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UNDERSTANDING ISLAMIC (HALAL) TOURISM

THROUGH LEIPER'S TOURISM SYSTEM

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 UNDERSTANDING ISLAMIC (HALAL) TOURISM THROUGH LEIPER’S TOURISM
SYSTEM

Ghazali Musa, Suhana Bt Mohezar Ali, Sedigheh Moghavvemi

Abstract

The increasing number of Muslim tourist creates the necessity to understand of their needs and
requirements when travelling. Despite this fact, efforts to explain Islamic tourism remain
fragmented, with a distinct lack of theoretical underpinnings explaining this emerging
phenomenon. This paper examines the concept of Islamic or halal tourism, based on the theory
of Leiper’s Tourism System (1979), by exploring the pertinent and crucial elements within the
constructs of the tourism system. This intimate understanding allows service providers and
policy-makers to consider the issues and challenges embedded within the industry to make way
for proper planning and developments to gain a portion of this lucrative market, especially with
regards to the Islamic nations worldwide.

Key words: Islamic Tourism, Halal, Leiper’s Tourism System, Compliant Hotels, Airline.

INTRODUCTION

The tourism industry is regarded as one of the largest service sectors; generating significant

national income through foreign exchange earnings, employment opportunities and business

prospects. This sector contributes approximately 9% to the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP),

and 8% share of world’s total employment opportunities in 2009 alone (United Nations World

Tourism Organization, 2010). Despite the evidence of vigorous growth, Muslim nations account

for only 10% of global tourism revenues, which signifies an unbalance in their participation

(Okhovat, 2010). Certain factors are especially pertinent to the tourism industry, and in this

context, factors such as economic conditions and religious practices are especially poignant for
1
tourist from Islamic nations. Religion and religious practices could influence the individual host,

tourist’s experience, industrial operation, tourism policy, as well as local developments (Farahani

& Henderson, 2010; Neveu, 2010). The relationship between religion and tourism is a well-

established fact; and is reflected in literature (Chattopadhay, 2006). However, its application vis-

à-vis the Islamic context has scarcely been elaborated upon, or even explored in depth. This

happens despite the fact that tourism is referred to in the Quran and the documented deeds of the

Prophet Muhammad, called the Sunnah; and the very concept of Islamic tourism is a relatively

new phenomenon.

The question of how to formulate and deliver practical Islamic tourism guidance remains

inconclusive. Nonetheless, few studies have attempted to investigate this issue from an Islamic

perspective. The fact that there is a lack of foundation theory to guide the understanding of

Islamic tourism is especially rampant, with most studies relying on anecdotal evidence (Zamani-

Farahani & Henderson, 2009; Battour, Ismail & Battor, 2010; Shakeela, Ruhanen & Braakey,

2010). The increasing number of Muslims; from 1.84 billion in 2007 to 1.97 billion in 2010

(Zailani, Omar & Kopong, 2011), requires us to understand their needs better if we were to

develop a comprehensive Islamic tourism industry. A growth in demand for a variety of tourism

products that conform to Islamic needs and requirements are becoming quite ubiquitous, which

creates a niche market for Islamic tourism. Motivated by these gaps, this paper aims to

comprehensively dissect Islamic tourism by integrating the Leiper’s (1979) Tourism System and

Islamic teaching, based on the Quran and the Sunnah. This paper also adds aspects that are

relevant to Islamic values to the sub-components within the five elements in the Leiper's (1979)

Tourism System. The author(s) explore the effect of Islamic religion and practices on the tourism

industry, and discuss the challenges faced by Muslim nations in developing their respective

2
Islamic tourism industry. This paper forms an invaluable platform for a more effective

managerial decision-making, which could assist both the private and public sector in molding

their business strategy and resources for the growth of Islamic tourism.

BACKGROUND

Definition of Islamic Tourism

There have been several attempts to define Islamic tourism. Organization of the Islamic

Countries (OIC) (2008) described Islamic tourism as Muslim tourists travelling to destinations in

which Islam is the dominant faith of the population, with religious purposes forming the majority

of their intention (OIC, 2008). This definition perhaps hinges upon the fact of how Islam

historically encourages travelling as a path of spiritual fulfillment. Henderson (2009: 247)

defines this concept in a broader manner; in that Islamic tourism is defined as travelling activities

partaken by Muslim tourists that conform to Islamic teachings, although their travelling purposes

might have little to do with religious believes or practices. Henderson’s point of view encases

Islamic tourism as a product, which frees it from the narrow definition of linking it to pilgrimage

activities; incorporating other leisure activities (e.g.: shopping, skiing, etc.). Henderson

(2009:247) definition offers great economic potential, due to the fact that nowadays, travelling

Muslims incorporate pilgrimage, business and pleasure whenever they travel. Al-Hamarneh

(2008) expanded the term further, by encompassing any traveling activities by both Muslims and

non-Muslims to Islamic countries. Al-Hamarneh (2008)’s definition does not limit the tourism

market to Muslims, and attempts to posit Islamic countries as international destinations that may

have many attractions relevant to both Muslims and non-Muslim tourists alike.

3
For the purpose of this paper, Islamic tourism is defined via two key terms: Islam and Tourism.

Islam is defined as the total submission to the will of God; requiring an individual to consciously

and conscientiously surrender oneself to the service of Allah (Adh-Dhariyat: verse 56), which

persuades its followers to limit themselves to what Allah permits. Tourism is defined as the

activity of people traveling and staying in places outside their residence for one or more nights,

and not more than one consecutive year for the purpose of leisure, business and other activities;

and the provision of facilities and services to support the traveling activities (Leiper, 1979: 398).

Combining the two concepts, Islamic tourism can be defined as the act of Muslims traveling and

visiting places beyond their residence (to Muslim or non-Muslim countries) for more than one

consecutive night for the purpose of pilgrimage, business, leisure or other activities; and the

provision of facilities and services to support these activities, all of which are outlined by the

requirement of total submission to the will of God, and conformity to Sharia’. Central to the

concept of Islamic tourism is the concept of halal itself. The word ‘halal’ is Arabic in origin,

and is defined as permissible, especially in the context of Sharia’ laws. The word halal is

commonly associated with food, which refers to food that is permitted for consumption as per

Islamic teachings. Nevertheless, the concept of halal is not limited to food, but covers all aspects

of Islamic activities. Therefore, halal is a system by itself, which should be observed by Muslim

travelers.

Leiper’s Tourism System

The Leiper Tourism System (1979) is a model that attempts to summarize the concept of

tourism within an integrated system (See Figure 1).

4
 Figure 1. Leiper’s Tourism System (1979)

This model was applied in conceptual tourism models, and remodeled in many studies, such as

Japan and Australia’s tourism system (Hensall & Roberts, 1985), political crises in Fiji (Cooper

& Boniface, 1994), tourism in Cambodia (Hing & Dimmocks, 2000), tourism education

(Ernawati, 2002), independent bicycle tourism (Lamont, 2008) and destination marketing

(Gitadharmesti, 2008). According to this model, there are five main elements that are

interconnected within the system, which are tourist, tourist generating region, tourist destination

region, transit route, and tourist industry. A tourist is described as a person involved in travelling

activities, who stays at least one night away from their residence for pleasure, health or business

reasons. The second element, tourist generating region, refers to the permanent residential basis

of the tourist, which is where the travelling activities begins and terminates. In contrast, tourist

destination region is defined as places that attract tourists to visit and temporarily stay. The

growth of the tourist destination region depends on many factors, such as quality, accessibility to

tourist locations, attractions, accommodations and facilities. The fourth element, transit route, is

the path linking the tourist generating region to the destination region. The fifth element, tourism

industry, refers to the businesses and organizations that facilitate promoting and providing
5
tourism services, which can be viewed as a linked chain, encompassing tourist generating region,

transit route and destination region, which invariably include travel agents, tourist operators,

transportation, travel insurance agents, hoteliers and restaurants.

The Leiper Tourism System has been utilized in many studies to investigate the tourism industry

(Henderson, 2006; Morakabati, 2010). Nevertheless, most of such studies are only confined to

research in the area of the destination region. The Leiper Tourism System (1979) is limited by

allowing only one destination as an attraction point, with other visited locations relegated to the

role of a 'transit region', thus leaving out most of the details that characterize all real world

examples of tourism. While they do provide insights, a successful tourism system is subjected to

influences by its external environments (economic stability, political environment etc.).

Moreover, little work has been conducted to consider the applicability of Leiper’s approach to

specific areas of tourism’s interest. It remains inconclusive whether the conceptual model is

applicable to other niche areas of tourism study.

This conceptual paper helps bridge those gaps by employing the Leiper’s (1979) Tourism

System to encourage an understanding of Islamic tourism. While the model introduces various

sub-components within the five elements, we intend to focus on aspects that are relevant to

Islamic tourism in three subcomponents; (1) generating region, (2) destination region and (3)

transit route. Within the context of tourists’ generating region, the paper is confined to explaining

factors that motivate a member of the community to engage in tourism activities, and describing

the statistics of the outbound tourists from Muslim nations. In an effort to explain the tourists’

destination region element, we extend the previous research by delving into issues such as halal

6
food and hospitality, along with local attractions conforming to Islamic teachings. We also

intend to explore the transit route component by discussing matters pertaining to in-flight

concerns. Additionally, this paper will address external factors such as socio-cultural, political

and economic stability, the establishment of a supportive legal framework and technological

infrastructure that may influence the Islamic tourism development. The following section

examines the Islamic tourism perspective within Leiper’s Generating region, Destination Region

and Transit route.

ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

Tourists’ Generating Region Element

Tourism occurs when tourists travel from a generating region to a destination region via a transit

route. According to Leiper (1979), the tourist-generating region is the tourists’ area of residence,

where tourists are motivated by their desire to travel to certain places. Islam encourages Muslims

to travel for the purpose of acquiring knowledge and to witness the glory of God; as attested to in

several verses of the Quran and Hadith. Several Hadiths support the idea that God encourages

travel; two of them in which the Prophet is reportedly to have urged his followers to seek

knowledge as far as China (Al-Suyuti: 1505), and those who go out in search of knowledge will

be in the path of God until they return (Al-Tirmidhi: 892). The traditional urge to travel among

Muslims could have originated from the requirement to fulfill their spiritual journey(s)by

performing the Hajj or Umrah (Haq & Ho, 2010; Henderson, 2009). These spiritual activities are

also known as pilgrimage, refers to visits to the holy Kaa’ba in Mecca, and the holy shrine of the

Prophet Muhammad in Medina (Bhardwaj, 1998). Muslims are also encouraged by their religion

7
to perform Ziyara- described as a journey to shrines, mosques and tombs of the saints and their

relatives across Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Syria. The main aim of these activities is to revive

Islamic culture and heritage (Henderson, 2003).

The available data on tourism demand and supply among the Islamic countries is rather limited.

Nonetheless, according to the World Tourism Organization (UNTWO) (2007) (See Table 1), the

Middle East international tourism expenditure was USD 17.7 billion, the highest among other

Islamic regions.

Table 1. Outbound Tourism Expenditures of Islamic Countries in 2003

Country Expenditure (USD Million)

Indonesia 3,082
Pakistan 924
Bangladesh 165
Morocco 548
Sudan 119
Tunisia 300
Malaysia 2,846
Middle East 17,663
Turkey 2,113
Source: UNTWO 2007

Prior to 9/11, Europe was a major tourist destination among outbound tourists from Islamic

countries, commanding 12.9% of the market share in 2000 (World Tourism Organization, 2007).

However, that has significantly changed following the aftermath 9/11. Muslim destinations such

as Turkey, Malaysia and Indonesia are becoming important export markets for these tourists

(Organization of the Islamic Countries, 2008) (See Table 2). Intra-regional tourism activities are

also booming within the Middle Eastern region itself. Bahrain and Egypt for instance, are

emerging as popular destinations for short-term holiday among the Saudis (Steiner, 2010).

8
 Table 2. Outbound Tourism from the Islamic countries (2000 – 2005)
Market Share (%)
Destination 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Middle East 73.7 74.9 76.7 77.4 77.5 77.5
Europe 12.9 11.2 8.9 9.1 9.0 9.7
Americas 2.3 2.1 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.0
Source: OIC 2008

Tourist’s Destination Region

Leiper (1979: 397) defined destination region as ‘locations which attract tourist to stay

temporarily with particular reference to those features which inherently contribute to that

attraction’. Within this region, tourists stay for at least a night, and embark on tourist activities

such as relaxation, health, conference etc., during which religion potentially influences the

tourists’ choices (Bon & Hussain, 2010; Bonne & Verbeke, 2008). Conforming to Islamic

values, Muslims as hosts are commanded to offer appropriate hospitality to tourists and treat

them with respect. This is documented in the Prophet’s Hadith, narrated by Abu Hurairah, “He

who believes in Allah and the Last Day, let him show hospitality to his guest”. Many factors will

affect tourists’ decision vis-à-vis the destination region, such as halal food, suitable hotels and

airlines.

Halal Food

Islam provides an extensive framework to what is or is not permissible in its followers’ daily

activities, which covers aspects of food, cosmetics, financial issues, and pharmaceutical products

(Mukhtar & Butt, 2012). The most common emphasis often rests on the prohibition of alcohol

consumption and gambling in any of its form (Sura’ Al Baqarah: verse 219). In light of this,

9
Muslims are forbidden from gambling, imbibing alcohol, and participating in mixed-gender

events, and are required to observe halal dietary laws. There are five categories of forbidden

food discussed in the Quran (Sura’ Al-Baqarah: verse 173), “carrion (dead animals) that are

killed by strangulation, blow, fall, gored or partly eaten by wild animals; flowing blood, pork,

alcohol and animals that have been slaughtered with the invocation of a name other that the

name of ‘Allah’”.

Since Islam requires consuming halal food, there is a high demand from Muslim tourists for

food(s) that conform to Islamic regulations. Nevertheless, most Muslim tourists reported

difficulties in obtaining halal food when travelling, especially in non-Muslim countries (Wan

Hassan &Hall, 2003; Bon & Hussain, 2010). Initiatives are taken by some Muslim and non-

Muslim destinations to enhance their halal food provisions for Muslim tourists. For instance, the

Tourism Authority of Thailand has mandated that restaurant owners deliver improved quality

food that meets the requirement of Muslims (Bon &Hussain, 2010). Recently, Malaysia has

become a favorite spot for tourists from the Persian Gulf countries via the provision of halal

meals in the majority of its international hotels and restaurants (Battour et al., 2010). The

existence of a unique global trademark for halal food, and a common ground or global institution

to issue and regulate the halal certifications may help enhance the provision of halal food for

Muslim tourists.

Gender Segregation

Islamic teaching insists on strict gender segregation, especially with regards to public facilities.

This has been in practice since the time of the Prophet Muhammad, where the mosques during

10
those times were segregated, with different sections for both men and women (Jibreen, 1996).

The prohibition of free mixing of men and women is firmly stated in the Quran (Al-Ahzab: verse

53). Both men and women are also required to dress conservatively in public spaces; Muslim

men are obliged to cover their torsos and upper legs, while women need to cover their entire

bodies leaving only their hands and faces exposed (Din, 1989). Catering to the need of Muslims

tourist does not only cover the provision of halal items, but also require Sharia’-friendly hotels

and accommodations.

Sharia’ Compliant Hotels

The increasing number of tourist from the Middle East having higher purchasing power drove

hotel companies cater to the their needs and desires, which forms the majority in this niche. In

light of this, some industry practitioners have begun to introduce Sharia’ compliant hotels, which

restrict the consumption of alcohol and non-halal food, as well as gambling activities on their

premises. As an example, the Al-Mulla Hotel, a Dubai-based hospitality group, is exercising a

stronger commitment to Islamic tourism products and services, by introducing segregated

wellness facilities and floors for men and women, prohibits non-halal food and night club

entertainment on the premises, implementing a conservative dress codes for employees, and

incorporating religious programs into their television channels (Almulla Hospitality Corporate

Culture, 2008). Din (1989) suggested that some of the additional religious services that could be

provided by a Sharia-compliant hotel are placing ‘Qibla’ stickers (stickers with ornamented

arrows pointing towards the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia for prayer directions), or providing a

copy of Quran in each room, along with prayer mats; all of which could cater for religious needs

and improve the satisfaction level of Muslim tourists.

11
Attractions in Muslim Countries

The attraction at a destination is another pertinent aspect that may influence tourists’ travel

decisions. The Middle East, known as the birthplace of Islam and ancient civilizations, is

recognized as one of the principal destinations for Muslims. Saudi Arabia, for instance, has

drawn the largest number of Muslim arrivals, with 8.6 million tourists reported to perform

pilgrimage in 2009 alone. As the purported guardian of the holy sites, Saudi Arabia’s

government perceives facilitating pilgrimages as their main duty and responsibility (Zamani-

Farahani and Henderson, 2010). In other parts of the Middle East, there are dense collections of

archeological monuments and ruins, including the pyramids in Egypt and the rock-carved city of

Petra in Jordan (Hazbun, 2003). Iran, the second largest country in the Middle East, is ranked as

one of the top ten countries in the world possessing rich ancient and historical sites (Alavi &

Yasin, 2000; Zendeh Del, 2001).

Other Islamic non-Arab countries are also emerging as tourist destinations. Malaysia has been

benefiting from Islamic tourism, surpassing other Asian Muslim countries in the number of

tourist arrivals (Hashim, Irazabal & Byrum, 2010; Henderson, 2010). The Islamic Civilization

Park in the Malaysian State of Terengganu, which displays glorious Islamic architecture, has

attracted a total of 2 million tourist arrivals in its first year of the operation (Henderson 2010).

Nevertheless, it is vital to ensure that Islamic attributes are incorporated in the development of

these attractions. According to the Quran (Al-Baqarah: verse 43), Muslims are required to

perform their prayers five times a day, and are not permitted to delay prayers outside the

designated time frame without a valid reason. Thus, having prayer rooms at public places would

12
facilitate a pleasant holiday experience for Muslim tourists. Empirical studies have discovered

that the availability of mosques at tourist attraction sites influences tourist travel preferences

(Weidenfeld, 2006; Mohsin, 2005). The Islamic tourism system is not only applicable to the

destination region and generating region, but includes transit route.

Transit Route

Transit Route is the third main dimension in the Leiper’s Tourism System. Tourists, in their

journey from the Tourist Generating Region to the Tourist Destination Region, patronize these

so-called transit routes. Within the Transit Route, Muslim tourists may need to eat in restaurants,

conduct leisure activities in parks, or rest in a hotel. For Muslims, all these activities must be

carried out within the permissible frame of code and conduct stipulated by the Quran and Hadith.

Of all the elements of service(s) provided in the Transit Route, perhaps the most controversial

aspect of tourism services is the provision of a halal flying experience. The in-flight service(s)

attracts tourists to a particular airline or tour operator. Wider selection of in-flight halal meals

would definitely be preferred by Muslim tourists. Royal Brunei, Air Arabia and Kuwait Airways

are some of the carriers that strive to accommodate Muslim tourists by providing halal food and

prohibiting on board alcohol serving and consumption. The lack of halal airline meals, with

vegetarian meals served as the alternative option in most U.S. airways, may have resulted in

unpleasant experiences for Muslim tourists, rendering them unsatisfied and unhappy (Rashid,

2007). Halal airline experience or services are not only confined to serving halal food, but also

in observing other aspects, such as incorporating religious programs as part of in-flight

entertainment, having copies of the Quran on board, listening to the recitation of the Holy Quran

as an in-flight listening option, announcing prayer times, providing an acceptable prayer space in

13
long-distance travel (like Iran Air) and providing segregated sections for men, women and

families. Figure 2 presents the adapted model and the important components and elements

within the Islamic or halal tourism system.

Figure 2. Islamic Tourism System

Environments

The three dimensions of the Leiper Tourism System are influenced by external factors, such as

economy, politics, socio-culture, governance and legal policies. These external factors need to be

favorable if Islamic tourism were to flourish. External factors often determine the state of

tourism development and industry in a Muslim country.

Tourism as Economic Diversification

Oil and gas’ imminent exhaustion has increased the importance of the tourism sector in

economic diversification and the provision of employment opportunities in some nations

(Sharpley, 2003). The number of inbound tourists to the Middle East alone, for instance, is

14
expected to grow by 108%, reaching revenue of US$24 billion in 2011 (Battour et al., 2010).

Recently, international tourism activities have emerged as a stronger economic contributor to

several Muslim countries such as Malaysia, Dubai, Turkey, Egypt and Morocco. The Brunei

government for example, has committed itself in developing tourism as a source of economic

growth for the country (Baum & Conlin, 1997). Tourism plays a very significant role in the

economy of Malaysia, where the government prioritizes this sector for its annual budget

(Henderson, 2010; Zailani et al., 2011). The Malaysian government has positioned the sector as

an engine for economic growth, and now strives to position itself as an Islamic tourism hub

(Hashim et al., 2010). The country’s initiative in hosting the first OIC Global Islamic Tourism

Conference and Exhibition illustrates its interest in targeting and serving this niche Islamic

market.

The Influence of Politics

The demand for business and leisure travel can be severely eroded by political instability.

Evidently, violence and political unrest such as interstate wars, terrorism and crime create

disturbance and volatility, which may serve to deter many tourists, investors, tour operators and

travel agents in tourist generating regions from considering the countries affected as suitable for

tourism (Cavlek, 2002; Santana, 2001). Tourists for instance, may consider Iraq or Afghanistan

to be high-risk destinations due to their continuous political tensions (Morakabati, 2011). The

9/11 attacks in New York and Washington DC had negatively affected the tourism of Muslim

countries, particularly those nations that were dependent on Western tourist markets. On the

other hand, destinations which do not depend solely on Western markets do very well in hosting

tourists in their countries. For example, during the same period, Syria and Malaysia reported

43% and 30% increase respectively in their tourist arrivals. Morocco is another example of such

15
destination, in which 88% of the country’s inbound tourists are generated from Western

industrialized countries (Organization of the Islamic Countries, 2008). The region suffered an

astonishing decline in international tourist arrivals, with 40% fewer Americans, 25% fewer

Italians, 19% fewer British and 17% fewer Germans arriving there between 2000 and 2005. The

conflict between Morocco and Spain concerning the sovereignty of the island of Laila in July

2002 further exacerbate the situation. Other Islamic travel destinations such as Tunisia and

Indonesia also faced similar difficulties. The terrorist attacks in Djerba and Bali tarnished the

positive touristic images of both destinations (Steiner, 2010).

Social Issues, Policies and Governance

The arrivals of non-Muslim inbound tourists are sometimes seen as disruptive to local

communities, creating tension between them. Some of these tourists’ behaviors, such as public

displays of affection, consumption of alcohol, wearing scanty clothing and sunbathing in the

nude are considered offensive and unacceptable in most Muslim countries (Henderson, 2003; Al-

Hamarneh & Steiner, 2004). Concerns regarding the harmful effects on local communities led

some Islamic countries to restrict their target market to Muslim tourists. Some Middle Eastern

(e.g., Saudi Arabia) nations particularly demonstrate little enthusiasm for hosting non-Muslim

international tourists (Din, 1989). Being oil-rich nations, they are reserved in gearing up for

modern tourism, since they have little need for extra revenues, but are more concerned at the

possible erosion of religious devoutness as a consequence of tourism development. Effective

public policies in support of the tourism industry are thus rather discouraging in this region.

Several researchers have beseeched upon the importance of religious value system in sociology

(Al-Hyari, Alnsour, Al-Weshah & Haffar, 2012). However, the interpretation of Islamic law or

16
Sharia’ law is not uniform, which runs the gamut from conservative to liberal from one Muslim

country to another (Hassan, 2005). Tourists travelling to Saudi Arabia, for example, may find a

stricter implementation of Islamic law, due to the region’s position as the host of Islam’s holiest

places and the birthplace of the religion (Din, 1989). Some political parties discourage certain

tourism activities that they deem contrary to Islam in Muslim countries. Yet, countries such as

Malaysia, United Arab Emirates, Oman and Turkey exercise a more relaxed form of Islamic law

(Henderson, 2003; Hashim et al., 2007). Activities such as liquor selling, night clubbing and

dressing not in accordance with Islamic teaching are common in these countries. The more

relaxed Islamic law attracts both non-Muslim and Muslim tourists, and may have been one of the

reasons for the success of tourism in the countries such as Malaysia, Turkey and United Arab

Emirates.

Facilities and Infrastructure

Muslim countries such as United Arab Emirates, Malaysia, Turkey and Morocco are enjoying

high volumes of international inbound tourists due to their rapid infrastructural development

(Stephenson, Russell & Edgar, 2010). This is however not the case in other Islamic countries,

such as Libya, Sudan and Nigeria (Hashim, Murphy & Muhammad, 2007). While tourism

appears to be pertinent for these countries’ development, the sector is undermined by poor

infrastructures such as roads, electricity, water supplies, accommodation and telecommunications

(Gauci, Gerosa & Mwalwanda, 2002). The integration between technology and the tourism

industry enables industrial players to combine skills and resources, creating synergies through

efficient communication and information sharing. The development of search engines, carrying

capacity and networks’ speed has increased the global utilization of ICT technology for planning

17
and experiencing tourists’ travels (Buhalis & Law, 2008). Tourism websites could also be

established as an approach to promote religious tourism. The promotion of Islamic principles by

tourism operators’ websites can facilitate tourists in understanding the appropriate and ethical

behavior in Muslim countries, particularly for non-Muslims. While it is expected for Muslim

countries to incorporate and project the Islamic image in promotional efforts, little evidence of

such attempt exists.

Discussions and Conclusions

Islam influences the decision-making for Muslim tourists, determining the demand for traveling

and the direction of their inbound and outbound flow. However, overemphasis on Islamic

tourism could reduce the numbers of non-Muslim tourists, which could be harmful to their

respective economy. Thus, an appropriate balance should be struck in the national tourism

policies. Any approach to foster a better understanding between Islamic and non-Islamic

countries could result in a greater and safer tourists flow, leading to larger numbers of potential

tourists and economic benefits to the host countries; and herald new values and facets of interest

for tourists.

To attract Muslim tourists, hotels and restaurants should serve halal meals, and managers should

consider applying for halal certification, as this would instill confidence among Muslim tourists.

With Islamic values and principles forming a substantial element of the Muslim social system, it

is imperative for practitioners to design in-house hospitality and tourism training that

18
incorporates Islamic values and socio-cultural sensitivities. Firms should also seek for personnel

with appropriate skills, character and devotion towards Islam, as this could create the right theme

and ambience. The dedication of the government, perhaps through economic incentives such as

tax relaxation for hotels, and restaurants that apply for halal certification for instance, may attract

more managers to serve halal food in their establishments. Various marketing and promotional

campaigns projecting positive images of Muslim countries, together with attractive natural

resources and cultural heritage could help disseminate positive awareness of Islamic religion and

culture and reduce conflicts that may emerge among non-Muslim tourists. Active promotional

efforts outside the destination are desirable, since this would help create favorable publicity in

news and media, particularly for Muslim countries affected by negative political events and rely

heavily on non-Muslim tourists.

International and regional cooperation via participation in the Organization of Islamic

Conference (OIC) may also assist these countries in eradicating poverty and fostering national

capacity building. On top of this, they should contemplate developing an international body that

could develop, establish and monitor standards for halal hospitality compliance, since this step

could assist in resolving any differences that may arise. The marketing of Islamic tourism is

certainly not a simple task, due to the conflicting demands of non-Muslim tourists and the

various needs among Muslim tourists globally. The developed conceptual framework may act as

a platform for tour operators and policy makers in formulating marketing strategies and

promotions to spur the development of Islamic tourism. Industrial practitioners may use the

findings of this study to design Islamic tourism products and services that could satisfy both

Muslims and non-Muslims. These circumstances compel tour operators to explore Islamic

19
attributes and values, which could assist them in designing products and services that are

tailored to the market’s needs.

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