Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Narratives of a tourism
destination: Local particularities
and their implications for place
marketing and branding
Received (in revised form): 13th March 2010
Maria Lichrou
is a lecturer in the Department of Management and Marketing at the University of Limerick. She has recently completed her
PhD research on Marketing and Consumption of Place. Her research interests focus on the relationships between place
marketing and consumer culture and on the use of narrative methodologies in marketing and consumer research.
Lisa O’Malley
is a PhD and a senior lecturer in Marketing at the University of Limerick, where she teaches Marketing Theory, Relationship
Marketing and Marketing Management. Her research interests include the impact of marketing on society, alternative
marketing paradigms and consumption and identity. Lisa has published in the Journal of Business Research, the European
Journal of Marketing, the Journal of Marketing Management, Marketing Theory and the Journal of Strategic Marketing. She is
on the editorial board of Journal of Marketing Management and Marketing Theory.
Maurice Patterson
lectures on Advertising and Consumption at the University of Limerick. Much of his research is positioned at the intersection
of consumption, embodiment and identity. In particular, he is concerned with how naturalised ideas about gender become
written on the skin, and how consumption is both implicated in this process and may offer a critique of it. His publications
have appeared in Consumption, Markets and Culture, the European Journal of Marketing, the Journal of Marketing
Management, Marketing Theory and a variety of other scholarly outlets. He is on the editorial board of the Journal of Consumer
Behaviour.
ABSTRACT This article presents an investigation into local narratives of place and
their implications for place marketers and policymakers. It first examines the key
challenges involved in marketing places in general and tourism destinations in
particular. Following this, it presents, through a narrative methodology, the views
of local stakeholders of the island of Santorini, Greece, in relation to their experience
of the place’s rapid transformation into a tourism destination. Drawing on the local
narratives of place and their theorising of local particularities, the article discusses
important implications for place marketing, including the political challenges and
the role of place image in successful place branding.
Place Branding and Public Diplomacy (2010) 6, 134–144. doi:10.1057/pb.2010.10
Correspondence:
Maria Lichrou
Department of Management and INTRODUCTION (2004), place marketing efforts of local,
Marketing, Kemmy Business
School, University of Limerick,
Tourism is not the only objective of place regional and national governments involve
Ireland marketing. According to Papadopoulos a variety of objectives such as country
© 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144
www.palgrave-journals.com/pb/
Narratives of a tourism destination
© 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144 135
Lichrou et al
136 © 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144
Narratives of a tourism destination
how the development of heritage attractions in Table 1: Participants’ pseudonyms and profiles
the promotion of post-industrial cities, as Pseudonym Age Occupation
tourism destinations, creates spatial narratives
Mr Kondaratos Early 50s Tourism entrepreneur
by assigning a certain set of values to the Mr Valvis Late 30s Oenologist
townscape. Finally, Santos (2004) analyses Mr Venieris Early 40s Politician, local authorities
Mr Tripolitis Mid-50s Senior manager,
travel articles as powerful narratives that are agricultural sector
involved in making sense of the various Mr Koronellos Early 50s Tourism entrepreneur
Mr Papadopoulos Early 40s Senior manager,
tourist destinations by the readers. Thus, agricultural sector
narrative is a useful conceptual tool for the Mr Kavadias Early 30s Tourism entrepreneur
Mr Argyros Early 40s Tradesman
diverse interpretations of place meanings, Mr Argyriou Late 30s Journalist
which are important to marketers, Mr Chryssos Early 50s Politician, local authorities
consumers and other social actors involved Mr Markozanis Mid-50s Politician, local authorities
Mrs Venetsanou Early 30s Manager, winemaking
in a place. sector
Mr Panayiotopoulos Late 40s Senior administrator,
public sector
Mr Petalas Late 40s Entrepreneur
METHODOLOGY Mr Karydis Late 40s Senior administrator,
public sector
The narrative perspective advocated here treats Mr Arvanitis Early 50s Entrepreneur
the interview as a narrative production site Mr Karras Late 60s Farmer
Mr Mavromatis Early 40s Oenologist
(Czarniawska, 2004). The research consisted of Mrs Danezi Late 60s Pensioner
22 phenomenological interviews (Thompson Mr Gavalas Mid-50s Retired politician, local
et al, 1989; Kvale, 1996) with local residents of authorities
Mr Varotsis Mid-50s Retired politician, local
the island of Santorini over a period of 4 weeks authorities
between June and September 2004. The Mrs Alexiou Late 30s Administrator, public
sector
participants included both ‘experts’ – such as
local authority and industry representatives –
and other residents, including the elderly.
Furthermore, they were involved in diverse Aegean region, a primary destination of Greece
sectors of the island, including local authorities, (Terkenli, 2005), it is an iconic tourism
tourism trade, agriculture, public services and destination – emblematic of Greece on an
the local media (Table 1). In order to elicit international level – for both Greeks and
narratives, the discussions revolved around a foreigners. Furthermore, its economy is highly
temporal context, that is, earlier memories, dependent on tourism, which developed into
experience of change, current situation and the main activity on the island. Tourism has
visions of the future. The interviews were been a relatively recent phenomenon (the
analysed, first, individually, employing the development of tourism as an organised activity
content-holistic narrative analysis proposed by begun, according to the participants, in the
Lieblich et al (1998). The emergent themes 1970s) that has brought about rapid changes
were then used in order to analyse the within the time span of one generation. Since
individual themes into categories across the the beginning of the millennium, the island is
interviews, thus employing the categorical- facing a number of challenges because of its
content approach to narrative analysis (Lieblich rapid tourism development, which have
et al, 1998). This article presents the key triggered intense local theorising. Thus, it
themes that emerged in the local narratives in presents an excellent opportunity for the
relation to the present challenges and future investigation of place marketing challenges and
visions. prospects as experienced and viewed by local
The case of Santorini Island, Greece, was stakeholders. These issues and their implications
selected as an appropriate context for the for place marketing are presented in the
purpose of the study. First, located in the remainder of the article.
© 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144 137
Lichrou et al
138 © 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144
Narratives of a tourism destination
words of one participant, the development of agriculture, and specifically by the rapid
Santorini portrays a ‘third world character’ increase in building. This has lead to the
(Valvis). distortion of traditional architecture and the
expansion of the spatial boundaries of
Karydis: Because, here in Santorini, there has
settlements. Participants used terms such as
been, I would say, an anarchic capitalism. That is,
‘optical pollution’ (Alexiou) and ‘building
the development of the island took place without
pollution’ (Mavromatis). In addition,
rhythm and control. And this has left a lot of
participants expressed sustainability concerns in
things in a problematic condition, that is narrow
relation to the building practices taking place.
roads, non-existent town plans, and even where
they existed they didn’t have the appropriate Gavalas: … if you take a walk and have a
outcome and uhm … at the same time we very look around Santorini, you will see that new
often lose our sense of proportion, because the buildings continuously crop up, new shops
rapid profit-making doesn’t really help us towards are continuously built, and monstrosities are
thinking about where we will end up … continuously constructed, without any control.
This is the great misfortune of Santorini.
Another concern in relation to the lack of
strategic planning and policymaking is the
Petalas: Unfortunately we will be accused for
unbalanced development between tourism and
this, at least us parents, for these things that we
other sectors. Agriculture and viniculture in
are leaving to our children. We will be accused,
particular – traditional activities on the island –
and very much, for this downfall that we have
have experienced a decrease since the
left, either because we build rooms illegally or
development of tourism and efforts have been
because of this shameless building …
taking place for their preservation and growth
(Kafouros, 2001). One participant explained
that ‘the young generation does not continue Complex local particularities
farming, exactly because there is this sweat The lack of adequate policy framework is a
involved’ (Venetsanou). prevalent discourse in Greece, recently reflected
in tourism research. For example, according to
Markozanis: This little island that you see today
Buhalis (2001), it is a major challenge in
and it has an abandoned land, in the 1960, 64
relation to Greece’s competitiveness as a
that I was 14 years old – in 64 I experienced
tourism destination. This, he argues, calls for
closely some things – all this plain that you
the development of strategic planning to ensure
see around, all of it used to be cultivated. It
the place’s competitiveness (Buhalis, 2001).
produced the little tomato, the very beautiful,
However, in order to develop effective policies
and even today hard to find, ok? It produced
and strategies, place marketers and policymakers
barley, it produced wheat, it produced
need to take into account the local
vegetables, today all these things have been
particularities that shape the current realities of
abandoned, why? Because people put priority
each place (for example, Galani-Moutafi, 2004).
on the easy solution of tourism – and I can’t
Participants’ narratives revealed not only
blame them.
considerable local theorising in relation to the
current challenges of Santorini, but also
Visual impact reflection in relation to the particular socio-
A theme that was particularly strong in the political contexts that shaped the current
participants’ narratives is the visual impact situation. These involve notions of the ‘Greek
associated with the aforementioned issues. The Mentality’, stemming from a fundamental luck
current landscape image embodies the lack of of trust towards the authorities and from past
effort coordination and long-term planning. It practices following the needs of the locals at
is heavily affected by the decrease in the beginning of tourism development.
© 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144 139
Lichrou et al
Petty politics and the ‘Greek However this is not the purpose, the purpose of
mentality’ the state – and it is right and my personal view
In a discussion of the ‘Greek mentality’, a is that it was even late to issue this, this should
complex combination of short-termism and lack had taken place 5 years ago – is that it forces us
of trust to policies and regulations proposed and to upgrade our services.
implemented by the authorities – and ultimately
rule-bending practices, one participant Past choices, pressurising needs and
sarcastically noted: ‘This needs research by a lasting practices
psychologist and by a sociologist too most The issue of the ‘Greek Mentality’ was recently
likely … ’ (Venieris). ‘Petty politics’ is at the identified by Papageorgiou (2008) in his
heart of this theme. Following this, petty investigation of the interactions between British
politics have always been an obstacle in the tour operators, Greek hoteliers and GNTO
development and the implementation of officials. This mentality creates a negative image
policies. of Greece as a backward and unreliable business
environment (Papageorgiou, 2008). In the case
Varotsis: There never, there never was in reality of Santorini, participants’ stories provide
tourism policy, and even if GNTO1 wanted to associations of the ‘Greek mentality’ with the
create – or some people in GNTO – one, this rural past of the island, a small agricultural
has always been infringed by the uhm … petty community, which rapidly developed into a
politics, that is, not to offend now a class [of tourism destination.
people] or certain people whom if we offend
today we won’t be getting their votes tomorrow Panayiotopoulos: … uhm … in such a place
or we will create discontents etc. and so it didn’t that was a very poor place – we are not talking
happen. That is, tourism policy never depended about the 5 families [who were] the ruling
on some programme which would be enforced class, all the others were under the pressures
and controlled etc. of poverty […] What we call institution and
conscience, legislation, principles, did not exist.
Tripolitis: This is a shame. This is a shame. This What existed was the informal bond within the
is the State’s fault. Because of politics it does not social structure let’s say, the relation, the friend,
move forwards, because those who are senseless giving one’s word and that was it. Now the law
[…] are pressurising the government not to says that you need to get a permit […] or ‘this
move forward. construction is ugly’. The law says this, because
some experts have looked at this. ‘To hell with
Furthermore, the authorities are perceived as the law’ he says [the local], ‘the law is there in
untrustworthy and this impacts the locals’ order to strangle me, the law is something bad’.
commitment to the regulations and policies that
they attempt to put forward. For instance, a Overlooking regulations was once deemed
participant mentioned how an ex-minister built appropriate in order to help families earn a
a house on the island without complying with living. Such practices, however, not only
certain building regulations (Markozanis). This survived, but also shaped a lasting mentality and
is particularly critical from a place marketing conscience in the minds of the locals. Tourism
point of view, as the policies proposed by the opened up opportunities for people to return to
local authorities and the national government the island, after having emigrated to Athens and
are treated with suspicion. other centres, to make a good living. In the
words of one participant discussing those
Kondaratos: They see it with suspicion involved in the tourism industry, ‘for the most
[the proposed scheme for upgrading rental part these are families that make their living’
apartments], ‘they want to take from us again’, (Koronellos). In addition, such practices (such
uhm, ‘they need money and they seek to get it’. as rule-bending behaviours in terms of building
140 © 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144
Narratives of a tourism destination
© 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144 141
Lichrou et al
has a long history and is strongly linked to the on the imageable and scenic aspects of a place,
image of the island. the absence of which make it difficult to brand
(Hospers, 2009).
Papadopoulos: It [viniculture] is the future of
Second, the narratives revolved around the
tourism and the future of the preservation of the
theme of local particularities. This revealed
environment, and the development of tourism
concerns in relation to the ‘Greek mentality’,
and the quality improvement of tourism, it is
a long established way in which people relate
directly linked to viniculture, because either
to the local and national authorities. This
way … Santorini is a viniculture area and its
involves a lack of trust towards the government
basic cultivation is the vineyard. These go
and the unwillingness to conform to the
together.
policies and regulations introduced by
policymakers, as they are seen to be in contrast
IMPLICATIONS AND with ‘pressurising peoples’ needs’. Participants
CONCLUSIONS theorised this mentality as being rooted in the
In the introduction to the first issue of Place socio-historical circumstances of Santorini. The
Branding, Simon Anholt argues that place issue of ‘Greek mentality’ with its negative
branding ‘is not something you add on top: associations is again problematic, as it is often
it is something that goes underneath’ (2005, the basis for negative associations of Greeks
p. 121, emphasis added). Following this, place abroad (for example, Papageorgiou, 2008). As
branding is not simply about designing Freire suggests, perceptions of local people are an
attractive logos and catchy slogans, but it is important dimension of the image of place brands
more about the public sector embracing culture (Freire, 2009). Furthermore, such mentalities are
and society with economics and politics also implicated in the undesirable effects on the
(Anholt, 2005). Local narratives provide useful built image of the island discussed earlier.
insights in relation to the complex realities Third, participants’ future visions of Santorini
‘underneath’ a place. In other words, they reveal their wishes for appropriate public sector
reveal aspects of the contested and dynamic intervention and for ‘social consent’ so that
processes and local particularities involved in the policies can succeed. Pike has argued that
the multifaceted reality of place. Such processes community consensus is an important issue in
are the sources of challenges and opportunities place branding, as a top-down approach is
for place marketers and brand managers. likely to fail (Pike, 2005).
A first theme that emerged from local Finally, participants’ future visions
stakeholder narratives concerns the political encompassed the twin objective of looking
challenge inherent in place marketing. The forward through abandoning problematic
perceived lack of adequate, and/or appropriate, mentalities and attitudes from the past (what
government involvement results in grievances participants termed the ‘Greek mentality’) and
in relation to what participants described as developing innovative expertise while
uncoordinated and ‘out of control’ rediscovering the island’s rural past, that is local
development. If, following Anholt’s (2008) forms of knowledge and practice (for example,
argument, place branding is about a places in the form of traditional customs and trades)
engegement with the outside world in a clear, that they wish to preserve. The latter was
coordinated and communicative way, the expressed through a renewed interest in
political challenges of place need to be traditional culture and customs. Pickering and
addressed. Furthermore, participants perceived Keightley (2006) discuss the critical role that a
this to be reflected in the changes that are progressive nostalgia can play in the relationship
taking place with regard to the island’s image. between the past and the future. They see
This is particularly problematic from the progressive nostalgia as a tool that allows
perspective of place branding, which capitalises productive and active uses of the past and its
142 © 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144
Narratives of a tourism destination
engagement in the present and future. Hence, Cary Hom, S. (2004) The tourist moment. Annals of Tourism
Research 31(1): 61–77.
progressive nostalgia can be a useful concept Crane, A. and Desmond, J. (2002) Societal marketing and
for place marketers, who usually have to use morality. European Journal of Marketing 36(5–6): 144–154.
existing elements and historical identities of Czarniawska, B. (1998) A Narrative Approach in Organization
Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
place (for example, Hall, 2008), in their place Czarniawska, B. (2004) Narratives in Social Science Research.
branding efforts. London: Sage.
De Chernatony, L. and Dall Olmo Riley, F. (1998) Defining
NOTES a ‘Brand’: Beyond the literature with experts interpretations.
Journal of Marketing Management 14(5): 417–443.
1 Greek National Tourism Organisation. Freire, J.R. (2009) ‘Local People’ a critical dimension for place
2 Canava is a family’s group of installations, brands. Brand Management 16(7): 420–438.
Galani-Moutafi, V. (2004) Tourism research on Greece:
housing mainly the wine-making activities.
A critical overview. Annals of Tourism Research 31(1):
Normally it was dug into the workable Thiran 157–179.
rock, then built up with stone and mud, with Goodwin, M. (1993) The city as commodity: The contested
at least two wine presses, for black or white spaces of urban development. In: G. Kearns and C. Philo
(eds.) Selling Places: The City as Cultural Capital, Past and
grapes and built-in benches to support barrels Present. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 145–162.
(afoures) holding around 1400 litres. A further Gotham, K.F. (2002) Marketing Mardi Gras: Commodification,
area, the ‘rakidio’, was set aside for preparing spectacle and the political economy of tourism in new
Orleans. Urban Studies 39(10): 1735–1756.
‘tsikoudia’ and distilling, and another space Hall, C.M. (1997) Geography, marketing and the selling of
for producing tomato paste (http://www places. In: M. Opperman (ed.) Geography and Tourism
.canavaroussos.gr/uk/company.html). Marketing. London: Haworth Press, pp. 61–84.
Hall, C.M. (2000) Tourism Planning: Policies, Processes and
Relationships. Harlow, UK: Prentice Hall.
Hall, C.M. (2008) Servicescapes, designscapes, branding, and
REFERENCES the creation of place-identity: South of Litchfield,
Anholt, S. (2005) Some important distinctions in place Christchurch. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 25(3–4):
branding. Place Branding 1(2): 116–121. 233–250.
Anholt, S. (2008) Place branding: Is it marketing, or isn’t it? Hankinson, G. (2004) The brand images of tourism destinations:
Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4(1): 1–6. A study of the saliency of organic images. Journal of Product
Ashworth, G. and Voogd, H. (1990a) Can places be sold for & Brand Management 13(1): 6–14.
tourism. In: G. Ashworth and B. Goodall (eds.) Marketing Haywood, K.M. (1990) Revising and implementing the
Tourism Places. London: Routledge, pp. 1–16. marketing concept as it applies to tourism. Tourism
Ashworth, G. and Voogd, H. (1990b) Selling the City: Marketing Management (3): 195–205.
Approaches in Public Sector Urban Planning. London: Hopkinson, G.C. and Hogarth-Scott, S. (2001) What happened
Belhaven. was … broadening the Agenda for storied research. Journal
Bendix, R. (2002) Capitalizing on memories past, present, and of Marketing Management 17(1): 27–48.
future. Anthropological Theory 2(4): 469–487. Hospers, G. (2009) Lynch, Urry and city marketing: Taking
Boje, D.M. (1995) Stories of the storytelling organisation: A advantage of the city as a built and graphic image. Place
postmodern analysis of Disney as Tamara-Land. Academy of Branding and Public Diplomacy 5(3): 226–233.
Management Journal 38(4): 997–1035. Jamal, T.B. and Getz, D. (1995) Collaboration theory and
Bovaird, T. and Rubienska, A. (1996) The clashing cultures community tourism planning. Annals of Tourism Research
of marketing and organizational learning: Some emerging 22(1): 186–204.
contradictions in the public sector. Annals of Public and Kafouros, M.E. (2001) Agriculture, stock-raising, bee-keeping
Cooperative Economics 67(1): 51–83. and water resources. In: I.M. Danezis (ed.) Santorini: Thera,
Bramwell, B. and Lane, B. (2000) Collaborative tourism Therassia, Aspronissi, Volcanoes. Athens, Greece: Adam,
planning: Issues and future directions. In: B. Bramwell and pp. 477–487.
B. Lane (eds.) Tourism Collaborations and Partnerships: Politics, Kavaratzis, M. (2004) From city marketing to city branding:
Practice and Sustainability. Clevedon, UK: Channel View Towards a theoretical framework for developing city
Publications, pp. 333–341. brands. Place Branding 1(1): 58–73.
Buhalis, D. (2000) Marketing the competitive destination of Kavaratzis, M. (2005) Place branding: A review of trends and
the future. Tourism Management 21(1): 97–116. conceptual models. The Marketing Review 5(4): 329–342.
Buhalis, D. (2001) Tourism in Greece: Strategic analysis and Kerr, G. (2006) From destination brand to location brand.
challenges. Current Issues in Tourism 4(5): 440. Journal of Brand Management 13(4–5): 276–283.
Burns, P.M. (2004) Tourism planning: A third way? Annals of Kvale, S. (1996) InterViews. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Tourism Research 31(1): 24–43. Lichrou, M., O’Malley, L. and Patterson, M. (2008) Place-product
Canava Roussos. (2008). http://www.canavaroussos.gr/uk/ or place narratives(s)? Perspectives in the marketing of tourism
company.html, accessed April 2008. destinations. Journal of Strategic Marketing 16(1): 27–39.
© 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144 143
Lichrou et al
Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R. and Zilber, T. (1998) Narrative In: N. Morgan, A. Pritchard and R. Pride (eds.) Destination
Research: Reading Analysis and Interpretation. Thousand Oaks, Branding: Creating the Unique Destination Proposition. Oxford:
CA: Sage. Elsevier, pp. 79–110.
Meethan, K. (1996) Consuming (in) the civilised city. Annals Salzer-Mörling, M. and Strannegård, L. (2004) Silence
of Tourism Research 23(2): 322–340. of the brands. European Journal of Marketing 38(1–2):
Meethan, K. (2001) Tourism in Global Society: Place, Culture, 224–238.
Consumption. New York: Palgrave. Santos, A.C. (2004) Framing Portugal: Representational
Murphy, P., Mark, P. and Smith, B. (2000) The destination dynamics. Annals of Tourism Research 31(1): 122–138.
product and its impact on traveller perceptions. Tourism Sautter, E.T. and Leisen, B. (1999) Managing stakeholders: A
Management 21(1): 43–52. tourism planning model. Annals of Tourism Research 26(2):
Papadopoulos, N. (2004) Place branding: Evolution, meaning 312–328.
and implications. Place Branding 1(1): 36–49. Shankar, A., Elliot, R. and Goulding, C. (2001) Understanding
Papageorgiou, G.C. (2008) The human dimension of tourism: consumption: Contributions from a narrative perspective.
Supply-side perspectives. Annals of Tourism Research 35(1): Journal of Marketing Management 17(3/4): 429–453.
211–232. Stern, B.B., Thompson, C.J. and Arnould, E.J. (1998) Narrative
Patterson, M. and O’Malley, L. (2006) Brands, consumers and analysis of a marketing relationship: The consumers
relationships: A review. Irish Marketing Review 18(1/2): perspective. Psychology & Marketing 15(3): 195–214.
10–20. Stokowski, P.A. (2002) Language of place and discourses of
Pickering, M. and Keightley, E. (2006) The modalities of power: Constructing new senses of place. Journal of Leisure
nostalgia. Current Sociology 54(6): 919–941. Research 34(4): 368–382.
Pike, S. (2005) Tourism destination branding complexity. Terkenli, T.S. (2005) New landscape spatialities: The changing
Journal of Product & Brand Management 14(4): 258–259. scales of function and symbolism. Landscape and Urban
Robson, J. and Robson, I. (1996) From shareholders to Planning 70(1–2): 165–176.
stakeholders: Critical issues for tourism marketers. Tourism Thompson, C.J., Locander, W.B. and Pollio, H.R. (1989)
Management 17(7): 533–540. Putting consumer experience back into consumer research:
Ryan, C. (1991) Tourism and marketing – A symbiotic The philosophy and method of existential-phenomenology.
relationship? Tourism Management 12(2): 312–328. Journal of Consumer Research 16(2): 133–146.
Ryan, C. (2002) Equity, management, power sharing and Twitchell, J.B. (2004) An English teacher looks at branding.
sustainability – Issues of the new tourism. Tourism Journal of Consumer Research 31(September): 484–489.
Management 23(1): 17–26. Yuksel, F., Bramwell, B. and Yuksel, A. (1999) Stakeholder
Ryan, C. and Zahra, A. (2002) The political challenge: interviews and tourism planning at Pamukkale, Turkey.
The case of New Zealand’s tourism organisations. Tourism Management (3): 351–360.
144 © 2010 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Vol. 6, 2, 134–144
Copyright of Place Branding & Public Diplomacy is the property of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express
written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.