Sommerfeld Expansion and White Dwarf

Li-Min Wang (NTHU physics student)

December 10, 2017

The quantum effect will be important at low temperature. This article discuss
the effective range of low temperature and use Sommerfeld expansion to get the
temperature dependence of thermal physical quantity.

1 Fermi Energy and Fermi Level

The Fermi-Dirac distribution f () gives the probability that (at thermodynamic
equilibrium) a state having energy is occupied by an electron[1]:
1
f () = (1)
1 + e(−µ)/kB T
The total chemical potential of electron µ is also called Fermi level; the chem-
ical potential at 0 temperature is called Fermi energy:
µ(T = 0) = µ(0) ≡ F (2)
First we try to argue that the Fermi energy exist. Notice the factor
e(−µ)/kB T → e(−µ)/0 as T → 0 (3)
Accroding to L’hospital’s rule, the numerator will approach to 0, too. So the
limit must exist:
lim ( − µ) = 0 ⇒ lim  = F = µ(T = 0) (4)
T →0 T →0

At 0 temperature, what will f () be?


1 , if  < µ
f ()T =0 = 0 , if  > µ (5)
? , if  = µ


When  < µ, e(−µ)/kB T = e−∞ = 0;

When  > µ, e(−µ)/kB T = e∞
But what about  = µ? We need to know the temperature dependence of µ(T ).
The equation(5) means that
f ()T =0 = θ(µ − ) (6)
where θ(µ − ) is the step function.

1
 Let’s start from the value of Fermi energy:
Eq.(5) indicate that electron will be filled up form ground state to Fermi level
when zero temperature. Therefore the total number of electron can be decided
by Fermi level index nF (notice spin up and down):
nF Z nF
2 nF
Z
X
3 π
4πn2 dn = n3F (7)




N =2× nx,i ny,j nz,k ≈ 2 d n=
n ,n ,n =0 0 8 0 3
i j k

The fisrt equal sign use the property of probability: “g1+2 = g1 g2 ” where g is
number of event and event 1 and 2 are indpendent to each other. Now Fermi
energy can be described by nF :
h̄2 πnF 2 h̄2 3π 2 N
2/3
F = ( ) = (8)
2m L 2m V
If we want to estimate if our enviorment is low temperature, we can use the
concept of Fermi temperature:
kB TF = F ∼ O(10000 K) (9)
You should notice that the Fermi temperature is high enough that common
enviorment will be regarded as low temperature.

2 Quantum Pressure at zero Temperature

To study the evolution of star, one interesting case is “White dwarf”. Intially
the star is at temperature (over 5000 K) and use radiation pressure and gas
pressure[2] to overcome the gravitational collapse.
But at the end of small mass star, they may become white dwarf. White
dwarf have few Hydrogen fusion activity so that it is hard to resist the
gravitational collapse by radiation pressure and gas pressure. How can it
maintain its shape? This stroy can be explained by quantum pressure.

As the star dying, the temperature will go much lower than Fermi tempera-
ture. The quantum effect will be more and more important than classical effect
as the temperature go down.
To calculate quantum pressure, we should realize that it is due to Pauli
exclusion principle, i.e. the influence of electron. The pressure defined as:
∂Etot
P =− (10)
∂V
where the total energy of electron is
X Z ∞
Etot = []tot = n(i )i ≈ df ()D() (11)
i 0

where D() is density of state that means “the number of state at energy
interval  ∼  + d”. So f ()D() means “the average number of particle at the
energy interval  ∼  + d”.

2
 What would density of state be ? It is related to degree of freedom of
your system. Because of the independence of direction, we can just discuss one
direction and then apply out result on each direction:
h 2Lx 2Lx
matter wave: λx = = ⇒ dnx = dpx (12)
px nx h
The matter wave relationship is also ture when discuss theory of relativity. By
using the theorem of probability: “g1+2 = g1 g2 ” where g is number of event and
event 1 and 2 are indpendent to each other, we have

dnx 2Lx dpx
d = h d , if 1D





dntot  dnx dny
D() = = d = ( h2 )2 Lx Ly (2πp) dp
d , if 2D (13)
d 



 dnx dny dnz = ( 2 )3 L L L (4πp2 ) dp , if 3D

d h x y z d

Problem 1: Why D() is just the result of single particle problem but
we can use it to solve many particle problem ?(Hint: Independent)
Problem 2: Should we consider spin degenercy here ?

Let’s start from 0 temperature limit because it is easy to be calculated. The

total energy (3D case) is:
Z ∞ Z F
2 dp
Etot (T = 0) ≈ d θ(µ − )D() = d( )3 Lx Ly Lz (4πp2 )  (14)
0 0 h d
Notice we have two different limit:
( 2
p
2m , classical
= p (15)
p2 c2 + m2 c4 , special relativity
consider classical case here, we get:
Z pF
2 3 2 p2 2 2πV 5 5/2
Etot (T = 0) = 4π( ) V dp(p )( ) = ( )3 pF ∝ V F (16)
h 0 2m h 5m
The result of SR is left for you.

3 Low Temperature Expansion

We know at 0 temperature, Eq.(6) give f ()T =0 = θ(µ − ), now if we don’t

want to use this limit, we can use Sommerfeld expansion when T  TF .

Now if we want to a thermal physics quantity A of whole system, we have

X Z ∞
[A()]tot = n(i )A(i ) ≈ df ()D()A() (17)
i 0

Here we use energy to be index. This Eq.(17) is similar to Eq.(11).

3
 Let D()A() = K(), our problem become[3]
Z ∞
K()
I= d (18)
0 1 + e(−µ)/kB T
Because the fractor of exp(...) is ugly, let z = ( − µ)/kB T then
Z ∞
K(µ + kB T z)
I = kB T dz (19)
−µ/kB T 1 + ez
Deal with the boundary carefully, you will get
Z ∞
 µ/kB T K(µ − kB T z)
Z
K(µ + kB T z) 
I = kB T dz + dz (20)
0 1 + e−z 0 1 + ez
the denominator exp(−z) is a trouble, if we can make it become exp(z) then
everything will be happier. We use little skill here:
1 ez 1
= = 1 − (21)
1 + e−z 1 + ez 1 + ez
wow, nice, good, great, wonderful, awesome !
Z ∞
 µ/kB T K(µ − kB T z)
Z
K(µ + kB T z) 
I = kB T dzK(µ − kB T z) − + dz
0 1 + ez 0 1 + ez
Notice the upper bound of this integral, µ ≈ F when low temperature. So
µ/kB T ∼ TF /T  1, we can approximate this boundary to ∞, then we have
Z µ Z ∞
K(µ + kB T z) − K(µ − kB T z)
I≈ K()d + kB T dz (22)
0 0 1 + ez
Using Taylor expansion :
0 K 000 (µ)
K(µ + kB T z) − K(µ − kB T z) = 2K (µ)(kB T z) + 2 (kB T z)3 + ...... (23)
3!
Now we have
Z µ Z ∞ Z ∞ 3
2 0 zdz 1 4 000 z dz
I≈ K()d + 2(kB T ) K (µ) + (kB T ) K (µ) + ......
0 0 1 + ez 3 0 1 + ez
Z µ
2 0 π2 4 000 7π 4
≈ K()d + (kB T ) K (µ) + (kB T ) K (µ) + .......
0 6 360
(24)
Equation(24) is called Sommerfeld expansion. The coefficient is not impor-
tant, but that this expansion just involve T 2n terms is.

4
4 The Temperature Dependence of Chemical Potential

Recall the first problem mention in Eq.(5):

f ()T =0 =?, if  = µ (25)
Now we can answe this question by Sommerfeld expansion. If we want to know
“totoal number of electron”, then we have[4]:
X Z ∞
N = [1]tot = n(i ) ≈ df ()D() (26)
i 0

Now K() = D(), Eq.(24) give

Z µ
2 0 π2
N≈ D()d + (kB T ) D (µ) (27)
0 6
∂
∂T on both side, there is
∂N ∂µ (kB π)2 0 (kB πT )2 00 ∂µ
0= = D(µ) + T D (µ) + D (µ) (28)
∂T ∂T 3 6 ∂T
Now use Eq.(13)’s 3D case and Eq.(15)’s classical case, we have
√ CV 1
D() = CV  ; D0 () = √ (29)
2 
The second order term(T 2 ) is just high order error. Now Eq.(28) become
D(µ) ∂µ (kB π)2
≈− T (30)
D0 (µ) ∂T 3
R
dT on both side, then we will get
(kB π)2 2 1/2 π 2 kB T
2 
[2F

µ(T ) ≈ − T ] ≈ F 1 − (31)
6 12 F
Now we can answer the problem:
−µ
lim exp( ) = lim exp(αT ) = 1 (32)
T →0 kB T T →0

So that
1
f ()T =0 = , if  = µ (33)
2
In fact, this result is always ture because finite temperature will make
exp(0/T ) at Fermi level.
1
f () = , if  = µ, at any temperature (34)
2

5
5 Quantum Pressure at Low Temperature

It is time to fight the final boss! Let’s calculate Eq.(11) by Eq.(24).

√
K() = D() = CV 3/2 ; K 0 () = 3CV 2 , So that
Z µ
2 0 π2 2
Etot ≈ K()d + (kB T ) K (µ) = CV µ5/2 + DV µ1/2 T 2 (35)
0 6 5
O(T 2 ) is too small. Notice that
5/2 5/2  π 2 kB T
2 5/2 5/2  5π 2 kB T
2 
µ ≈ F 1 − ≈ F 1 −
12 F 24 F
Now we have final result:
√5 √
Etot ≈ C1 V F − C2 V F T 2 (36)
Equation (8) give F ∝ V −2/3 , so the pressure will be
∂ 2
P ≈− (C1 V −2/3 − C2 T 2 V 2/3 ) = (C1 V −5/3 + C2 T 2 V −1/3 ) (37)
∂V 3

6 Quickly Method

In additional to the method metioned above, there are other methods to guess/calculate
the temperature dependence of physics quantity.

“Method 1”
Let’s start from T > 0 case, Eq.(34) tell us that :
1
f () = , if  = µ, at any temperature > 0
2
Think of the case that T = 0: Because f (µ) = 1/2 ∀T > 0, there is no reason
that an physical quantity suddenly becomes discontinuous just at one point
(Dirac delta function is also discontinuous at one point but the point is not at
the boundary of domain, however T = 0 is the boundary of temperature). By
physical intuition, we should have
1
f (µ) = , at zero temperature (38)
2
At low temperature, we can always write
1
µ(T ) = µ(0) + µ0 (0)T + µ00 (0)T 2 + ...... (39)
2!
from Eq.(38) and (39), we get that
−µ F − µ(0) + µ0 (0)T + 2!1 µ00 (0)T 2
1 = lim exp( ) = lim exp( ) (40)
T →0 kB T T →0 kB T
F = µ(0) so the first tem is zero, but notice that if µ0 (0) is not zeros, the value
of Eq.(40) will not always be 1. The only choice will be µ0 (0) = 0, so that
1
µ(T ) = F + µ00 (0)T 2 + ...... (41)
2!

6
 “Method 2”
Equation 18 can be calculated by integration by part
Z Z ∞Z
  ∞  df
I= dK() f ()0 − [ dK() d (42)
0 d
Now because number of total particles is fixed, we calculate I = N , then
K() = D(), this is the same as Eq.(26).
Z
2
dK() = CV 3/2 (43)
3
Hence the first term in eq.(42)=0. How to deal with the term:
df 1 e(−µ)/kB T
− = (44)
d (1 + e(−µ)/kB T )2 kB T
The shape of eq.(44) is like Fig.1 , it is like a guessian distribution.
If eq.(44) is like gaussian distribution, inte-
gration of it should be 1. Let’s test
Z ∞
df 0
area = − d = f ∞ ≈ 1 (45)
0 d
Here we take low temperature that
µ ≈ F + η where η  F .
Because TF  T , the limit of  = 0 will
≈ 1.

Now df /d at low temperature exhibit the

following property:
Figure 1: shape of df /d. The green curve
have higher temperature than the orange
1. Gaussian like distribution (area≈ 1) curve
2. Symmetry point:  = µ √
3. Standard deviation σ ≈ 2kB T

The above content is just hand-waving argument, we should derive it in a

rigorous way. Think another form of eq.(44):
df 1
− = (46)
d kB T e−(−µ)/2kB T + e(−µ)/2kB T 2

The low temperature expansion (µ ≈ F + η where η  F ) will give:

−η/2kB T η/2kB T −2
 (η/2kB T )2 −2 1 η 2
(e +e ) ≈ 2(1 + ) ≈ (1 − ( )) (47)
2! 4 2kB T
The later term
η 2 −( η )2 (−µ)2
) ≈ e 2kB T = e− 2σ2
1−( (48)
2kB T
Now we compare eq.(46) and gaussian distribution:
df 1 (−µ)2 1 (−µ)2
− ≈ √ e− 2σ2 ; g() = √ e− 2σ2 (49)
d 2 2σ 2πσ
7
so √
df π
− ≈ g() (50)
d 2
Now eq.(42) will setting I = N will be
Z ∞√ √
2 π πCV
N ≈ CV g()3/2 = < 3/2 > (51)
3 0 2 3
Here we have to use a little trick to deal with the average value of 3/2 .

3/2 3 3
< 3/2 >=< µ − (µ − ) >≈< µ3/2 − µ1/2 (µ − ) + µ−1/2 (µ − )2 > (52)
2 8
Using some statistical property:
µ =<  >= ¯ ; σ 2 ≡< (µ − )2 >
< µ3/2 >= µ3/2
3 3
< µ1/2 (µ − ) >= µ1/2 < (µ − ) >= 0
2 2
3 3 3 3
< µ−1/2 (µ − )2 >= µ−1/2 < (µ − )2 >= µ−1/2 σ 2 = µ−1/2 2kB2 T 2
8 8 8 8
We get a important relationship:
√ √
πCV  3 3 − 1 2 2  πCV 32
N≈ µ 2 + µ 2 kB T = F (53)
3 4 3
Because the particle number N is fixed, this relationship must be hold at
any (low) temperature including T = 0K. Recall that at low temperature, we
have
µ = F + η, where η  F (54)
We get the final answer
√
πCV  3 12 3 −1 −1 kB T
2
F η + F2 kB2 T 2 ⇒ η ≈

0≈
3 2 4 2 F
1 kB T
2
µ(T ) ≈ F − (55)
2 F

√
Ps. If 1/ 2πσ = 1/(4kB T ), this result will become
2 kB T
2
µ(T ) ≈ F − (56)
π F
Compare these result to Sommerfeld expansion:
π2 2 1
= 0.822, = 0.637, = 0.5 (57)
12 π 2
The error is due to the domain of g() = (−∞, ∞) but the domain of f () =
(0, ∞).

8
References

[1] Kittel, Charles; Herbert Kroemer (1980-01-15). Thermal Physics (2nd Edi-
tion). W. H. Freeman. p. 357. ISBN 978-0-7167-1088-2.
[2] http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Astro/starpre.html
[3] Landau L.D., Lifschitz E.M., Vol. 9 - Statistical Physics
[4] Michel Le Bellac, Fabrice Mortessagne, G. George Batrouni, equilibrium and
nonequilibrium statistical thermodynamics