can be improved by externally connecting aseries resistor with each overcurrent relay, as shown in Figure 11-3.These resistors are called stabilizing resistors. If we assume that an external fault causesthe ct on the faulted feeder to be saturated completely,the ct excitation reactance will approach 0. As showninFigure 11-3, the error current Idthat flows through Figure 11-2The overcurrent differential bus protection. Figure 11-3The improved overcurrent differential bus protection
the overcurrent unit would be
Id¼ IF 2RLþ RS 2RLþ RSþ Rd ð11-1Þ where Rdis the resistance in the differential path. In order to reduce the error current Id in thedifferential path for improving the sensitivity of thescheme, the most effective way is to increase the valueof Rd. The limitations of this additional resistance aredetermined by (1) the overvoltage to the ct circuit and(2) the minimum available internal fault current. Itshould be limited to Rd¼ VCL 46IminpickupO ð11-2Þ Note: The multiplier 4 includes a safety factor of 2
3MULTIRESTRAINT DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEM
Multirestraint differential schemes use conventionalcurrent transformers, which may saturate on heavyexternal faults. For this reason, the secondary currentoutput may not represent the primary. In a differentialscheme, the current transformers and relay function asa team. When the current transformers do not performadequately, the relay can within limits make up for thedeficiency. The multirestraint differential scheme uses the CA-16 variable-percentage differential relay, which con- sists of three induction restraint units and oneinduction operating unit per phase. Two of the unitsare placed opposite each other and operate on acommon disc. In turn, the two discs are connected to acommon shaft with the moving contacts. All four ofthe units are unidirectional; that is, current flow ineither direction through the windings generates con-tact-opening torque for the restraint units or contact-closing torque for the operating unit. Each restraintunit (called R, S, and T) also has two windings toprovide restraint proportional to the sum or difference,depending on the direction of the current flow. If thecurrents in the two paired windings are equal andopposite, the restraint is cancelled. Thus, the pairedrestraint windings have a polarity with respect to eachother. With this method six restraint windings areavailable per phase. In addition to providing multiple restraint, thevariable-percentage characteristic helps in overcomingcurrent transformer errors. At light fault currents,current transformer performance is good, and the percentage is small for maximum sensitivity. For heavyexternal faults, current transformer performance islikely to be poor, and the percentage is large. Thevariable-percentage characteristic is obtained by ener- gizing the operating unit through a built-in saturatingautotransformer. The saturating autotransformer also presents a highimpedance to the false differential current, which tendsto limit the current through the operating coil and toforce more equal saturation of the current transfor-mers. On internal faults, in which a desirable highdifferential current exists, saturation reduces theimpedance. A further advantage of the saturatingautotransformer is that it provides a very effectiveshunt for the dc component, appreciably reducing thedc sensitivity of the operating units. At the minimumpickup current of 0.15+ 5% A, the restraining coilsare ineffective. When using the CA-16 relay, the current transfor-mers should not saturate when carrying the maximumexternal symmetrical fault current; that is, the excitingcurrent should not exceed one secondary ampere rms.This requirement is met if the burden impedance doesnot exceed ½NPVCL À ðIEXT À100ÞŠRS 1:33 IEXT ð11-3Þ where NP¼ proportion of total current transformer turns in use VCL¼ current transformer accuracy-class voltage IEXT¼ maximum external symmetrical fault currentin secondary (amperes rms) (use IEXT¼ 100if IEXT< 100) RS¼ current transformer secondary winding resis-tance of the turns in use (in ohms); forexample, if the 400:5 tap of a 600:5 wye-connected class C200 current transformer isused, then NP¼ 400/600 ¼ 0.67 and VCL¼ 200 If IEXT¼ 120A and RS¼ 0.5O, then the burden ofthe ct’s secondary circuit, excluding current transfor- mer secondary winding resistance, should not exceed 0:676200À ð 120À 100Þ0:5 1:336120 ¼ 0:78O Settings for the CA-16 relay need not be calculated.Field experience indicates that one CA-16 relay perphase is satisfactory for the vast majority of applica-tions