INTRODUCTION : FAC-IST

Institute of Space Technology (IST), following its vision of establishing state of the art
Centers of Excellence which would chart a path across all the academic
departments/programs of our institute, has established a Failure Analysis Center (FAC). The
FAC will not only provide a place for research to all the faculty and PhD/MS scholars, but will
also be a resource for providing solutions of materials related services to local industry and
various defense and strategic organizations. This initiative is expected to fill a large void, as
services being offered at FAC are currently not available in the country under a single
umbrella. Mainly utilizing the available resources at IST, the facility is being organized by
forming a small nucleus which would synergize among the departments, where resources and
expertise are scattered, to provide one window services for material related problems. It would
support a variety of industries by conducting Material Analysis (MA), Failure Analysis (FA),
Structural Integrity Assessment (SIA), Fatigue Life Estimation (FLE) and providing Material &
Process Advisory Services (MPAS). The facility, while still in its infancy, has already
commenced to provide consultancy in the following areas:
 Failure Analysis of metal parts/components/systems by applying “root cause approach”
with the aim to ensure avoidance of similar recurrences.
 Provision of advisory, services or both to the desirous manufactures for:
 Identifying/selecting metals & processes (including alternative solutions) essentially
required for developing parts/components either afresh or through reverse
engineering.
 Inspection of raw materials, on site processing of materials (including heat &
surface treatments) and the finished items.
 Estimation of the status of parts/components/systems with view to:
 Recommend necessary measures for their restoration (if required & possible).
 Determine the remaining “safe life period”, for their operational usage.
 Establish inspection criterion & intervals for parts/components/systems during their
“safe life period”.
 Training of Human Resource:
 Through formal programs at IST.
 On-site training on need basis.
In order to provide above stated services/advisory FAC has opted to follow modern trends
being practiced worldwide in such fields/domains. This approach suggests that:
 Only essentially required “state-of- the- art” facilities be established in house.
 A strong pragmatic collaborative network comprising of those organizations which
already have some authenticated facilities be formed for gaining benefits of their
expertise in specific areas and lowering the operational costs.
 A vibrant advisory board of domain experts (regardless of their geographical locations)
be formed for sharing & exchanging experiences
 Organizations must remain connected & engaged with international community of
practitioners & regulators of the domain, for remaining abreast with technological &
conceptual developments
FAC aims to enhance the scope of its advisory/services gradually, in a phased manner, to
assist variety of industries in solving materials related problems at national level.
 Fracture and Fractography
Fractography is the descriptive study of fracture surfaces using photographs, sketches, and text.
In fractography, the fractured surface of a failed component is examined for characteristic features
(fingerprints), which reveal the mechanical loading and environmental conditions acting on the metal.
Fractography is performed at macroscopic and microscopic levels of magnification. Macroscopic
examinations are performed with the naked eye, magnifying glass, or light microscope. Macroscopic
examinations reveal the fracture surface orientation. Microscopic examinations are performed with a
scanning electron microscope (SEM) and reveal the fracture surface morphology.
Preparation and Preservation of Fracture Specimens
Fracture Surfaces are fragile and subject to mechanical and environmental damage that can
destroy microstructural features. Consequently, fracture specimens must be carefully handled during all
stages of analysis. This article will discuss the importance of care and handling of fractures and what to
look for during the preliminary visual examination, fracture-cleaning techniques, procedures for
sectioning a fracture and opening secondary cracks, and the effect of nondestructive inspection on
subsequent evaluation.
Care and Handling of Fractures
Fracture interpretation is a function of the fracture surface condition. Because the fracture surface
contains a wealth of information, it is important to understand the types of damage that can obscure or
obliterate fracture features and obstruct interpretation. These types of damage are usually classified as
chemical and mechanical damage. Chemical or mechanical damage of the fracture surface can occur
during or after the fracture event. If damage occurs during the fracture event, very little can usually be
done to minimize it. However, proper handling and care of fractures can minimize damage that can
occur after the fracture.
Chemical damage of the fracture surface that occurs during the fracture event is the result of
environmental conditions. If the environment adjacent to an advancing crack front is corrosive to the
base metal, the resultant fracture surface in contact with the environment will be chemically damaged.
Cracking due to such phenomena as stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), liquid-metal embrittlement
(LME), and corrosion fatigue produces corroded fracture surfaces because of the nature of the cracking
process.
Mechanical damage of the fracture surface that occurs during the fracture event usually results
from loading conditions. If the loading condition is such that the mating fracture surfaces contact each
other, the surfaces will be mechanically damaged. Crack closure during fatigue cracking is an example
of a condition that creates mechanical damage during the fracture event.
Chemical damage of the fracture surface that occurs after the fracture event is the result of
environmental conditions present after the fracture. Any environmental that is aggressive to the base
metal will cause the fracture surface to be chemically damaged. Humid air is considered to be
aggressive to most iron-base alloys and will cause oxidation to occur on steel-fracture surfaces in a
brief period of time. Touching a fracture surface with the fingers will introduce moisture and salts that
may chemically attack the fracture surface.
Mechanical damage of the fracture surface that occurs after the fracture event usually results from
handling or transporting of the fracture. It is easy to damage a fracture surface while opening primary
cracks, sectioning the fracture from the total part, and transporting the fracture. Other common ways of
introducing mechanical damage include fitting the two fracture halves together or picking at the fracture
with a sharp instrument. Careful handling and transporting of the fracture are necessary to keep
damage to a minimum.
Once mechanical damage occurs on the fracture surface, nothing can be done to remove its
obliterating effect on the original fracture morphology. Corrosive attack, such as high-temperature
oxidation, often precludes successful surface restoration. However, if chemical damage occurs and if it
is not too severe, cleaning techniques can be implemented that will remove the oxidized or corroded
surface layer and will restore the fracture surface to a state representative of its original condition.
Reference:
R.D. Zipp, Preservation and Cleaning of Fractures for Fractography, Scan. Elec. Microsc., No. 1, 1979,
p 355-362
 Fracture Appearance and Mechanisms of Deformation and Fracture
FAILURE (briefly described as loss of function) occurs in multiple ways for multiple reasons
and does not always result in fracture. Types of failure for which fracture does not occur are considered
in other sections of this Volume, while this article introduces the section on fracture. However, it should
be remembered that some nonfracture-failure scenarios may ultimately lead to fracture. Wear processes,
for example, can ultimately lead to fracture by galling and/or fretting fatigue. Other examples include
fatigue crack initiation at surface pits from corrosion, cyclic loading in a corrosive environment (stress-
corrosion fatigue) and elastic buckling. Elastic buckling may cause parts to contact, causing seizure of a
rotating system, but it may also lead to plastic buckling and ultimately to fracture.
The purpose of this article is to introduce the subject of fractography and how it is used in failure
analysis. Fractography is the science of revealing loading conditions and environment that caused the
fracture by a three-dimensional interpretation of the appearance of a broken component. If the specimen
is well preserved and if the analyst is knowledgeable, the fracture appearance reveals details of the
loading events that culminated in fracture. An understanding of how cracks nucleate and grow
microscopically to cause bulk (macroscale) fracture is an essential part of fractography. The ability to
accomplish this resides in interpretation of fracture surface features at both the micro- and macroscales.
It is important that examination of the fracture surface and adjacent component surface be done starting
at low magnification with sequential examination of features of interest at increasing magnification. It is
only in this way that significant features are identified as to location on the macroscale fracture surface.
Stated differently, potential explanations for cause for failure must be consistent with both macroscopic
and microscopic features.
The ultimate purpose of fractography and the other methods of failure analysis is the
determination of the (technical) root cause of failure, which may arise from various conditions such as
inappropriate use, an unanticipated operating environment, improper prior fabrication, improper or
inadequate design, inadequate maintenance or repair, or combinations thereof. Possible root causes also
include design mistakes such as inadequate stress analysis, alloy selection, improper mechanical/thermal
processing, improper assembly, and failure to accommodate an adverse operating environment.
Fractography provides a unique tool to determine potential causal factors such as:
Whether a material was used above its design stress
Whether the failed component had or did not have the properties assumed by the design engineer
Whether a discontinuity was critical enough to cause failure
Tables 1 and 2 list some general types of macroscale and microscale fractographic features,
which are described in more detail in this article. In summary form, the following are key features in
distinguishing between montonic versus fatigue fracture and ductile versus brittle fractures (on either a
macroscale or microscale):
Monotonic versus fatigue fracture: Beach marks and striations indicate fatigue, but their absence does
not confirm fracture from monotonic loads. Fracture surfaces from fatigue do not always reveal beach
marks and fatigue striations.
Macroscale ductile versus brittle fracture: Macroscale ductile fracture is revealed by obvious changes
in cross section of the fracture part and/or by shear lips on the fracture surface. Macroscale brittle
fractures have fracture surfaces that are perpendicular to the applied load without evidence of prior
deformation. Macroscale fracture surfaces can have a mixed-mode appearance (brittle-ductile or
ductilebrittle). The brittle-ductile sequence is more common on the macroscale, while the appearance of
the ductile portion is typically microscale in a ductile-brittle sequence.
Microscale ductile versus brittle fracture: Microscale ductile fracture is uniquely characterized by
dimpled fracture surfaces due to microvoid coalescence. Microscale brittle fractures are characterized by
either cleavage (transgranular brittle fracture) or intergranular embrittlement.
Table 1 Macroscale fractographic features
Mark/Indication
Visible distortion
Visible nicks or gouges
Fracture surface orientation relative to
component geometry and loading
conditions
Both flat fracture and shear lips present
on fracture surface
Tightly closed crack on surface
Radial marks and chevrons (v-shape)
Crack arrest lines (monotonic loading)
(u-shape)
Crack arrest lines (cyclic loading)
(beach marks, conchoidal marks)
Radial marks and chevrons (v-shape)
Crack arrest lines (monotonic loading)
(u-shape)
Crack arrest lines (cyclic loading)
(beach marks, conchoidal marks)
Ratchet marks
Adjacent surface and or fracture surface
discoloration
Oxidized fingernail on fracture surface
Fracture surface reflectivity
Fracture surface roughness
Implication
Plastic deformation exceeded yield strength and may indicate
instability (necking, buckling) or post-failure damage
Possible crack initiation site
• Helps separate loading modes I. II, III
• Identifies macroscale ductile and brittle fracture, (see Fig. 2)
• Crack propagation direction parallel to shear lips
• Mixed-mode fracture (incomplete constraint)
• Possible cyclic loading
• Possible processing imperfection, e.g.. from shot peening.
quench cracks
• Point toward crack initiation site
• Show crack propagation direction (see Fig. 5 , 6)
• Lines point in direction of crack propagation
• Indicate incomplete constraint (see Fig. 15)
• Indicates cyclic
J loading
w*
• Propagation from center of radius of curvature
• Curvature may reverse on cylindrical sections as crack
propagates (see Fig. 40)
• Point toward crack initiation site
• Show crack propagation direction (see Fig. 5 , 6)
• Lines point in direction of crack propagation
• Indicate incomplete constraint (see Fig. 15)
• Indicates cyclic loading
• Propagation from center of radius of curvature
• Curvature may reverse on cylindrical sections as crack
propagates (see Fig. 40)
• More likely in cyclic loading
• Indicates initiation site(s) (see Fig. 40 , 41)
• May indicate corrosive environment
• May indicate elevated temperature
Possible crack initiation site
• Matte: ductile fracture or cyclic loading
• Shiny: cleavage likely
• Faceted ("bumpy") and shiny; intergranular fracture in large
grain size
• Increase in surface roughness in direction of crack growth

Rubbing (general)
Rubbing (localized)
Deformed draw marks, rolling scratches
Machining marks (nonnal to axis of
component)
Variable roughness of fracture edse
Table 2 Microscale fractography features
Mark/Indication
Dimpled fracture surface
Faceted fracture surface
Intergranular with smooth
grain boundaries
Intergranular with
dimpled grain boundaries
River pattern or fan
pattern
Tongues
Flutes on transgranular
fracture surface
Striated or ridged fracture
Grooves or flutes
Artifacts (mud cracks)
Artifacts (tire tracks)
(may be affected in bending by compressive stressed region
when crack moves into this region)
• Smooth region plus rough region in direction of growth—
cyclic loading
• Rough matte fractures are ductile
• May indicate transition from fatigue crack growth to
overload
• May indicate vibration
• May show final direction of separation
• Swirl pattern indicates torsion
• May indicate crack closure in cyclic loading
• May obliterate beach marks
If twisted, indicates torsion loading
Not distorted in torsion loading
In brittle bending, rough side is tension side
Implication
Ductile overload fracture at this location
• Brittle cleavage fracture
• Possible SCC fracture
• May be low AA' fatigue
• Likely either improper thermal processing or environmental assisted
fracture (high temperature, corrosive environment)
• Less common is low \K fatigue
• "Decohesive rupture—fracture at high fraction of melting point
• Possible improper processing creating denuded zone adjacent to grain
boundary
Cleavage fracture; crack runs "down" river; fan rays point to initiation site
within a grain (see Fig. 10)
Twinning deformation during rapid crack propagation (see Fig. 28)
• Indicates corrosive environment and ductile fracture
• Crack propagates parallel to flutes
• Cyclic loading fatigue striations; Constant spacing, constant stress
amplitude; variable spacing, variable stress amplitude or block loading
(see Fig. 52)
• Striated surface caused by second phases in microstructure (see Fig.
51)
• SCC
. TGF
Dried liquid on surface. May indicate incomplete cleaning of surface. If in the
as-received condition, may indicate fluids from service and may indicate SCC
conditions. Material should be analyzed (see Fig. 11)
• Common in cyclic loading
• Due to entrapped particulate matter