Ethiopian Institute of Technology (EiT-M)

School of Civil Engineering

Geotechnical and Material Engineering Chair

Foundation Engineering I (CEng3141)

Lecture 1
Site Exploration

By: Alula Araya (M.Sc.)

1
 Objective

 Introducing what dose Foundation and Foundation Engineering

 Soil Exploration Methods and Their extents

 Development of Soil exploration Report

 Outcomes

 You should be able conduct soil exploration for different civil engineering
projects.

2
General
 Soil is used as:
• a construction material
• a foundation material
 Soil used as construction material: • We have to consider:
 density of the soil
• for dam construction
 permeability of the soil
• for backfill  shear strength of the soil.
• for road construction
 Soil used as foundation material: • Parameter needed:
• any structure constructed on the soil.  compaction characteristics
 shear strength for bearing capacity .

3
 What dose it mean by Foundation and Foundation Engineering?
 A foundation is defined as that the lowest part of the structure that supports the
weight of the structure and transmits the load to underlying soil or rock.

 Foundation engineering applies the knowledge of geology, soil mechanics, rock

mechanics, and structural engineering to the design and construction of
foundations for buildings and other structures.

4
 Foundation engineering deals with:

 selection of the type of foundation (shallow or deep)

 development of design parameters (bearing capacity or estimated settlement)

 determining the type and spacing of steel reinforcement in concrete footings

 expansion potential of a site

 Investigating the stability of slopes and their effect on adjacent foundations.

5
Photographic presentation of Different Foundations


6
Site Exploration ( Soil Investigations)

 The stability of the foundation of a building, a bridge, an embankment or any other

structure built on soil depends on the strength and compressibility characteristics of
the subsoil.

 The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the essential information
on the subsoil is called Soil Exploration or Soil Investigation.

7
 The primary objectives of soil exploration are to :
 Determine the natural deposit of soil
 Determine the Location of GWT
 Determine the engineering properties of the soil or rock strata that affect the
performance of the structure
 Determine in-situ properties of the soil by field tests
 Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical
sites.
 Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation
 Selection of alternative methods of construction.

 Soil exploration is a must for any project but to what extent?

8
 Factors affecting extent of soil exploration are:
 Magnitude and importance of the project

 Load coming from the structure

 Uniformity of the soil

 Availability of project budget

 Client awareness

 Availability of equipment and human power

9
Planning of soil exploration/investigation
 The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon
 The nature of sub-soil
 The type of structure
 The importance of structure
 There are four stages in soil exploration:
1. Desk study
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. preliminary ground investigation
4. Detailed ground investigation
10
Desk Study
 Involves:
 assembly of all available information on dimensions, column spacing, type and
use of the structure, basement requirements, and any special architectural
considerations of the proposed building.
 Foundation regulations in the local building code should be consulted for any
special requirements.
 For bridges the soil engineer should have access to type and span lengths as well
as pier loadings. This information will indicate any settlement limitations, and
can be used to estimate foundation loads.

11
Reconnaissance survey
 This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which can reveal information on the
type and behavior of adjacent structures such as cracks, noticeable sags, and possibly
sticking doors and windows. The type of local existing structure may influence, to a
considerable extent, the exploration program and the best foundation type for the
proposed adjacent structure.
A preliminary site investigation
 In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is opened to establish in a general
manner the stratification, types of soil to be expected, and possibly the location of the
groundwater table.
12
A detailed site investigation
 Where the preliminary site investigation has established the feasibility of the project,
a more detailed exploration program is undertaken. The preliminary borings and
data are used as a basis for locating additional borings, which should be
confirmatory in nature, and determining the additional samples required.

 In this stage a detail information about the site will be obtained.

13
Methods of Soil Exploration
 Test pits:
• Permits visual inspection of subsurface
conditions in natural state.

• Max. depth limited to 3-4 m

• Especially useful for gravelly soil where

boreholes may be difficult.

• Sampling/testing done on exposed surfaces.

14
A

15
 Methods of Boring:
 Depth of Boring
1. Determine the net increase of stress,  under a foundation with depth as
shown in the Figure.

16
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, ', with depth.

3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the stress increase  is equal to (1/10) q

(q = estimated net stress on the foundation).

4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which /' = 0.05.

5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two depths, D 1 and D2, just
determined is the approximate minimum depth of boring required.

 For hospitals and office buildings, the following rule could be use to determine
boring depth:
17
 Spacing of boring:
 There are no hard and fast rules for the
spacing of the boreholes.

 These spacing can be increased or

decreased, depending on the subsoil
condition. If various soil strata are more
or less uniform and predictable, the
number of boreholes can be reduced.

18
Methods of Borings

 Auger Borings:
 Simplest method of exploration and sampling.

 Power driven or hand operated.

 Operation depth is 3 to 7.5 m for hand driven augers but for machine driven
augers is 30 m maximum

 Suitable in all soils above GWT but only in cohesive soil below GWT

 Hollow stem augers used for sampling or conducting Standard Penetration Tests.

19
 Hand operated augers
Power driven augers
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 Wash Boring:
 Power driven operation up to a maximum depth of 60 m.
 A casing is driven with a drop hammer. A hollow drill rod with chopping bit is inserted
inside the casing.
 Soil is loosened and removed from the borehole using water or a drilling mud jetted
under pressure.
 The water is jetted in the hole through the bottom of a wash pipe and leaves the hole
along with the loose soil, from the annual space between the hole and wash pipe.
 The water reaches the ground level where the soil in suspension is allowed to settle and
mud is re-circulated.
21
Schematic for wash boring

22
 Percussion drilling
 Power driven operation up to a maximum depth of 60 m.

 Grinding the soil by repeated lifting and dropping of heavy chisels or drilling
bits.

 Water is added to form slurry of cuttings.

 Slurry removed by bailers or pumps.

 In general, a machine used to drill holes is called a drill rig.

 A winch is provided to raise and lower the drilling tools into the hole.
23
 Rotary drilling
 Power operated and Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150 m.

 This is the most rapid method for penetrating highly resistant materials (e.g. bed
rock).

 Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which cuts the material at the bottom
of the hole into small particles which are removed by circulating fluids, which
may be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry.

 undisturbed samples can be obtained at desired depths

24
 Advantages of Rotary Drilling

 The advantage of rotary drilling in soils is that progress is much faster than with
other investigation methods and disturbance of the soil below the borehole is
slight.

 Limitations of Rotary Drilling

 The method is not suitable if the soil contains a high percentage of

gravel/cobbles, as they tend to rotate beneath the bit and are not broken up.

25
Rotary Drilling rig

26
 There are two main types of soil samples:
1. Disturbed Samples: Ar > 10%
 the natural soil structure has been disturbed to a considerable degree by the action of the
boring or excavation equipment.
 satisfactory for performing classification tests such as, sieve analysis, Atterberg limits
2. Undisturbed Samples: Ar </= 10%
 which represent as closely as is practicable, the true in-situ structure and water content
of the soil.

 used for determining reliable information on the shearing resistance and stress-
deformation characteristics of a deposit.
27
 Where Ar is the Area Ratio

 Types of Samplers
 Split Spoon Sampler: most commonly used in SPT test
 Thin-Walled Tube Sampler
 Piston Samplers

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Questions ????

29
 Ethiopian Institute of Technology (EiT-M)
School of Civil Engineering
Geotechnical and Material Engineering Chair

Foundation Engineering I (CEng3141)

Lecture 2
Site Exploration

By: Alula Araya (M.Sc.)

1
Field [In-situ] tests
 The most commonly used field tests are:

 Penetration or sounding tests

 Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test)

 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test

 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

 Vane shear test

 Plate loading test

 Pile loading test

2
 Static Cone Penetration Test:
 The Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) is an in situ test used for subsurface exploration in
fine and medium sands, soft silts and clays.

 The apparatus consists of a cone with a 35.7 mm end diameter, projected area of
1000 mm2 and 600 point angle that is attached to a rod. An outer sleeve encloses the
rod.

3
 Working principles of Static Cone Penetration Test.

 The cone is 1st pushed hydraulically into the ground at a rate of 10 mm/sec. The
force required to push the cone 20 cm into the soil is recorded.

 The casing pipe is then advanced to join the cone. The force required to push the
pipe is also recorded.

 The readings thus taken are plotted against depth.

4
Correlations between Cone (Point) Resistance and Relative Density of Soils.

Relative Density Point Resistance (kN/m2)

Very loose soil < 2500
Loose soil 2500 – 5000
Medium dense 5000 – 10,000
Dense 10,000 – 15,000
Very dense > 15,000

 For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated

• ES =3/2(Ckd) Where N = Standard penetration number
• N = ¼ (Ckd) Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm2)
5
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 The most popular field test performed mostly
in coarse grained (or cohesionless) soils.

 SPT is performed by driving a standard split

spoon sampler into the ground by blows from
a drop hammer of mass 64 kg falling 76 cm

 The sampler is driven 15 cm into the soil at

the bottom of a borehole, and the number of
blows (N) required to drive it an additional
300 mm is counted.
6
 Various corrections are applied to the N’ values to account for energy losses,
overburden pressure, rod length, and so on.

 N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15) Suggested by Terzhagi and peck

345' N 35 N '
 N =  2 N’, for o’  276 kN/m2 and N =  2N’, for o’  28kN/m2
( o '69) ( o '7)
Where N= corrected value
N’= actual value
o’ = effective overburden pressure in kN/m2

7
Correlation between N and (, Relative Density, qu)

N 0-4 4 -10 10-30 30 - 50 > 50

 <280 280 -300 300-360 350 - 400 >420
Relative Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Density

N 0 -2 2-4 4-8 8 -15 15-30 >30

qu(kN/m2) 0 -25 25 -50 50 -100 100 -200 200-400 >400
Consistency Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff Hard

8
 Vane Shear Test
 Used to measure the undrained shear strength soft and saturated clays.

 It consists of four thin metal blades welded orthogonally (90) to a rod where the
height H is twice the diameter D . Commonly used diameters are 38, 50 and 75 mm.

T
shear strength 
D 2 ( H / 2  D / 12)

9
 Plate Loading Test
 Gives a relationship between bearing pressure and settlement for the soil.

 Test procedure:

 Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the plate.

 The plate should be properly placed in the soil

 Loading platform should be properly erected.

 Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading increment is kept constant).

 Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the same incremental steps
(to draw the expansion curve).
10
A
2
Sp (2 Bf )
Sf 
( B f  Bp ) 2

Where:
• Sf= footing settlement
• Sp = plate settlement
• Bf = footing base
• Bp = plate base

11
 Limitation of Plate Loading Test
 It is of short duration so consolidation settlement does not fully occur during the
test.
 For settlement consideration, its restricted to sandy soils, and to partially
saturated or rather unsaturated clayey soils.
 It can give very misleading information if the soil is not homogeneous within the
effective depth.
 Plate loading test should not recommended in soils which are not homogeneous
at least to depth of 1.5 to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation
12
 Pile loading test:
 most reliable means for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile.

 The load arrangement and testing procedure are more or less similar to the plate-
loading test.

 allowable bearing capacity and load-settlement relationship of a group of

friction piles can be estimated.

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 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
 Includes the seismic and resistivity methods.
 are usually limited to establishing location of bedrock underlying softer material (by
seismic method) or locating gravel or sand deposits (by resistivity method).
 The seismic method is based on the fact that sound waves travel faster through rocks
than through soils.
 The resistivity method makes use of the fact some soils (e.g. soft clays) have low
electrical resistivity than others (e.g. sand or gravel).
 These methods are normally employed as preliminary or supplementary to other
methods of exploration. (Geological Investigations)
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 LABORATORY TESTS

 The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are:

 Grain size analysis  Natural moisture content

 Triaxial compression test
 Consolidation test
 Compaction test
 Direct shear test
 Atterberg limits
 Unit weight
 Unconfined compression test
 Chemical analysis
 CBR Test

15
GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT and ROCK CORE SAMPLING
 Ground water affects many elements of foundation design ( Bearing capacity and
settlements) and construction it should be measured.

 Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is defined as the percentage of rock cores that have
length equal or greater than 10 cm over the total drill length.

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SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT
 A soil exploration report should contain all available data from bore holes, test pits, field and
laboratory tests and site observation.
 Report contents.
 Introduction
 General description of the site
 General geology of the area.
 Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits)
 Laboratory test results.
 Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and constructions.
 Conclusion and Recommendation: recommendations on the type and depth of foundations,
allowable bearing pressure and methods of construction.
17
Example Table of Contents for a
Geotechnical Investigation Report

18
Questions ????

19
 Ethiopian Institute of Technology (EiT-M)
School of Civil Engineering
Geotechnical and Material Engineering Chair

Foundation Engineering I (CEng3141)

Lecture 3
Types of Foundations and Their Selections

By: Alula Araya (M.Sc.)

1
 Objective

 Introducing the different types of Foundations and their difference.

 primary and secondary considerations during Foundation selection.

 Introducing the general design principles of foundation.

 Out come

 After completing this chapter you should be able to select the appropriate
foundation for different site conditions

 You should now the general design principles of foundation

2
 A foundation is defined as last part of the structure that supports the weight of the
structure and Uniformly transmits the load to underlying soil or rock.

 Foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground level so as to increase

the lateral stability of the structure.

 If there is a deficiency in foundation design the entire supper structure is at risk.

3
Examples of improper foundation design

Bearing Capacity Failure: Transcona

Grain Elevator, Canada

Shinkansen bullet train bridge

leaning tower of pizza, Italy
collapse Japan
4
 The Main Purpose of Foundation is:

 To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area .

 To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent Differential

settlement.

 To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.

 To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.

 To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

5
Types of Foundations

 Foundations can be broadly classified into two:

 Shallow foundations

 Deep foundations

6
Shallow foundations:
 Where the ratio of embedment depth to width of footing is less or equal to 1.0.
(Df/B < 1.0)

 structures near to the ground level.

 distribute the structural loads over a considerable base area at the foundation
bed.

 open foundations since they are constructed in an open excavations.

7
 Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types: -

 Spread or Isolated footings

 Combined footing

 Cantilever footing

 Continuous or wall footing

 Raft foundation

8
 Spread or Isolated footings
 Used to support individual column.

 stepped type, simple type or slope type.

 provided to support heavy loads.

 reinforcement is also provided at the base in both directions.

9
 Combined footing

 supports two or sometimes three column in a row.

 used when property lines, equipment locations, column spacing or other

considerations limit the footing clearance at the column locations.

 can be rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads

 can be trapezoidal if there is a space limitation and they carry unequal loads.

 Generally they are constructed of reinforced concrete.

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11
 Cantilever or Strap footing

 consists of two individual footings connected by a beam called a strap.

 used where the distance between the columns is so great than a trapezoidal combined
footing.

 very economical than combined footing.

 The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil so a strap doesn’t transfer any
pressure to the soil.

12
13
 Continuous or Wall Footing
 A single continuous reinforced concrete slab is provided as foundation of wall and
three or more columns in a row.

 suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities.

 prevents differential settlement in the structure.

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 Raft or mat Foundation

 A combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all
the columns.

 used when the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure loads are heavy

 It is also used where the soil mass contains compressible layers with differential
settlement

15
16
Deep foundations:
 are foundation with D>B or D>3m (Df/B > 1.0)
 Used when the upper ground stratum at a site is weak and unable to carry the load even
by a raft foundation.
 Deep foundation may be in the form of Piles or Well (i.e., Caissons).
 deep foundations are further classified into the following types: -
• pile foundation
• Caissons
• coffer dams
17
 Piles: are relatively a small diameter shafts, which is used to transmit the loads to
deeper soil layers.

 Caissons are water light structures made up of wood, steel or reinforced concrete,
constructed in connection with excavation fore shore protection.

 Coffer dam defined as a temporary structure constructed in water bearing surface to

dry surface easy of operation.

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19
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION DESIGN
 Approach foundation-engineering problem :
 prepare plan of the design loads coming into the foundation units.
 study the tentative allowable bearing capacity of the soil given by the soil investigation
report.
 determine the required foundation depth. the minimum depth based on soil strength or
structural requirement considerations.
 compute the dimensions of the foundation based on design loading and allowable
bearing pressure.
 estimate the total and differential settlements of the structure.
 finally structural design.
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 Foundation Loads

 Dead Load

 Live Load Factored loads, Pt = 1.3 DL + 1.6 LL

 Wind Load
Mt = 1.3 MdL + 1.6 MLL
 Earthquake

 Dynamic loads.

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 Selection of Foundation Type
 Primary Factors Affecting Foundation Choice:

 Ground water conditions

 Function of the structure

 Loads it must carry

 Subsurface conditions

 Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure.

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 Secondary Factors Affecting Foundation Choice:

 Construction access, methods & site conditions

 Environmental factors

 Building Codes & Regulations

 Impact on surrounding structures

 Construction schedule

 Construction risks

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 Foundation Choice:
 Isolated footing up to 5m depth.
 Mat footing up to 3m depth.
 if the second layer is weak we can use
pile foundation

24
 Foundation Choice:
 Isolated footing up to the second layer
of any depth.
 Mat footing at the first layer.

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Questions ????

26
 Ethiopian Institute of Technology (EiT-M)
School of Civil Engineering
Geotechnical and Material Engineering Chair

Foundation Engineering I (CEng3141)

Lecture 4,5,6
DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

By : Alula Araya (M.Sc.)

1
 The design of shallow foundations is based on the assumption that they are rigid so
the variation of pressure under the foundations will be linear.

 The distribution of pressure will be uniform if the centroid of the foundation

coincides with the resultant of the applied loads.

 The requirements in design of foundations are:

 The contact pressure should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.

 The settlement of the structure should be within the permissible limits. Further
there should be no differential settlement.

2
Proportioning of shallow foundations

 Can be done using

 presumptive allowable soil pressure according to EBCS 7.

 the soil strength parameters  and C.

• Here from the shear strength parameters  and C it is possible to determine

the ultimate bearing capacity (qult) of the soil and by using the factor of safety
we can determine the allowable bearing capacity (Qall) to determine the area
of the foundation.
f .s * p
• Qall  A'*qult Qall  f .s * p A' 
qult
3
DESIGN OF ISOLATED FOOTINGS

 Assumptions used in footing design- [Contact pressure distribution]

 The stress distribution beneath symmetrically loaded footings is not

uniform.

 The actual stress distribution depends on the rigidity of the footing and
the stiffness of the soil.

 linear pressure distribution is assumed for design purpose.

4


5
 If we want to know when we will have negative contact pressure (separation), we
proceed as follows :

6
Footing proportioning:

 After determining the maximum and minimum contact pressures it is possible to check if
the structure is safe against shear.
 max < q ult

 max < q all
Factored load
Un factored / working load } We are safe against shear failure.

 Settlement

 Before going in to the structural design, one should check if the settlement of the
selected footing is with in the prescribed safe limits.

 If the settlement exceeds the safe limits, one should increase the area of the footings
until the danger of settlement is eliminated.
7
Structural Design of Footings

 The last stage in the design of foundations is the structural design and structural
design process for reinforced concrete foundation includes:

 selecting concrete with an appropriate strength.

 selecting an appropriate grade of reinforcing steel.

 determining the required foundation thickness.

 determine the size, number & spacing of the reinforcing bars.

 design the connection between the super structure and the foundation.

8
 One then should design the spread footing for the following modes of failures:

1. Shear failure :


Punching shear

Wide beam shear (diagonal tension) } To provide adequate depth

2. Flexural failure :- provide adequate depth and reinforcement

3. Bond failure :

 column bar pullout

 Flexural reinforcement bars failed in bond } To provide adequate

development or anchorage
length
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Thickness from Punching Failure

 It is common practice to provide adequate depth to sustain the shear stress developed
without reinforcement. α = 3.0 1.5d distance around the column
• Acting punching shear force:
𝑽𝒑𝒂 = 𝝈𝒂𝒗 𝒂𝒃 − 𝒂′ + 𝟑𝒅 𝒃′ + 𝟑𝒅
• Resisting punching shear force:
𝐕𝐩𝐫 = 𝐕𝐮𝐩 𝟐 𝐚′ + 𝟑𝐝 + 𝟐 𝐛′ + 𝟑𝐝 d
• Where : 𝑽𝒖𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒇𝒄𝒕𝒅 𝟏 + 𝟓𝟎𝝆𝒆
fctd = design tensile strength of concrete (MPa)
e =effective geometrical ratio of reinforcement
 Finally 𝐕𝐩𝐚 = 𝐕𝐩𝐫 to determine the thickness or depth “d”
10
Thickness from wide beam Shear (Diagonal Tension)
 I. Along the longest direction:
• Acting wide beam Shear force:

• Resisting wide beam shear force:

• Equate the two equations to determine “d”

II. Along the shorter direction:
• Acting wide beam Shear force:

Resisting punching shear force :

• Equate the two equations to determine “d”
11
 To conclude the governing thickness from the above three thicknesses will be the
largest/ greatest one.

 For example the depth obtained from the punching shear is grater than all the depth
from the wide beam shear then the thickness will be governed by the depth of
punching shear.

ɸ
D = d + cover +
𝟐
12
Determination of Flexural Reinforcement
I. Along the longest direction:
in ( KNm)

in ( KNm/m)
• As= area of tension reinforcement (m2)
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑲𝒎 =
𝒃𝒅𝟐
• For a specific value of we can read from a chart.
II. Along the shortest direction:

in ( KNm) or in ( KNm/m)
13
Bond Strength and Development Length
I. Along the longest direction:
and

II. Along the shortest direction:

and

• when use straight bars.

• when bend the bars at their ends.

14


15
DESIGN OF COMBINED FOOTINGS

 DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR COMBINED FOOTINGS:

1. Analysis:

 long direction: analyzed as a continuous beam

 Short direction: analyzed as spread footing with effective widths

 For exterior columns a’ +1.5d

 For interior columns a’ +3d

16
2. Design procedure

 determine length of footing (L) in such a way that the center of gravity(c.g.)of footing
area coincides that of the c.g. of loads

 determine the width of footing(B) such that the allowable soil pressure is exceeded the
average contact pressure.

 determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the
footing

 calculate depth of footing

 calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

17
 DESIGN OF TRAPEZOIDAL COMBINED FOOTINGS :

1. Analysis:

 long direction: analyzed as a continuous beam

 Short direction: analyzed as spread footing with effective widths

 For exterior columns a’ +1.5d

 For interior columns a’ +3d

18
2. Design procedure

 determine the sizes of footing (L, B1, B2) from conditions that
A  P
 all
I. the minimum required area  B1  B2 
A   L
 2 
II. the c.g. of footing coincides that of column loads. The distance to the c.g. of trapezoidal
L  2 B2  B1 
X '  
footing x’ is calculated from 3 B 2  B 
1 

3. determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the
footing.

4. calculate depth of footing

5. calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

19
DESIGN OF STRAP (OR CANTILEVER) FOOTINGS

20
 Design procedure:
1. Determine the reactions:
A. Assume a1 and establish the eccentricity, e of the soil reaction force R1.
a1  a '
e e  XC  X R
2
B. Determine the magnitude of the soil reaction force by taking moments about R2.
Xc X
R1  P1  Ws s
XR XR
C. Determine the reaction R2 from equilibrium consideration
R2  P1  P2  Ws  R1 R1
b1 
 a1 * a1
2. Determine sizes of footings using known values of R1, R2 and all.
R2
(Take b1 = b2) b2 
 a 2 * a2
21
 3. Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of
the footing.
4. Select depths of footings for shear requirement.
5. Select steel reinforcement for bending requirement.
6. In short direction, the footings analyzed as spread footing subject to uniform soil
pressure.
7. Design strap as flexural member for the shear and moment obtained above.

22
DESIGN OF MAT FOUNDATION

 Design procedure:

1. Determine the line of action of the resultant of all the loads acting on the mat

2. Determine the contact pressure distribution as under

a. If the resultant passes through the center of gravity of the mat, the contact pressure
Q
is given by  
A
b. If the resultant has an eccentricity of ex and ey in the x and y direction
Q Qe x Qe y
   x y
A Iyy Ixx
3. Divide the slab mat into strips in x and y directions. Each strip is assumed to act as
independent beam subjected to the contact pressure and the columns loads.
23
4.Determine the modified column loads

5. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for each strip.

6. Select depth of mat for shear requirement

7. Select steel reinforcement for moment requirement

24
Questions ????

25
 Ethiopian Institute of Technology (EiT-M)
School of Civil Engineering
Geotechnical and Material Engineering Chair

Foundation Engineering I (CEng3141)

Lecture 5
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS

By: Alula Araya (M.Sc.)

1
 A retaining wall is a structure that is used to
support a vertical or near vertical slopes of soil.
 They are structures used to provide stability of
earth or other material where conditions
disallow the mass to assume its natural slope.

2
Some schematics of retaining wall

3
Types of retaining walls

 Based on the material they are made of and their functions retaining wall can be
classified in to the following:
1. Gravity walls
2. Cantilever walls
3. Counter fort walls
4. Buttress walls
5. sheet pile walls
6. Gabion walls
7. Reinforce earth walls
4
Gravity walls

 The earliest known retaining structures.

 Built from solid concrete or rock rubble mortared
together
 Depends upon its weight for stability
 No development of tensile stress due to its massiveness.
 They are usually not reinforced with steel
 Gravity walls are economical for heights up to 3 m
(10 feet).

5
Cantilever Walls

 Cantilever walls are built of reinforced concrete

and are typically composed of a horizontal
footing and a vertical stem wall.
 inverted T-shaped in section or L- shaped with
each projecting acts as a cantilever
 Cantilever walls are economical for heights up to
10 m.

6
Counter fort walls

 Counter fort walls are built of reinforced

concrete materials consists of cantilever wall
with vertical brackets known as counter fort
placed behind face of wall.
 Ordinarily used for walls height greater
than 10 m.

7
Buttress walls

 Buttress walls are built of reinforced concrete

materials consists of cantilever wall with vertical
brackets known as Buttresses placed in front of wall.
 ordinarily used for walls height greater than 10 m
 they are the same as counter fort walls but the
Buttresses are placed up front.

8
 Sheet pile walls are generally used for the
following:
 Building diversion dams, such as cofferdams
 River bank protection
 Retaining the sides of cuts made in earth
 Water front structures, for example, in
building piers
9
Retaining Wall Design

 The commonly used design procedures of retaining wall:

1. Determine the property of the back fill and foundation soils.
2. Based on the height of the fill and expected cost of the wall select the type of the
wall.
3. Select a tentative wall dimension ( wall proportioning).
4. Calculate and show all the forces acting on the wall.
5. Analyze the stability of the wall.
6. If the wall is RC type make structural design ( shear, bending and bond…)

10
3. Retaining Wall proportioning

11
 4. Forces acting on the wall

 Forces that should be considered in the design of retaining walls :

 Active and passive earth pressures
 Dead weight including the weight of the wall and portion of soil mass that is
considered to act on the retaining structure
 Surcharge including live loads, if any
 Water pressure, if any
 Contact pressure under the base of the structure
 Frictional forces

12
Fr = Rstan + CB ,
Rs = WC +Ws +PA sin
= ⅔  to  C= ½ C
to ¾ C (of foundation soil)

13
5. Analyze the stability of the wall.

14
15


16


17


18


19
Questions ????

20
 Ethiopian Institute of Technology (EiT-M)
School of Civil Engineering
Geotechnical and Material Engineering Chair

Foundation Engineering I (CEng3141)

Lecture 8
Sheet pile walls

By: Alula Araya (M.Sc.)

1
Sheet pile walls
 Sheet pile walls are retaining walls constructed to retain earth, water or any other fill
material.

 Sheet pile walls are generally used for the following:

 Building diversion dams, such as cofferdams

 River bank protection

 Retaining the sides of cuts made in earth

 Water front structures, for example, in building piers

2
Sheet pile materials
 Sheet pile wall may be :
 Wooden sheet piles: used when elevation difference is very small.

 Precast concrete sheet piles: are heavy reinforced structures designed to

withstand the permanent stresses after construction and the stresses during
construction.

 Steel sheet piles: are the most widely used type of sheet pile structures due to
their resistance to high driving stress during driving into hard soils and also
comparatively light weight and reusable.

3
4
5
6
 Depending on the way they derive their support, sheet piles can be grouped into two:
 cantilever and
 anchored sheet pile walls.
 A cantilever sheet pile wall
 Constructed by driving sheet pile to a depth sufficient to develop a cantilever
beam-type reaction to resist the active pressures on the wall.

 The embedment length must be adequate to resist both lateral forces as well as a
bending moment.

 Recommended for a wall of moderate height about 6m or less.

7
 Anchored sheet pile wall:

 Recommended for a wall of height grater than 6m because we tie the sheet pile wall
near the top.

 Anchors minimize the depth of required penetration and reduce the cross-sectional area
and the weight of the sheet piles.

 The Anchor force must be sufficient not only to resist the unbalanced forces, but also to
minimize lateral movement of the walls and usually assumed that wall doesn’t move
laterally at the point of tie-rod attachment.

8
Cantilever sheet pile wall a) the mode of deflection b) hypothetical
net pressure distribution c) approximate pressure distribution
9
 There are two basic methods of constructing anchored sheet pile walls.
a. Free earth support method and
b. Fixed earth support method.

10
Analysis of cantilever sheet pile walls
1. Cantilever sheet piling penetrating sandy soils:
 @ z=𝑳𝟏 𝑷𝟏 =γ𝑳𝟏 𝑲𝒂

 @ z=𝑳𝟐 𝑷𝟐 =(γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 ) 𝑲𝒂

 @z=(z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 ) point E.

 𝑷𝒂 =(γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 +𝜸′ (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 )𝑲𝒂

and

 𝑷𝒑 =𝜸′ (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 ) 𝑲𝒑

𝝋
Where: 𝑲𝒂 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 (45- ) and
𝟐
𝝋
𝑲𝒑 =𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 (45+ 𝟐 )
11
 Net lateral earth pressure:
 P = 𝑷𝒂 -𝑷𝒑 = {(γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 +𝜸′ (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 )𝑲𝒂 } – {𝜸′ (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 ) 𝑲𝒑 }
= 𝑷𝟐 - 𝜸′ (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 ) (𝑲𝒑 -𝑲𝒂 )
 @ z=𝑳𝟑 , P = 0 𝑷𝟐 - 𝜸′ (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 ) (𝑲𝒑 -𝑲𝒂 ) =0
𝑷𝟐
• 𝑳𝟑 = from this we have slope of line DEF 1V:𝜸′ (𝑲𝒑 −𝑲𝒂 )H.
𝜸′ (𝑲𝒑 −𝑲𝒂 )

 𝑷𝟑 = 𝑳𝟒 *𝜸′ (𝑲𝒑 −𝑲𝒂 )

 Active and passive lateral earth pressures @ z=L+D
 𝑷𝒑 =(γ𝑳𝟏 + 𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 +𝜸′ D)𝑲𝒑 and
 𝑷𝒂 = 𝜸′ D𝑲𝒂

12
 Net lateral earth pressure at the bottom of the sheet pile wall:
 P = 𝑷𝒑 -𝑷𝒂 =𝑷𝟒
 𝑷𝟒 ={γ𝑳𝟏 + 𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 +𝜸′ D)𝑲𝒑 } – {𝜸′ D𝑲𝒂 }= (γ𝑳𝟏 + 𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 ) 𝑲𝒑 +𝜸′ (𝑳𝟑 +𝑳𝟒 )(𝑲𝒑 -𝑲𝒂 )
= (γ𝑳𝟏 + 𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 ) 𝑲𝒑 + 𝜸′ 𝑳𝟑 (𝑲𝒑 -𝑲𝒂 ) +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟒 (𝑲𝒑 -𝑲𝒂 )
𝑷𝟓

 𝑷𝟒 = 𝑷𝟓 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟒 (𝑲𝒑 -𝑲𝒂 ) then from 𝑭𝒙 =0 and 𝑴𝑩 =0

𝟏 𝟏
 𝑭𝒙 = A(ACDE)-A(EFHB)+A(FHBG)=0 P- 𝑳𝟒 𝑷𝟑 + 𝑳𝟓 (𝑷𝟑 +𝑷𝟒 )=0
𝟐 𝟐
𝑷 𝑳 −𝟐𝑷
𝑳𝟓 = 𝟑 𝟒
(𝑷𝟑 +𝑷𝟒 )
𝟏 𝑳𝟒 𝟏 𝑳𝟓
 𝑴𝑩 =0 P (𝒛− +𝑳𝟒 ) - 𝑳 𝑷 *( ) + 𝑳 (𝑷𝟑 +𝑷𝟒 )* ( ) =0
𝟐 𝟒 𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 𝟓 𝟑

13
 Solving for 𝑳𝟒

• Finally depth of Embedment for the sheet

pile wall on sandy soils can be calculated
as D=𝑳𝟑 +𝑳𝟒

14
 The maximum bending moment M per unit
max

length of the wall requires determining the

point of zero shear (z’).

 Magnitude of the maximum moment

 Section modulus of the sheet pile

15
2. Cantilever sheet piling penetrating clay:
 @z = (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 ) point O.
 𝑷𝒂 = (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 + γ𝒔𝒂𝒕 (z- 𝑳𝟏 - 𝑳𝟐 )-2c

and

 𝑷𝒑 =γ𝒔𝒂𝒕 (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 ) +𝟐𝒄

𝝋
Where: 𝑲𝒂 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 (45- )=1 and
𝟐
𝝋
𝑲𝒑 =𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 (45+ 𝟐 )=1 because 𝝋 = 𝟎

16
 Net lateral earth pressure:
 P = 𝑷𝒑 -𝑷𝒂 = {γ𝒔𝒂𝒕 (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 ) +𝟐𝒄} – {(γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 +γ𝒔𝒂𝒕 (z-𝑳𝟏 -𝑳𝟐 )-2c }
𝑷𝟔 = 𝟒𝒄 - (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 )
 Active and passive lateral earth pressures @ z=L+D at the bottom of the sheet pile
wall.
 𝑷𝒑 =(γ𝑳𝟏 + 𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 +γ𝒔𝒂𝒕 D) +2c and
 𝑷𝒂 = γ𝒔𝒂𝒕 D − 2c
 Net lateral earth pressure at the bottom of the sheet pile wall:
 P = 𝑷𝒑 -𝑷𝒂 = {(γ𝑳𝟏 + 𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 +γ𝒔𝒂𝒕 D) +2c } – {γ𝒔𝒂𝒕 D − 2c}
𝑷𝟕 = 𝟒𝒄 + (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 )

17
 𝑭𝒙 = A(ACDE)-A(EFIB)+A(GIH)=0
𝟏
𝑷𝟏 - {𝟒𝒄 - (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 )}D + * 𝑳𝟒 * {𝟒𝒄 - (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 ) + 𝟒𝒄 + (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 ) }= 0
𝟐
D{𝟒𝒄 − (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′𝑳𝟐 )}−𝑷𝟏
𝑳𝟒 =
𝟒𝒄
D𝟐 𝟏 𝑳𝟒
 𝑴𝑩 =0 𝑷𝟏 (D+𝒛−
𝟏) - {𝟒𝒄 - (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 )} - * 𝑳𝟒 * (8c)*( ) =0
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
 Solving for D:

The maximum bending moment at

the point of zero shear (z’).
 Magnitude of the maximum moment
18
Analysis of Anchored sheet pile walls
 Free Earth Support Method for Penetration in sandy soil:
 @z = (𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 +𝑳𝟑 + 𝑳𝟒 ) 𝑷𝟖 =𝜸′ (𝑲𝒑 -𝑲𝒂 )*𝑳𝟒
 𝑭𝒙 = A(ACDE) - A(EBF) - F=0
𝟏
• F =𝑷 − [𝜸′ (𝑲𝒑 -𝑲𝒂 )]𝑳𝟐𝟒
𝟐
 Taking the moment about O’:
 𝑴𝒐′ =0
 Solving for 𝑳𝟒 :

19
 Free Earth Support Method for Penetration in clay soil:
 @z = (𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 +𝑫) 𝑷𝟔 = 𝟒𝒄 - (γ𝑳𝟏 +𝜸′ 𝑳𝟐 )
 𝑭𝒙 = A(ACDE) - A(EBF) - F=0
 F = 𝑷𝟏 - 𝑷𝟔 D
 Taking the moment about O’:
 𝑴𝒐′ =0

 SOLVING FOR D:

20
 Fixed Earth Support Method for Penetration in sandy soil: the toe of the pile is
restrained from rotating.
 Using Equivalent Beam solution Method

T=F
S=I
If we cut it at S ( Reaction 𝑷𝒔 ) = P ’ (@ I)
21


22


23
Questions ????

24