NR.2 2016 Refacuta

Sp Soc Int J Ph Ed Sp 2016 - Volume 16 – Issue 2
Issue 2
December 2016
www.sportsisocietate.ro
“ALTIUS ACADEMY” FOUNDATION

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
“ALEXANDRU IOAN CUZA” UNIVERSITY OF IAŞI, ROMANIA
p -ISSN 1582-2168
e –ISSN 2344-3693
1
EDITORIAL STAFF
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Adrian COJOCARIU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,
ROMANIA, e-mail: cadriano@uaic.ro
DEPUTY EDITORS
Paula DROSESCU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA,
e-mail: paula_drosescu@yahoo.com
Beatrice ABALAȘEI, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,
ROMANIA, e-mail: beatrice.abalasei@uaic.ro
Oana RUSU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA, e-mail:
broana@uaic.ro
TECHNICAL EDITORS
Alexandru OPREAN, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA,
e-mail: alexandruoprean@yahoo.com
Marius NECULĂEȘ, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA,
e-mail: neculaes_marius@yahoo.com
Bogdan HAGIU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA, e-
mail: bogdan_hagiu@yahoo.com
Rareș PUNI, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA, e-mail:
punirares@yahoo.com
SECRETARIAT
Alexandru OPREAN, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA,
e-mail: alexandruoprean@yahoo.com
Raluca HODORCĂ, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA,
e-mail: raluca.hodorca@yahoo.com
Marius NECULĂEȘ, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA,
e-mail: neculaes_marius@yahoo.com
Veronica POPESCU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, ROMANIA,
e-mail: veronica.popescu@uaic.ro
EDITORIAL BOARD
Bernard MASSIERA, "Sophia Antipolis" University of Nice, FRANCE
Diethelm BLECKING, "Albert Ludwigs" University, Freiburg, GERMANY
Denis PARISOT, "Sophia Antipolis" University of Nice, FRANCE
Claude SOBRY, University of Lille 2, FRANCE
Marin CHIRAZI, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, ROMANIA
Chairat CHOOSAKUL, Health and Sport Science Department, Mahasarakham University, THAILAND
Boris RÃȘNEAC, INEFS Chișinău, MOLDAVIAN REPUBLIC
Veronica BĂLTEANU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, ROMANIA
Tatiana DOBRESCU, “Vasile Alecsandri” University of Bacau, ROMANIA
Ion APOSTOL, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Iași, ROMANIA
Alexandru ACSINTE, “Vasile Alecsandri” University of Bacau, ROMANIA
Doina MÂRZA-DĂNILĂ, “Vasile Alecsandri” University of Bacau, ROMANIA
Cezar HONCERIU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, ROMANIA
Lucian POPESCU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, ROMANIA
Iulian DUMITRU, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, ROMANIA
PUBLISHER/EDITORIAL OFFICE
Faculty of of Physical Education and Sports, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi
Str. Toma Cozma 3, 700554 Iaşi – ROMANIA
Phone: 0040 232 20 12 91
Fax: 0040 232 20 11 26
E-mail: cadriano@uaic.ro
Printed in 150 copies
Printed on Acid-Free Paper
www.sportsisocietate.ro
2
ORIGINAL ARTICLES / ARTICOLE DE CERCETARE
MAINTAINING HEALTH THROUGH EXTRACURRICULAR LEISURE

EXERCISING
Ileana-Monica POPOVICI 1, Lucian POPESCU 2, Cristina-Elena MORARU 3

123
“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, Romania, 3, Toma Cozma Street
Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Science of Human Motricity
E- mail: gimcristinamoraru@yahoo.com
Abstract
In an increasingly aggressive environment, physical activity and physical condition play a positive role in
maintaining the physical and mental health of children, in the context of preventive medicine. They influence the health
status during these periods and the adulthood. The purpose of this paper is to pinpoint directions through which we can
demonstrate the effectiveness of using – within extracurricular activities – certain selected physical exercises, for
maintaining the health of middle school children, by studying the evolution of the group included in the study. The
subjects comprised in our investigation are students aged between 12 and 14; we have conducted several somatic and
functional measurements: thoracic elasticity, vital capacity, Adrian Ionescu index, and Bouchard, Demeny, and Ruffier
tests. We have monitored our study sample throughout an academic year and we have introduced various sets of well-
balanced physical development and handball lessons within extracurricular activities (we had practice three times a
week). Through the means and methods used in extracurricular activities, the subjects scored higher values of lung
elasticity (from 7.65 cm to 9.7 cm), in vital capacity (from 2430 cm³ to 2595 cm³); they improved the Ruffier index (by
-3.27) and the mean value of the Bouchard test (from 316.94 g to 319.73 g). In the Demeny test, the mean increased
from 50.86 cm³ to 52.22 cm³, but these values range within satisfactory parameters, while the values of Adrian Ionescu
index increased from 5.75 to 7.5, which proves that students have good proportions and they range within normal
development parameters. We posit that we have attained our purpose and that this study is an effective working
instrument for physical education teachers who want to introduce extracurricular activities, for both influencing the
growth and development process and maintaining the health of middle school students.
Key words: physical education, extracurricular activities, health status, well-balanced physical development
Introduction
The scientific literature shows the specialists’ preoccupation for the role of exercising in the
improvement of health status and quality of life. Good health is an essential element of human well-being
and it represents a value in itself. [1]
At individual level, good health is an important component of human capital, which allows people to
conduct their activities, to attain their goals, to have a complete life and to be active members of the society.
[6]
Free time used in a recreational and fun way is the time to do something that brings pleasure, a
passion, a hobby; it mainly comprises relaxing and entertaining activities. This time is more or less
consistent, depending on the thinking pattern and aspirations of each individual, on the culture degree, on the
organizational capacity and on the voluntary capacity of joining a certain program. [8] One of the functions
of leisure time – development, personal improvement of motor capacity – can be achieved in the period
allocated to exercising, in order to improve or maintain health.
Acquiring the habit of exercising to ensure the comfort of life is an essential characteristic of leisure,
which contributes to acquiring a taste for high quality of life, to the development of the “self”, to establishing
collaboration with friends or colleagues. [8]
Each of us has to discover the necessity and benefits of exercising, including the fact that regular
physical exercise influences positively the physical and mental health, that it facilitates the normal
development of children and that it plays an important role in maintaining good health throughout the years.
Physical activities and sport – within an extracurricular regime – must be diversified and continuous;
they also must comprise most children enrolled in education establishments.
The management bodies of education establishments must support the physical education and sport
teachers in their endeavour of constituting school sports associations.
3
Extracurricular activities are a significant part of school life in developed countries. However, being
outside the core academic programs, they are among the first candidates to be reduced in times of budget
constraints.
Cuts in extracurricular activities are, however, often met with opposition: some argue that those
activities are important to young people’s personal development. Theory suggests that participation in
extracurricular activities can benefit young people by developing certain qualities (such as self-esteem,
leadership skills and improving their health). [10]
Extracurricular activities, by whatever name they are called, are an essential, vital and extensive part
of education. The development of skill in working in groups, the cultivation of hobbies and interests, the
production of yearbooks, newspapers and plays, and participation in interscholastic athletics and intramural
sports present many opportunities to students for discovering and developing talents that approximate life in
the adult community. [3]
The lineage of worthy use of leisure time as a valid part of the goals of education is the foundation
on which the student activities program in schools should be built.
Extracurricular activities should be an essential and vital part of education in our country. They have
to be well integrated into daily life of the school. Social activities, athletics and all the many leisure activities
must become a part of the values and virtues not only of the national education, but also of life in general. [5]
A study conducted on adolescents found that those who participate in both sports and non-sports
report a more positive social self-concept and general self-worth, compared to those who only participate in
one of the two activity types. [2]
Extracurricular activities refer to involvement in organized groups or activities such as dance,
football and student government, and may occur in or outside of school. In support of this statement, Larson
and Verma (1999) discussed how European adolescents spend more time playing music, whereas US
adolescents spend more time playing sports. [4, 7]
To prevent obesity, the physical activity of youth should be increased. Since time for school physical
education has declined and curricular interventions have had limited effects, alternative non-curriculum
approaches need to be tested.
Non-curricular approaches may offer promise for increasing physical activity at school.
Noncurriculum approaches are defined as interventions that did not focus upon modifications to school
physical or health education. [9]
An earlier review article highlighted locations where non-curriculum school-based physical activity
could potentially take place. [11]
Physical self-concept, competence and confidence are important determinants in engagement in
physical activity and sport. If students do not develop the skills required to participate in the activity, when
given the choice they will not continue to participate and due to lack of exposure incompetence will follow.
The physical education programme has a role to play in preparing students for physical activity pathways
beyond the classroom.
Good quality physical education programmes are an important preventative antidote to high cost
health risks and to anti-social behaviour in children and youth. They contribute to all round individual
development and have been shown to enhance children’s quality of life. [12]
Material and methods

The purpose of this paper is to pinpoint directions through which we can demonstrate the effectives
of using – within extracurricular activities – certain selected physical exercises, for maintaining the health of
middle school children, by studying the evolution of the group included in the study.
The operational models used as independent variable in the experiment were the following: exercises
with balls, canes, gymnastics benches, exercises in pairs used in complexes of general physical development,
coordination and balance exercises, exercises for throwing and passing the ball, goal throws, fixed and
mobile target throws, exercises of movement using various step structures, movement with direction
changes, exercises for marking and unmarking.
The subjects comprised in our investigation are students aged between 12 and 14; we have
conducted several somatic and functional measurements: thoracic elasticity, vital capacity, Adrian Ionescu
index, and Bouchard, Demeny, and Ruffier tests. We have monitored our study sample throughout an
academic year and we have introduced various sets of well-balanced physical development and handball
lessons within extracurricular activities. We had practice three times a week and the practice lasted for 90
4
minutes: 30 minutes for complexes of general physical development and 60 minutes dedicated to handball-
specific means.
We have used the following research methods: literature review, observation method, measurements
and tests, pedagogic experiment and statistical-mathematical method.
Findings
Table 1 Statistical interpretation of anthropological measurements in the two sets of tests

Mean Standard Mean error Variability
Anthropometric measurements deviation coefficient
Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final
Height (cm) 155.85 160.1 8.09 7.78 1.81 1.74 5.19 4.86
Weight (Kg) 51.2 51.3 8.81 8.71 1.97 1.95 17.2 16.99
Bust (cm) 71.9 74.3 3.17 4.95 0.71 1.1 4.41 6.66
Full arm-span (cm) 157.45 160.1 8.25 8.45 1.84 1.89 5.24 5.28
Chest circumference at rest (cm) 73.2 75.55 3.57 9.54 0.8 2.13 4.88 12.63
Chest circumference on full inspiration
78.25 84 3.44 6.21 0.77 1.39 4.4 7.39
(cm)
Chest circumference on full expiration
70.6 74.3 3.25 5.61 0.72 1.25 4.6 7.55
(cm)
Thoracic elasticity (cm) 7.65 9.7 1.72 1.55 0.38 0.34 22.55 16.07
Graph 1 Graphic representations of means obtained in the two sets of tests
The comparative analysis of the data obtained in anthropometric measurements underlines that their
evolution is ascending. Therefore, we found the following progresses: 4.25 – height, 0.1 – weight, 2.4 –
bust, 2.65 – full arm-span, 2.35 – chest circumference at rest, 5.72 – chest circumference on full inspiration,
3.7 – chest circumference on full expiration and 2.05 – thoracic elasticity; all these progresses ascertain the
efficiency of action systems used and the performance of obtaining a proportionality between somatic
indices.
Table 2 Statistical interpretation of functional tests

Variability
Mean Standard deviation Mean error
Functional tests coefficient
3
Vital capacity (cm ) 2430 2595 311.36 301.7 69.65 67.49 12.81 11.62
Bouchard Test (g) 316.94 319.73 52.85 45.83 11.82 10.25 16.67 14.33
Demeny Test (cm3) 50.86 52.22 11.28 9.59 2.52 2.14 22.17 18.37
Ruffier Test 10.33 7.06 1.65 1.5 0.36 1.57 16 21.27
Adrian Ionescu Index (cm) -7.5 -5.75 2.58 2.81 0.57 0.63 -34.4 -48.98
5
Graph 2 Graphic representation of means obtained in the two sets of tests
Graph 3 Graphic representation of means obtained in the two sets of tests
The analysis of data obtained in functional tests revealed the following: increase in the value of vital
capacity, to 165 cm³; better values for Bouchard (by 2.79 g), with results ranging between 300 and 400 g,
which demonstrates that students have good body proportions; increase in the Demeny pulmonary index
by1.36 cm³, which shows that students have a good air ventilation on lung levels and good resistance to
effort; improvement in the values of the Ruffier test by -3.27, which illustrates students’ adaptation to effort
and their average physical form; decrease in the Adrian Ionescu proportionality index by 1.75 cm, which
includes the students within normal parameters (0 -10 cm), and this proves a good proportionality between
the bust and the body.
Conclusions
This study – conducted throughout an entire year – aimed at proving the influence of exercising on
health and on well-balanced physical development, implicitly, through extracurricular leisure physical
activities, which confirmed the purpose of this paper.
Therefore, the subjects who took part in our study showed a proper physical development; through
the means applied in training, they improved significantly their values for chest circumference both on full
inspiration and on full expiration; they also scored better in thoracic elasticity (in the final testing).
Also, the data obtained in functional tests revealed an increase in the value of vital capacity; better
values for Bouchard; an increase in the Demeny pulmonary index; improvement in the values of the Ruffier
and a decrease in the Adrian Ionescu proportionality index.
Considering our findings and the progress in the growth and well-balanced physical development,
we formulate the following conclusions and recommendations:
 Besides the sets of exercises within during lessons or individually, a sports game practiced in the
leisure time can improve physical development and maintain good health, implicitly;
 Students should also perform exercises for well-balanced physical development independently, at
home, because they must become aware that they are the “cheapest” means for maintaining good
health and for acquiring a balanced body; they are also a great solution for preventing vicious
postures;
6
 During extracurricular activities, the teacher must present information on the main morphological
and functional indicators of the body and teach skills (for the students to use correctly the
instruments and techniques for their determination, self-control and systematic action); the purpose
is to maintain these indicators within normal parameters;
 As a general conclusion, we underscore that the positive results obtained by the students were
influenced by the application of alternative working programmes; we used a diverse palette of
physical exercises for the selective training of the locomotor system and for toning the main muscle
groups, also by practicing handball during extracurricular hours.
References
[1] Alber, J., Köhler, U., 2004, Health and care in an enlarged Europe, Luxemburg, Office for Official Publications of
the European Commission, p. 107.
[2] Blomfield, C. J., Barber, B. L., Brief report: Performing on the stage, the field, or both? Australian adolescent
extracurricular activity participation and self-concept, Journal of Adolescence, Volume 32, Issue 3, June 2009,
Pages 733–739.
[3] Larson, R. (2006). Organized activities as contexts for development: Extracurricular activities, after-school and
community programs. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[4] Larson, R. W., Verma, S. (1999). How children and adolescents spend time across the world: Work, play, and
developmental opportunities. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 701-736.
[5] Lunenburg, F. C., Extracurricular activities, Sam Houston State University, Schooling – Volume 1, number 1, 2010.
[6] Măginean, I., Precupeţu, I., Preoteasa A.M., (2004), Puncte de suport şi elemente critice în evoluţia calităţii vieţii în
România, Revista “Calitatea vieţii”, issues 1-2, 2004, p.20.
[7] Mello Z. R., Worrell, F. C., Gender Variation in Extracurricular Activity Participation and Perceived Life Chances
in Trinidad and Tobago Adolescents, Psykhe 2008, Vol. 17, No. 2, 91-102.
[8] Raţă, G., Strategii de optimizare a timpului liber, Ed. Pim, Iaşi, 2007.
[9] Russell J., Baranowski, T., Non-curricular approaches for increasing physical activity in youth: a review,
Preventive Medicine 39 (2004) 157 – 163.
[10] Trinh Le, Does Participation in Extracurricular Activities Reduce Engagement in Risky Behaviours?, Melbourne
Institute Working Paper No. 35/13, ISSN 1447-5863, October 2013.
[11] Wechsler, H., Devereaux, R. S., Davis, M., Collins, J., Using the school environment to promote physical activity
and healthy eating. Preventive Medicine (2000); 31: 21 – 37.
[12] Woods, C. B., Moyna N., Quinlan, A., Tannehill, D., Walsh, J., The Children's Sport Participation and Physical
Activity Study (CSPPA Study), Irish Sports Council, Chapter 5, p. 60-61.
7
MENŢINEREA STĂRII DE SĂNĂTATE PRIN ACTIVITĂŢI FIZICE

EXTRAŞCOLARE DE LOISIR
Ileana-Monica POPOVICI 1, Lucian POPESCU 2, Cristina-Elena MORARU 3

123
Universitatea "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" din Iasi, Str. Toma Cozma, nr. 3
Centrul de Cercetări Interdisciplinare în Știința Motricității Umane
E- mail: gimcristinamoraru@yahoo.com
Rezumat
Pentru menţinerea stării fizice şi mentale a copilului, într-un mediu care devine din ce în ce mai agresiv, activitatea fizică şi
condiţia fizică au un rol pozitiv, în contextul medicinii preventive, influenţând starea de sănătate în timpul acestor perioade, dar şi în
timpul vieţii adulte. Scopul lucrării îl constituie identificarea unor direcţii prin care noi putem demonstra eficienţa utilizării în cadrul
activităţilor extrașcolare, a exerciţiilor fizice selectate pentru menţinerea sănătăţii elevilor de gimnaziu, studiind evoluţia grupului
cuprins în studiu. Subiecţii cuprinşi în cercetare sunt elevi cu vârsta cuprinsă între 12 - 14 ani, cărora li s-au aplicat mai multe
măsurători somatice şi funcţionale, şi anume: elasticitate toracică, capacitate vitală, indicele Adrian Ionescu, testul Bouchard,
Demeny şi Ruffier. Lotul cuprins în cercetare a fost monitorizat pe perioada unui an şcolar şi s-au introdus diferite complexe de
dezvoltare fizică armonioasă şi lecţii de handbal în cadrul activităţilor extrașcolare, antrenamentele efectuându-se de trei ori pe
săptămână. Prin metodele şi mijloacele utilizate în activităţile extrașcolare, subiecţii au demonstrat valori mai bune ale
elasticităţii pulmunare de la o medie de 7.65 cm la 9.7 cm, o creştere a capacităţii vitale de la 2430 cm³ la 2595 cm³, o îmbunătăţire a
valorilor indecelui Ruffier cu -3.27 şi o creştere a valorilor mediei la testul Bouchard de la 316.94 g la 319.73 g. La testul Demeny se
observă o creştere a mediei de la 50.86 cm³ la 52.22 cm³, dar aceste valori se situează la pragul de satisfăcător în timp ce valorile
indicelui Adrian Ionescu cresc de la 5.75 la 7.5, ceea ce demonstrează că elevii prezintă o bună proporţionalitate şi se încadrează în
parametri normali de dezvoltare. În sensul celor prezentate mai sus, putem afirma că scopul acestei lucrări a fost atins şi studiul poate
reprezenta un instrument de lucru pentru profesorii de educaţie fizică, în vederea introducerii unor activtăţi extrașcolare atât pentru a
influenţa procesul de creştere şi dezvoltare armonioasă, cât şi pentru menţinerea stării de sănătate în rândul elevilor de gimnaziu.
Cuvinte cheie: educaţie fizică, activităţi extrașcolare, stare de sănătate, dezvoltare fizică armonioasă.
Introducere
Studiind literatura de specialitate, putem să remarcăm preocuparea specialiştilor de-a lungul timpului
cu privire la rolul exerciţiului fizic în îmbunătăţirea stării de sănătate şi a calităţii vieţii. O stare bună de
sănătate este un element esenţial al bunăstării umane, reprezentând o valoare în sine. [1]
La nivel individual, o stare bună de sănătate reprezintă o componentă importantă a capitalului uman,
permiţând oamenilor să îşi desfăşoare activităţile, să îşi îndeplinească ţelurile, să aibă o viaţă completă şi să
fie membri activi ai societăţii. [6]
Timpul liber folosit în mod recreativ, distractiv, este timpul în care se realizează o plăcere, o pasiune,
un hobby, în principal activitatea de relaxare, de destindere şi distracţie. Acest timp este mai mare sau mai
mic, în funcţie de modalitatea de gândire şi de aspiraţie a fiecărui individ în parte, în funcţie de gardul de
cultură, în funcţie de capacitatea de organizare şi capacitatea voluntară de a se integra într-un anumit
program. [8] Una din funcţiile timpului liber şi anume cea de dezvoltare, de perfecţionare personală în ceea
ce priveşte capacitatea motrică poate fi realizată în timpul alocat practicării exerciţiilor fizice, în scopul
îmbunătăţirii sau menţinerii condiţiei fizice.
Formarea obişnuinţei de mişcare care să asigure confortul existenţei este o caracteristică esenţială a
timpului liber care contribuie la formarea gustului pentru o bună calitate a vieţii, la dezvoltarea "eu-lui", la
formarea unor legături de colaborare şi conlucrarea cu prietenii sau colegii. [8]
Fiecare dintre noi trebuie să cunoască necesitatea şi beneficiile practicării activităţii fizice, inclusiv
faptul că, practicarea regulată a exerciţiului fizic influenţează pozitiv sănătatea fizică şi psihică, facilitează
dezvoltarea normală a copiilor şi joacă un rol important în menţinerea stării de sănătate pe tot parcursul
vieţii. (fara autor)
Activităţile de educaţie fizică şi sport, organizate în regim extrașcolar, trebuie să aibă un caracter
diversificat şi continuu şi să cuprindă majoritatea copiilor din unităţile de învăţământ.
Conducerile unităţilor de învăţământ au obligaţia de a sprijini profesorii de educaţie fizică şi sport în
vederea înfiinţării asociaţiilor sportive şcolare.
În țările dezvoltate, activitățile extrașcolare reprezintă o parte importantă din viața școlară. Totuși,
pentru că nu fac parte din programele de studiu propriu-zise, sunt primele la care se renunță atunci când vine
vorba de tăieri bugetare.
Desigur, renunțarea la activitățile extrașcolare este adesea contestată; cei care se opun afirmă că
asemenea activități sunt importante pentru dezvoltarea personal a tinerilor. Studiile teoretice sugerează că
8
participarea la activitățile extrașcolare este benefică pentru tineri pentru că le dezvoltă anumite calități
(precum stima de sine și abilitățile de conducere) și le îmbunătățește starea de sănătate. [10]
Activitățile extrașcolare, indiferent de denumirea lor, sunt o parte esențială, vitală și însemnată a
educației. Prin dezvoltarea abilităților de lucru în grup, prin cultivarea hobby-urilor și intereselor, prin
elaborarea de anuare, ziare și prin organizarea de piese de teatru, precum și prin participarea la competiții
sportive între școli și la sporturi în cadrul școlii, elevii au posibilitatea de a-și descoperi și dezvolta acele
talente care îi vor ajuta în viața de adult. [3]
Folosirea eficientă a activităților din timpul liber ca parte integrantă a scopurilor educaționale
constituie fundamentul programului de activități extrașcolare pentru elevii din școli.
Activitățile extrașcolare constituie o parte esențială și vitală a sistemului educațional și au fost
integrate în mod armonios în viața școlară de fiecare zi. Activitățile sociale, sportive sau numeroasele
activități de loisir au devenit parte integrantă a valorilor și virtuților sistemului educațional și a vieții
democratice în general. [5]
Studiile au arătat că adolescenții care au participat atât la activități sportive, cât și la alte tipuri de
activități au o părere mai bună despre sinele lor social și au o stimă de sine mai ridicată în comparație cu
adolescenții care au participat doar la un tip de activități din cele două. [2]
Activitățile extrașcolare se referă la implicarea în grupuri organizate sau în activități precum dansul,
fotbalul și asociațiile de elevi ori studenți și pot avea loc atât în cadrul, cât și în afara școlii.
În sprijinul acestei afirmații, Larson și Verma (1999) au menționat că adolescenții europeni preferă să își
petreacă timpul liber ascultând muzică, pe când cei din SUA preferă să practice diverse sporturi. [4, 7]
Pentru a preveni obezitatea, tineretul ar trebui să facă mai multă activitate fizică. Dat fiind că timpul
alocat educației fizice în cadrul programei școlare a scăzut, iar intervențiile curriculare au avut efecte
limitate, ar trebui testate noi abordări alternative, în afara programei.
Aceste abordări în afara programei ar putea ajuta dezvoltarea activităților fizice școlare. Aceste
abordări în afara programei includ intervențiile care nu pun accentul pe modificări ale educației fizice sau
sanitare prevăzute în programele școlare. [9]
Într-un studiu anterior s-au pus în evidență diverse locuri unde s-ar putea desfășura activități fizice
școlare în afara programei. [11]
Autopercepția fizică, competența și încrederea sunt factori determinanți importanți în ceea ce
privește implicarea în activitățile fizice și în sport. Dacă elevii nu reușesc să își dezvolte competențele
necesare pentru a participa la o activitate, atunci vor renunța la ea cu prima ocazie; rezultatul este
incompetența datorată lipsei de expunere la respectiva activitate. Programul de educație fizică are un rol de
jucat în pregătirea elevilor pentru tot ce înseamnă activitate fizică dincolo de sala de clasă.
Programele de educație fizică de calitate constituie un important antidot preventiv pentru riscuri de
sănătate foarte costisitoare și pentru comportamente antisociale manifestate de copii sau adolescenți. Ele
contribuie la dezvoltarea individuală globală; mai mult decât atât, s-a demonstrat că îmbunătățesc calitatea
vieții în rândul copiilor. [12]
Material și metodă
Scopul lucrării îl constituie identificarea unor direcţii prin care noi putem demonstra eficienţa
utilizării în cadrul activităţilor extrașcolare, a exerciţiilor fizice selectate pentru menţinerea sănătăţii elevilor
de gimnaziu, studiind evoluţia grupului cuprins în studiu.
Modelele operaţionale utilizate ca variabilă independentă în experiment au fost: exerciţii cu mingi,
bastoane, bănci de gimnastică, exerciţii pe perechi utilizate în comlexe de dezvoltare fizică generală şi
exerciţii de coordonare, de echilibru, exerciţii pentru prinderea şi pasarea mingii, aruncări la poartă, aruncări
la ţintă fixă şi mobilă, exerciţii de deplasare cu diferite structuri de paşi, deplasare cu schimbări de direcţie,
exerciţii pentru marcaj şi demarcaj.
Subiecţii cuprinşi în cercetare sunt elevi cu vârsta cuprinsă între 12 - 14 ani, cărora li s-au aplicat
mai multe măsurători somatice şi funcţionale, şi anume: elasticitate toracică, capacitate vitală, indicele
Adrian Ionescu, testul Bouchard, Demeny şi Ruffier. Lotul cuprins în cercetare a fost monitorizat pe
perioada unui an şcolar şi s-au introdus diferite complexe de dezvoltare fizică armonioasă şi lecţii de handbal
în cadrul activităţilor extrașcolare. Antrenamentele au avut o frecvenţă de trei ori pe săptămână, iar lecţia de
antrenament a avut o durată de 90 de minute, din care 30 de minute s-au efectuat complexele de dezvoltare
fizică şi 60 de minute au fost dedicate mijoacelor specifice jocului de handbal.
9
Metodele de cercetare utilizate în studiu au fost: analiza literaturii de specialitate, metoda

observaţiei, metoda măsurătorilor şi testărilor, experimentul pedagogic şi metoda statistico-matematică.
Rezultate
Tabel 1 Interpretarea statistică a măsurătorilor antropometrice la cele două testări

Coeficientul de
Medie Abatere stantard Eroarea medie
Masuratori antropometrice variabilitate
Talia (cm) 155.85 160.1 8.09 7.78 1.81 1.74 5.19 4.86
Greutate (Kg) 51.2 51.3 8.81 8.71 1.97 1.95 17.2 16.99
Bust (cm) 71.9 74.3 3.17 4.95 0.71 1.1 4.41 6.66
Anvergura (cm) 157.45 160.1 8.25 8.45 1.84 1.89 5.24 5.28
Perimetru toracic in repaus (cm) 73.2 75.55 3.57 9.54 0.8 2.13 4.88 12.63
Perimetru toracic in inspir (cm) 78.25 84 3.44 6.21 0.77 1.39 4.4 7.39
Perimetru toracic in expir (cm) 70.6 74.3 3.25 5.61 0.72 1.25 4.6 7.55
Elasticitate toracica (cm) 7.65 9.7 1.72 1.55 0.38 0.34 22.55 16.07
Grafic 1 Reprezentarea grafică a mediilor obţinute la cele două testări

gr
Din analiza comparativă a datelor obţinute la măsurătorile antropometrice putem remarca faptul că,
evoluţia acestora este ascendentă, obţinându-se astfel un progres de: 4.25 - talie, 0.1 - greutate, 2.4 - bust,
2.65 - anvergură, 2.35 - perimetrul toracic în repaos, 5.72 - perimetrul toracic în inspir, 3.7 - perimetrul
toracic în expir şi 2.05 - elasticitate toracică, confirmându-se astfel eficienţa sistemelor de acţionare utilizate
şi obţinerea unei proporţionalităţi între indicii somatici.
a Tabel 2 Interpretarea statistică a testelor funcţionale

Coeficientul de
Medie Abatere stantard Eroarea medie
Teste funcţionale variabilitate
Capacitate vitala (cm3) 2430 2595 311.36 301.7 69.65 67.49 12.81 11.62
Testul Bouchard (g) 316.94 319.73 52.85 45.83 11.82 10.25 16.67 14.33
3
Testul Demeny (cm ) 50.86 52.22 11.28 9.59 2.52 2.14 22.17 18.37
Testul Ruffier 10.33 7.06 1.65 1.5 0.36 1.57 16 21.27
Indicele Adrian Ionescu (cm) -7.5 -5.75 2.58 2.81 0.57 0.63 -34.4 -48.98
10
Analizând datele obţinute la testările funcţionale putem remarca următoarele: o creştere a valorilor
capacităţii vitale cu 165 cm³; o îmbunătăţire a valorilor la testul Bouchard cu 2.79 g, rezultatele situându-se
între 300 - 400 g, fapt ce demonstrează că elevii au o corpolenţă bună în raport cu înălţimea; o creştere a
indicelui pulmonar Demeny cu 1.36 cm³, lucru care ne arată că elevii prezintă o bună ventilaţie a aerului la
nivelul plămânilor şi rezistenţă la efort; o îmbunătăţire a valorilor testului Ruffier cu -3.27, fapt care arată o
adaptare a elevilor la efort şi o condiţie fizică medie a acestora; o scădere a indicelui de proporţionalitate
Adrian Ionescu cu 1.75 cm, elevii încadrându-se în parametri normali de dezvoltare 0 -10 cm, ceea ce
demonstrează că aceştia prezintă o bună proporţionalite între înălţimea bustului şi cea a corpului.
Concluzii
Prin acest studiu, desfăşurat pe parcursul unui an de zile, am dorit să demonstrăm influenţa
exerciţiilor fizice asupra stării de sănătate şi implicit asupra dezvoltării fizice armonioase prin practicarea
activtităţilor fizice de timp liber extraşcolare, fapt care a confirmat scopul acestei lucrări.
Aşadar, elevii care au făcut parte din acest studiu au dovedit o dezvoltare fizică bună, iar prin
mijloacele aplicate în pregătire, aceştia au demonstrat valori mult mai bune în dezvoltarea perimetrului
toracic atât în inspir cât şi în expir, şi deasemenea o creştere a valorilor obţinute la testarea finală a
elasticităţii toracice.
11
De asemenea, din datele obţinute la testările funcţionale putem remarca o creştere a valorilor
capacităţii vitale; o îmbunătăţire a valorilor la testul Bouchard; o creştere a indicelui pulmonar Demeny; o
îmbunătăţire a valorilor testului Ruffier şi o scădere a indicelui de proporţionalitate Adrian Ionescu.
Ca urmare a rezultatelor obţinute şi a progresului realizat în procesul de creştere şi dezvoltare fizică
armonioasă formulăm următoarele concluzii şi recomandări:
 Pe lângă complexele de exerciţii utilizate în cadrul lecţiei, sau individual, practicarea unui joc sportiv
în timpul liber, poate îmbunătăţi dezvoltarea fizică şi implicit menţinerea stării de sănătate;
 Exerciţiile de dezvoltare fizică armonioasă se recomandă elevilor să fie executate şi independent la
domiciliu, astfel încât aceştia să conştientizeze că aceste exerciţii reprezintă cele mai "ieftine"
mijloace de menţinere a stării de sănătate şi de dobândire a unui corp armonios dezvoltat, evitând
totodată instalarea unor atitudini deficiente;
 Pe parcursul activităţilor extraşcolare, profesorul trebuie să le formeze elevilor cunoştinţe despre
principalii indicatori morfologici şi funcţionali ai organismului, precum şi deprinderi de a utiliza
corect instrumentele şi tehnicile care stau la baza determinării lor, autocontrolul acestora şi
acţionarea sistematică pentru menţinerea lor în limitele normale;
 Ca o concluzie generală, putem sublinia faptul că, rezultatele pozitive obţinute de elevi, au fost
influenţate de aplicarea programelor alternative de lucru, prin folosirea unei game bogate de exerciţii
fizice pentru prelucrarea selectivă a aparatului locomotor şi de tonifiere a principalelor grupe
musculare şi prin practicarea jocului de handbal în cadrul activităţilor extraşcolare.
Bibliografie
[1] Alber, J., Köhler, U., 2004, Health and care in an enlarged Europe, Luxemburg, Office for Official Publications of
the European Commission, p. 107.
[2] Blomfield, C. J., Barber, B. L., Brief report: Performing on the stage, the field, or both? Australian adolescent
extracurricular activity participation and self-concept, Journal of Adolescence, Volume 32, Issue 3, June 2009,
Pages 733–739.
[3] Larson, R. (2006). Organized activities as contexts for development: Extracurricular activities, after-school and
community programs. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[4] Larson, R. W., Verma, S. (1999). How children and adolescents spend time across the world: Work, play, and
developmental opportunities. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 701-736.
[5] Lunenburg, F. C., Extracurricular activities, Sam Houston State University, Schooling – Volume 1, number 1, 2010.
[6] Măginean, I., Precupeţu, I., Preoteasa A.M., (2004), Puncte de suport şi elemente critice în evoluţia calităţii vieţii în
România, Revista “Calitatea vieţii”, issues 1-2, 2004, p.20.
[7] Mello Z. R., Worrell, F. C., Gender Variation in Extracurricular Activity Participation and Perceived Life Chances
in Trinidad and Tobago Adolescents, Psykhe 2008, Vol. 17, No. 2, 91-102.
[8] Raţă, G., Strategii de optimizare a timpului liber, Ed. Pim, Iaşi, 2007.
[9] Russell J., Baranowski, T., Non-curricular approaches for increasing physical activity in youth: a review,
Preventive Medicine 39 (2004) 157 – 163.
[10] Trinh Le, Does Participation in Extracurricular Activities Reduce Engagement in Risky Behaviours?, Melbourne
Institute Working Paper No. 35/13, ISSN 1447-5863, October 2013.
[11] Wechsler, H., Devereaux, R. S., Davis, M., Collins, J., Using the school environment to promote physical activity
and healthy eating. Preventive Medicine (2000); 31: 21 – 37.
[12] Woods, C. B., Moyna N., Quinlan, A., Tannehill, D., Walsh, J., The Children's Sport Participation and Physical
Activity Study (CSPPA Study), Irish Sports Council, Chapter 5, p. 60-61.
12
ASSESSMENT OF THE PROFESSIONAL ABILITIES OF COACHES IN

WRESTLING
Mahmut AÇAK1
1
Inonu University, School of Physical Education and Sports Malatya, Turkey
m.acak@hotmail.com Phone: 05444451944
Abstract. The purpose of this study is to determine the perception ways of wrestlers on professional skills of their
coaches. The study was conducted in national matches that were organized September 2015 and April 2016. The Coach
Assessment Scale for Wrestlers was used. Study group consisted of 268 voluntary male athletes in an age range of 12-
34 who wrestle regularly in various provinces. The data was collected by means of face-to-face interview with all
athletes. As a result of this study, it was found that younger athletes evaluate their coaches more positively in terms of
physical aspects, condition, technical aspects, preparation for the games and during the games and social aspects. A
statistically significant difference was found in evaluation of athletes for their coaches in terms of technical
development, competition and social sub-dimensions depending on the sports age variable. It is interesting that coach
assessments are more negative in technical and competition dimension as the sports age increases. It was determined
that university students evaluate their coaches more negatively under the education variable.
Keywords: Wrestling, Coach Assessment, Coach - Athlete Relationship.
Introduction
Coach is seen as a leader who is at the center of sports world [1]. Coach has a very important role in
the development of sports and athletes. Most of the qualities acquired by an athlete are determined by the
coach. Interaction between coach and athletes is always considered as a factor that determines the
performance [10]. Coach is the person who has the most important place in increasing success and quality of
an athlete in his sports life [14]. Coach is the primary person who affects an athlete’s sports, physical,
physiological and psychological performance [7]. Coach is one of the most important factors in the success
of athletes. If coach regulates psychologist and athlete relationship, he can achieve success in a short time.
Coaches and athletes create partnerships, agreements and relationships in line with the support, guidance and
information provided to the athletes. In these relationships, mutual trust, respect, peace, support, cooperation,
communication and agreement are considered important part of success in performance [8].
Athletes can evaluate their relationships positively or negatively as a result of their expectations from
coaches. Factors such as trusting in technical knowledge of coach or coach’s management of relationships
among the athletes can arise out as a result of expectations. Many variables such as training athletes, teaching
tactics, establishing communication and understanding their psychology affect the relationship between
coaches and athletes.
Woodman (1993) states that qualities of coach are as important as an athlete considering the
relationship between coaches and athletes [15]. It was established that there are effective training strategies
related to athletes and coaches. According to Weinberg and Gould, athletes expect complimentary and
encouraging words from their coaches when they perform an act or technique correctly. They argue that
coaches should use praise frequently in order to develop an effective training style. They stated that just a
friendly smile towards athletes as a reward gives the athlete trust [13].
Zhang, Wall and Smith (2000) states that variables such as suitability of competition schedule, the
match day, time, weather conditions and relationships with the spectators are positively related with the
performance of an athlete who takes part in a game [16].
Success of coaches is mostly evaluated with the success of athletes. However, when this is asked to
athletes, behaviors of coach come to the forefront. This study is conducted to find answers to the question of
how wrestlers perceive professional and social skills of their coaches.
Material and methodology

The study was conducted in national matches that were organized September 2015 and April 2016.
The Coach Assessment Scale for Wrestlers was used “The scale consists of 4 sub-dimensions and 20
questions related to behaviors of coaches. It is seen that the highly reliable and valid scale which was
prepared with the purpose of determining the coach assessment levels of wrestlers had 20 items and a 4-
factored structure. It was seen that the factor load values of 4 items in the first factor were between .753 and
.915, the factor load values of 5 items in the second factor were between .723 and .864; the factor load values
of 6 items in the third factor were between .672 and .878; and the factor load values in the fourth factor were
13
between .655 and .898. It was found that the corrected item-total correlations of the scale were between .60
and .85. Cronbach Alpha .884-Test-retest .922” [3].
Study group consists of 268 male voluntary athletes in an age range of 12-34 who wrestle regularly
in various provinces. The data was collected by means of face-to-face interview with all athletes. In the
second stage of study, interviews were made with athletes using 20-item questions that are utilized in
defining coach assessment criteria of athletes. The athletes were not just asked to complete the scale but
contributions of athletes to personal development were primarily evaluated by using general statements.
1. Assessment of coaches in physical aspects and condition,
2. Assessment of coaches in terms of technical development,
3. Assessment of coaches in terms of preparation for games and during the games,
4. Assessment of coaches in social aspects.
Data Analysis
In the study, the data that was obtained from 268 male wrestlers in an age range of 12-34 who
wrestle regularly in various provinces was subjected to following statistical analyses using SPSS [21.0]
package software:
1. Frequency and percentage calculations were made in order to reveal distribution of sample by
demographic variables.
2. In order to evaluate differentiation level of scale scores based on independent variables, Kruskall
Wallis (KW) variance analysis and Mann Whitney U test were applied to find the source of difference.
Statistical significance level was accepted as p<0.05 with Alpha (α) error level.
Findings
268 wrestlers participated in the study. 16.1% of participants play in the 1st league, 8.2% in the 2nd
league, 16.1% in major league, 35.4% in youth league, 7.1% in junior league and 17.1% in university
leagues.
Table 1. Numbers and percentage values of athletes by certain variables.

Variables Number (n) Percentage (%)
Age
12-14 year-old 26 9.7
15-17 year-old 52 19.4
18-20 year-old 76 28.5
21-23 year-old 70 26.1
24-26 year-old 32 11.8
27-29 year-old 7 2.6
30 and older 5 1.9
Education
Primary school 14 5.2
Secondary school 38 14.2
High school 93 34.7
University 116 43.3
Postgraduate 7 2.6
Years in sports
1-3 years 116 43.4
4-6 years 78 29.2
7-9 years 39 14.7
10-12 years 19 7.3
13-15 years 11 4.2
16 years and more 5 1.2
14
When we look at the table above, age ranges of wrestlers are very young, those who study in a
university constitute the majority considering their educational levels and they mostly have 1-3 years of part
in sports when their date of beginning this sports is taken into account.
Table 2. Analysis results of study group by age variable

Difference
Dimensions of scale Age N Mean SD X2 p
(U test)
(a) 12-14 26 4,23 ,40
(b) 15-17 52 3,56 ,85 a-e
(c) 18-20 76 3,42 ,83 a-f
Physical status and
(d) 21-23 70 3,26 ,94 22,613 ,001* a-g
condition
(e) 24-26 32 3,32 ,77 b-c
(f) 27-29 7 3,18 ,89 b-d
(g) 30 + 5 3,35 ,51
(a) 12-14 26 4,37 ,36
(b) 15-17 52 3,93 ,93
(c) 18-20 76 3,82 ,78 a-b
(d) 21-23 70 3,41 ,79 a-c
Technical (e) 24-26 32 3,56 ,68 27,323 ,000* a-e
development (f) 27-29 7 3,75 1,14 b-d
(g) 30 + 5 3,52 1,02
(a) 12-14 26 4,25 ,49 a-b
(b) 15-17 52 4,08 ,64 a-c
(c) 18-20 76 3,47 ,82 a-d
(d) 21-23 70 3,50 ,69 a-e
Competition (e) 24-26 32 3,43 ,65 33,943 ,000* a-g
(f) 27-29 7 3,45 1,06 b-d
(g) 30 + b-e
5 3,46 ,89 b-g
(a) 12-14 26 4,41 ,48
(b) 15-17 52 4,88 1,00
(c) 18-20 76 4,30 ,94
(d) 21-23 70 4,11 ,97 4,230 ,668
Social (e) 24-26 32 4,37 ,68
(f) 27-29 7 4,70 1,18
(g) 30 + 5 4,96 ,65
*p<0,05
When we look at the analysis results in age variable, there are differences in physical status and
condition, technical development and competition sub-dimensions but no different is found in social
dimension.
Table 3. Analysis results of study group by sports age variable

Difference
Dimensions of scale Age N Mean SD X2 p
(U test)
(a) 1-3 116 3,53 ,85
(b) 4-6 78 3,36 ,77
Physical status and (c) 7-9 39 3,53 ,98
3,010 ,698
condition (d) 10-12 19 3,66 ,82
(e) 13-15 11 3,08 1,42
(f) 16 + 5 3,45 ,76
(a) 1-3 116 3,67 ,84
(b) 4-6 78 3,71 ,77
(c) 7-9 39 3,91 1,01
Technical (d) 10-12 19 4,25 ,57 6,904 ,228
development
(e) 13-15 11 3,70 ,57
(f) 16 + 5 3,83 ,81
(a) 1-3 116 3,73 ,76
15
(b) 4-6 78 3,62 ,79

(c) 7-9 39 3,59 ,76
Competition (d) 10-12 19 3,72 ,91 2,335 ,801
(e) 13-15 11 3,77 ,80
(f) 16 + 5 3,44 ,53
(a) 1-3 116 3,55 ,98
(b) 4-6 78 3,46 ,95
(c) 7-9 39 3,20 1,05
Social (d) 10-12 19 3,91 ,99 6,560 ,255
(e) 13-15 11 3,40 1,09
(f) 16 + 5 2,93 ,46
*p<0,05
There is not too much difference in physical condition, technical development, competition
and social sub-dimensions based on sports age variable of the study group.
Table 4. Analysis results of study group by education level variable

Dimensions of Difference
Education Level N Mean SD X2 p
scale (U test)
(a) Primary school 14 4,55 1,53 a-d
(b) Secondary school 38 4,93 1,19 a-e
Physical status
(c) High school 93 4,26 ,40 23,927 ,000* b-e
and condition
(d) University 116 3,50 ,78 c-e
(e) Postgraduate 7 3,29 ,84
(a) Primary school 14 4,22 1,26
(b) Secondary school 38 4,20 1,13 a-d
(c) High school 93 4,01 ,35 a-e
(d) University 116 3,29 ,85 ,000* c-e
Technical (e) Postgraduate 33,352 d-e
development 7 3,02 ,74
(a) Primary school 14 4,30 ,62
(b) Secondary school 38 4,87 1,34 a-c
(c) High school 93 3,27 ,51 a-d
(d) University 116 3,11 ,71 a-e
Competition (e) Postgraduate 35,060 ,000*
7 3,22 ,71 c-d
c-e
(a) Primary school 14 4,80 1,20
(b) Secondary school 38 4,50 1,39
(c) High school 93 4,44 ,50
(d) University 116 4,76 ,94
Social (e) Postgraduate 7 4,21 ,90 6,530 ,475
*p<0,05
In the study group, significant differences were found in physical condition, technical development
and competition sub-dimensions based on the education variable, while no such difference was found in
social sub-dimension.
Discussion
This study examined opinions of wrestlers on their ways of perception of their coaches’ professional
skills. To that end, the scale that was completed by athletes and results of the interviews that were made after
the scale was completed were evaluated together.
The fact that 70% of participants are 18-years-old and older offered reliability showing that the
athletes answered questions with their free will without any influence and about accuracy of answers as well.
Considering that 34.7% of participants study in high school and 43.4% in university, it was found that the
athletes who were interviewed are literate. 43,4% of participants are doing sports for 1-3 years, 29,2% are
doing sports for 4-6 years, 72,6% are not in sports for a long time, and 35,4% are playing in the youth
category. Significant differences were observed in education variable of the study group. It was also found
16
that such differences are mostly arising out of athletes who study in primary school and secondary school.
Evaluation of this data is explained as follows.
In the evaluation of coaches by participant athletes in terms of their technical development, it is
observed that those who are younger and have low level sports age and educational level evaluate their
coaches positively. It is found that they criticize their coaches in many aspects as their age, sports age and
educational level increase. This group who criticize their coaches state as part of their criticisms in technical
aspect that the coaches remain incapable in terms of special moves and reinforcement and teaching technique
and tactics for the development of right technique. The UK Coaching Strategy Association (2002) defined
coach as instructor, assessor, advisor, researcher, educator, observer, organizer, supporter and motivator and
listed some of the skills that coaches should have when performing these roles. A coach should comprehend
learning process and training principles, see the skills of new generation, prepare training programs that will
meet the needs of each athlete and assist athletes in acquiring new skills [11]. Also, American National
Youth Sports Coaches Association (2003) stated in their by-law that a coach should develop himself
continuously in order to have the quality to teach skills, instruction and evaluation techniques related to his
discipline [4].
As a result of the statistical analysis, it is observed that younger athletes evaluate their coaches more
positively compared with other age groups. This is perceived as lack of experience of younger athletes in
comparing their coaches in terms of experience and knowledge.
When they are criticizing their coaches in terms of physical condition, they stated that they practice
physical condition for a short time before the games, there is no long-term program and no such plan is
implemented. Preparation of a training program in development of athletes is one of the main items in
purposes of sports institutions of certain countries.
The athletes who criticize their coaches in terms of preparation for the games and during the games
underline that they do not analyze their opponents adequately, fail to develop a game tactic and techniques
offered during the game are lacking. Açak and Açak (2001) suggested that coaches should pay importance to
giving less information in a short time and tactics should be short and understandable during the game. They
also stated that coach should plan tactical works with the athlete before the competition [2].
In social evaluation of coaches by wrestling athletes, it was found that wrestling coaches have the
most influence on athletes in terms of social aspects. Majority of participant athletes said that they are
pleased with social aspects of their coaches. According to Wampbell and Jones (1994), rewarding the
athletes is the most effective method to motivate them. Coaches should be careful about their penalties and
awards towards athletes. They also reported that a wrong award and penalty might have a negative impact on
the performance of athletes [12].
It is considered that interviewed athletes wrestle roughly, do not get into details, do not know certain
terms, and have different perceptions about being social or socialization. This is believed as an obstacle for
them to make very detailed assessment.
In conclusion, it is clear that coaches do not have professional skills and especially the ability to
make long-term athlete development plan to develop athletes who will become champions in the world and
Olympic Games. It is important to measure professional skills of all wrestling coaches throughout the
country and eliminate their deficiencies through continuing training. Also, it seems necessary to grade and
license coaches depending on their level of knowledge and skills.
This work was done on wrestlers only. It was conducted on a practical, valid, reliable and spore-
specific scale to be used by the coaches to receive feedback. The wrestler has assessed the perceived
strengths and weaknesses of the coach. With a large participation in the field, a stronger and more successful
relationship between the coach and the athlete can be determined.
References
[1] Abraham A, Collins D. Examining and extending research in coach development. Quest, 1998; 50 p.59-
79.
[2]Açak, M.,Açak, M. Güreş Öğreniyorum. Kubbealtı yayıncılık. Malatya, 2001, p145-243.
[3] Açak M., Karademir T., Açak M. A Coach Assessment Scale For Wrestlers. International Journal Of
Wrestling Science. Volume 2, Issue 2 July- 2012, p.24-34.
[4] American National Youth Sports Coaches Association. (2003). Coaches’ Code of Ethics. Retrieved
March, 22, 2004.
17
[5] Başer, E. Ministry of Education, Ministry of Youth and Sports Publications. Publication no 133,
1986.p:85.
[6] Eniseler, N. (1995). Systematic Competition Analysis in Football, Hacettepe University J. Football
Science and Technology, Publication no: 4. 1995, p. 24-26.
[7]Horn TS. Coaching effectiveness in the sport domain. In T.S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in Sport Psychology
(1st ed.), 2002, p. 309–354.
[8]Jowett S, Cockerill I. Olympic medalists perspective of the athlete-coach relationship, Journal of
Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2003, p. 313-331.
[9]Martens, R. Başarılı Antrenörlük, Çeviri: (Tuncer, B.) Beyaz Yayınları, İstanbul, 1998, p. 6.
[10]Serpa S. “Relationship Coach-Athlete: Outstanding Trends In European Research”, Motricida de
Humana. Portuguese Journal of Human Performance Studies, 12(1), 1999, p. 7-19.
[11] United Kingdom Coaching Strategy Association (2002, April). Sport Coach, Coaching. Retrieved April
26, 2002, web,http,//www.brainmac.demon.co.uk/coaching.htm.
[12] Wampbell, E., and Jones. E. "Psychological Well-being in Wheelchair Sport Participants and
Nonparticipants." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 11. 1994, s. 404-415.
[13]Weinberg, R. S., Gould, D. Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Champaigng, IL: Human
Kinetics. 1999.
[14] Williams MJ, Jerome GJ, Kenow LJ, Rogers T. FactorStructure of
theCoachingBehaviorQuestionnaireandItsRelationshiptoAthleteVariables, TheSportPsychologist, Human
KineticsPublishers, 2003, 17: p.16-34.
[15]Woodman, L. An Art, An Emerging Profession. Sport Science Review,(111) Champain. Human
Kinetics. 1993.
[16]Zhang, J.J., Wall, K.A., Smith, D.W. To Go Or Not? Relationship Of Selected Variables To Game
Attendance Of Professional Basketball Season Ticket Holders. International Journal of Sport
Management. 1. 2000, s.200-226.
18
ACCORDING TO VARIOUS DEGREEE OF CONFIDENCE AND SOCIAL

DESIRABILITY OF LEVELS ANALYSING PEOPLE WHO EXERCISE IN
THE FITNESS CENTERS: EXAMPLE OF BATMAN
H. Murat ŞAHİN1 , Melike ESENTAŞ2 , Enes IŞIKGÖZ3 , Bülent ÜZÜMCÜ4, Kübra FİDAN5,
Gülbarin AYAŞ6
1” Assoc.Prof. Batman University, College of Physical Education and Sport, Batman, Turkey.
E-mail:hmuratsahin@gmail.com
2” Asst.Prof. Batman University, College of Physical Education and Sport, Batman, Turkey.
E-mail:melike.esentas@windows.live.com
3” Asst.Prof. Batman University, College of Physical Education and Sport, Batman, Turkey.
E-mail:pdgenes@gmail.com
4” PhD. Batman University, College of Physical Education and Sport, Batman, Turkey.
E-mail: bulentuzum@hotmail.com
5” Batman University, College of Physical Education and Sport, Batman, Turkey.
E-mail: kubra.fidan@hotmail.com
6” Batman University, College of Physical Education and Sport, Batman, Turkey.
E-mail: gulbarina@gmail.com
Abstract. To aim of this study, confidence and social desirability of levels that doing exercise of male and female
athletes in fitness centers, is to examine according to several variables. Working group consist of that doing exercise
152 volunteers which is 36 female and 116 male, between January and April 2016 in two fitness room at the Batman
province. In this research as data collection tools which had developed by Akın (2007) “ Confidence Scale “ and had
developed by Akın (2010) “Social Desirability Scale”. The results of this study shows that the level of confidence of
people who go to fitness center regularly is higher than social acceptence level. While marital status doesnt influence
the results, sex changes the outcomes in terms of social desirability. Additionally education, monthly income and the
reason to go to fitness center only change the levels of confidence.
Key Words: Sport, Fitness, Confidence, Social Desirability, Exercise
Introduction
Sport has become a part of human life nowadays. The way of a healthy life has achieved by sports.
Sport hasn’t just brought physical, psychological and social benefits also should not to be ignored. Sport
starts with any body movement and continues with energy consumption, activity that occurs when muscle
groups are moved at a certain level. A physical exercise that done a regular basis, that play an important role
in improving health and quality of life [1]. Purpose of people who is interested in sport; Improve the physical
and mental health of a person, make gain confidence and achieve top level performance. [2].
While sports affect the health of people positively, it has also considered that positive contribution to
increase confidence. The image of a person reflected on the outside is important in terms of confidence,
because comfortable and safe image has a positive effect on people; it also causes the person to trust him
more [3]. Confidence according to Akagunduz [4], he individual feels good about himself as a result of
developing good and positive feelings, these is the result of good feeling to be peace both himself and his
surroundings, Cüceloğlu [5], as basic feeling which triggers someone to act, is defined. The researches made
and arguments put forward emphasize the importance of confidence in the person's mental health, success
and happiness. Because people who has more confidence, accepting the conditions that cannot be changed in
a peaceful way, showing the courage to change the conditions and person who have the wisdom to
distinguish between the conditions that they can change. Highly confident people are healthy, happy, and
happy about their surroundings.[6].
As the level of confidence increases, the person begins to socialize and being also more confident
with himself contributes to be socially acceptable. Social desirability; While the person answers the items of
any measuring instrument, instead of giving realistic information about himself, social and normative sense
is defined as the tendency to promote itself in a positive way[7]. General Meaningful social desirability,
Individual-group which is one of the basic equations of social psychology, within the framework of the
relationship between the individual and society, giving individuals socially desirable responses or defined as
the tendency to leave a positive impression attitudes in society. [8]. One of the most important and constant
problems for researchers who use self-reported measurement tools in their studies, people are biased, as the
19
theirs attitudes, beliefs, ideas and personalities respond [9]. Many thinkers; the self-deception potential of the
individual has highly developed and mentioned that deceiving self is an important skill. Perhaps self-
deception is a result of escaping the truth that human beings are a limited and ending being [10].
The comparison of the personality traits of individual and team sportsmen, conducted by Kizmaz
[12], indicates that as the athlete's years of doing sports increased self-reliance, and avoidance of harming
others, which recognized the rights of social maturity and social skills, improved. In his research Tazegül
[13] from the neurotic and outward personality traits, has found that sports reduce the individual's anxiety
and help individuals to develop and socialize their communication with the people they have gained self-
confidence. It is believed that individuals socialize through fitness centre and leave a routine intensity of life
for a while, so that "sport" plays a crucial role in helping to improve the level of self-confidence in the
individual as a happy individual who enjoys life.
When the considering that positive effects of sports on the physical and mental health of individuals,
confidence as a psychological factor is expected to be positive and high. Individuals engaged in sports who
as a free time activity, confidence and social desirability are examined for the first time in relation to sport
and will contribute to the field. The purpose of this study is to investigate the levels of confidence and social
desirability of the individuals who exercise in sports centers by various variables. For this purpose, the
following questions were asked in the study; 1-What are the opinions of the individuals who participate in
sports in fitness centers and social desirability level of confidence? 2- Confidence and social desirability
levels of individuals exercising in fitness centers; ıs changeable sex, marital status, educational status,
monthly income and reasons for coming to the fitness center?
Methods
This study aims at examining the levels of confidence and social desirability of individuals
exercising in fitness centers, descriptive scanning model was used. The working group consists of 152
volunteers, 36 women and 116 men, who sport in two fitness centers in Batman province between January
and April of 2016. As data collection tools in the study, developed by Akın [11] "Confidence Scale" and
again developed by Akın [9] still "social desirability scale" is used. Confidence scale consists of two parts
and 10 questions about personal information in the first part, the second chapter contains 33 items related to
confidence. Five-point Likert-type scale items are rated as 1: Strongly Disagree, 2: Disagree, 3: Undecided,
4: Agree, 5: Strongly Agree. The Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficient of the Likert-type
"Confidence Scale", which was developed under two factors and composed of 33 questions, was calculated
as 0,83. In this study, the scale was observed in one dimension and scale to get the answers given by the
respondents Cronbach's alpha internal consistency coefficient was found to be 0.96.
“Social desirability scale” contains of 24 questions of Likert type. The scale consists two parts and in
the first part 10 questions about personal information and the second section contains 29 items on social
desirability. Five-point Likert-type scale items; 1: Strongly Disagree 2: Disagree 3: Undecided 4: Agree 5:
Strongly Agree is rated. Cronbach's alpha internal consistency coefficient is calculated as 0,87. In this study,
the scale was observed in one dimension and Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficient was found as
0.89 in response to the answers given by participants. According to these results, it can be said that the
scales are very reliable. Assuming that the spacings in the measuring tools are equal (4/5) and lower and
upper limits related options; It has determined as between 4.20 to 5.00 strongly agree, between 3.40 to 4.19
agree, between 2.60 to 3.39 undecided, between 1.80 to 2.59 agree, between 1.00 to 1.79 strongly disagree.
First of all, whether the data show a normal distribution was checked by Kolmogorov-Smirnov
single sample test in the analysis of the data. As a result of the test, (Table 1) The distribution of the scores
obtained from the scales of "confidence" and "social desirability" because of different and meaningful to the
normal distribution (z(Confidence)=.147; z(social desirability)= .118; p<.05) nonparametric tests were preferred for
comparison of data between groups. In addition to the descriptive statistical techniques in analyzing data,
Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used in the comparison between the groups. For the
significance in the analyzes, p <.05 level was taken as basis.
Tabe 1. Single Sample Kolmogrov-Smirnov Test Results of the Data Obtained from Confidence and Social Desirability Scales
Self-Confidence Social Desirability
N 152 152
M 115.54 103.76
Parameters
SD 15.408 19.598
K-Smirnov Z .147 .118
P .00 .00
20
Findings
Table 2. Distribution of Demographic Characterictics of Participants (N=152)
Gender n %
Male 116 76,3
Female 36 23,7
Marital Status n %
Married 56 36,8
Single 96 63,2
Education n %
Primary education 20 13,2
High school 59 38,8
Pre-license 22 14,5
Licence 43 28,3
Postgraduate 8 5,3
Monthly income (TL) n %
Between 1-1000 TL 48 31,6
Between 1001-2000 TL 27 17,8
Between 2001-3000 TL 30 19,7
Between 3001-4000 TL 23 15,1
4001 TL and Over 24 15,8
The reason for coming to the fitness center n %
Healthy lifestyle 64 42,1
Evaluating Leisure Time 15 9,9
Losing weight 34 22,4
Weight Gain and Muscle Making 32 21,1
Acquiring a social environment 7 4,6
According to Table 2, participants 36 (23.7%) women, 116 (76.3%) male. The majority of
participants in marital status (96 person- 63.2%) were single. The remaining 56 (36.8%) were married. The
education level of the participants were 20 of them (13.2%) primary school,59 of them (38,8 %) high
school,22 of them (14,5 %) pre- license, 43 of them (28,3 %) license and 8 of them (5,3 %) postgraduate.
According to Table 1, Participants income were 48 of them (31.6%) between 1-1,000 TL, 27 of them
(17.8%) between 1001-2000 TL, 30 of them (19.7%) between 2.001-3.000 TL, 23 of them (15.1%) between
3001-4000 TL,24 of them (15,8%) 4.001 TL and over. Participants has lived 140 of them (92,1 %) in city
center, 11 of them (7,2 %) in district, 1 of them (0.7 %) in village. Participants stated that 64 of them (42,1
%) healthy lifestyle,15 of them (9,9%) evaluating leisure time, 34 of them (22,4%) losing weight, 32 of them
(21,1 %) weight gain and muscle making, 7 of them (4,6%) acquiring a social environment, come the fitness
center.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics results of the points obtained from the participants had confidence and social desirability Scale
Point N Ort SD
Confidence 152 4,12 0,88
Social Desirability 152 3,58 1,16
When Table 3 is examined, the average score of the confidence scale of the participants in the fitness
center was (4,12 ± 0,88) . When the respondents' responses to the "Confidence Scale" were evaluated
(between 3.40-4.19 agree), confidence levels are seen as positive and high. According to table data, the
average level of participants' social desirability was (3,58 ± 1,16). It is seen that in the answers given by the
participants to the Social Entrepreneurship scale, they are in positive range (between 3.40-4.19 agree).As the
considering average, participants' confidence levels are higher than social desirability levels. Social
entrepreneurship is attracting growing amounts of talent, money, and attention. But along with its increasing
popularity has come less certainty about what exactly a social entrepreneur is and does. As a result, all sorts
of activities are now being called social entrepreneurship.
Table 4. Mann Whitney-U Test Results Regarding the Differences of Self-Esteem and Social Support Levels According to
Gender and Marital Status Variables of Participants
Gender
N S.O. S.T. U z p
Marital S.
Female 36 71,65 2579,50
Confidence 1913,50 -,757 .44
Male 116 78,00 9048,50
Social Female 36 62,63 2254,50 1588,50 -2,165 .03*
21
Gender
N S.O. S.T. U z p
Marital S.
Desirability Male 116 80,81 9373,50
Married 56 75,69 4238,50
Confidence 2642,50 -,174 .86
Single 96 76,97 7389,50
Social Married 56 80,76 4522,50
2449,50 -,911 .36
Desirability Single 96 74,02 7105,50
*p<.05
According to table 4, according to participants' marital status both confidence and social desirability
levels were not different, only the social desirability levels differed significantly in favor of the men
according to the gender variable (U=1588,500; p<.05). The average of males is higher than that of females,
in this case it can be said that the social desirability levels of men are more positive.
Table 5. Results of the Kruskal Wallis-H Test Regarding the Differences in the Level of Self-Confidence and Social Welfare
According to the Educational Variables of the Participants
Education N S.O. df X² p
Primary
20 72,33
Education
High school 59 72,24
Confidence 4 10,66 .03*
Pre-license 22 59,52
Licence 43 93,70
Postgraduate 8 72,63
Primary
20 63,88
Education
Social High school 59 75,03
Desirability Pre-license 22 75,14 4 3,74 .44
Licence 43 81,64
Postgraduate 8 95,06
*p<.05
According to table 5, only the level of confidence differed significantly according to the education
variable of the participants. (X²=10,665; df=4, p=.03<.05). Complementary comparison techniques were
adopted to determine which groups result in meaningful diversity. Since no specific test technique was used
for this purpose, Mann Whitney-U test, which was preferred in binary comparisons, was applied. In result of
analysis, it was determined that were difference between the group having licence education (U=909,500;
z=-2,438; p=.01<.05) and high school (U=263,500; z=-2,907; p=.00<.05) along with two-year degree. This
difference resulted in licence education’s favor.
Table 6. Kruskal Wallis-H Test Results Regarding Participants' Differences in the Level of Self-Esteem and Social Dependency
According to Monthly Income Variables
Montly
N S.O. Df X² p
Income (TL)
1-1000 48 69,51
1001-2000 27 61,24
Confi
2001-3000 30 78,33 4 11,435 .02*
dence
3001-4000 23 82,87
4000 Over 24 99,25
1-1000 48 63,86
1001-2000 27 75,61
Social
2001-3000 30 83,83 4 7,065 .13
Desirability
3001-4000 23 81,02
4000 Over 24 89,27
According to table 6, only confidence level was shown to vary significantly depending on the
variable monthly income of participants. (X²=11,435; df=4, p=.02<.05). The Mann Whitney-U test was used
to determine the groups from which the significant difference originated. As a result of the analyzes, It was
found to significantly differ that group having monthly income 4.000 TL over with group having montly
income between 1-1.000 TL(U=363,000; z=-2,548; p=.01<.05),between 1.001-2.000 TL (U=160,500; z=-
3,089; p=.00<.05) and between 2.001-3.000 TL (U=238,000; z=-2,128; p=.03<.05) were significantly
22
different in favor of the group with a monthly income of over TL 4,000.According to this result, it can be
said that those with high monthly income have higher confidence levels than those with low monthly
income.
Table 7. Kruskal Wallis-H Test Results Regarding the Differences in the Levels of Self-Confidence and Social Welfare According to
the Reasons for the Participants' Coming to the Fitness Center
Reason for Coming to
N S.O. df X² p
Fitness Center
Losing weight 34 78,40
Confidence Weight Gain and Muscle 4 11,837 .01*
32 72,28
Making
Acquiring a social
7 39,21
environment
Losing weight 34 73,16 4 1,489 .82
Social
Desirability Weight Gain and Muscle
32 72,77
Making
Acquiring a social
7 92,29
environment
According to table 7, only confidence level was shown to vary significantly depending on the variable
the reason for coming to fitness center (X²=11,837; df=4, p=.01<.05). The Mann Whitney-U test was used to
determine the groups from which the significant difference originated. As a result of the analyzes, , It was
found to significantly differ that between group coming for healthy lifestyle with evaluating leisure time
(U=285,000; z=-2,442; p=.01<.05) and acquiring social environment (U=89,000; z=-2,607; p=.00<.05) were
significantly different in favor of the group coming for healthy lifestyle. According to this result, it can be
said that those coming for healthy lifestyle higher confidence level than others.
Conclusıon
This study aimed to examine the self-confidence and social desirability levels of sportsmen in fitness
centres according to various variables; both the self-esteem levels and the social desirability levels of those
who exercise in fitness centres are in a positive level. However, participants' self-esteem levels are higher
than their social desirability levels.
Another finding of study is according to the marital status of participants in the fitness centre both
self-esteem levels and social desirability levels did not change. It was seen that only the social desirability
levels changed significantly in favour of the men according to the gender variable. In contrast to the research
results, gender [14], [15], [16] knowledge and experience [17] and culture [18] are important factors in self-
confidence development.
According to other variables, such as education, monthly income and the reasons for coming to the
fitness centre it was determined that only the level of self-esteem of the participants changed and the level of
social desirability did not change. In other words, educational status, monthly income and the reasons for
coming to fitness centre variables, changes the level of self-confidence of participants in the fitness centre,
and does not change the level of social desirability. According to education status variable the level of self-
confidence of participants who have education at undergraduate level is higher than those who have
education at primary and upper secondary level. As the level of education increases, the self-esteem of the
individuals increases, progress at education status, gaining new experiences and skills are thought to have
contributed to the development of self-confidence level in parallel with the self-satisfaction of the individual.
Moreover, it is seen that those who have higher monthly income have higher self-confidence levels than
those with lower monthly income. Economic indicators are undoubtedly the key to increasing the quality of
life for individuals. From this point of view, it can be said that there is a linear relationship between the level
of income and the self-confidence that individuals have in themselves.
Within the participants' reasons for coming to the fitness centre, it is observed that the level of self-
confidence of the participants who come to fitness centre for healthy life is higher. In a research that
investigated the relationship between personality and sportive actions, when comparing young performance
athletes versus non athletes; it was determined that those who do sports are more energetic, more
23
hardworking, ready to have a relationship and better at adapting to harsh conditions than those who do not
[19] (Tiryaki 2000). Self-confidence at sports can actually be characterized by a high-level success
expectancy. Indeed, researchers have shown that self-confident athletes have confidence in themselves more
importantly believe that they will be successful and they have the physical and mental skills to bring out the
potential needed to succeed. (Yıldırım, 2013). As a result of this study it is suggested, examining the
relationship between sport and self-esteem and social desirability levels, conducting the research with a
wider sample group to investigate the self-confidence and social desirability levels of the individuals who
exercise in terms of different variables.
References
[1] Speck, R. N. Exercise and physical activity. Holistic nursing practice, NIA Office of Communications
and Public Liaison, 2002;17(1): 24-31.
[2] Bilge, M. - Müniroğlu, S. - Gündüz, N. Türk bayan hentbol milli takımı oyuncularının somatotip
profilleri ve yabancı ülke sporcuları ile karşılaştırılması, Spor Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2000; 4(1).
[3] Hambly, K. Özgüven, (Çeviren: Barış Bıçakçı), 4. Basım, 2001; Rota Yayınları: İstanbul.
[4] Akagündüz, N. İnsan yaşamında özgüven kavramı. Ümraniye Rehberlik ve Araştırma Merkezi
Müdürlüğü Yayınları, 2006; 1, İstanbul.
[5] Cüceloğlu, D. Özgüven Üstüne-1. 2006: Retrieved on October 11, 2016, from
http://www.dogancuceloglu.net/yazilar/208/ozguven-ustune-1/
[6] Soner, O. Aile uyumu, öğrenci özgüveni ve akademik başarı arasındaki ilişkiler. Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi
Eğilim Bilimleri Dergisi; 2000, 12: 249-260.
[7] Ellingson, J. E. - Smith, D. B. - Sackett, P.R. Investigating the influence of social desirability on
personality factor structure, Journal of Applied Psychology, 2001; 86: 122-133.
[8] Şahin, H. M. - Çetin, E. - Manap, A. - Şahin, E. Batman ilinde ikamet eden engelli bireylerin sosyal
istenirlik düzeylerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. 2. Uluslararası Engellilerde Beden Eğitimi
ve Spor Kongresi 02-04 Mayıs 2014.
[9] Akın, A. İki boyutlu sosyal istenirlik ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi ve psikometrik özelliklerinin araştırılması.
Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2010; 30(3): 771-784.
[10] Akın, A. Kendini aldatma neden ve sonuçlara ilişkin bir analiz. 2010: Nobel yayın.
[11] Akın, A. Özgüven ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi ve psikometrik özellikleri. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi
Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2007; 7(2): 167-176.
[12] Kızmaz, M. Bireysel ve takım sporu yapan sporcuların kişilik özelliklerinin karşılaştırılması,
Yayımlanmamış Yükseklisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul, 2004.
[13] Tazegül, Ü. Sporun kişilik üzerindeki etkisinin araştırılması. The Journal of Academic Social Science
Studies, 2014; 25: 537-544.
[14] Ogletree, S. M. – Williams, S.W. Sex and sex-typing effects on computer attitudes and aptitude. Sex
Roles, 1990; 23(11/12): 703-712.
[15] Shashaani, L. - Khalili, A. Gender and computers: similarities and differences in Iranian college
students’ attitudes toward computers. Computers and Education, 2001; 37: 363–375.
[16] Sam, H. K. - Othman, A. E. A. - Nordin, Z. S. Computer self-efficacy, computer anxiety, and attitudes
toward the ınternet: a study among undergraduates in unimas. Educational Technology and Society, 2005; 8
(4): 205-219.
[17] İşman, A. - Çelikli, G. E. How does student ability and self-efficacy affect the usage of computer
technology? The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 2009; 8(1), 33-38.
[18] Li, N. - Kirkup, G. Gender and cultural differences in internet use: A study of China and the UK.
Computers and Education, 2007; 48: 301–317.
[19] Tiryaki, Ş. Spor Psikolojisi. 2000; Ankara: Eylül Kitap ve Yayınevi.
[20] Yıldırım, F. sportif sürekli kendine güven alt ölçeğinin uyarlanması ve ortaöğretim kurumlarındaki
öğrencilerde sportif sürekli kendine güvenin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. [Yayımlanmamış
Yükseklisans Tezi, Mersin Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Mersin, 2018.
24
POINTS OF ATTACHMENT ON FOOTBALL CLUBS: AN APPLICATION

ON “THE BIG FOUR” SUPPORTERS IN TURKISH SUPER LEAGUE
Gizem TOKMAK1, Ramazan AKSOY2
1
Research assistant, Bulent Ecevit University, Business Administration Department, e-mail
gizem.tokmak89@hotmail.com, İncivez, Zonguldak, 67100, Turkey
2
Assos. Prof. Dr., Bulent Ecevit University, Business Administration Department, e-mail
aksoytr2001@yahoo.com, İncivez, Zonguldak, 67100, Turkey
Abstract. Football clubs have to develop brand loyalty on their consumers to survive in the industrialised football
sector since loyalty brings psychological and behavioral commitment to the football clubs. Points of attachment is
substantial since it involves the factors creating brand loyalty. The degree of interest towards points of attachment of a
football club can differ according to demographical factors and the favourableness typologies of the football consumers.
In this research, it is aimed to find out if demographical factors and favourableness typologies of the supporters of “The
Big Four” in Turkish Super League make any differences on points of attachment. For this purpose, 662 students at
Bülent Ecevit University in the spring period of 2013-2014 were reached by using convenience sampling method.
Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests were applied. As a conclusion, it was determined that demographical factors
and favourableness typologies created statistically meaningful differences on the points of attachment.
Keywords: points of attachment, favourableness typologies, brand loyalty.
Introduction
Football clubs are not only appraised with their game performance, but also with their humane and
physical factors such as players, coaches, followers, stadiums and the leagues that they perform. These each
factors have such a performance that creates loyalty on football consumers towards the football clubs that
they support. In other words, each of the mentioned factors are indicated as a reason in order that any
football consumer can attend to the football event.
The importance of each points of attachment can differ according to each football club supporters.
Football clubs have to be aware of the points of attachment binding loyal consumers to the football event in
order to keep the existing football consumers and to attract the potential ones [1]. Thus, it becomes possible
that sport managers and marketers can develop effective marketing strategies that will increase psychological
commitment and then consequently behavioral loyalty on football consumers [2].
In this research, it is aimed to reveal whether the points of attachment towards Beşiktaş, Fenerbahçe,
Galatasaray and Trabzonspor which have the highest brand value and are called “The Big Four” among the
football clubs performing in Turkish Super League, differ according to demographical factors and
favourableness typologies of the football club supporters. In the research, four favourableness typologies are
classified and named as “indifferent”, “football spectator”, “football follower” and “football fan” by scoring
the data extracted from the “Sport Spectator Identification Scale”. In this reseach, the favourableness
typologies and their effects on the points of attachment are extracted and this must be evaluated as a
contribution to the sport marketing literature. It is also expected that the contributions of this research will be
beneficial for sport marketers to develop effective marketing strategies in order to increase the football
spectator attendance in both psychological and behavioral means.
Literature review
Points of attachment index
Points of attachment to any products/brands can be determined by the Points of Attachment Index
[3]. The Points of Attachment Index developed by Trail et al. includes seven dimensions which are “players,
football team, coach, branch of sport, society, city and dimension of sport”. However, the Points of
Attachment Index is generally used for determining points of attachment to any branch of sport ( [3]; [4] ;
[5]). There are also some researches indicating that the mentioned index can be used for different product
groups. For Instance; Kwon et al. [6] used the Points of Attachement Index in order to determine the reasons
of the students’ loyalty to the university and their purchasing behavior of the university’s licenced products.
In addition to this, Robinson et al. obtained some conclusions indicating that there were some differences in
the sense of motivation points in between the golf spectators and the other sports branches’ spectators by
using the mentioned index [1]. The obtained results shows that the Points of Attachment Index gives
25
substantive results and can be applied among different product categories as well as among the same product
categories.
Due to the fact that rivalry conditions became harder with the industralization, the sectors have to
create loyalty on their customers in order to survive from the hard conditions. As football has turned to an
industry, it becomes substantial for football clubs to know the factors creating loyalty among its consumers.
To understand the reason why a football consumer attends to a football event is fundamental to supply
financial support to the football itself [4]. According to Trail et al. [7], there are at least nine personal
motives among football spectators. These motives include “success feeling, knowledge acquirance, the
aesthetical features of the game/sport, social interaction, drama, escape, family, psychical attraction and
pleasure” factors. Woo et al [4] indicates that the degree of these motives can differ according to different
levels of football consumers which is called “favourableness typologies” in this research. For instance;
according to Woo et al. [4], the reason why a sport spectator and a sport fan attend to a sport event is
different.
A football consumer can be loyal to each attachment factors of the team that he/she supports or can
be loyal to only one or two attachment factors of the team. Football consumers can attend to any football
event just because of tha fact that he/she has loyalty towards the football players or towards the coach. The
points of attachment to the football clubs can differ according to the clubs. In other words, for each football
clubs’ supporters, there can be different points of attachment. To know the factors creating loyalty, in other
words the points of attachment on football consumers and make them attended to the football event is
fundamental [1]. In consequence of the determination of the points of attachment of football consumers to
the football clubs, sport managers and marketers can develop effective marketing strategies that will increase
behavioral loyalty and consequently the spectator attandance to the football event [2].
According to the research made by Kwon et al. [5], some people watch football match just because
they develop a loyalty with the team, player, or coach they support. Besides, most of the researchers
emphasize on identification with the football club while searching points of attachment, there are also some
researchers considering that different motives creating loyalty also exist. Except the research made by Trail
[3], there is no differentiation made between favourableness typologies such as a football spectator and a
football fan. But, this can be distinguishing while evaluating a sport consumer’s behavior. For instance, there
are two types of football spectators including “the watchers”, and “the fans” according to Sloan [8]. For
Sloan, the attendants to the football game as “watchers” do not show a strong psychological commitment to
the points of attachment while the “fans” can psychologically show a strong commitment to some of the
points of attachment. Revealing the reasons why the attendants involve in any football event is fundamental
for sports marketers to develop effective marketing strategy. For instance, researches reveal that some
variables such as identification, perceived group performance, and the attractiveness of the group members
can be incentive factors for football consumers in respect of purchasing licenced products of football clubs
[4].
Woo et al. [4] determines that the points of attachment to the successful and unsuccessful football
clubs may differ in between a football fan and a football follower. According to Woo et al. [4], while the
perceived success of the football club is fundamental for a football fan to develop group identity, some other
motives such as the ability of the player, the aesthetic of the performance, and the construct of the game
become fundamental for the fans of unsuccessful football clubs. In other words, the fans of successful
footbal clubs relate themselves with the successful ones and attribute success to internal factors. On the other
hand, the fans of unsuccessful footbal clubs can not attribute success to internal factors in that the clubs’
success they support is not constant. Therefore, their motives differ from the motives of the fans of
successful football clubs. Besides, Woo et al. [4] claims that by comparison with the spectators, the fans are
more proned to attribute success of the football club to internal factors while attributing unsuccess of the
football club to external factors.
There are also some common motives such as escape and social motivation that both fans and
spectators have. Trail, Robinson et al. [3] claims that a football fan can involve in a football event in order to
escape from the daily routines and to feel himself successful. On the other hand, a spectator get involved in a
football event to escape from the daily routine which is the same reason with a football fan, but the spectator
deals with the aesthetic features of the game. When the football club wins, the fan sees the clubs’ success just
as his own success, and shares a common experience with the members of the football clubs’ fan group.
According to Trail, Robinson et al. [3], there are two dimensions of points of attachment including
organizational identification and sport identification. Organizational identification includes team
identification, coach identification, and player identification while sport identification includes the
26
identification with the level of sport and the sport itself. In case an attendant does not deal with win or lose of
the football club, the motives of the attendant can be the sport itself and the level of sport [4].
Demographical factors can also be effective on the points of attachment. According to the research
made by Robinson et al., the effect of gender on the points of attachment is found fundamental while age and
occupation variables do not fundamentally affect the points of attachment [1]. Funk et al. [9] also support
these results and indicate that gender is more effective on the points of attachment than the other
demographical variables including age, occupation and education level.
Football consumers
The researches about the points of attachment indicate that the points of attachment to a football
event differ according to favourableness typologies. For instance, Trail and Robinson reveal that the points
of attachment to a football event differ in between the fans and the other football consumers [3]. This is
because of the fact that there are different motives towards the football clubs in between the fans and the
other football consumers.
Football consumers are differently named with regards to the points of attachment and loyalty
degrees towards the football clubs they support. The names of the football consumers identified in the
literature are presented below:
Football Spectator
Football spectator is a person who watches the football game, and after the game, who forgets the
experience that he/she gets from watching the game [10]. Football spectators are very important for football
industry to maintain its existence. Football spectators watch the game by going to the stadium or by using
several media channels. In each cases, he/she shows behavioral loyalty towards the football club he/she
supports. A football spectator is tend to forget the football experience when the game ends up. Therefore,
even if he/she shows behavioral loyalty to his/her football club, psychological commitment to the club can be
relatively lower.
Football Follower
Football follower is a person who has commitment in the level of adoration to some special subjects
such as player, league, team and branch of sport ( [11]; [12]). In the level of football followerness, there is a
psychological commitment to football club. In addition to psychological commitment, football followers
show high level of identification to the football clubs that they support [13]. Football followers readily
support the football clubs without expecting any economic interests. They are also the football consumers
from whom the football clubs gain most of their income [14].
There are different descriptions under the name of “favourableness typologies” in the literature [15].
The most common “favourableness typologies” classification in the literature is presented below:
Temporar follower
The interest of this type of follower to the football club is limited to time, and he/she follows the
football club only for some specific activities.
Local follower
The identification of this type of follower with the football club is limited to the geographical place.
Loyal follower
This type of follower becomes loyal follower by surpassing time and place limitations.
Fanatical follower
This type of follower also surpasses time and place limitations just as loyal followers. He/she also
has psychological and behavioral commitment to the football clubs such as painting face and body with the
football team’s colors, getting inked with the team’s logo on his/her body, and purchasing the football club’s
licenced products.
Dysfunctional follower
27
This type of follower shows anti-social, disordered, and distorted behaviors. Therefore, it becomes
impossible for this type of followers to keep pace with the society’s sinergy in any follower groups of
football clubs.
Football fanatic
Football fanatic is a person who is extremely bound up with the football club that he/she supports.
Football fanaticism can be evaluated as a positive behavior in case the fanaticism states the extreme love and
loyalty to the football club under the roof of social acceptance, but as long as it involves violance which is
not socially acceptable, then it can no longer be evaluated as a positive behavior [16].
Football fanatics have some behaviors such as extremely paying attention to the football club and
having detailed information about the football club such as football club’s statistics. In other words, football
fanatics follow all news and game results of the football club that they support. Football fanatics are also the
most loyal football consumers’ group which pay the most attention to the football club’s licenced products,
and spend the most money to these products [16]. Therefore, football fanatics are the most prone football
consumers’ group that show psychological and behavioral commitment to the football clubs that they
support.
Hooligan
Hooligan is a person who is prone to show destructive behaviors and violence to his/her
environment ([16]; [17]). Hooligans pretend to be the most loyal supporters of the football clubs, but their
loyalty to the clubs is not real. The purpose for hooligans is to damage the environment and to do harmful
actions [18].
Hooligans do not show any psychological and behavioral loyalty to the football clubs that they
support. Hooligans damages the football club’s corporate image in both national and international senses by
showing harmful actions.
Metodology
Sampling method and sample size
This research is made to determine if demographical factors and favourableness typologies create
any differences on the points of attachment to the football clubs including Beşiktaş, Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray
and Trabzonspor, which are named as “The Big Four” in Turkish Super League. The population of this
research includes 3573 students studying at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences of Bulent
Ecevit University, enrolling in 2013-2014 spring period. Convenience sampling method is used for this
research. To calculate the size of sample, the below formula which is applied when the population is certain
is used [19]:
When the demographical variables are investigated, it is found that %55,1 of the participants are
women and %44,9 of the participants are men. %15,4 of the participants are supporters of Beşiktaş, %31,9 of
the participants are supporters of Fenerbahçe, %45,5 of the participants are supporters of Galatasaray, and
%2 of the participants are supporters of Trabzonspor. It is also found that %2,9 of the participants are found
to be supporters of the other football clubs except from “The Big Four”. It is also found that the rest of the
participants whose percentage is %2,4 do not support any football clubs. When it is looked at the place of
living, it is found that %52,3 of the participants come from the big cities, %35,8 of the participants come
from the cities, and %11,9 of the participants come from countryside. When it is looked at the monthly
spending rate of the participants, it is found that %39,6 of the participants’ monthly spending is in between
301 TL-500 TL, while the rest of the participants’ monthly spending is in between 501 TL-1000 TL.
Data collection tool

In this research, questionaire technique is used to collect data. In order to determine the points of
attachment, the Points of Attachment Index which is developed by Trail et al. in 2003 is used . However this
index includes seven dimensions which are players, team, coach, society, branch of sport, city, and sport
level, for this research there are only four dimensions which are players, team, coach, and branch of sport are
measured. This is because of the fact that almost all of the football clubs from the Big Four are İstanbul
28
origins, thus, it is thought that “society” and “city” dimensions may not create any difference. These
dimensions include three statements in each, and in total there are twelve statements used for this research.
Five Points Likert Scale is used to determine the participants’ evaluations towards these statements. The
other scale which is used for this research is the Sport Spectator Identification Index. This index is used for
determining the favourableness typologies. The identification index is formed by seven statements which
measure identification level of the participants. By depending on the research made by Wann and
Branscombe [20], the Sport Spectator Identification Scale is used to determine favourableness typologies of
the Big Four.
DEMOGRAPHICAL FAVOURABLENESS
FACTORS TYPOLOGIES
-Gender -Indifferent
-Monthly Spending -Football Spectator
-Place of Living -Football Follower
-Football Club -Football Fan
POINTS OF
ATTACHMENT
-Football Team
-Individual Footballer
-Coach
-Branch of Sport
Figure I Model of the Research
Analysis techniques and hypotheses

First of all, Cronbach’s Alpha model which is one of the reliability analysis model is used to
determine if there is an integrity between the statements of the scale. According to Cronbach’s Alpha results,
the Alpha’s factor of the Points of Attachment Index is found 0,869 while the Alpha’s factor of the
identification index is found 0,906 which means both of the scales are highly reliable [21]. In order to
determine favourableness typologies, identification scale is used. While determining favourableness
typologies, identification score of each participant is calculated. By obtaining favourableness behaviors
knowledge from literature ([15]; [14]; [12]; [16]; [11]), the calculated identification scores are classified and
named, for instance; the identification score within the range of 1-2 is named “indifferent”, the identification
score within the range of 2-3 is named “football spectator”, the identification score within the range of 3-4 is
named “football follower” and the identification score within the range of 4-5 is named “football fan”.
Eventually, favourableness typologies are formed for this research.
The Points of Attachment Index is subjected to exploratory factor analysis (KMO=0,810;
Sig.=0,000; Sig.<0,05), and four factors are extracted and each factors are named as “team, individual
footballer, coach, and branch of sport”. These factors are taken as dependent variables for this research. To
determine whether demographical factors and favourableness typologies create any differences on the
retained dependent variables, the non-parametric tests which are Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U are
applied by using SPSS 22 packet program.
The research hypotheses were listed below:
H1: Demographical factors create statistically meaningful difference on the points of attachment.
H1a: The gender of the participant creates statistically meaningful difference on the points of attachment.
H1b: The monthly spending of the participant creates statistically meaningful difference on the points of
attachment.
H1c: The place of living of the participant creates statistically meaningful difference on the points of
attachment.
29
H1d: The supported football club of the participant creates statistically meaningful difference on the points of
attachment.
H2: Favourableness typology of the participant creates statistically meaningful difference on the points of
attachment.
Findings
The non-parametric tests results indicating whether demographical factors and favourableness
typologies create any differences on the points of attachment named as “team, individual footballer, coach,
and branch of sport” extracted from the Points of Attachment Index by applying exploratory factor analysis
are shown in the tables below:
Table 1 Mann-Whitney U Test results for gender and the points of attachments variables
H1a
Group Point of N Mean Rank Rank Sum U p
Attachment
(Gender) (Football
Team)
Woman 365 301,86 110180,50
43385,500 ,000
Man 297 367,98 109272,50

Attachment
(Gender) (Individual
Footballer)
Woman 365 314,54 114806,50
48011,500 ,011
Man 297 352,35 106646,50

Attachment
(Gender) (Coach)
Woman 365 325,29 118731,50
51936,500 ,354
Man 297 339,13 100721,50

Attachment
(Gender) (Branch of
Sport)
Woman 365 249,53 91077,50
24282,500 ,000
Man 297 432,24 128375,50
Table 1 shows that H1a hypothesis is partially accepted. Tests results indicate that gender creates
statistically meaningful differences on the points of attachment including football team (p=,000; p<,05),
individual footballer (p=,011; p<,05), and branch of sport (p=,000; p<,05), and men are found to be more
loyal to these three points of attachment than women are. The test results also show that gender creates no
difference on the “coach” point of attachment (p=,354; p>,05).
30
Table 2 Kruskal-Wallis Test results for monthly spend and the points of attachment variables
H1b
Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p
(Monthly Atachment
Spending) (Football
Team)
300TL and Below 130 235,47 3 57,819 ,000
301TL-500TL 262 349,50
501TL-1000TL 246 344,40
1001TL and Above 24 515,93

(Monthly Atachment
Spending) (Individual
Footballer)
300TL and Below 130 385,33 3 32,752 ,000
301TL-500TL 262 318,72
501TL-1000TL 246 300,93
1001TL and Above 24 485,41

(Monthly Attachment
Spending) (Coach)
300TL and Below 130 332,80 3 19,501 ,000
301TL-500TL 262 349,05
501TL-1000TL 246 326,17
1001TL and Above 24 166,89

(Monthly Attachment
Spending) (Branch of
Sport)
300TL and Below 130 342,07 3 22,453 ,000
301TL-500TL 262 320,46
501TL-1000TL 246 319,59
1001TL and Above 24 510,54
Table 2 shows that H1b hypothesis can not be rejected. Test results indicate that monthly spending of
the participants create statistically meaningful difference on the points of attachment including individual
footballer, coach, and branch of sport (p=,000; p<,05). From Table 2, it is understood that the participants
whose monthly spending is more than 1001 TL are found to be more loyal to the points of attachment
including football team, individual footballer, and branch of sport, while the participants whose monthly
spending is in between 301 TL-500 TL are found to be more loyal to the “coach” point of attachment.
Table 3 Kruskal-Wallis Test results for place of living and the points of attachment variables
H1c
(Place of Attachment
Living) (Football
Team)
Big City 346 350,57 2 12,904 ,002
31
City 237 325,43

Countryside 79 266,16

Living) (Individual
Footballer)
Big City 346 332,84 2 ,644 ,725
City 237 334,88

Living) (Coach)
Big City 346 326,92 2 1,244 ,537
City 237 342,17

Living) (Branch of
Sport)
Big City 346 346,24 2 5,399 ,067
City 237 321,85
Table 3 demonstrates that H1c hypothesis is partially accepted. It is determined that the variable of
place of living of the participants does not create statistically meaningful difference on the points of
attachment including individual footballer (p=,725; p>,05), coach (p=,537; p>,05), and branch of sport
(p=,067; p>,05), while the mentioned variable creates statistically meaningful difference on the “football
team” point of attachment (p=,002; p<,05). The group whose place of living is the big cities is found to be
the most loyal group to the supported football team.
Table 41 Kruskal-Wallis Test results for football club and the points of attachment variables
H1d
(Football Attachment
Club) (Football
Team)
Beşiktaş 102 312,25 3 10,116 ,018
Fenerbahçe 211 344,67
Galatasaray 301 292,98
Trabzonspor 13 316,46

Club) (Individual
Footballer)
Beşiktaş 102 304,01 3 9,998 ,019
1
Only the number of the Big Four’s football club’s supporters were taken into consideration.
32


Club) (Coach)
Beşiktaş 102 319,46 3 7,510 ,057

Club) (Branch of
Sport)
Beşiktaş 102 294,52 3 9,594 ,022
Table 4 demonstrates that H1d hypothesis is partially accepted. Test results show that the “football
club” variable creates significantly meaningful differences on the points of attachment including football
team (p=,018; 0<,05), individual footballer (p=,019; p<,05), and branch of sport (p=,022; p<,05). Fenerbahçe
F.C. supporters are found to be the most loyal supporters to the points of attachment including football team
and individual footballer, while Trabzonspor F.C. supporters are found to be the most loyal supporters to the
“branch of sport” point of attachment. On the other hand, it is found that football club variable does not
create any differences on the “coach” point of attachment (p=,057; p>,05).
Table 5 Kruskal-Wallis Test results for favourableness typologies and the points of attachment variables
H2
(Favourableness Attachment
Typologies) (Football
Team)
Indifferent 127 122,78 3 227,667 ,000
Football Spectator 280 335,57
Football Follower 159 406,01
Football Fan 96 427,35

Typologies) (Individual
Footballer)
Indifferent 127 296,88 3 28,452 ,000

Typologies) (Coach)
Indifferent 127 250,08 3 117,676 ,000
33


Typologies) (Branch of
Sport)
Indifferent 127 264,25 3 49,061 ,000
Table 5 shows that H2 hypothesis can not be rejected. From Table 5, it is understood that
favourableness typologies variable creates statistically meaningful difference on the points of attachment
including football team, individual footballer, coach, and branch of sport (p=,000; p<,05). Football fans are
found to be more loyal to the points of attachment including football team, coach, and branch of sport than
the other favourableness typologies are, while football spectator is found to be more loyal to the “individual
footballer” point of attachment than the other favourableness typologies.
Discussion and conclusion

Managerial implications
Research results show that some variables such as gender, monthly spending, place of living, and
favourableness typologies of the football consumers should be taken into consideration by the football clubs
while developing marketing strategy that will create loyalty towards football consumers. For instance; the
football clubs should develop marketing strategy for not only men but also women so that they can be bound
up to the points of attachment including football team, individual footballer, and branch of sport, in this way
the football clubs will gain more loyal supporters. The perception that football, as a branch of sport only
pertains to men should be broken by organizing some activities, in this way women may also become sincere
to this branch of sport, and become loyal to the supported football club as men do. It is understood from the
results that the supporters whose monthly spending is relatively higher are more loyal to the points of
attachment than the other favourableness typologies, and in order to develop loyal customers population,
football clubs should develop marketing strategies that will appeal to the supporters whose monthly spending
is low. For instance; the price of combined tickets of the club may be decreased; the football club may
provide its supporters to watch the club’s match at the stadium with lower priced tickets. This may increase
behavioral loyalty of the football clubs. The football clubs should also develop marketing strategies that will
attract the supporters who live in cities and countryside. For instance; to establish football club facilities and
points of purchase, and to organise football tournament and football club selection activities in cities and
countrysides may provide more interaction and engagement with the supporters living in these places which
may subsequently make these supporters more loyal to the football club. It is understood from the results that
the least loyal supporters population belongs to Galatasaray F.C. This may be an indicator telling that the
supporters of Galatasaray may be less pleased with the team’s performance than the other football clubs’
supporters are. Thus, Galatasaray F.C. should take precautions that will develop the team’s performance. The
supporters of Trabzonspor F.C. are found to be the least loyal supporters to the “individual footballer” point
of attachment. Thus, Trabzonspor F.C. should examine into its existing footballers and may transfer
successful footballers. It is determined that the points of coach and branch of sport create less loyalty on the
supporters of Fenerbahçe F.C. towards the football club than they do on the other football clubs’ supporters.
Thus, Fenerbahçe F.C. should organise some activities, and maybe some brand image operations for its
existing coach so that the supporters can develop loyalty and love towards football.
Theoretical implications
The results reveal that there are different points of attachment for each football clubs’ supporters.
These results support the literature [1]. Besides, the result indicating that loyalty to the points of attachment
differs according to the variables of gender, monthly spend, and place of living of the participants, and these
results also show similarity with the existing literature. For instance; the result that men are more loyal to the
points of attachment of the football club than women are, and the result that the more the monthly spend
34
increase, the more loyal the supporters become are similar with the results in the existing literature ( [22];
[23]; [24]). The result indicating that the place of living of the participants creates difference on the points of
attachment can be considered as a contribution to the literature. The result indicating that favourableness
typologies create difference on the points of attachment is also parallel to the results revealed in the
literature. For instance; football fans, football followers, football spectators and indifferent are in a
subsequent order in the mean of showing loyalty to the points of attachment including football team, coach,
and branch of sport. These results are similar with the results revealed by Woo et al. [4] and Trail et al. [3].
The results also indicate that football spectators are the most loyal supporters of the “individual footballer”
point of attachment, and this result is also parallel to the literature when the same result revealed by Zillmann
and Paulus [10] is taken into account. Football fans are found to be the most loyal supporters of the “football
team” point of attachment, and this result is also same with the result revealed by [16]. The main theoretical
contribution of this research is that each identified favourableness typologies in the literature are grouped and
classified by using Sport Spectator Identification Index, and then the mentioned typologies are investigated
whether they create any differences on the points of attachment.
Limitations and future research

Due to time limitation, this research is made only with a group of students from a specified faculty.
Thus, the points of attachment can be evaluated only from the mentioned students’ point of view. Besides,
the fact that this research was done before Turkish Super League ends up may be misleading for the
participants while evaluating the football clubs’ success. Because the participants may take the current
performance of the football clubs into consideration at the time this research was being done, and this may
affect the overall performance evaluation of the football clubs. Thus, generalisation of this research results is
not possible but this research results are suggestive about the subject matter and contributive to the literature.
For future researches, it is aimed to broaden and differentiate the participants of the research by
incorporating participants from different zone, in this way the generalisation of favourableness typologies
may become possible. Besides, a research that will provide possibility to compare whether the points of
attachment differ according to the football clubs from different level football leagues such as local and
national leagues can also be made to contribute to the literature.
References:
[1] Robinson, M.J., G.T. Trail & H. Kwon (2004). Motives and points of attachment of professional golf
spectators. Sport Management Review, 7: 167-192.
[2] Gençer, Timuçin R., Olcay Kiremitçi, Ali Aycan, Erdinç Demiray & Volkan Unutmaz (2012).
Profesyonelfutbol takımı seyircilerinin spor tüketimine yönelik güdüleri ve bağlılık noktaları arasındaki
ilişki. Ege Akademik Bakış, 12: 41-53.
[3] Trail, G.T., M. Robinson, R. Dick & A.J. Gillentine (2003). Motives and points of attachment: Fans
versus spectators in intercollegiate athletics. Sport Marketing Quarterly, Cilt 12: 217-227.
[4] Woo, B., Galen Trail, Harry Hyungil Kwon & Dean Anderson (2009). Testing model of motives and
points of attachment among spectators in college football. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 18(1): 38-53.
[5] Kwon, H. H., Trail, G. T., & Anderson, D. F. (2005). Are multiple points of attachment necessary to
predict cognitive, affective, conative, or behavioral loyalty? Sport Management Review, 8: 255-270.
[6] Kwon, H. H., Trail, G. T., & Anderson, D. F. (2006). Points of attachment (identification) and licensed
merchandise consumption: A case study. International Journal of Sport Management, 7: 347-360.
[7] Trail, G. T., & James, J. D. (2001). The motivation scale for sport consumption: Assessment of the
scale's psychometric properties. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24: 108-127.
[8] Sloan, L.R. (1989). The motives of sports fans. In J.H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social
and psychological viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 175–240). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
[9] Funk, D. C., Mahony, D. F., & Ridinger, L. L. (2002). Characterizing consumer motivation as
individual difference factors: Augmenting the sport interest inventory (SII) to explain level of sport.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11: 3343.
[10] Zillman, D. & P.B Paulus (1993). Spectators: Reaction to sporting events and effect on athletic
performance. New York: MacMillan.
[11] Hunt, K.A., T.R. Bristol & E. Bashaw (1999). A conceptual approach to classifying sports fans. The
Journal Of Services Marketing, 13(6): 439.
[12] Shank, D.M. (1999). Sports marketing, a strategic perspective. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
35
[13] Wann, D.L. & N.R. Branscombe (1993). Sports fans: Measuring degree of identification with their
team. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24: 1-7.
[14] Garzan, Göknur (2009). Spor pazarlaması açısından futbol kulüplerine taraftar olma nedenleri ve bir
uygulama. Unpublished master dissertation, Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
[15] Salman, G. Gültekin (2008). Profesyonel futbol kulüplerinin hizmet kalitesi ile taraftar memnuniyeti
ve taraftar tipolojileri arasındaki ilişki. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Marmara Üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
[16] Mirioğlu, M. (2007). Futbol haberlerinin sunumunda şiddet: Hürriyet, Zaman ve Birgün
gazetelerinden futbol sunumlarının analizi. Unpublished master dissertation, Anadolu Üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Eskişehir.
[17] Ayan, S. (2006). Şiddet ve fanatizm. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, 7: 191-209.
[18] Arıkan, Y. (2007). Futbolda şiddet ve polis. Polis Bilimleri Dergisi, 9:109-132.
[19] Özdamar, K. (2003). Modern bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Eskişehir: Kaan Kitabevi.
[20] Wann, D.L. & N.R. Branscombe (1995). Influence of identification with a sports team on
objectiveknowledge and subjective beliefs. International Journal of Sport Psychology, Cilt 26: 551-
567.
[21] Kalaycı, Şeref (2010). SPSS uygulamalı çok değişkenli istatistik teknikleri. Ankara: Asil Yayın
Dağıtım.
[22] Salman, Gülberk Gültekin & Caner Giray (2010). Bireylerin futbol taraftarı olmasını etkileyen güdüler
ile sadakat arasındaki ilişki: Fernerbahçe taraftarları üzerine bir uygulama. Öneri Dergisi, 9(33): 89-97.
[23] Demirel, Mehmet, Bengü Güven Karahan & Hüseyin Ünlü (2007). Farklı üniversitelerdeki
sportaraftarlarının takımları İle özdeşleşme düzeyleri. Niğde Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor
Bilimleri Dergisi, 1(2): 76-86.
[24] Genar (2010). Futbol takımları marka kişiliği araştırması, Mayıs 2010.
36
THE COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

TEACHER TRAINING SYSTEMS IN TURKEY AND IRAQ*
Yunus Emre KARAKAYA1, Qurban M. ABDULLA2, Botan J. SADEQ3
1
Firat University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Department of Physical Education and Sports Teaching, Elazig,
TURKEY, e-mail: emrekarakaya@firat.edu.tr
2
Firat University, Health Sciences Institute, Elazig, TURKEY, e-mail: qurban.jaaf@gmail.com
3
Firat University, Health Sciences Institute, Elazig, TURKEY, e-mail: botan_basket@yahoo.com
Abstract: In this study, it was aimed to reveal the similarities and differences of educations of Physical Education and
Sports Teachers in Turkey and Iraq by comparing the conditions to be accepted into university, education process and
evaluation systems and develop suggestions accordingly. In the study, the survey model from the qualitative research
models was practiced. As for the approach, the horizontal approach from the comparative education approach was
utilized. The document review method was applied as the data analysis method. In addition to the web pages from three
universities, available articles and books related to the subject of the study were benefited from. As a result of the study,
it was determined that several meaningful differences existed in many variables which were compared between the
physical education and sports teaching systems in Turkey and Iraq. Within the framework of education of physical
education and sports teacher, it was concluded that variables as conditions to be accepted to the faculty, the received
education, the contents of the syllabus, education process, and evaluation systems were differentiated between the two
countries. It was observed that education systems of each country for physical education and sports teachers were
restructured according to their own cultures and social, political and economic conditions. In light of this data, several
suggestions were made about the physical education and sports teaching education systems of both of the countries.
Keywords: Comparative Sports Education, Teacher Education, Universities, Turkey, Iraq
Introduction
The most significant function of education is to bring up individuals according to certain goals,
training individuals in a compatible way to the community they are living and to the modern world, and
upskill them with the qualifications demanded by the society via providing them with the required skills of
the time [2]. The upbringing of individuals in this way is only achievable with a decent education system and
also with qualified and self-developing teachers [1]. Today, the teacher education system gained an
international qualification. The fact that the problems in teacher education systems are similar causes a
similarity in taken precautions and employed methods, too. Thus, international acts of cooperation became
widespread for the solutions of these problems [6].
Comparative education has a qualification to be a discipline which helps to define the similarities
and differences between two or more education systems from different countries, clarifies similar looking
facts and provides useful suggestions about education ways to people. It investigates different policies in
education, legislation about education and financial sources of education [6] It is also regarded as a valid
behavior of governments which attempts to employ the applications which are found useful in an
examination of different education systems from the world into their own systems. Within this scope, the
studies which are carried out in a way that compares the education systems, education policies and
applications are called comparative education studies. Researchers who had several studies about the topic of
comparative education reported various opinions about the definition, interested topics, and benefits of these
studies [4]
In physical education and sports teacher education, admission requirements, education systems, and
evaluation systems differ when compared to other countries, even in different universities from the same
country. In this study, the education system for physical education and sports teachers in Turkey was
compared with the education system for physical education and sports teachers in Iraq. Additionally, this
study is believed to provide a different perspective to studies in sports sciences and help with the evaluation
of current applied programs. Within this framework, in this study, the answers to the following questions
were tried to be found.
 What are the similarities and differences between the admission requirements of education facilities
for physical education and sports teachers in Turkey and Iraq?
 What are the similarities and differences between applied education programs’ learning-teaching
processes for physical education and sports teachers in Turkey and Iraq, in terms of evaluation
systems?
37
 What are the similarities and differences between applied education programs for physical education
and sports teachers in Turkey and Iraq, in terms of lesson contents and total credits?
 What are the similarities and differences between applied education programs for physical education
and sports teachers in Turkey and Iraq, in terms of education period, the number of students,
academic staff, and credits?
Method
This study is a descriptive study in survey model. Survey model is an approach that aims to describe
a state, which existed in the past or exists currently, without changing it and as it is [5] As the approach of
the study, the horizontal approach from comparative education approach was benefited from. In the
horizontal approach, every dimension in an education system is discussed one by one and the differences are
tried to be determined by bringing all variables along [3]
In this study, all the variables acquired within the framework of the study questions in teacher
training programs were all brought along and the similarities and differences between them were tried to be
determined. Starting out from the study questions, a framework for the data analysis were formed. In
accordance with this framework, the data were organized, the similarities and differences were brought
together, compared and interpreted.
Findings
In this section, within the context of training systems of both countries for physical education and
sports teachers, the findings from admission requirements, learning-teaching processes, evaluation systems,
the name of the learning institution, education period, total time, number of students and etc. were presented.
Table 1. Comparison of training systems for physical education and sports teachers in Turkey and Iraq
Variable University of Firat University of Sulaimani University of Salahaddin
Students take the exam of Students are first subjected to practical Students are first subjected to
“YGS”, which is organized exams for each kind of sports, then, practical exams for each kind of
by the government as a they have an interview with the school sports, then, they have an
central exam. Then, they staff and upon passing that interview, interview with the school staff
are accepted to the the staff reviews the primary and upon passing that interview,
Admission department of Physical information about the athlete’s physical the staff reviews the primary
Requirements for Education and Sports condition, the student who gets the information about the athlete’s
Teaching teaching with the scores highest degree is accepted, in addition physical condition, the student
they had from that exam to his or her degree of examination. who gets the highest degree is
and athlete background accepted, in addition to his or her
information. degree of examination.
School of Physical Education, Faculty of

Faculty of Sports Sciences, Physical Education Department & Basic
Name of the Institution Physical Education and Physical Education Department College of Physical Education
Sports Teaching
Education Period 4 years 4 years 4 years

Number of Students 1150 687 650
Prof.: 2 Prof: 3 Prof.: 8
Number of Academic Assoc. Prof.: 8 Assist. Prof.: 16 Assist. Prof.: 20
Personnel Assist. Prof.: 11 Lecturer: 16 Assistant: 2
Assistant: 5 Assist. Lecturer: 26 Expert: 1
Expert: 1
Reference: http://beso.sb.firat.edu.tr/tr/node/111, http://univsul.edu.iq/en/, http://su.edu.krd/, some of the data presented above was
obtained from the transcription documents of the 2nd and 3rd authors.
In table 1., the “Admissions Requirements for Teaching”, “Name of the Institutions”, “Education
Period”, “Number of Students” and “Number of Academic Personnel” of universities were presented. It was
determined that general similarities existed in admission requirements of the universities for the department
of physical education and sports teaching. It was observed that the education periods were 4 years and the
number of students was highest in the University of Firat.
38
Table 2. Comparison of physical education and sports teachers training programs in Turkey and Iraq
Variable University of Firat University of Sulaimani University of Salahaddin
Hours of Lesson Content Theoretical: 125 Theoretical: 73 Theoretical: 82

Practice: 66 Practice: 95 Practice:78
Total: 191 Total: 168 Total: 160
Credits 158 168 146
The general evaluation is carried The evaluation is The evaluation is carried out in
out in mid-term and final exams. carried out in mid-term mid-term and final exams. In some
Evaluation Systems In some practical lessons, and final exams. In practical lessons, students’
students’ performances are some practical lessons, performances are evaluated
evaluated. students’ performances
are evaluated
Reference: http://beso.sb.firat.edu.tr/tr/node/111, http://univsul.edu.iq/en/, http://su.edu.krd/, some of the data presented above was
obtained from the transcription documents of the 2nd and 3rd authors.
In table 2., the comparison of physical education and sports teachers training programs of the
universities was presented. In the analysis of education programs for physical education and sports teachers
in Turkey and Iraq, in terms of hours of lesson content, it was observed that the hours of lesson content in the
University of Firat (a total of 191 hours) were higher compared to universities in Iraq. It was determined that
total credits were higher in University of Sulaimani (a total credit of 168). Additionally, it was observed that
the evaluation systems were the same in all three universities.
Table 3. Analysis of the lessons in the department of physical education and sports teaching in University of Firat
Content Area Professional General Total Hours Total
Term and Content Teaching Knowledge Credits
Knowledge Knowledge Lessons Theoretica Practical
Lessons l
1st 17 3 4 18 6 21
nd
2 13 3 7 13 10 18
3rd 11 5 9 17 8 21
4th 16 5 7 18 10 23
5th 17 8 2 17 10 22
th
6 12 7 5 16 8 20
7th 6 5 7 12 6 15
8th 9 11 2 14 8 18
Total Hours 101 47 43 125 66 158
191
Reference: http://beso.sb.firat.edu.tr/tr/node/111. This data was conceptualized by the researchers and presented above.
In table 3., the analysis of the lessons in the department of physical education and sports teaching in
the University of Firat was presented. It was observed that, in Turkey, the lessons of “Content Area and
Content Knowledge (a total hour of 101)” were focused on more compared to the lessons of “Professional
Teaching Knowledge (a total of 47 hours) and “General Knowledge (a total of 43 hours).
Table 4. Analysis of the lessons in the department of physical education and sports teaching in University of Sulaimani
Content Area and Professional General Total Hours Total
Year Content Teaching Knowledge Credits
Knowledge Lessons Knowledge Lessons Theoretica Practical
l
1st year 42 - 10 12 30 42
2nd year 40 4 - 20 24 44
3rd year 44 - - 21 23 44
4th year 28 10 - 20 18 38
Total Hours 154 14 10 73 95 168
168
Reference: The data was acquired from the transcription documents of the 2 nd author. This data was conceptualized by the
researchers and presented above.
the University of Sulaimani was presented. It was observed that, in University of Sulaimani, the lessons of
39
“Content Area and Content Knowledge (a total hour of 154)” were focused on more compared to the other
types of lessons.
Table 5. Analysis of the lessons in the department of physical education and sports teaching in University of Salahaddin
Content Area and Professional General Total Hours Total
Year Content Knowledge Teaching Knowledge Credits
Theoretica Practical
Lessons Knowledge Lessons
l
1st year 32 4 4 20 20 40
2nd year 38 4 - 18 24 42
3rd year 38 - - 18 20 38
4th year 32 10 - 28 14 42
Total Hours 140 18 4 82 78 160
160
Reference: The data was acquired from the transcription documents of the 3 rd author. This data was conceptualized by the
researchers and presented above.
the University of Salahaddin was presented. It was determined that, in University of Salahaddin, the lessons
of “Content Area and Content Knowledge (a total hour of 140)” were focused on more compared to the other
types of lessons.
Conclusion and suggestions

In this study, in the light of the acquired findings, the following conclusions can be deducted. It was
observed that similarities existed between the investigated universities in the admissions requirements for
teaching and education periods (Table 1). It was determined that differences existed between the name of the
institutions, the number of students and the number of academic personnel. It is believed that these
differences are related to the laws and regulations of the universities, and physical capabilities.
In the analysis of training programs in Turkey and Iraq (Table 2), it was observed that differences
existed between the contexts of the lessons. It was observed that the University of Firat focused on
theoretical lessons more (Theoretical: 125) compared to the other universities. It was determined that the
University of Sulaimani focused on practical lessons more (Practical: 95). It is believed that the fact that the
University of Firat focused more on the theoretical lessons is based on the university’s focus on pedagogical
formation and relations of the country with European Union Countries. It was observed that similarities
existed in all three universities in total credits and evaluation systems.
It was determined that, in University of Firat, the lessons of “Professional Teaching Knowledge” and
“General Knowledge” were focused on more compared to other universities (Table 3, 4 and 5). It was
interpreted that the fact that universities in Iraq do not focus much on the lessons of professional teaching
knowledge and general knowledge in the physical education and sports teaching programs is the result of
placing importance on a professional skill and practice focused education.
In conclusion, the physical education and sports teaching system in both countries were investigated.
It is crucial to encourage comparative studies more in the sports sciences field and improvement plans are
conducted in the compared universities by benefiting from the results of the study. In the conclusion of this
study, it can be reported that several dimensions in physical education and sports teacher training systems in
universities in Iraq should be improved. Additionally, in the future, studies about these topics can be carried
out at different universities.
References
[1] AKPINAR B., TURAN M. & TEKATAŞ H. The competence of classroom teachers in the opinions of
prospective-teachers, XIII. National Education Conference, Inonu University, Faculty of Education,
Malatya, 2004.
[2] ÇELİKTEN M., ŞANAL M. & YENI Y. Öğretmenlik mesleği ve özellikleri (trans.: Teaching profession
and features), Erciyes University, Institute of Social Sciences, Journal of the Institute of Social Sciences,
19, 2005: 207-237.
[3] DEMIREL Ö. Karşılaştırmalı eğitim (trans.: Comparative education), Pegema Publishing, Ankara, First
Printing. 2000: 4-5.
40
[4] GÜZEL İ., KARATAŞ İ. & ÇETİNTAŞ B. (2010). A comparison of secondary school mathematics
curriculum guidebooks: turkey, Germany and Canada, Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics
Education, 1 (3), 2010: 309-310.
[5] KARASAR N. Bilimsel araştırma yöntemi (trans.: Scientific research method), Nobel Publishing,
Ankara, 20. Printing, 2009: 77.
[6] TÜRKOĞLU A. Karşılaştırmalı eğitim: Dünya ülkelerinden örneklerle (trans.: Comparative education:
with sample countries of the world), Baki Bokhandel, Adana, 1998.
[7] UNIVERSITY OF FIRAT. Access: http://beso.sb.firat.edu.tr/tr/node/111, Access Date: June 06, 2016.
[8] UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI. Access: http://univsul.edu.iq/en/, Access Date: June 10, 2016.
[9] UNIVERSITY OF SALAHADDIN. Access: http://su.edu.krd/, Access Date: June 10, 2016.
[10] QURBAN M. A. Graduation certification, Date: June 18, 2011.
[11] BOTAN J. S. Graduation certification, Date: March 8, 2012.
41
EXAMİNİNG THE ENTREPRENEURSHİP LEVELS OF STUDENTS WHO

PLAY/DO NOT PLAY SPORTS
Münire Burcu PORDOĞAN1, Sevim GÜLLÜ2

1
Tranier, munirepordogan@gmail.com , 00905353101210, İstanbul-Türkiye
2
İstanbul University, The Faculty of Sports Sciences, Sports Management Department,
sevim.gullu@istanbul.edu.tr, 00905068553562, İstanbul-Türkiye
Abstract. The purpose of this research is to examine the entrepreneurship levels of university students who play/do not
play sports. The research was conducted in the survey model. Scales including questions about participant
demographics and entrepreneurship levels were applied to the students. The Entrepreneurship Scale was acquired from
Özman (2013). Percentage, frequency, and crosstab methods were used to determine the distribution of
participant demographics. To test whether the subdimensions of the scale exhibit normal distribution, The
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was performed and it was found that the entrepreneurship scale exhibited normal
distribution. (p<0.05). Accordingly, the independent t-test and the one-way variance (ANOVA) test were applied
for two-variable data at the significance level of α = 0.05 and multi-variable data respectively. Post-hoc tests were
utilized to find the difference between the groups. The study group of the search was composed of fourth-year female
and male students who were attending the School of Business Administration and the fourth-year female and male
students who were attending at the Department of Sports Administration and Coaching Education at İstanbul
University. The total number of the participants was 107. According to the results obtained from the findings, 52.3% of
the participants reported that they do not play sports while 17% reported that they do plays ports. The entrepreneurship
levels of the participants did not differ significantly based on whether they play/do not play sports. As a result, no
variables within the scope of the research affected the entrepreneurship levels of the participants.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship in sport, sport management, university students
Introduction
As a concept, entrepreneurship has undertaken various functions within its different definitions,
perception styles and the needs it has met throughout the different stages of history, yet it has always existed.
In fact, humankind has considerably utilized the idea of entrepreneurship in its interaction with nature, in
problem solving and adaptation processes in nature, and it still continues to do so. The ancient functionality
of entrepreneurship has ensured the permanent increase of its significance. Throughout history, entrepreneurs
have always managed to contribute to society in various ways despite ambiguities and ever-increasing
challenges [10].
Entrepreneurship is based on innovation and change [3]. Rivalry, which has become an information-
based concept with the gradually intensifying effects of globalization, has also highlighted the importance of
entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs [15]. Today, the survival of businesses is closely associated with their
adaptation to fast developing technology and cruel rivalry conditions, and with their financial development
levels. Entrepreneurship is acknowledged as one of the essential components of the economic development
processes of businesses. Entrepreneurs who are active in and change both business and social lives, are able
to determine social needs and make investments accordingly, which in turn ensures the rise in welfare level
of the society [14].
Entrepreneurship is not only a process of establishing an enterprise, but also the process of searching
for opportunities in organizations, bringing about change, innovation and creativity to the organizations [16].
Also, it does not only possess a financial value, but also cultural and social features itself which is of quite
critical importance in economic development and in the progress of countries. T he emergence of
enterprising characteristics includes genetic factors as well as the environmental factors such as family,
education, income level and business experience [14].
On the other hand, entrepreneurship is not only establishing profit making organizations through
combining production factors and taking advantage of opportunities. It is possible to see examples of
entrepreneurship in the field of academia, in organizations, in public, in the arts and sciences, in school and
in society [18].
Today, the entrepreneurship traits of individuals have gained significance. Entrepreneurship covers
all actions related to producing goods or services through integrating production factors such as labor,
technology, capital and natural resources. An entrepreneur is an individual who takes advantage of
opportunities in the market and takes risks by integrating production factors such as capital, natural sources
42
and labor with the aim of delivering goods and services. Turkey has great advantages among the countries in
which there are great entrepreneurship potentials and dispositions. The improvement of this potential is
considerably dependent on the quality of our education system. That university students, who are the most
important component of education systems, possess enterprising and venturous potentials is of critical
importance. As an important model, an enterprising and venturous student profile has substantial value in
terms of an innovative society [27].
Entrepreneurs are disposed to focusing on novel needs, to taking risks on behalf of themselves or
shareholders, to working for the benefit of businesses; the basic stimuli for entrepreneurs are to establish a
new business or to own his own business and gain financial incomes; the risk preferences of entrepreneurs
are related to gaining money and prestige, and their key goal is to make a profit [13, 5, 11, 23, 25, 1, 2, 18].
Today, with the influence of globalization, businesses and states have reduced in size and
transformed into mobile constructs which can act faster. In this sense, that university students find jobs
within the state has become more difficult recently, just like in the past, and it seems it will be more difficult
in the future [6].
Sport has an entrepreneurial nature as it is constantly adapting to suit changing societal needs. Sport
has been studied from a variety of disciplines but it is only recently that it has been examined from an
entrepreneurial perspective (Ratten, 2010) Most definitions of entrepreneurship include the need for
innovation, opportunity and vision. Within a sports context entrepreneurship exists at a number of different
levels such as the individual, organization and team. Individuals are entrepreneurs when they demonstrate
initiative and innovate (Hisrich, 1990). In the sports context entrepreneurs include sports players, sports
agents and sport team owners. Once of the earliest scholarly definitions of entrepreneurship is by
Schumpeter (1965) who conceptualized entrepreneurship as the development of enterprise and economic
development. In this special issue, we define entrepreneurship as when as individual or organization tries to
be proactive, innovative and risk taking, particularly as they relate to a sport organization’s social
responsibility or philanthropic endeavors. [21]
Sports entrepreneurship is a rapidly emerging area of entrepreneurship and sport management
research. The process of sports entrepreneurship involves social entrepreneurial and social innovative
activities that are carried out in the sports context. Sport as an industry is amongst the world’s largest and
affects other industries including education and tourism, which have a integral focus on social innovation
and social entrepreneurship. Sport has been ingrained into the social fabric of most countries worldwide and
provides a unique perspective of entrepreneurship. The sport entrepreneurial process is usually initiated by
organizations, people or governments who are embedded in both economic and social areas. [22]
Hence, whether playing sports influences the entrepreneurship of university students is the research topic of
the current study.
Significance and Aim Of The Study
Sports contribute to individuals’ self-expression and socialization phases and it affects
entrepreneurship behaviors in a positive way. Thus, it is important to examine entrepreneurship levels of
university students in terms of whether or not they play sports.
In this context, the aim of the study is to investigate the entrepreneurship levels of university students in
terms of whether or not they play sports.
Material and method

The study was conducted in the survey model. The Entrepreneurship Scale, which was acquired
from Özman (2013), was applied to the participants to gather data related to their demographic features and
entrepreneurship levels.
The sample of the study was composed of the 107 fourth-year female and male students studying at
the School of Business Administration and at the Department of Sports Administration and Coaching
Education at İstanbul University.
The study is limited to the responses of the participants to the scale items.
43
Findings
Table 1. Demographic Features of the Participants
Demographic Features n %
Female 52 48.6
Gender
Male 55 51.4
19-21 30 28.0
22-24 56 52.3
Age
25-27 21 19.6
1,000-2,000 19 17.8
Monthly Income of Family 2,000-4,000 49 45.8
4,001 and more 39 36.4
500-1,000 43 40.2
1,000-2,000 48 44.9
Individual Monthly
Income 2,000-4,000 13 12.1
4,001 and more 3 2.8

Yes 71 66.4
Employment Status
No 36 33.6
Yes 51 47.7
Playing Sports
No 56 52.3
Basketball 6 5.6
Dance 1 .9
Fitness 10 9.3
Football 8 7.5
Handball 2 1.9
Gymnastics 1 .9
Sport Played
Table tennis 1 .9
Archery 1 .9
Pilates 2 1.9
Tennis 5 4.7
Volleyball 5 4.7
Swimming 9 8.4
As seen in Table 1, the number of female and male participants in the study is almost eqal. In terms
of age ranges, most participants were found to be between the ages of 22-24 (52.3%), followed by 19-21
(28%) and 25-27 (19.1%), respectively. In a review of the monthly income of the participants, the majority
had a family income level of 2,000-4,000TL (49%) monthly, followed by 4,001TL or more (36.4%), and
1,000-2,000 TL (17.8%), respectively. Most of the participants do not work (71%). Examining the individual
monthly income of the participants, the majority was found to have a 1,000-2,000TL monthly income,
followed by 500-1,000TL (40.2%), 2,000-4,000TL (13%) and 4,001TL or above (2.8%), respectively.
Additionally, 52.3% of the participants admit that they do not play sports. Among the remaining 47.7% , the
majority were observed to mostly exercise for fitness.
Following the demographics, the findings are presented below in the order of research questions put
forth in the study goals section of this paper.
Firstly, that there is no statistically meaningful difference in the entrepreneurship levels of the
participants who do and do not play sports was determined through the application of unrelated samples t-
test. The unrelated samples t-test was used as a dependent variable of the study, entrepreneurship level was a
continuous variable, while the independent variable, doing/not doing sports, was the categorical variable.
The unrelated samples t-test which is one of the parametric tests, possesses various hypotheses. Thus, the
control over the hypothesis was managed in this study.
According to Büyüköztürk (2009), the hypothesis of unrelated samples t-test includes that measures
related to dependent variables are to be in the minimum range while for the samples in which average scores
44
are compared, the measures related to irrelevant and dependent variables are expected to show a normal
distribution in both groups. The first two of these hypotheses were met. To the results of the normality
hypothesis, the participants’ scores do not show a normal distribution, which was concluded through
checking the Kolmogorov-Smirnov significance level in the column. The primary reason for checking this
column is the number of the participants. When the number of individuals is more than 50, the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov column needs to be checked, while if it is less than 50, the significance level in the Shapiro Wilk
column is checked.
The low level of significance (p>.05) indicates that the study scores do not demonstrate a different
distribution from the normal range. However, the current study’s scores did show a different distribution
from the normal range, which indicates that the descriptive statistics should be analyzed in this situation.
Additionally, that the coefficients of skewness and kurtosis are between -1 and 1 indicates that the data does
not deviate from normal values at an extreme rate (Büyüköztürk, Bökeoğle & Köklü, 2009). Following
checking the average and median values with skewness and kurtosis values, it is concluded that the data is of
a normal distribution.
After confirming that the hypotheses were met, the unrelated samples t-test was applied. Table 2
shows the test results.
Table 2. T-test Results related to Participants’ Entrepreneurship Levels Based on Whether They Play Sports
Groups n Sd T P
Those who play sports 51 140.5490 19.50417

Entrepreneurship -818 .415
Those who do not play sports 56 143.5714 18.70718
According to the t-test results, the entrepreneurship levels of the participants do not differ
statistically based on whether or not they play sports (t(105)=-.818; p>.05).
One of the research questions was whether entrepreneurship levels of the participants show
statistically meaningful differences in terms of gender. To determine this, the t-test was applied, and its
hypotheses were checked.
After determining that the hypotheses were met, the unrelated samples t-test was conducted. The test
results are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. T-test Results related to Participants’ Entrepreneurship Levels Based on Gender
Groups n Sd T P
Female 52 143.2115 20.25459

Entrepreneurship -.568 .571
Male 55 141.1091 17.98731
The t-test results suggest that the entrepreneurship levels of the participants do not differ statistically
on the basis of gender (t(105)=-.568; p>.05).
Another question of the study aims to determine whether there are statistically meaningful
differences among entrepreneurship levels of the participants in terms of age. With this aim, one-way
variance analysis (ANOVA) was applied. Age was presented in three categories by the researcher. Following
the determination of the statistical technique for the study, the hypotheses were checked. Considering the
results of both normality tests and descriptive statistics, it was shown that the study data is of a normal
distribution. The Levene test results applied to control the homogeneity of the variances suggest that the
variances are homogenous. The average scores and standard deviation values based on ANOVA results are
presented in Table 5.
Table 4. Entrepreneurship Average Scores and Standard Deviation Values of Participants Based on Age
n Sd
19-21 30 144.5333 17.46668
Entrepreneurship 22-24 56 139.5893 20.16097
25-27 21 145.4762 18.08209
45
Table 5. ANOVA Results related to Entrepreneurship Levels of the Participants based on Age
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Sd Mean of Squares F p
Entrepreneurship Inter-groups 769.910 2 384.955 1.061 .350

Within groups 37742.258 104 362.906
Total 38512.168 106
The entrepreneurship levels of the participants do not show statistically meaningful differences in
terms of age (F(2-106)=1.061; p>.05).
Another question of the study asks whether the differences in the entrepreneurship levels of the
participants are statistically meaningful. To determine this, one-way variance analysis (ANOVA) was
applied, and the results are presented in Table 7. Above Table 7, Table 6 shows the average scores and
standard deviations based on the ANOVA results.
Table 6 Entrepreneurship Average Scores and Standard Deviation Values of Participants Based on Monthly Income Variable
n Sd
500-1000 TL 43 140.6744 21.80620
Entrepreneurship 1000-2000 TL 48 142.2917 16.85856

2000-4000 TL 13 149.4615 16.00841
4001 and more TL 3 128.6667 19.65536
Table 7 ANOVA Results related to Entrepreneurship Levels of the Participants’ based on Individual Monthly Income Levels
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Sd Mean of Squares F p
Entrepreneurship Inter-groups 1334.912 3 444.971 1.233 .302

Within groups 37177.256 103 360.944
Total 38512.168 106
The entrepreneurship levels of the participants do not differ statistically in terms of their individual
monthly income (F(3-106)=1.233; p>.05).
Another question of the study asks whether the differences in the entrepreneurship levels of the
participants are statistically significant. To answer this, the unrelated samples t-test was applied, and the test
hypotheses were checked. Considering the results of average, median, skewness and kurtosis values, the data
was found to show a normal distribution. After determining that the hypotheses were met, the unrelated
samples t-test was conducted. The related results are demonstrated in Table 8.
Table 8. T-test Results related to Participants’ Entrepreneurship Levels Based on Whether They Have Taken an Entrepreneurship
Course
Groups n Sd T P
Yes 34 143.2647 14.58789

Entrepreneurship .475 .636
No 73 141.6027 20.89174
The t-test results indicate that the entrepreneurship levels of the participants do not show statistically
meaningful differences in terms of whether the participants have taken an entrepreneurship course in the past
(t(88.956)=.475; p>.05).
Another question in the study asks whether the participants have a desire to found their own
businesses. In this sense, the unrelated samples t-test was conducted, and related t-test hypotheses were
checked. Table 9 presents the related t-test results.
46
Table 9. T-test Results related to Participants’ Entrepreneurship Levels Based on Whether They the Desire to Found Their Own
Business
Groups n Sd t P
Desire to Found Own Business 62 144.1774 18.58214
Entrepreneurship 1.308 .194
No Desire 45 139.3111 19.55856
According to the t-test results, the entrepreneurship levels of the participants do not differ
statistically in terms of whether they have a secret idea of founding their own business (t(105)=1.308; p>.05).
Table 10. The Cronbach Alpha Reliability Coefficient of the scale

Entrepreneurship .776
According to this coefficient, the reliability of the scale scores is high.
Discussion & Conclusion

In the analysis process, the data was set in Microsoft Excel 2003 and analyzed using SPSS 20.0 for
Windows packet. Percentage, frequency, and crosstab methods were used in order to determine the
demographics of the participants. The Kolmogrov-Smirnof test was applied to test whether the sub
dimensions of the scale demonstrated a normal distribution and the scale was proven to show a normal
distribution as a result of the test (p<0.05). The independent t-test for data with two variables at the
significance level of α = 0.05 and the one-way variance test (ANOVA) for the data with more than two
variables were administered. Also, the Post-Hoc test was applied to see the differences between groups.
The study findings suggest that: 107 agents participated in the study, 52 of whom were female while
55 were male. In a review of the age range of the participants, it is seen that 52.3% were between the ages of
22 and 24; 28% were between the ages of 19 and 21 and 19.1% were between the ages of 25 and 27. In terms
of monthly family income levels, 45.8% earned 2,000-4,000 TL, 36.4% earned 4,000 TL or above, and
17.8% earn between 1,000-2,000TL. 71 of the participants were working while 36 were unemployed. In
terms of monthly individual income levels, 40.2% earned between 500-1,000 TL, 44.9% earned 1,000-2,000
TL, 12.1% earned 2,000-4,000 TL, and 2.8% earned 4,001 TL or above. And, 51 of the participants were
reported to play sports while 56 did not play sports. Among the participants playing sports, it was reported
that they mostly exercise for fitness (9.3%).
The entrepreneurship levels of the participants do not differ based on whether they do or do not play
sports. Additionally, no meaningful differences were found in young people's entrepreneurship levels in
terms of gender, monthly income or age. Also, their entrepreneurship levels did not differ based on whether
they took entrepreneurship courses before or not. As a result, the entrepreneurship levels of the participants
were found not to be influenced by any variables examined in the study.
Some of the similar sample studies in the literature are explored below.
According to the study, which was conducted Sport Management Department students in Marmara
University, generally the level of entrepreneurship of the students was high. The level of entrepreneurship of
the participants is increasing as the monthly income level of their family increases. But the monthly income
of the participants' families after a certain point entrepreneurship levels of participants decrease. Those with
middle-income families the level of entrepreneurship is high while the monthly income is low and high the
entrepreneurship levels of the participants who participated in the families were lower. On the other hand,
there was no relationship between age, sex, internship status, monthly income, working status, where they
live in geographical regions and entrepreneurship. [19].
According to the study, which was conducted with 185 university students in Turkey with the aim of
determining the effects of demographic features and personal traits on their entrepreneurship levels, and to
the given responses to the scale prepared to measure the entrepreneurship intentions of the students, it is
understood that students were reluctant to deal with the word “entrepreneurship,” but they seemed more
responsive when the features of entrepreneurship were defined for them without using the word
“entrepreneurship.” This situation is thought to stem from two reasons. The first might be that the exact
meaning of the word "entrepreneur" is not known, or the expression of any kind of enterprising desire might
be suppressed due to some cultural realities although the exact meaning of the word is well known. On the
other hand, the entrepreneurship intentions of male students were higher than the females students. On the
basis of age, older students were found to possess more entrepreneurship intentions than younger students.
However, the reason for this is thought to be that students tend to make decisions concerning
47
entrepreneurship intentions easily in higher classes. Additionally, it was revealed that the students with work
experience had higher entrepreneurship intentions than those without work experience, and the students
coming from low-income families showed higher levels of entrepreneurship intentions in parallel with the
idea of providing more financial support [26]. The current study was only implemented to fourth year
students which gave no opportunity to examine whether entrepreneurship levels differ in terms of education
level. A future study can measure this.
According to another study aiming to analyze entrepreneurship dispositions with 234 students
studying at Celal Bayar University, it was revealed that students generally had low levels of entrepreneurship
interests. The entrepreneurship averages of male students were found to be higher than female students [6].
The results of different research conducted with 468 students at Bahçeşehir University Vocational School,
Adnan Menderes University and Nazilli Vocational School suggest that the determining factors of students’
entrepreneurship intentions include social class, their family’s economic background, work experience,
education and other environmental and socio-cultural components, which is in accordance with the pre-
existing findings. In an examination of the effective factors in entrepreneurship, their social class, family’s
economic background, work experience, education and other environmental, socio-cultural components were
found to be determinant in students’ entrepreneurship intentions. According to the study results, the
entrepreneurship levels of students studying at private universities were “very high” while those studying at
public universities were found to be “low.” Based on work experience, the students with work experience
had higher levels of entrepreneurship while those with no work experience demonstrated “very low”
entrepreneurship levels [14].
In another study aiming to investigate the entrepreneurship dispositions of students from Kirgizstan-
Turkey Manas University (KTMU) and Atatürk University (AU), the X2 test results suggested that there was
no meaningful relationship between demographic and familial features and entrepreneurship dispositions of
the students studying at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at KTMU. On the other hand,
for the students studying at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at AU, a significant
difference (10%) was found based on department and gender as well as a 1% difference for those students
whose families ran businesses. In the overall sample, there was a significant relationship of 10% for gender
and 1% for those students whose families ran businesses [17].
In another study conducted with 70 university students with the aim of determining and analyzing
the determinant factors of entrepreneurship dispositions and especially the effects of entrepreneurship
trainings, parallel findings were seen in the qualitative part of the study with the findings in the literature.
The study findings indicated that education and specifically entrepreneurship trainings were accepted as
necessary but independently determinant in revealing the entrepreneurship disposition. The entrepreneurship
disposition accelerates the discovery of an individual’s potential and helps him increase his chances. Thus,
entrepreneurship trainings positively affect entrepreneurship dispositions [4].
In a different research with 173 students at Sakarya University aiming to measure the effects of the
personal traits of entrepreneurship, no meaningful difference between males and females was found in terms
of taking risk and ambiguity tolerance. It is possible to see the that Turkish society is generally disposed to
avoiding ambiguities and risks. Although the study sample did not possess an enterprising characteristic,
students answered yes (or positively) to the question “Do you want to found your own business in the
future?” This indicates that the participants did not understand the realities surrounding such a venture or did
not understand the concept of entrepreneurship fully. Here, the sample only reflected their desires for the
future. This sample also expressed that they wanted to work at a prestigious job in case they would found
their own business in the future. In light of these findings, the opinion that the students at Sakarya University
possessed entrepreneurship dispositions was not claimed as expected to be so [7]. Also, the fact that gender
had no effect on entrepreneurship levels shows similarity with the current study’s findings.
The study can be expanded by including different variables and samples.
References
[1] Akdoğan, Asuman. & Ayşe Cingöz. (2006). İç Girişimciliğe Verilen Önem Düzeyi Ve İç Girişimciliği
Etkileyen Örgütsel Faktörlerin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Kayseri İli’nde Bir Araştırma. Bişkek,
Uluslararası Girişimcilik Kongresi, Kırgızistan-Manas Üniversitesi Yayınları: 86, Kongreler Dizisi:
Ss.49-64.
[2] Austin, J.;Howard Stevenson & Jane Wei-Skillern; (2006) “Social And Commercial Entrepreneurship:
Same, Different, Or Both?”, Entrepreneurship Theory And Practice, January, Ss.1-19.
[3] Aytaç O. & İlhan S. (2013). Girişimci Kültür: Sosyolojik Bir Perspektif.
48
[4] Balaban Ö. & Özdemir Y. (2008). Girişimcilik Eğitiminin Girişimcilik Eğilimi Üzerindeki
Etkisi:Sakarya Üniversitesi İibf Örneği. Acikesirisim.Lib.Comu.Edu.Tr.
[5] Barendsen, Lynn & Howard Gardner; (2004), “Is The Social Entrepreneur A New Type Of Leader?”,
Leader To Leader, 4, Ss.43-50.
[6] Bilge, H. & Bal, V. (2012). Girişimcilik Eğilimi: Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Öğrencileri Üzerine Bir
Araştırma. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisiyıl: Sayı:16.: 131-148.
[7] Bozkurt Ö. (2006). Girişimcilik Eğiliminde Kişilik Özelliklerinin Önemi. Araştırma Makaleleri. 93-
111.
[8] Büyüköztürk. Ş. (2009). Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. (10. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem
Akademi.
[9] Büyüköztürk. Ş..Bökeoğlu Çokluk. Ö. & Köklü. N. (2009). Sosyal Bilimler İçin İstatistik. (4. Baskı).
Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
[10] Ercan, S. & Gökdeniz İ. (2009). Girişimciliğin Gelişim Süreci Ve Girişimcilik Açısından Kazakistan.
Bilig Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi. 49:59-82.
[11] Hasan, Samiul; (2005), “Social Capital And Social Entrepreneurship İn Asia: Analysing The Links”,
The Asia Pasific Journal Of Public Administration, 27(1), Ss.1-17.
[12] Hisrich, R. (1990). Entrepreneurship/intrapreneurship. American Psychologist, 45(2), 209–222.
[13] Johnson, Sherrill; (2000), “Social Entrepreneurship Literature Review”, Research Associate Canadian
Centre For Social Entrepreneurship, November, Ss.1-17
[14] Keleş H.N., Özkan K.T., Doğaner M. & Altunoğlu A.E. (2012). Önlisans Öğrencilerinin Girişimcilik
Düzeylerini Belirlemeye Yönelik Bir Araştırma. Uluslararası İktisadi Ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi. 5
(9):107-118.
[15] Küçükaltan, D. (2009). Genel Bir Yaklaşımla Girişimcilik. Girişimcilik Gündemi. 21-28.
[16] Naktiyok A. & Kök S.B. (2006). Çevresel Faktörlerin İç Girişimcilik Üzerine Etkileri. Afyon
Kocatepe Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi. Vııı (2): 77-96.
[17] Özden K.,Temurlenk M.S. & Başar S. (2008). Girişimcilik Eğilimi: Kırgızistan-Türkiye Manas
Üniversitesi Ve Atatürk Üniversitesi Öğrencileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Review Of Social, EconomicAnd
Business Studies.
[18] Özdevecioğlu M. & Cingöz A. (2009). Sosyal Girişimcilik Ve Sosyal Girişimciler: Teorik Çerçeve.
Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı: 32:81-95.
[19] Özman, C. (2013). Spor Yöneticiliği Bölümünde Öğrenim Gören Üniversite Öğrencilerinin
Girişimcilik Düzeyinin Belirlenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi. Sağlık Bilimleri
Enstitüsü.
[20] Ratten, V. (2014). Sport Innovation: the Role of Social Entrepreneurship and Creativity in Fostering
Sport Related Business Activities. In Research Colloquium on Societal Entrepreneurship and Innovation
at RMIT, November.
[21] Ratten, V. (2010). Sport-based Entrepreneurship: Towards a New Theory of Entrepreneurship and
Sport Management. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. Retrieved March 30, 2010
from
https://commerce.metapress.com/content/610h672242184571/resourcesecured/?target=fulltext.pdf&sid=c
p3v0a45mb1 ah0i1lyxcoe55&sh=www.springerlink.com
[22] Ratten, V., & Babiak, K. (2010). The Role of Social Responsibility, Philanthropy and
Entrepreneurship in the Sport Industry. Journal of Management & Organization, 16(04), 482-487.
[23] Roper, Juliet & George Cheney; (2005) Leadership, Learning And Human Resource Management:
TheMeaning Of SocialEntrepreneurshipToday.CorporateGovernance, 5(3):95-104.
[24] Schumpeter, J. (1965). Economic Theory and Entrepreneurial History. In H. G. Aitken (Ed.),
Explorations in Enterprise (pp. 121–142). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[25] Sharir, Moshe & Miri Lerner; (2005), “GaugingTheSuccess Of
SocialVenturesInitiatedByIndividualSocialEntrepreneurs”, Journal Of World Business, Article İn Pres,
Ss.1-15.
[26] Şeşen H. & Basım N. (2012). Demografik Faktörler Ve Kişiliğin Girişimcilik Niyetine Etkisi: Spor
Bilimleri Alanında Öğrenim Gören Üniversite Öğrencileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Ege Akademik Bakış.
12: 21-28.
[27] Yılmaz, E. & Sünbül, A. M. (2009). Üniversite Öğrencilerine Yönelik Girişimcilik Ölçeğinin
Geliştirilmesi. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 21(2), 195-203.
49
COMPARISON OF STATE-TRAIT ANXIETY LEVELS OF STUDENTS

LIVING WITH THEIR FAMILIES AND STUDENTS WHO LIVE
SEPARATELY FROM THEIR FAMILIES
Recep CENGIZ1, Emrah SERDAR2, Bilge DONUK2
1
Celal Bayar University physical education and sports
2
İstanbul University Sports Science faculty
Abstract. The purpose of this study is to compare anxiety levels of the college students who are living with or separated
from their families. The sample group of the study consist of 343 males and 104 females, 447 in total, in the academic
year of 2015-2016 at Bartın University. In the research, Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory has been used. In
order to determine that if the data had a normal distribution ratio or not, Shapiro-Wilks normality test has been
conducted; and as a result, after it has been seen that the data was suitable for non-parametric test conditions, Mann-
Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests have been carried out in order to determine the significant differences (p<0,05).
There has not been found any major differences between the state-trait anxiety levels of the students living with and
separated from their families based on their genders. However, female participants have made higher points in
proportion to male participants. There has not been found any significant differences between the state-trait anxiety
levels of the students living with and separated from their families. However, participants living separated from their
families have made higher points in proportion to the participants living with their families. There has not been found
any significant differences between the state-trait anxiety levels of the participants based on their ages. However, state-
trait anxiety points of the participants aged between 23-25 are higher than the state-trait anxiety points of the
participants with other age ranges. As a result; it has been determined that the state-trait anxiety levels of the students
living separated from their families have been higher than the participants living with their families.
Key Words: College Students, Living separated from family, Anxiety
Introduction
Getting into university is a milestone in students' lives. However, it also leads to many problems,
such as difficulties in adapting to a new environment, courses, accomodation, and diet, all of which can have
an impact on students' psychology and adaptation. [18]. Undoubtedly, nowadays university life is full of
complexity and uncertainty. In addition to illogical behaviors, unexpected and unstable entourage can make
it inevitable for students to display anxious behaviors. Whether anxious behavior is beneficial or not in terms
of university environment and the students is associated with how the behavior is perceived rather than how
it is displayed. [3]. Theories in the literature define anxiety as a symptom of disease, an important value for
protection, a disruptive sense of insecurity, a threatening situation or a reaction to normal, adaptive and
common situations. According to Turkish Language Association, anxitey is an upsetting thought or concern.
[20]. In general, the common ground of all definitions is that anxiety is regarded as a basic human emotion, a
multilateral emotional state, and an adaptive mechanism that allows the individuals to cope with danger. All
the definitions also involve scientific factors, subjective feelings and physiological symptoms and
behaviours. [21]. Therefore, the meaning an individual attributes to a specific situation is of significant
importance[16].
There are two types of anxiety as state anxiety and trait anxiety. Accordingly, state anxiety is a temporary
emotional arousal in a case of danger. It is also characterized by tension, delusion, and stimulation of the
autonomic nervous system. According to Aras (2010), when the object or situation perceived as threatening
is eliminated, the negative impacts of anxiety will disappear, too. On the other hand, according to
Spielberger (1972), trait anxiety is regarded as individual differences in reactions towards a perceived threat
in the environment in general and a state of worrying, pessimism and restlessness. [13, 24] In this case, the
individual is prone to anxiety. He or she almost always perceives the situation he/ she in as stressful.
According to Aras [2] situations that are considered neutral by objective criteria are seen as dangerous and
threatening by these people. As can be understood from the definitions, while state anxiety is, just as
kinetic energy, is an instant reaction, trait anxiety is the tendency to show a specific reaction. This situation
reveals a need for conducting a study that involves cognitive elements such as the possibility and the nature
of danger and the adequacy of the person to cope with danger as well as the need for family support. It is
assumed that family support will help students in producing rational solutions to the existing problems. In
this regard, the purpose of the present study is to investigate the relationship between the state and trait
anxiety levels of students who live with their families and those who live separately from them. The
findings of the study which will reveal the relationship between state-trait anxiety of students and whether
50
they live with and separately from their families will be beneficial for students in finding out ways to cope
with anxiety, fear and stress.
Taking all these into consideration, there is an apparent need to conduct a study that reveals students'
state-trait anxiety in order to obtain data that contribute to change their approach to solve existing problems.
In this study, it is aimed that trait-state anxiety relationship is examined considering gender, age, and other
factors. In accordance with this purpose, the present study aims to answer following hypotheses:
H1: There is a statistically significant relationship between state and trait anxiety levels of students
who live with their families and students who live separately from them.
H2: There is a statistically significant relationship between students who live with and separately
from their families in terms of their gender.
H3:There is a statistically significant relationship between students who live with and separately
from their families in terms of age range.
H4: There is a statistically significant relationship between students' level of anxiety regarding
financial aid.
Material And Method

This part provides general view of methodology giving information on setting, participants, data
collection instruments, data analysis, and interpretation of the data. In the present study, quantitative research
method is adopted. To be more specific, this study is designed with relational screening model, which is one
of the general screening models. It aims to present the general situation of the participants on the subject of
the study and to enable to better understand and determine the degree of the variation among two or more
variables.
In this study, data were collected from 447 participants who are currently enrolled at the School of
Physical Education and Sports in Bartın University. Participants can be divided into two groups as students
living with their parents and students who live separately. It was initially planned that the data were
collected from 500 students. However, 53 of 500 student questionnaire results were not included due to
missing and incorrect information.
Personal information of participating students are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Percentage and Frequency Values of Personal Information of Participating Students
Variables F %
Male 104 23,2
Gender Female 343 76,7
Total 447 100
18-22 222 49,7
23-27 219 49,0
Age
28 and above 6 1,3
Total 447 100
Family 148 33,1
Sibling 2 ,4
Relatives 10 2,2
Who they live with
Dormitory 179 40,0
Friends 94 21,0
Alone 14 3,1
Total 447 100
Family 232 51,9
Relatives 48 6,3
Financial Aid Unemployed 28 6,3
Student Loan 139 31,1
Total 447 100
According to Table 1, 104 students (% 23,3) are female and 343 (% 76,7) are male. 222 of the
students (% 49,7) are in the age range 18-25. 179 students (40,0 %) stay in dormitories and 232 of them
(%51,9) receive financial aid from their families.
Data Collection Instruments

In this study, data were obtained through Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).
51
Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was constructed by Charles Spielberger and his
colleagues (1970) with the aim to measure state and trait anxiety separately. The adaptation and translation of
STAI into Turkish was made by Öner ve Le Compte (1974-1977). This introspective inventory consists of
two separate scales and 40 self-report items in total. In this study, Trait Anxiety Scale, which consists of 20
items, was used. In this 4-point Likert-type response scale, scoring is reversed for items 1, 6, 7, 10, 13, 16,
and 19. The total score obtained from the scale may vary between 20-80. Higher scores indicate greater
anxiety and lower scores suggest little anxiety. A high degree of consistency was observed and satisfactory
results were achieved in this study. Alpha consistency coefficient was reported as ranging between .83 and
.87; test-retest reliability ranging between .71 and .86, and item reliability between .34 and .72. (Öner & Le
Compte, 1985)
Data Analysis
The data was analyzed using SPSS 20.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). In order to
determine the distribution of personal information of participants, percentage (%) and frequency (f) methods
were applied. In addition, Shapiro Wilks normality test was used to determine whether data had a normal
distribution and since the results suggested that the findings were appropriate for non-parametic test
conditions, Mann-Whitney-U and Kruskall Wallis tests were applied in order to determine significant
differences.
Findings
Table 2: Mann Whitney-U Test Results of Students who Live with their Families and Students who Live Separately according to
their State- Trait Anxiety Scores
Variable N Sequence value avg. Z P

With Family 151 226,39
State anxiety Separate from ,324 ,569
296 222,78
Family
With Family 151 230,61
Trait Anxiety Separate from -,326 ,568
296 211,32
Family
Table 2 Mann Whitney-U test results of students who live with their families and those who live
separately according to their state-trait anxiety scores are presented in Table 2. According to the test results,
there is no significant difference between the state-trait anxiety scores of students who live with their
families and those who live separately. (z=,324; -,326; P>0.05).
Tablo 3: The Results of Mann Whitney-U Test Results of State-Trait Anxiety Scores in terms of Gender Variable
Gender N Sequence value avg. Z P

State Male 343 218,96
-1,509 ,131
Anxiety Female 104 240,63
Trait Male 343 224,73
-,219 ,827
Anxiety Female 104 226,58
Table 3 demonstrates the results of Mann Whitney-U test results of state-trait anxiety scores in terms
of the gender of the participants. The results show that there is no significant difference between the state-
anxiety levels of participants in terms of their gender. (z=-1,509; -,219; P>0.05). State-trait anxiety scores of
female students are higher than the state-trait anxiety scores of male students.
Table 4: The Kruskal Wallis Test Results of State-Trait Anxiety Level Scores in terms of Age Variable
Age N Sequence value avg. X2 P
18-22 222 223,33
State
23-25 219 225,16 ,136 ,934
Anxiety
26 and above 6 206,42
18-22 222 221,52
Trait
23-25 219 227,88 1,178 ,555
Anxiety
26 and above 6 174,17
52
Kruskal Wallis test results of state-trait anxiety level scores in terms of the age of the participants are
presented in Table 4. The results indicate no significant difference between state-trait anxiety levels of
participants regarding their age. (z=,136; 1,178; P>0.05). The scores of state-trait anxiety in participants
between the ages of 23 and 25 are higher than the participants of other ages.
Table 5: Kruskal Wallis Test Results of State-Trait Anxiety Levels in terms of Financial Aid
Financial Aid N Sequence value avg. X2 P

Family 232 227,13
Relatives 48 201,05
State Anxiety 2,919 ,404
Unemployed 28 221,38
Family 232 220,04
Relatives 48 227,48
Trait Anxiety ,598 ,897
Unemployed 28 220,25
Table 5 shows Kruskal Wallis test results of state-trait anxiety levels in terms of financial aid. The
results reveal no significant relationship between state-trait anxiety levels and financial aid.(z=2,919; ,598;
P>0.05) In addition, students who receive student loan have greater state-trait anxiety compared to students
who receive other types of financial help.
Discussion & Conclusion

In this study, state and trait anxiety of university students were examined by regarding variables such
as staying with family or not, gender, age, income into consideration. In Table 2, it can be seen that there is
not a significant relationship between state and trait anxiety levels and living with or separately from
families. However, state-trait anxiety scores of students living with their families are greater than the scores
of those who live separately. This is supported by Yılmaz [23], who found out that whether parents are
separated or not does not consitute a significant effect on students' level of state-trait anxiety. Üngüren
(2007) also argues that whether parents are together or not does not have a significant impact on state-trait
anxiety levels of university students. In this regard, state anxiety, which is a temporary feeling triggered by
stress, is influenced by trait anxiety, which is a type of anxiety that reflects students' overall tendency for
anxiety. Therefore, the two faces of anxiety can be said to have a relation with one another. Kutanis and
Kıvanç [17] also point to the importance of the relationship between state and trait anxiety. According to
Table 3, there is no significant relationship between state-trait anxiety scores and gender of the students.
However, state-trait anxiety scores of female students are higher than of male students. This could mean that
students experience a sense of anxiety in a similar way regardless of their gender. In the literature, studies
that argue that gender does not have a role in state-trait anxiety support our findings [7, 10, 11, 22] On the
other hand, there are studies that argue gender is a determinant in displaying behaviors of state-trait
anxiety.[4, 5, 6, 12, 14, 15] It could be argued that the lack of consistency between studies might be due to
social norms and values, complicated relationship between anxiety and gender, and the socio-cultural
structure and habits of the sampling.
In Table 4, the result of the analysis indicate that students' age and their state-trait anxiety levels do
not display a significant correlation. This is supported by various studies in the literature that suggest age
does not have a role in state-trait anxiety.[7, 26, 27, 28, 29]. The fact that age of the participants are close to
each other can be the main reason why there is not a difference between the levels of state-trait anxiety.
It is observed that the results in Table 5 did not show a significant difference on the state-trait anxiety levels
of students in terms of financial aid. It can be said that in a world that is constantly changing and developing,
students can undertake common responsibilities in terms of financial matters. This is supported by other
studies in the literature [1, 15] that suggest no significant correlelation between financal aid and state-trait
anxiety. However, scores of state-trait anxiety are higher in students who receive student loan than those
studensts who receive other types of financal aid. There are also other studies that support our findings with
results indicating that students with lower economic status have higher stat-trait anxiety levels than students
who have better financial situation. [9, 14]. These findings suggest that lower income may lead to state-
anxiety. These findings could suggest that lower income may lead to financial concerns and cause a rise in
the level of state anxiety.
In conclusion, it was established that the level of state-trait anxiety is higher in students who live
53
separately from their family when compared to students living with their families.
References
[1] Akgün, A., Gönen, S., Aydın, M., (2007). İlköğretim Fen ve Matematik Öğretmenliği Öğrencilerinin
Kaygı Düzeylerinin Bazı Değişkenlere Göre İncelenmesi, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 6(20); 283-
299.
[2] Aras, D. (2010). Kaya Tırmanışçılarında Düşme Kaygısının Tırmanış Sırasında Görülen Bazı Fizyolojik
Değerlendirmelere Etkisi, Yüksek Lisans, Ankara Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.
[3] Aydın, K.B.(2009). Automatic Thoughts as Predictors of Tukish University Student’s State Anxiety,
Social Behavior and Persoanlity, 37, 1065-1072.
[4] Aydoğan, D. Özbay, Y.(2012). Akademik Erteleme Davranışının Benlik Saygısı, Durumluluk Kaygı, Öz-
Yeterlilik Açısından Açıklanabilirliğinin İncelenmesi, Pegem Eğitim ve Öğretim Dergisi, Güz, 2(3): 1-9
[5] Basco, R.E. Olea, M.T.(2013). Correlation between anxiety level and academic performance of BS
biology freshmen students. İnternational Journal of Educational, Research and Technology, 4(1); 97-103.
[6] Başaran, M.H. Taşğın, Ö. Sanioğlu, A. Taşkın, A.K. (2009). Sporcularda Sürekli ve Durumluk Kaygı
Düzeylerinin Bazı Değişkenlere Göre İncelenmesi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü
Dergisi, 21, 533-542.
[7] Civan, A., Arı, R., Görücü, A., Özdemir, M.,(2010). Bireysel ve Takım Sporcularının Müsabaka Öncesi
ve Sonrası Durumluk-Sürekli Kaygı Düzeylerinin Karşılaştırılması, Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi,
7(1); 193-206.
[8] Coşkun, K. Şahan, A. Erman, K.A. (2011). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin durumluk kaygı düzeylerinin tenis
sınav performansı üzerine etkisinin incelenmesi, Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 8 (1); 1121-1130.
[9] Deveci, S.E., Çalmaz, A., Açık, Y.(2012). Doğu Anadolu’da Yeni Açılan Bir Üniversitenin
Öğrencilerinde Kaygı Düzeylerinin Sağlık, Sosyal ve Demografik Faktörler İle İlişkisi. Dicle Tıp Dergisi,
39(2); 189-196.
[10] Doğan, T. Çoban, A.E.(2009). Eğitim Fakültesi Öğrencilerinin Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Yönelik
Tutumları İle Kaygı Düzeyleri Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 34(153); 157-168.
[11] Dowbiggin, Ian, R. (2009). Hihg Anxities: The Social Construction of Anxiety Disorders, The Canadian
Journal of Psychiatry, 54; 429-436.
[12] Dursun, S. Aytaç, S.,(2009). Üniversite Öğrencileri Arasında İşsizlik Kaygısı, Uludağ Üniversitesi,
İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi,27(1); 71-84.
[13] Ehtiyar, R. Üngüren, E. (2008). Turizm Eğitimi Alan Öğrencilerin Umutsuzluk ve Kaygı Seviyeleri İle
Eğitime Yönelik Tutumları Arasındaki İlişkinin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma, Uluslararası
Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 1(4); 159-181.
[14] Gül Akmaz, M., Ceylan, N.(2009). Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü
Öğrencilerinin Durumluk-Sürekli Kaygı Düzeyleri ve Kaygı Nedenleri(Tokat Örneği), Sosyal Bilimler
Araştırmaları Dergisi, (1); 131-147.
[15] Karaman, S.(2009). Sağlık İle İlgili Programlarda Öğrenim Gören Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Durumluk
ve Sürekli Kaygı Düzeyleri, Yüksek Lisans, Erciyes Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Kayseri.
[16] Karataş, Z. Arslan, D., Karataş, M.E.(2014). Examining teachers’s trait, state cursive handwriting
anxiety. Educational Sciences: Theory&Practice, 14 (1); 241-248.
[17] Kutanis, R.Ö., Tunç, T.,(2013). Hemşirelerde Benlik Saygısı İle Durumluk ve Sürekli Kaygı
Arasındaki İlişki: Bir Üniversite Hastanesi Örneği, İş, Güç Endüstri İlişkileri ve İnsan Kaynakları
Dergisi, Nisan 15(2); 1-15.
[18] Pamuk, Y., Hamurcu, H., Armağan, B., (2014). Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Durumluk ve Sürekli
Kaygı Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi (İzmir-Buca Örneği), Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 3 (2),
293-316.
[19] Pamuk, Y., Hamurcu, H., Armağan, B., (2014). Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Durumluk ve Sürekli
Kaygı Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi (İzmir-Buca Örneği), Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 3 (2),
293-316.
[20] Suliman, Wafika A. Halabi, Jehad (2007), Critical Thinking, Self-Esteem, and State Anxiiety of
Nursing Students, Nırse Education Today, 27; 162-168.
[21] Tektaş, N.(2014). Üniversite Mezunlarının Kaygı Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal
Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Dr. Mehmet Yıldız Özel Sayısı; 243-253.
54
[22] Yerlikaya, E.E.(2009). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Mizah Tarzları İle Algılanan Stres, Kaygı ve
Depresyon Düzeyleri Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi, Doktora Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal
Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana.
[23] Yılmaz, İ.A., Dursun, S., Güzeler, E.G., Pektaş, K.(2014). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Kaygı
Düzeylerinin Belirlenmesi: Örnek Bir Çalışma, Electronıc Journal of Vacational Colleges, December, 16-
26.
[24] Yokuş, T.(2013). The relationship between the state-trait anxiety levels and academic avhievement of
music teacher candidates. International Online Journal of Primary Education, 2(1); 25-31.
[25] Öner, N., Le Compte, A. (1985) Durumluk ve Sürekli Kaygı Envanteri El Kitabı. Boğaziçi Üniversitesi
Yayınları, 2. Basım, İstanbul.
[26] Yücel, HO. (2003). Taekwondocuların Durumluk ve Sürekli Kaygı Düzeyleri ve Müsabakalardaki
Başarılarına Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans, Gazi Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.
[27] Erbaş M. (2000). Türkiye Basketbol 2. Erkekler Ligindeki Oyuncuların Bazı Kişisel Değişkenlerinin
Durumluk Kaygı Üzerine Etkileri ve Durumluk Kaygının Takım İçi İlişkilerine Etkisinin Araştırılması.
Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Trakya Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Edirne.
[28] Özbekçi, F. (1989). Farklı Spor Dallarında Yaşanan Müsabaka Stres Düzeylerinin Araştırılması. Yüksek
Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
[29] Karabacak, M. (2013). Teknolojik Değişimin İş görenler Üzerinde Yarattığı Durumluk ve Sürekli Kaygı
Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü,
Kütahya.
55
A LONGITUDINAL STUDY: FIVE YEARS OF RESEARCH ON SPORT

INJURIES APPEARED IN MATCHES IN TURKISH FIRST WOMEN’S
VOLLEYBALL LEAGUE
Eren ULUÖZ1
1
Cukurova University School of Physical Education and Sport / Turkey
proferde@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Sport injuries frequently happened in power-based sports like the volleyball. In order to prevent injuries before they
appeared, it should be known reasons and risk factors. Therefore, the aim of this research was to investigate sports
injuries happened in match. In this study 200 matches were analyzed from First Women's Volleyball League during the
2011-2016 period. “Match Observation Form” developed by researcher was used. In addition the researcher, two
independent expert observers in volleyball analyzed the match records and filled the forms. All forms were compared
carefully. Analyzed matches, 49 sports injuries were observed. However, 61.20%(30) of all injuries were temporary
injuries ensured continuing the competition by the medical care and 38.80%(19) were serious injuries hindered
continuing the play. In this context, there were 0.24 injuries per match. Upper body injury rate was 40.80% (20)
whereas lower body injury rate was 59.20% (29). While block was the most dangerous technique of the play at the
%55.10(27) injury rates, spike, defense and other techniques had slightly lower risk at the 12.20%(6) and 32.60%(16),
respectively. In other words, 67.30%(33) of the all injuries occurred in front of the net where was repeatedly performed
block and spike techniques. In conclusion, injury risk was significant in volleyball. Especially, the athletes playing front
area were at greater risk in comparison with back area players. Correctly jumping and landing practices should be
reduced the risk. It has suggested that the relationship between the injuries and game rules related net contact and
middle line.
Key Words: Volleyball, Sport Injuries, Women, First League.
Introduction
Volleyball is one of the most popular sports branches in the world. According to the FIVB
(federation internationale de volleyball), the FIVB consists of 220 affiliated federations and governs,
manages and promotes all forms of volleyball and beach volleyball worldwide through tournaments such as
the World Championships, World League, World Grand Prix, World Cup, Grand Champions Cup, Club
World Championships, FIVB Swatch World Tour, FIVB Swatch World Championships, Beach Volleyball
Continental Cup and Beach Volleyball World Cup, Junior and Youth tournaments and, of course, the
Olympics [1]. In addition to these organization promoted by FIVB, millions of people have played the game
with the recreational and amateur purposes.
Tilman et al focused that the sport of volleyball sports has continued to increase in participation
since its inception over one hundred years ago [2]. Nowadays, volleyball is played in big stadium instead
smaller sports hall (see Figure 1: Warsaw, Poland, August 30, 2014. 62,000 fans were in attendance on
Saturday night for the historic opening match of the FIVB Volleyball Men’s World Championship Poland
2014 at the National Stadium in Warsaw) [3].
Figure 1. Poland & Serbia in World Champs historic opening match
Volleyball has been played by approximately 200 million players worldwide in approximately 170
countries. It is one of the most popular sports in the world [4]. Since volleyball is played with a few basic
materials such as net and ball, it is preferred by many people for recreational purposes.
56
Although volleyball is a non-contact sport branch, sport injuries have appeared with high frequency.
According to Reeser and Bahr, injuries are, regrettably, an unavoidable hazard of sports participation.
Although volleyball and beach volleyball are by most estimates relatively safe sports – particularly in
comparison to other sports such as football – epidemiologic research has revealed that volleyball athletes
are at risk for certain types of injuries [5]. Numerous scientific studies related to sports injuries in volleyball
have been published and different results have been reported in these studies [6-12]. Although there are
many researches on sports injuries in volleyball in literature, unfortunately, there has not been
standardization in determining characteristics and results of the injuries. Numerous differences of the
presentation of the results related to injuries have been observed in literature, such as defining of injuries,
calculating of injury rates, classifying of injury reasons, etc. Watkins and green reported 46 injuries by 86
players. They have reported an incidence of 0.53 injuries per player. They found the most common injury
parts of the body as knee, ankle, and fingers and back were involved in 30, 26, 22 and 17% of injuries,
respectively. Their study focused that block and spikes were the most risky techniques because of
repetitively jumping and landing actions in front of the net [13].
Vanderlei et al studied on 522 volleyball players who participated in the High School Olympic
Games of the State of São Paulo. A reported condition inquiry was used to gather information on injuries,
such as body part affected, injury mechanism and moment, as well as individual and training data. They
found the frequency of injuries as 19%. They reported that higher age, weight, height, body mass index and
training duration values were associated with the occurrence of injuries. The most affected part of body was
the ankle and foot with 45 injuries, 36.3%. Their study showed that the main causes of injuries were direct
contact and contactless mechanisms with 61 injuries; 49.2% and 48 injuries; 38.7%, respectively [14].
Augustsson et al analyzed sports injuries in the elite male and female Swedish players in 2002-2003.
During a total exposure time of 24.632 hours, 82 players reported 121 sports injuries, representing an overall
incidence of 0.77 injuries per player. They reported that numerous injuries had occurred ankle, knee and
back, the rates of these injuries were 23%, 18% and 15%, respectively. Their study showed that 54% of all
injuries occurred during the block and spike positions [12].
It is known that all sport injures cause serious financial and psychological losses both individual and
public. Injuries are disturbing especially for elite athletes. Sport injuries constantly occurred in power-based
sports like the volleyball. In order to prevent injuries before they occur, it is known that reasons and risk
factors. There are many studies related reasons, preventions, injury areas of body and incidence of sports
injuries in volleyball. In this context, main aim of this study was to analyses sports injuries occurred in match
in First Turkish Women’s Volleyball League during between 2011 and 2016 years.
Material and method

Subjects: In this study, 200 matches were analyzed in the First Turkish Women's Volleyball League
during the period between 2011 and 2016 years. The matches included were played in the normal season and
the final-four competitions. All video-recordings of the matches were stored as three copies in order to able
their viewing by the observers (the researcher and two independent volleyball experts). The study was
performed among 468 players during 133.114 player hours.
The Research Questions

 What are the frequency and number of sports injuries?
 What are the rate, frequency and number of temporary sports injuries?
 What are the rate, frequency and number of serious sports injuries?
 Which techniques have higher injury risks?
 Which parts of the body are subject to sports injuries more frequently?
 Is there a correlation between match durations and number of injuries (total, temporary and
serious)?
 Is there significant relationship between severity of injuries and injury sites of body?
Definition of Variables
 The severity of injuries: This has been shown in terms of absence from a match or returning
to play and has been described as temporary injuries and serious injuries.
57
 Temporary injuries: Injuries where continuing to play the match is ensured by minor medical
treatment.
 Serious injuries: Injuries that lead to an absence from a match,
 Lower body injuries: Ankle, knee and leg injuries,
 Upper body injuries: Finger, wrist, elbow, arm, shoulder, back and head injuries.
Data Collection Instruments: In order to analyze the matches “the Sports Injuries Observation Form”
developed for volleyball by the researcher was used. This form contains different variables related to sports
injuries such as “number of injury”, “injury sites of body”, “severity of injury”, “techniques-related injury”,
“injury reason” and “match duration”.
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures: In order to watch all the video-recordings of matches a media
player program for Windows was used. This media player program possessed forward, reverse and pause
functions. In addition to these functions the program provided slow motion viewing and zoom screen
display. These functions of the media player program allowed clear viewing and enabled filling out the forms
with high accuracy. Each video-recording was played back manually (frame by frame) in order to accurately
observe several aspects of an injury position.
The Observers: In this study, three observers were assigned to view and fill the forms. The researcher and
two independent expert observers in volleyball analyzed the video-recording of matches and filled the forms
twice, one month apart from each other.
Reliability of Data Collection and Correctness of Form Completion: Triple-blind crosscheck: The
researcher and the other observers have viewed the recordings and filled the forms twice, one month apart
from each other. Each observer (the researcher and two expert observers) carefully compared his own first
and second forms. As a result of these comparisons, first and second forms of the researcher showed 98.21%
accuracy. Similarly, first and second forms of the other observers had 98.91% and 99.05% accuracy,
respectively. Each observer has viewed the recordings of positions with conflicting codes again and
corrected the missing codes. Thanks to these individual crosschecks, each observer ensured 100%
consistency of his own first form with his second form. After these individual crosschecks, a triple
comparison was performed among corrected individual forms of the observers. The triple comparison had
99.82% accuracy. All observers viewed the recordings of positions with conflicting codes again and
corrected the missing codes. At the end of these crosscheck procedures, 100% consistency among all forms
filled and corrected by the observers (researcher and two expert observers) was ensured.
Data Analysis: Descriptive statistics were calculated for the variables such as mean, standard deviation,
percentage and frequency. The Pearson coefficient was used to measure correlations between match
durations and total number of injuries, number of temporary injuries, and number of serious injuries. All of
these data were treated as continuous variables. Chi-square test was performed on the injury sites of body,
and on severity of injury. p-value was accepted for statistical significance at p ≤ 0.05.
Results
In this study, it was found that 49 injuries among 468 players occurred during 133.114 player hours
in 200 matches. Overall duration of matches was found as 85.33±25.85. The mean and standard deviation
results related to matches and injuries are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. General descriptive statistics for matches and injuries

n min max mean sd
Match Durations 200 71 157 85.33 25.85
Total number of injuries 49 0 3 0.26 0.55
Temporary injuries 30 0 2 0.16 0.44
Serious injuries 19 0 1 0.09 0.29
A total number of 49 injuries were observed for the 468 players in 39 different teams, representing
an incidence of 0.10 injuries per player. However, incidence of temporary injuries was 0.06 and incidence of
serious injuries was 0.04 per player. Analysis of the results was carried out for playing hours (1000 hours),
58
and the incidence of injuries was found as 0.37/1000 hours, temporary and serious injuries incidence were
found as 0.23 and 0.14, respectively.
Correlations between match durations and total number of injuries, number of temporary injuries,
and number of serious injuries are given in Table 2. These analyses indicated that there was not any
correlation between match durations and the total number of injuries (r=0.07, p>0.05). Similarly, no
correlation was found between match durations and the number of temporary injuries (r=0.06, p>0.05).
Table 2. Correlations between match durations and total number of injuries, number of temporary injuries, and number of serious
injuries
n r p-value
Total number of injuries 49 0.07 0.32
Temporary injuries 30 0. 06 0.43
Serious injuries 19 0.05 0.47
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
The results related to distribution of 49 injuries in sets are given in Table 3. The second and first sets
hosted more injuries, 34.70% and 24.50%, respectively. Contrarily, 16.30% and 6.1% of all injuries were
lower than those that appeared in the third and fifth sets, respectively.
Table 3. Table of injuries among sets of matches

n %
First sets 12 24.50
Second sets 17 34.70
Third sets 8 16.30
Fourth sets 9 18.40
Fifth sets 3 6.1

Total 49 100
While Temporary injuries were found as 61.20% of all injuries, serious injuries were found as 38.80%.
Distribution of injury severity is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Table of severity of injuries
n %
Temporary injuries 30 61.20
Serious injuries 19 38.80
Total 49 100
The rates for lower body injuries were higher than the rates for upper body injuries. Distributions of
injury sites of bodies are given in Table 4.
Table 4. Result of injury site of the body

n %
Lower body injuries 29 59.20
Upper body injuries 20 40.80
Total 49 100
59
Block positions in front of the net were found as the most risky actions in the matches. Distributions
of techniques related to injuries are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Result of technique-related injuries

n %
Spike 6 12.20
Block 27 55.10
Defense and others 16 32.70
Total 49 100
Chi-square (2X2) test performed has shown that there is a significant relationship between severity
of injuries and injury site of the body. Ratio of serious injuries that appeared in the lower body was
significantly higher than those in the upper body, [X2 (1) = 1.09, p=0.02].
Table 6. Results of the relationship between severity of injuries and injury site of the body
Injury site of the body
Groups Lower Upper Total x2 df p
Temporary 53.30%(16) 46.70% (14) 30

Injuries 1 0.02*
Serious 68.40% 31.60% (6) 19 1.09
(13)
Total 59.20% 40.80% (20) 49
(29)
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
As a result of this test, it was clearly shown that lower body injuries are more dangerous for players because
of the high ratio of those that cause absence from matches.
Discussion
Incidence, type, prevalence, epidemiology, severity, reasons, risk factors and causation were the
most common subjects researched on sports injuries related to volleyball [2,4,6,7,9,13]. In addition to these
studies, causal comparative researches were conducted between volleyball and different types of sports [15-
19]. We focused on injury incidence, injury sites of the body, severity of injury, technique-related injuries,
injury reasons and match durations in this study. Correlation between match durations and number of injuries
(total, temporary and seriously) and significance of relationship between severity of injuries and injury sites
of the body are the other issues emphasized in the present study.
A total number of 49 injuries were observed for the 468 players in 39 different teams, representing
an incidence of 0.10 injuries per player. However, incidence of temporary injuries was 0.06 and incidence of
serious injuries was 0.04 per player. Previous studies have reported similar and different findings on
incidence of injuries per player. Kugler et al reported 1294 sports injuries among 625 indoor volleyball
players. They found an overall incidence of 0.22 injuries per player per year [20]. Their findings are nearly
similar to our findings. On the other hand, Aagaard and Jorgensen previously reported a rate of injuries
corresponding to 1.5 injuries per player for Danish volleyball players [11]. Beneka et al reported 248 injuries
over a total exposure time of 110.596 h, representing an overall incidence of 0.60 injuries per player [21].
Zetou et al studied on 114 Greek players from first and second leagues and reported that 363 injuries
occurred, during a total exposure time of 134.200 h/year for 5 years, representing an overall incidence of
0.63 injuries per player [22]. Aagaard and Jorgensen, Zetou et al and Beneka et al found higher injury results
than those found in our study [11, 21, 22]. It might be considered that differences of results between our
study and other studies are due to differences of league levels, and using different study methods in the
studies. Some previous studies related to sports injuries which focus on the relationship between sports
injuries and performance levels are reported these relationship. According to these studies, elite players have
relatively lower injury rates than amateurs or un-elite players [21, 23-25]. These factors might partly explain
the diﬀerences in the researches results.
We found that analysis of the results was carried out for playing hours (1000 h), and the incidence of
injuries was found as 0.37/1000 hours, temporary and serious injuries incidence were found as 0.23 and 0.14,
60
respectively. When the literature analyzed for incidence/1000 hours, it was found different results. It is
reported incidence of injuries as 1.7 per 1000 player hours [7]. Incidence of acute injuries was reported as 2.0
per 1000 hours by Verhagen et al [4]. Similary, Beneka et al reported 2.4 injuries per 1000 hours of training
and games per player [21]. These results were extremely higher than our results. It might be considered that
the studies have performed under different conditions such as wide range of ages, the various categories
involved and under changed game rules. In addition to these factors, we performed our study only in
competitions conditions. It is suggested that development of training techniques and capability of players
might reduce the injury incidences.
In our study, correlations between match durations and total number of injuries, number of
temporary injuries, and number of serious injuries were analyzed. The result of these analyses indicated that
there was not any correlation between match durations and the total number of injuries (r=0.07, p>0.05).
Similarly, no correlation was found between match durations and the number of temporary injuries (r=0.06,
p>0.05). Although there are no studies in which the correlation between volleyball injuries and match
durations has been analyzed, a number of authors have suggested that there is a correlation between
activity/training/match durations and sport injuries related to fatigue [9, 12, 21, 24, 26].
When the results related to distribution of 49 injuries analyzed, the second and first sets hosted more
injuries, 34.70% and 24.50%, respectively. Contrarily, 16.30% and 6.1% of all injuries were lower than those
that appeared in the third and fifth sets, respectively. Although there are no studies in the literature that can
be compare completely with this point in our study, it might be thought that players might not be completely
ready for high-power game actions in the first sets in case of inappropriate warm-up. Because of this reason,
injury rates might be found relatively higher. Inappropriate warm-up periods were reported as one of the
major injury reasons in some studies [21,27].
Generally, sports injuries were categorized as minor, moderate and major injuries in literature. This
categorization was used in recent researches performed on different sports branches [15,21,28]. In contrast
with this classification, we have categorized severity of the injuries as temporary and serious injuries
appropriate for analyses of volleyball injuries in matches. The main criteria we have emphasized in
classifying the injuries were to be able to continue the match or not by minor medical treatment. In our study,
while temporary injuries were found as 61.20% of all injuries, serious injuries were found as 38.80%.
Beneka et al reported that the rates for mild, moderate and major injuries are 24%, 58.4% and 15.4%,
respectively [21]. Another results reported by Yang et al have shown that 40% of acute injuries are minor or
moderate [29].
Anatomic sites and body parts occurred injuries has been the subject of focus in recent studies.
According to recent studies lower body parts are the most common injury sites for players. In our study the
rate of lower body injuries was 59.20% and the rate for upper body injures was 40.80%. Similarly, Beneka et
al found the rate of lower body injuries as nearly 63% (ankle:38,9%, knee: 24.4%) [21]. Previous studies
reported that nearly more than half of all injuries have appeared on the lower body of players [4,7]. In
addition to these studies, Junge et al have found out that 80% of all injuries were lower body injuries [30].
Relationship between the severity of injuries and the injury sites of the body was significant in our
study. Ratio of serious injuries that occurred in the lower body were significantly higher than those that
occurred in the upper body, [X2 (1) = 1.09, p=0.02]. Similarly, It is reported that players who suffered lower
body injuries were absent from volleyball for longer periods than those players who suffered upper body
injuries [4].
We found that the most risky technique was “block” in our study. Distributions of technique-related
injuries shows that 67.30% of all injuries occur during actions performed in front of the net (block: 55.10%,
spike: 12.20%). Similar results have been reported in many studies related to the risk of techniques in
volleyball. Bahr and Bahr have reported that injuries may be related to a specific court position. According to
their findings 89% of injuries occur at the net. Ankle injuries occur mainly during landing after blocking;
most other injuries are associated with take-off, landing or the actual spiking motion during attack [7]. Bahr
et al also focus on the fact that, in their different studies, one of the main reasons for injuries that occur at the
net is contact with an opponent player or team mate in the repetitive jumping position for block and spike
[7,24,31].
In conclusion, volleyball sport has significant injury risks involved in different types of injuries at
various severity levels. Especially, the players in the front area (2, 3 and 4 numbers areas) are at greater risk
than those in the back area (1, 5 and 6 numbers areas). The results of all these studies show that the rates for
lower body injuries are significantly higher than upper body injury rates and then these injuries are more
serious. Furthermore, potential net actions, especially block technique, are the most risky positions for
61
players. Although volleyball is a non-contact sport theoretically, intensive effort actions repeated in front of
the net might increase the risk in all injures in volleyball. In order to reduce the risk of injuries, preventive
applications might be exerted. For example, “rule changes related to net contact and regarding middle line
where players may land on an opponent’s or team mate’s foot”, “using preventive knee, elbow, shoulder and
ankle equipment”, “receiving a post-injury medical treatment that ensures complete recovery”, “performing
functional strength training”, “performing correct specific jumping and landing practices”, and “issuing
written and/or practical injury prevention programs to players”. These applications may reduce the risk of
injuries in volleyball. It has also been suggested that there might be a relationship between the injuries and
game rules related to net contact and middle line. Future studies should address the relationship between
injuries and official game rules.
Notes on Contributor
Eren Uluöz received his Bachelor’s in Physical Education and Sports at Çukurova University (2007),
and doctorate in Physical Education and Sports at Çukurova University (2015). He is currently employed as
a Specialist in the Training Program for Trainers-Volleyball in School of Physical Education and Sports at
Çukurova University.
References
[1] FIVB official web page. http://www.fivb.org/EN/FIVB/FIVB_History.asp
(Accessed: 07.10.2016)
[2] Tillman, M. D., Hass, C. J., Brunt, D., & Bennett, G. R. (2004). Jumping and landing techniques in elite
women’s volleyball. J Sports Sci Med, 3(1), 30-36.
[3] http://www.cev.lu/News.aspx?NewsID=18379&ID=5 (Accessed: 07.10.2016)
[4] Verhagen, E. A. L. M., Van der Beek, A. J., Bouter, L. M., Bahr, R. M., & Van Mechelen, W. "A one
season prospective cohort study of volleyball injuries." British journal of sports medicine 38.4 (2004):
477-481.
[5] http://www.fivb.org/EN/Medical/Document/FIVB_Medical_Injury_Prevention.pdf (Accessed:
07.10.2016)
[6] Agel, J., Palmieri-Smith, R. M., Dick, R., Wojtys, E. M., & Marshall, S. W. "Descriptive epidemiology
of collegiate women's volleyball injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance
System, 1988-1989 through 2003-2004." Journal of athletic training 42.2 (2007): 295.
[7] Bahr, R., and I. A. Bahr. "Incidence of acute volleyball injuries: a prospective cohort study of injury
mechanisms and risk factors." Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports 7.3 (1997): 166-171.
[8] Wang, H. K., and T. Cochrane. "Mobility impairment, muscle imbalance, muscle weakness, scapular
asymmetry and shoulder injury in elite volleyball athletes." Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical
Fitness 41.3 (2001): 403.
[9] Briner Jr, William W., and Lawrence Kacmar. "Common injuries in volleyball."Sports Medicine 24.1
(1997): 65-71.
[10] Yin-fang, L. I. "Injuries and Prevention on Volleyball Players [J]." Journal of Shandong Physical
Education Institute 4 (2003): 019.
[11] Aagaard, Henrik, M. Scavenius, and U. Jørgensen. "An epidemiological analysis of the injury pattern in
indoor and in beach volleyball." International journal of sports medicine 18.03 (1997): 217-221.
[12] Augustsson, S. R., Augustsson, J., Thomeé, R., & Svantesson, U. . "Injuries and preventive actions in
elite Swedish volleyball." Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports 16.6 (2006): 433-440.
[13] Watkins, J., and B. N. Green. "Volleyball injuries: a survey of injuries of Scottish National League male
players." British journal of sports medicine 26.2 (1992): 135-137.
[14] Vanderlei, F. M., Bastos, F. N., Tsutsumi, G. Y. C., Vanderlei, L. C. M., Júnior, J. N., & Pastre, C. M. .
"Characteristics and contributing factors related to sports injuries in young volleyball players." BMC
research notes 6.1 (2013): 1.
[15] De Loes, M. "Medical treatment and costs of sports-related injuries in a total population." International
journal of sports medicine 11.01 (1990): 66-72.
[16] Kujala, U. M., Taimela, S., Antti-Poika, I., Orava, S., Tuominen, R., & Myllynen, P.. Acute injuries in
soccer, ice hockey, volleyball, basketball, judo, and karate: analysis of national registry data. Bmj, 1995,
311.7018: 1465-1468.
62
[17] Lian, Oystein B., Lars Engebretsen, and Roald Bahr. "Prevalence of jumper’s knee among elite athletes
from different sports a cross-sectional study." The American journal of sports medicine 33.4 (2005): 561-
567.
[18] Tenvergert, E. M., H. J. Ten Duis, and H. J. Klasen. "Trends in sports injuries, 1982-1988: an in-depth
study on four types of sport." The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness 32.2 (1992): 214-220.
[19] Rechel, Julie A., Ellen E. Yard, and R. Dawn Comstock. "An epidemiologic comparison of high school
sports injuries sustained in practice and competition." Journal of athletic training 43.2 (2008): 197-204.
[20] Kugler, A., Späth, S., Krüger-Franke, M., Schurk, B., Feichtner, F., & Rosemeyer, B.
Überkopfsportarten: Volleyball–Beachvolleyball. Sports Orthopaedics and Traumatology Sport-
Orthopädie-Sport-Traumatologie, 2006, 22.4: 241-244.
[21] Beneka, A., Malliou, P., Gioftsidou, A., Tsigganos, G., Zetou, H., & Godolias, G.. Injury incidence rate,
severity and diagnosis in male volleyball players. Sport Sciences for Health, (2009), 5(3), 93-99.
[22] Zetou, E., Malliou, P., Lola, A., Tsigganos, G., & Godolias, G.. Factors related to the incidence of
injuries' appearance to volleyball players. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation, (2006),
19(4), 129-134.
[23] Adirim, Terry A., and Tina L. Cheng. "Overview of injuries in the young athlete."Sports Medicine 33.1
(2003): 75-81.
[24] Bahr, R., and I. Holme. "Risk factors for sports injuries—a methodological approach." British journal of
sports medicine 37.5 (2003): 384-392.
[25] Van Mechelen, Willem, Hynek Hlobil, and Han CG Kemper. "Incidence, severity, aetiology and
prevention of sports injuries." Sports medicine 14.2 (1992): 82-99.
[26] MA, Jin-rong, and Shi-jun GONG. "Analysis on Sports Hurt of Women Soft Volleyball Athletes in
Chinese Colleges [J]." Journal of Shenyang Sport University 2 (2007): 027.
[27] Uluöz, E. "Investigation of relation between injury paterns with hypermobility, body composition and
some anthropometric characteristics on 16-22 ages women volleyball players." Unpublished Master
Thesis, Turkey-Adana: Çukurova University, Institute of Medical Sciences (2007).
[28] Kirialanis, P., Malliou, P., Beneka, A., Gourgoulis, V., Giofstidou, A., & Godolias, G.. Injuries in
artistic gymnastic elite adolescent male and female athletes. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal
rehabilitation, (2002), 16(4), 145-151.
[29] Yang, J., Tibbetts, A. S., Covassin, T., Cheng, G., Nayar, S., & Heiden, E. Epidemiology of overuse and
acute injuries among competitive collegiate athletes. Journal of athletic training, (2012), 47(2), 198.
[30] Junge, A., Langevoort, G., Pipe, A., Peytavin, A., Wong, F., Mountjoy, M., ... & Dvorak, J.. Injuries in
team sport tournaments during the 2004 Olympic Games. The American journal of sports
medicine, (2006), 34(4), 565-576.
[31] Bahr, Roald, et al. "Incidence and Mechanisms of Acute Ankle Inversion Injuries in Volleyball A
Retrospective Cohort Study." The American journal of sports medicine 22.5 (1994): 595-600.
63
A REVIEW OF REASONS OF TENNIS PLAYERS PARTICIPATING IN 12-

AGE TOURNAMENT FOR CHOOSING THIS SPORT AND THEIR SOCIO-
ECONOMIC LEVELS
Mikail TEL1, Mustafa KARADAĞ 1, Ramazan ERDOĞAN2, Cumali YAVUZ2
1
University of Firat Faculty of Sports Sciences Elazig, Turkey
2
Provincial Directorate of Youth Services and Sports Elazig, Turkey
Abstract. This study is conducted to determine the reasons of tennis players participating in weekend 12-age
tournament of tennis federation for choosing this sport and their socio-economic levels. The study is a qualitative
research and a questionnaire was used. The questionnaire used in the study is a questionnaire that was previously used
by Tel (2001), and some modifications were made to the questionnaire to adapt it to the tennis sport. The study sample
consisted of 40 tennis players (29 boys and 11 girls) who took part in 12-age weekend tournament. The research data
was analyzed using the statistics software SPSS 22.0 and percentage, frequency, mean and standard deviation
techniques were used as descriptive statistics. The study findings showed that; 97,5% of players are a member of any
sports club and 29,6% of players train at the facilities of Provincial Directorate for Youth Services and Sports. When the
ranks of players are examined, it is observed that provincial championship is determined at 48,2%, regional
championship at 23,2%, national championship at 5,4%, average year of playing tennis is 2,92 years and we can suggest
that these two results support each other. It was found that 65% of participant players do not play any sport other than
tennis. Expectation of sports players from the tennis sport was found that they play this sport to become national players
with 90,2%. Their purpose for selecting the tennis sport was found as making new friends with 30,5%, liking tennis
sport with 29,7%, and protecting and maintaining physical health with 25%. In conclusion, it was found that parents,
physical education teacher, friends and sports facility influence choosing the tennis sport, while environmental factors,
distance to sports facility and press do not have much influence on tennis sport.
Keywords: Tennis, Socio-Economic Status, Choosing
Introduction
Today, sports is one of the most important social activities in which masses take interest and
participate. Most important aspect of sports, which arises from playing and competing instinct and drive of
people, is performance [1].
The purpose of sports activities, which is one of the most significant educative means implemented
by developed countries, is to ensure providing healthy generations to the society and to utilize sports as a
widespread propaganda and advertisement means for publicising social culture due to its international
characteristics. Sports promotes international relations and peace and has positive contributions to national
economy. Moreover, due to the approach of media and press towards sports and the efforts of people for
reducing stress and staying fit and above all, due to the fact that international success in sports becoming
important in daily life and morale of society, sports gained an important aspect today [2].
Tennis, which is a sports branch which pushes technical, tactical, physiologic and psychologic skills
of people, is one of the best sports branches which improve physical, mental and social development when
exercised in a planned and scheduled manner. [3]. Today, world championships are being organized for early
ages. In this context, today children take up sports at very early ages and required very high performances at
very early stages. Sports evolving into very high performance demonstrations caused players to face heavy
physical and mental challanges. Thus, age for starting sports lowered to very early ages [2].
Today, it has the highest number of licensed players among racket sports and its popularity rises day
by day and it is played by hundreds of thousands around the world. Moreover, tennis is an olympic sports
branch. Reasons for doing and starting a sports branch which is widespread this much are significant. This
research aims to determine the reasons for choosing this sports branch and the socio-economic levels of
tennis players participating in 12 age tournament organized by tennis federation.
Materials and methods

Population of the study consists of players participating in 12-age tournament and sample group
consists of 40 players (29 male and 11 female) participating in 12-age tournament. Survey method is used for
collecting data in the study. For obtaining the data, survey aiming to "Review Reasons of Tennis Players
Participating In 12-Age Tournament For Choosing This Sport and Their Socio-Economic Levels" consisting
of 24 questions was implemented. The survey implemented in this study was rearanged also by making use
of the surveys utilized in the study titled "Reasons of Taekwondo Players For Choosing This Sport and Their
64
Socio-Economic Levels" conducted by Tel (2001) and also the studies conducted by Sunay et al. (2003),
Bayraktar et al. (2004) and Şimşek (2005) [4, 5,6,7].
Moreover, the survey was arranged in compliance with the purpose of the study and applied to the
study group as data collection tool.
In compliance with the object of the study survey, demographic data and reasons for choosing this
sport were adapted to tennis branch and applied to the study group. Data acquired in the study were analyzed
by SPSS 22.0 statistics software and percentage, frequency, mean and standard deviation techniques were
applied as descriptive statistics. A significance level of 0.05 was accepted in the study.
For data collection, a survey consisting of 33 questions aiming to evaluate reasons of players for
starting tennis and their expectations was used.
Findings
Of the players who participated in the study, 27.5 % were female, 72.5% were male and mean age of
the players was 11.02 and mean sports period was 2.93 years. It was found that 97.5% of the players were
members to a sports club and that as a result of the question regarding which sport they were doing other
than tennis, most of them showed no interest in any other sport branch.
Table 1. Education Levels of Parents of the Players

Mother Father
N N
% %
Illiterate - -
Elementary School 6 -
15
Highschool 15 37.5 8 20
University 19 47.5 32 80
With regard to Table 1, it was found that, of the mothers of players, 15% were elementary school
graduates, 37.5% were highschool graduates and 47.5% were universtiy graduates, and of the fathers, 20%
were highschool graduates and 80% were university graduates.
Table 2. Occupationl Status of Parents

Occupation Mother Occupation Father
N N
% %
Doctor 3 7.5 Doctor 5 12.5
Housewife 21 52.5 Civil Servant 15 37.5
Civil Servant 7 17.5 Academician 1 37.5 2.5
Teacher 8 20 Teacher 8 47.5 20
Police 1 2.5 Police 4 10
Self Employment 7 17.5
With regard to Table 2, it was found that of mothers of the players, 52.5% were housewifes, 20%
were teacher, 17.5% were civil servant, 7.5% were doctor and 2.5% were police, and of the fathers, 37.5%
were civil servant, 20% were teacher, 17.5% were self employed, 12.5% were doctor, 10% were police and
2.5% were academicians.
Table 3. Training Locations of the Players

N %
Private sports school 14 15.9
Facilities of Provincial Directorate of Youth 38 43.2
Services and Sports
Club sports halls 34 38.6
University Facilities 2 2.3
Total 88 100
65
With regard to Table 3, it was found that, of the players, 43.2% trained in facilities of provincial
directorate of youth services and sports, 38.6% trained in clubs, 15.9% trained in private sports schools and
2.3% trained in university facilities.
Regarding their competitions results, it was found that 48.2% of the players had provincial
champion title, 23.2% had regional champion title, 5.4% had national champion title and 23.2% did not have
any title; and to the question whether there are any other person in the family doing sports, answers given by
the players were 51% siblings, 23.5% father, 17.9% mother, 3.9% all and 3.9% none.
To the question regarding adequacy and usefulness of sport facilities and training materials in the
sports facilities, answers given by the players were 82.5% adequate, 15% less adequate and 2.5% inadequate.
It was found that to the question regarding their expectations from this sport, answers given by the players
were 90.2% to become national athlete, 4.9% other and 4.9% to gain social status.
Table 4. Reasons for Tennis Players For Choosing This Sport

N %
To maintain my physical health 32 25
To spend my spare time 18 14
To make new friends 39 30.5
To enjoy tennis - -
Because I like tennis 38 29.7
To provide economic income - -
Because I believe tennis increases my study efficiency 1 0.8
General 128 100.0
It was found that to the question regarding their purpose of choosing this sport, answers given by
players were 30.5% to make new friends, 29.7% because i like this sport, 25% to maintain my physical
health, 14.1% to spend my spare time, and 0.8% because I believe tennis increases my study efficiency.
Table 5. Reasons of Players for Choosing This Sport

Affected Less Affected Not Affected Opposed
Family Influence 55 27.5 15 2.5
Environmental Influence 17.5 27.5 55 -
Peer Influence 90 10 - -
Influence of Physical Education Teacher 90 10 - -
Influence of TV, Cinema and Media 10 25 65 -
Easy access and availability 40 20 40 -
With regard to Table 5, it was found that family, physical education teacher and peers had an influence on
the players choosing this sport. It was seen that TV, Cinema, Media and easy access and availability had less
influence.
Discussion and conclusion

This study was conducted with 40 players in order to determine the reasons for choosing this sports
branch and the socio-economic levels of tennis players participating in 12 age tournament organized by
tennis federation.
Of the players, 27.5% were female, 72.5% were male and mean age of the players was 11.02 and
mean sports period was 2.93 years. It was found that 97.5% of the players were member to a sports club and
65% showed no interest in any other sport branch.
It was found that, of the players, 43.2% trained in facilities of provincial directorate of youth services
and sports, 38.6% trained in clubs, 15.9% trained in private sports schools and 2.3% trained in university
facilities. In this context, it was found that most of the players used facilities of provincial directorate of
youth services and sports and did not use private sports schools and university facilities enough.
Regarding their competitions results, it was found that 48.2% of the players had provincial champion
title, 23.2% had regional champion title, 5.4% had national champion title and 23.2% did not have any title.
66
With regard to sports ages, it was found that sports ages of the players were low and thus, they did not have a
high level sportive success.
In the studies conducted by Tel in 1996 and 1998, it was found that success rate was low in players
of normal levels while it was high in national athletes. There is a correlation between sports age and success
rate in sports [8].
In the study, to the question regarding their expectations from this sport, most of the players stated
that they wanted to become national athletes and represent their country in national teams. In the study by
Alibaz et al. (2006) regarding reasons of high level players in Turkey for starting said sport, it was found that
players aimed to continue in related sports branches and to be selected in the national team and become
national athletes [9]. In the study conducted by Koçak (2014), in which reasons of elite volleyball players for
choosing this sport and their expectations, reasons of players for choosing volleyball and their expectations
were found to be respectively liking volleyball, being healthy, being selected to national team and acquiring
financial income [10]. In the study conducted by Sunay and Saracaloğlu, in which expectations of Turkish
players from sport and factors directing them to sport, it was found that players had expectations such as
being healthy, having a good physical appearance and being selected to national team [5].
It was found that reasons of the players for choosing this sport were making new friends, liking
tennis, maintaining their health, spending their spare time, and believing that tennis increased their study
e4fficiency respectively.Similarities to our study were found when conducted studies were inspected.
Regarding similar studies, in the study conducted by Şebin et al. (2007), in which reasons of university
students for starting sports were analyzed, it was found that reason for starting sports was mainly to maintain
physical health. [11]. In the study conducted by Salman and Sunay (2012) in which reasons of basketball
players aged between 12 and 14 for starting basketball and their expectations were analyzed, reasons of the
players for starting basketball were found to be liking basketball branch and maintaining their health
respectively [12]. In the study conducted by Wald (2003) regarding motivations of families who wish to
enroll their children in a special gymnastic program regarding the subject, reasons for sports were found to
be maintaining physical health and having a good physical appearance, and that families had a high influence
in encouraging children towards sports [13].
It was found that family, physical education teacher and peers of the players had an influence on the
players choosing this sport while TV, Media and easy access and availability had less influence. In the study
conducted by Ölçücü et al. (2012) in order to determine the reasons of players who participated in tennis
competitions between universities for choosing tennis, it was found that family and peers had influence and
media had less influence on choosing tennis [14]. In the study conducted by Wolfenden and Holten in which
skill development, parent and coach perceptions in elite tennis players were studied, it was stated that family
had influence on starting and selection of sports [15]. In another study conducted by Pehlivan (2013) among
students doing sports, it was seen that respectively players themselves, their peers, teachers, families and
media were influencing on their taking up sports [16].
As a result, regarding players playing performance tennis, respectively their families, physical
education teachers and peers were found to be encouraging and influencing factors for them to start sports. It
is seen that there are important factors on starting tennis such as liking tennis sport, becoming a member of
the national team and representing the country with the national uniform. It was found that family, physical
education teacher and peers had an influence on the players choosing this sport, moreover, TV, media and
easy access and availability had lower influences for the tennis players to start tennis. For tennis players,
making new friends, maintaining physical health and having a good physical appearance, and spending spare
time are important factors on starting tennis. Moreover, it was found that liking tennis is a significant factor
for taking up and continuing tennis.
Suggestions
- Age of starting sports is an important factor for creating background for sports. In this respect,
arrangements and organizations must be made which may answer the needs of players in tennis branch
recently developing in Turkey and which may direct the players towards tennis.
- Tennis must be promoted and players must be provided moral and material support with studies to
be conducted jointly by Tennis Federation, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Youth and Sports.
- Broadcasts and publications about not only football and other popular sports branches but also
tennis must be made in the media and press and thus, society must be informed; moreover, broadcasts
supporting tennis branch must take place. In this context, interest towards tennis may be increased.
67
References
[1] Öztürk EG, Suveren S, Çolakoğlu T. Türkiye’de Doping, Sporcuların Doping Bilgi Düzeylerinin
Ölçülmesi (Hentbol Örneği). Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi2012; 9(1): 249-260.
[2] Ölçücü B, Özen Ş, Altınkök M. Spor Eğitiminde Tokat İlinde Voleybol Takımlarında Oynayan
Voleybolcuların Voleybola Başlama Nedenleri ve Beklentileri. Internatıonal Journal Of Turkısh
Educatıon Scıences.2014;3: 57-70.
[3] Yıldırım Y, Sunay H. Türkiye’de Performans Tenisi Yapan Sporcuların Tenise Başlama Nedenleri ve
Beklentileri. Spormetre Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 2009, VII (3) 103-109.
[4] Tel M, Öcalan M, Yaman M. Taekwondocuların Bu Sporu Tercih Etme Nedenleri ve Sosyo-Ekonomik
Durumları. Türkiye Sosyal Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2001; 4(2): 120-133.
[5] Sunay H, Saracaloğlu S. Türk Sporcusunun Spordan Beklentileri İle Spora Yönelten Unsurlar. Ankara
Üniversitesi Spormetre Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 2003; 1(1): 43-48.
[6] Bayraktar B, Sunay H. Elit Bayan ve Erkek Voleybolcuların Voleybol Sporuna Yönlenmelerine Neden
Olan Unsurlar İle Beklentileri. 8. Uluslararası Spor Bilimleri Kongresi, 17-24 Kasım 2004; s.78.
[7] Şimşek, D. Orta Öğretimde Atletizm Yapan Sporcu Öğrencilerin Atletizm Branşına Yönelme Nedenleri
ve Beklentileri. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara: Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Beden Eğitimi
ve Spor Öğretmenliği Anabilim Dalı, 2005.
[8] Tel M. Türk Taekwondo Milli Takım Sporcuların Seçilen Bazı Fiziksel ve Fizyolojik Özelliklerinin
Analizi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Elazığ: Fırat Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Beden Eğitimi ve Spor
anabilim Dalı, 1996.
[9] Alibaz A, Gündüz N, Şentuna M, Türkiye’de Üst Düzey Taekwondo, Karate ve Kick-Boks Sporcularının
Bu Spor Branşına Yönelmelerine Teşvik Eden Unsurlar, Yapma Nedenleri ve Geleceğe Yönelik
Beklentileri. Spormetre Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 2006, IV (3) 91-102.
[10] Koçak ÇV. Elit Voleybolcuların Bu Branşa Yönelme Nedenleri ve Beklentileri. Route Educational and
Social Science Journal, 2014; 1(3): 96-111.
[11] Şebin K, Seraslan Z, Katkat D, Tozoğlu E, Kızılet E. Spor Yapan Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Spora
Başlama ve Spor Yapma Nedenlerine İlişkin Görüşleri. Atatürk Journal of Physical Education and Spor
Sciences (atabesbd), 2007;43-63.
[12] Salman Ö, Sunay H. Ankara’da 14-16 Yaş Arası Basketbolcuların Basketbola Başlama Nedenleri ve
Beklentileri. Spormetre Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 2012, X (1) 25-34.
[13] Wald J. Parental Motivations for Enrolling Their Children in a Private Gymnastic Program. Sport
Journal, 2003; 6(3).
[14] Ölçücü B, Erdil G, Bostancı Ö, Canikli A, Aybek A. Üniversiteler Arası Tenis Müsabakalarına Katılan
Sporcuların Tenise Başlama Nedenleri ve Beklentiler. Spor ve Performans Araştırmaları Dergisi Journal
of Sports and Performance Researches. 2012; 3(2): 5-12.
[15] Wolfenden L, Holt N. Talent Development in Elite Junior Tennis: Perceptions of Players, Parents, and
Coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2006;17: 108-126.
[16] Pehlivan Z. Okullararası Spor Yarışmalarına Katılanların Sporu Bırakma ve Devam Etme Nedenleri.
Hacettepe Journal of Sport Sciences, 2013; 24(3): 209–225.
68
REVIEW ARTICLES / ARTICOLE DE ANALIZĂ

THE IMPACT OF COMPETITION ADAPTED SPORT
Oana RUSU1, Demmys RUSU2
1
”Al.I.Cuza” University of Iași, Faculty of Physical Education and, Str. Toma Cozma, nr.3, Iași, 700554,
Romania, broana@uaic.ro, tel.: 0727301142
2
Technology High School ”V. Pavelcu”, str. I.C. Brătianu, nr. 26A, Iași
Abstract:Adapted sport is a subsystem of the concept of sport. With different forms and directions of development,
adapted sport includes a complex social structure which covers social actors (athletes, coaches, volunteers), sports clubs
and associations, sporting events, legislative and specific functioning mechanisms. There are identified at individual and
institutional levels, a number of positive effects, as well as negative effects of sport for the disabled. Sport is efficient as
far as the society is prepared to assimilate these individuals and to accept diversity.
Key-words: adapted sport, competition adapted sport, Paralympics, Special Olympics, Deaflympics, impact
Introduction
Analyzed for systemic perspective, adapted sport is considered a subsystem of the sport concept.
Bringing together several sports, adapted sport uses motor structures, specific rules, material and
organizational conditions modified or created in order to satisfy the unique needs of people with disabilities
[1, 2].
Adapted sport can be practiced in the form of:
- leisure physical activities and sports carried out in an organized or unorganized framework;
- sport activities included in educational system (formal educational institutions at different levels of,
special schools, educational centers and recovery / rehabilitation);
- sport activities carried out in non-governmental organizations (associations and sports clubs,
recuperation / rehabilitation centers).
There are three ways the concept of adapted sports:
 sports therapy - is used as a complementary techniques of physiotherapy in the process of
functional re-education of people with disabilities. Lacking competitive nature, practicing various
sports branches aims to increase fitness and health levels of the individual. According to the type and
degree of disability (including associated disabilities) are indicated to be practiced certain
movements of certain sports branches. It is also necessary specialized practice under supervision.
 comeptition adapted sport is achieved through practicing various sport branches by people with the
same weaknesses, having the competition character. Sports branches rules have been adapted to
different types of disability. At the same time, new sports were invented, specific disability
(Goalball, Boccia). It is characterized by institutionalization (legitimated athletes, sports clubs
affiliated, rankings, records, regular competitive system, on value levels, on different categories
(local, regional, national, international, male, female, classes and categories of deficiencies etc.).
 extreme adapted sport - requires some adaptations, often personalized, of specific devices to
perform certain branches allowing extreme sports by disabled people [5].
Social structure of competition adapted sport

Competition sport activity for people with different types of disabilities is regulated by several
international organizations, specialized for type of activity and weakness. Athletes with the same disability
participate in international competitions at the highest level in the Paralympics and the Special Olympics. In
addition, it organizes a separate edition of the Deaflympics. Further ,we present briefly these sporting events.
Special Olympics movement has emerged in early 1968 by Eunice Kennedy Shriver's initiative, the
sister of President John F. Kennedy. Kennedy Foundation organized on July 20, 1968 at Chicago, the first
edition of the International Summer Special Olympics Games, a moment that marks the beginning of the
movement Special Olympics for athletes with special needs. The competitions brought together 1,000
athletes with intellectual disabilities from 26 US states and Canada, who competed in tests of athletics, floor
hockey and swimming.
From the founder of the movement, Eunice Kennedy Shriver, over time, several public figures like
69
Princess Charlene of Monaco, Nelson Mandela, actors like Arnold Schwartzeneger, Vanessa Williams,
Brooklyn Decker, musicians like U2, Jon Bon-Jovi and Stevie Wonder, legendary figures of sport - Michael
Jordan, Nadia Comaneci, Yao Ming, Michael Phelps, Yuna Kim, Dani Alves, In-Kyung Kim, Muhammad
Ali, promoted the message of Special Olympics, participating in events organized by Special Olympics
International, raising awareness international public opinion [9].
Nadia Comaneci, then as Vice President of the Board Special Olympics International, and Bart
Conner, Nadia’s husband, have been with Special Olympics athletes at Games International Summer Special
Olympics in Dublin in 2003 and the World Games Winter Special Olympics in Nagano, Japan in 2005.
Competitors who are able to participate in Special Olympics are Dowm Syndrome children and
adults, and those with intellectual disabilities. The motto of the competition is "I want to win, but if I can
not win, I want to be brave in my attempt!"
Special Olympics is an international program that involves today more than 2.25 million athletes in more
than 150 countries worldwide, over 30 Olympic sports of winter and summer, over 200 programs, seven regional
offices - Belgium; Egypt; Zimbabwe; India; China; Brazil; USA, more than 1 million volunteers worldwide, over
140,000 coaches in the world, more than 20,000 sporting events in the world [2, 9].
Sporting events forbidden in this competition include test of athletics (javelin, disc, hammer, pole vault,
triple jump), swimming (jumps from platform), gymnastics (trampoline), skiing (biathlon, jumps), martial arts,
except judo, rugby, shooting, fencing, archery.
Romanian Special Olympics (SOR) was established in 2003 as part of the movement International
Special Olympics (IOS), including 25,000 athletes with intellectual disabilities from across the country,
competing in 12 sports olympic, 1500 coaches and volunteers. 100 sporting events are held annually, and
events free evaluation of the health of athletes (so far were organized 100 such events). [9]
The first sports competition for mutilated people by war who are in a wheelchair was organized in
England at Stoke Mandeville, by doctor Sir Ludwig Guttman. At that time, it was a national competition,
further this event enchancing at national and international levels.
At the beginning of 1960 after the Olympic Games in Rome, these games were called Olympics for
the disabled. With the edition of the Summer Olympic Games in Rome in 1960 is held under regular
Paralympic Games. Since 1976, at Örnsköldsvik, Sweden, develops and Paralympic Winter Games. The
Paralympic Games take place in the same location as the Summer Olympics and Winter before or after [6,
7].
The categories of disabilities allowed this international sportive competition focus on people with
visual impairments, people with physical disabilities, athletes with amputations, people with cerebral palsy,
people with spinal cord injuries and other (Les Autres - athletes with a physical disability that not belonging
to any of the above categories (eg people with muscular dystrophy).
Athletes compete in 15 Olympic sports branches (included in the Olympic program for 'normal'
individuals) with adapted rules, plus four specific disciplines - Goalball, boccia, powerlifting and rugby in
wheelchair. The schedule includes the following winter sports: alpine skiing, ice hockey, curling and
biathlon.
It has reached the participation of over 4,200 athletes from 166 countries at the Summer Games
and 506 athletes from 44 countries at the Winter Games. [7]
Regarding Romania's representation at the Paralympics, the first participation was in 1972 in
Heidelberg (one athlete in table tennis). The next participation of Romania came 24 years later in 1996 in
Atlanta, still with one athlete in powerlifting. In 2012 in London, we were represented by six athletes in the
swimming, athletics, table tennis and cycling. Hereit was awarded the first gold medal in cycling, by Carol
Eduard Novak. Games in 2016 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Romania's delegation included 12 athletes from six
sports (athletics, cycling, judo for the blind, kayak, swimming, table tennis), obtaining a bronze medal, by
Alexander Bologa judo for the blind, 60kg category. [10]
Olympics for people with hearing impairments (Deaflympics) were held for the first time in 1924
in Paris at the initiative of the International Committee of Sports for the Deaf (ICSD) as the Silent Games.
Interest in participating in this competition has steadily increased (the first edition of the summer games
attended 148 athletes from nine countries, including Romania, further reaching to over 2,700 athletes from
83 countries affiliated; Winter games attended first edition in 1949 in Seefeld, Austria, 33 athletes from five
countries, and in 2015-336 athletes from 27 countries). In 2013, the number of nations affiliated to the ICSD
was 104 [8].
The founder of the Silent Games is Frenchman Eugène Rubens-Alcais (cycling champion and
hearing impaired) who along with another hearing impaired champion in athletics and tennis, Antoine
70
Dresse, built and organized this competition. The core element of this sporting event is that everyone
involved, from athletes to referees must be hearing impaired.
Sports competitions, both the winter and the summer, is held every four years, a timetable different
from that of the Olympic Games or Paralympic Games, and the locations are different. Games program
includes 19 sports events of the summer edition sports branches and 5 disciplines winter edition. The rules
are appropriate according to the specific deficiency (audio signals and communication are replaced by
acoustic signals and sign language).
In Romania, sports for people with hearing impairments is organized and coordinated by the National
Association of the Deaf, established in 1919 [11], which records 31 branches today. It is one of the oldest
organization and is founder member of the International Committee of Sports for the Deaf (International
Committee of Sports for the Deaf - ICSD), from 1924. Romanian athletes have constantly participated in
world sports competitions, and in 1977, Bucharest was host such an event. Most sports clubs in the country
are named Silence (eg Silence Sports Association from Iasi).
Sporting competitions are always talking about people with disabilities in terms of respect and admiration for
them. Competitions for them shows the same amplitude as the Olympic Games and are associated by media
with values such as fair play, self-improvement, self-esteem; leading on the motto "Sports is for all!".
The impact of competition adapted sport

People with disabilities is a vulnerable social group, being characterized by a number of particular
issues in terms of psycho-social (socio-emotional development, the specific personality structure and
behavior). Strategy of socialization of such individuals must be one based on understanding, which is why it
should be considered a starting point in developing their personality.
Scientific literature confirms a series of positive aspects of competitive sports, but also on the
organization and implementation of major sporting events for people with disabilities:
- facilitate the social integration of this category of people through sport (Volkamer and Zimmer, 1986
Klein, 1989 Kiphard, 1986 quoted [3]);
- benefits at the individual level in terms of personality structure and behavior (Henschen & al., 1992,
quoted [3]);
- increased social inclusion (acceptance, cohabitation, access to education, access to labor market)
(Roswal 1983, quoted [3]);
- encouraging and supporting equality between individuals;
- training and promoting behavior based on tolerance and acceptance of human diversity.
However, a number of unintended consequences are found in adapted sport performance:
- high social control - a large number of athletes with special needs, legitimated in clubs and
associations, coaches and other members of the technical staff, referees, affiliation to national and
international sports federations on different types of disabilities, recognized by different specialized
international organizations. Another dimension of high social control concerns to programs severity
of athletes during trainings and competitions.
- the impossibility of practicing certain sport branches by all categories of persons with disabilities
(risk due to injuries, but also negative effects on the body athletes, sporting some sport branches are
not accessible to all disabled athletes).
- lack of comparison and promoting segregation - participation in competition only with people with
the same deficiencies favors separation from the other groups [4, 2].
- the large number of coaches, officials and volunteers involved in the Paralympics, people who may
or may not have disabilities, can develop on the one hand a change in the perception of the
possibilities and limits of the disabled, on the other hand, an protective attitude towards them,
sometimes is not exactly the most appropriate.
- learning behavior acceptance of pain and injuries as a natural part of sports activity [4]. Sport at high
level of performance no longer fulfills the sanogenetic function, athletes acquiring pain and chronic
diseases (Brody, 1992 Kotarba 1983 cited by [4]).
- elitist nature of adapted sport - so there is a differentiation for people 'normal', and for those with
disabilities. Not all who practice sport reach high performance sports in different sports branches.
The same principle of selection, perhaps even deeper, is applied to the practice of sports by people
with special needs, which are differentiated in various types and degrees of deficiencies.
71
Conclusions
The pursuit of sports, in general, and performance sports, in particular, promotes individual personality,
offers the opportunity its integration in a group, offers the possibility of establishing new relationships, new forms
of human communication, regardless of condition and social status of individual.
Sport is a useful and easy tool for social integration of people with disabilities. as far as the society is
prepared to assimilate these individuals and to accept diversity.
References
[1]. Dragnea A, Mate-Teodorescu S, Teoria sportului, Edit FEST, București, 2002
[2]. Ionescu S, Introducere în sociologia sportului, Edit Politehnica, Timișoara, 2008
[3]. MTS (Ministerul Tineretului și Sportului), Consiliul Europei, Comitetul pentru dezvoltarea sportului,
Impactul sportului asupra socializării. Semnificația sportului pentru societate, C.C.P.S., București, 1996
[4]. Nixon HL II Sport and Disability, în Handbook of Sports Studies, Cookley J, Dunning E, Sage
Publications, London, 2002
[5]. Rusu O, Sociologia educației fizice și sportului, Edit Casa Demiurg, Iași, 2008
[6]. http://ro.atos.net/ro-ro/home/jocurile-olimpice/jocurile-paralimpice.html
[7]. https://www.paralympic.org/
[8]. https://www.deaflympics.com/icsd.asp?games-facts
[9]. http://specialolympics.ro/
[10]. http://www.mediafax.ro/sport/jocurile-paralimpice-2016-china-a-obtinut-239-de-medalii-romania-s-a-
clasat-pe-locul-76-cu-o-medalie-15726188
[11]. http://ansr.org.ro/
72
IMPACTUL SPORTULUI ADAPTAT DE PERFORMANȚĂ

Oana RUSU1, Demmys RUSU2
1
Universitatea ”Al.I.Cuza” Iași, Facultatea de Educație Fizică și Sport, Str. Toma Cozma, nr.3, Iași,
700554, România, broana@uaic.ro, tel.: 0727301142
2
Liceul Tehnologic ”V. Pavelcu”, str. I.C. Brătianu, nr. 26A, Iași
Rezumat:Sportul adaptat se constituie într-un subsistem al conceptului de sport. Cu forme și direcții de dezvoltare
diferite, sportul adaptat include o structură socială complexă din care fac parte actorii sociali (sportivii, antrenorii,
voluntarii), cluburile și asociațiile sportive, evenimentele sportive, cadrul legislativ și mecanismele de funcționare
specifice. Sunt identificate atât la nivel individual, cât și instituțional, o serie de efecte pozitive, precum și o serie de
efecte negative ale practicării sportului de către persoanele cu dizabilități. Sportul este eficient în măsura în care
societatea este pregătită să asimileze aceste persoane și să accepte diversitatea.
Cuvinte cheie: sport adaptat, sport adaptat de performanță, Jocuri Paralimpice, Special Olympics, Jocuri Olimpice
pentru Surzi, impact
Introducere
Analizat din perspectiva sistemică, sportul adaptat este considerat un subsistem al conceptului de
sport. Reunind mai multe discipline sportive, sportul adaptat utilizează structuri motrice, reguli specifice,
condiții materiale și organizatorice modificate sau create în vederea satisfacerii nevoilor unice ale
persoanelor cu dizabilitați [1, 2].
Sportul adaptat poate fi practicat sub forma:
- activităților fizice și sportive de petrecere a timpului liber, desfășurate în mod organizat sau
neorganizat;
- activităților sportive incluse în sistemul educațional (în instituțiile de învățământ, pe nivele diferite,
în școlile speciale, în centrele educaționale de recuperare/reabilitare);
- activităților sportive desfășurate în organizațiile non-guvernamentale (asociații și cluburi sportive,
centre de recuperare/reabilitare).
Se disting trei direcții ale conceptului de sport adaptat:
 sportul terapie – este utilizat ca mijloc complementar tehnicilor din kinetoterapie în procesul de re-
educare funcțională a persoanelor cu dizabilități. Lipsită de caracterul competițional, practicarea
diferitelor ramuri sportive are scopul de a crește nivelul condiției fizice și a stării de sănătate a
individului. În funcție de tipul și gradele de dizabilitate (inclusiv dizabilitățile asociate) sunt indicate
a fi practicate anumite mișcări din anumite ramuri sportive. De asemenea, este necesară practicarea
sub supraveghere specializată.
 sportul adaptat de performanţă se concretizează prin practicarea diferitelor ramuri de sport de
către persoanele cu aceleaşi deficiențe, având caracter competiţional. Regulile ramurilor sportive au
fost adaptate pentru diferitele tipuri de dizabilitate. În același timp, au fost inventate sporturi noi,
specific dizabilității (goalball, boccia). Se caracterizează prin instituționalizare (sportivi legitimați,
cluburi sportive afiliate, clasamente, recorduri, sistem competițional regulat, pe eșaloane, categorii
diferite (locale, regionale, naționale, internaționale, masculine, feminine, pe clase și categorii de
deficiențe etc.).
 sportul adaptat extrem – presupune o serie de adaptări (cel mai adesea, personalizate) a unor
mijloace specifice care să permită practicarea anumitor ramuri sportive extreme de către persoanele
cu dizabilități [5].
Structura socială a sportului adaptat de performanță

Activitatea sportivă de performanță pentru persoane cu diferite tipuri de deficiențe este reglementată de mai
multe organizații internaționale specializate pe tip de activitate și deficiență. Sportivii cu același tip de
dizabilități participă în competiții internaționale, la cel mai înalt nivel, în cadrul Jocurilor Paralimpice și la
Special Olympics. În plus, se organizează o ediție separată a Jocurilor Olimpice pentru deficienți de auz
(Deaflympics). În continuare prezentăm, pe scurt, aceste evenimente sportive.
Mişcarea Special Olympics a apărut la începutul anului 1968, din iniţiativa lui Eunice Kennedy
Shriver, sora preşedintelui John F. Kennedy. Fundaţia Kennedy organizează în 20 iulie 1968, la Chicago,
prima ediţie a Jocurilor Internaţionale de Vară Special Olympics, moment care marchează începutul mişcării
73
Special Olympics pentru sportivii cu nevoi speciale. La competiție au participat 1000 de sportivi cu
dizabilități intelectuale din 26 de state americane și Canada, care au concurat în probe de atletism, hochei în
sală și natație.
De la fondatoarea mişcării, Eunice Kennedy Shriver, de-a lungul timpului, mai multe personalități
publice ca Prinţesa Charlene de Monaco, Nelson Mandela, actori precum Arnold Schwartzeneger, Vanessa
Williams, Brooklyn Decker, muzicieni celebri ca U2, Jon Bon-Jovi şi Stevie Wonder, figuri legendare ale
sportului - Michael Jordan, Nadia Comăneci, Yao Ming, Michael Phelps, Yuna Kim, Dani Alves, In-Kyung
Kim, au promovat mesajul Special Olympics, participând la evenimentele organizate de Special Olympics
International, sensibilizând astfel opinia publică internaţională [9].
Nadia Comăneci, pe atunci în calitate de vicepreşedinte al Comitetului Director Special Olympics
International, şi Bart Conner, soţul Nadiei, au fost alături de sportivii Special Olympics la Jocurile
Internaţionale de Vară Special Olympics de la Dublin, din 2003 şi la Jocurile Mondiale de Iarnă Special
Olympics din Nagano, Japonia în 2005.
Concurenții care pot participa la Special Olympics sunt copiii și adulții cu Sindrom Dowm, dar și cei cu
deficiențe intelectuale. Deviza acestei competiții este ”Vreau să câștig, dar dacă nu pot câştiga, vreau să fiu
brav în încercarea mea!”
Special Olympics este un program internațional care implică azi peste 2.25 milioane sportivi din
peste 150 de țări din lume, peste 30 de sporturi olimpice de iarnă și de vară, peste 200 de programe, 7 birouri
regionale – Belgia; Egipt; Zimbabwe; India; China; Brazilia; USA, peste 1 milion de voluntari în lume, peste
140,000 de antrenori în lume, peste 20.000 de competiții sportive în lume [2, 9].
Evenimentele sportive interzise în această competiție includ probe din atletism (suliță, disc, ciocan,
săritura cu prăjina, triplu salt), natație (sărituri de la platformă), gimnastică (trambulina), schi fond (biatlon,
sărituri), arte marțiale, exceptând judo, rugby, tir, scrimă, tir cu arcul.
Fundaţia Special Olympics din România (SOR) a fost înfiinţată în 2003, ca parte integrantă a
mişcării International Special Olympics (IOS), incluzând 25000 de sportivi cu dizabilităţi intelectuale din
toată ţara, ce concurează în cadrul a 12 discipline sportive olimpice, 1500 antrenori şi voluntari. Sunt
organizate anual 100 evenimente sportive, dar şi evenimente de evaluare gratuită a stării de sănătate a
sportivilor (până acum au fost organizate 100 astfel de evenimente) [9].
Prima competiție sportivă pentru persoanele mutilate de război aflate în fotoliul rulant a fost
organizată în Anglia, la Stoke Mandeville, de către medicul Sir Ludwig Guttman. A fost o competiție
națională, ulterior acest eveniment luând amploare la nivel național și internațional.
La începutul anului 1960 după Jocurile Olimpice de la Roma, aceste jocuri s-au numit Jocurile
Olimpice pentru invalizi. Odată cu ediția Jocurilor Olimpice de vară de la Roma în 1960 se desfășoară sub ,
regulat, Jocurile Paralimpice. Începând cu 1976, la Örnsköldsvik, în Suedia, se desfășoară și Jocurile
Paralimpice de iarnă. Jocurile Paralimpice se desfășoară în aceeași locație cu cea a Jocurilor Olimpice de
vară și de iarnă, înainte sau după acestea [6, 7].
Categoriile de dizabilități acceptate la această competiție sportivă internațională vizează persoanele
cu deficienţe de vedere, persoane cu dizabilităţi fizice, sportivi cu amputări, persoane cu paralizie cerebrală,
persoane cu leziuni ale măduvei spinării și alte categorii (Les autres – sportivi cu un deficiențe fizice, care nu
aparțin niciuneia din categoriile menționate anterior (de exemplu, persoanele cu distrofie musculară).
Sportivii se întrec în 15 ramuri sportive olimpice (incluse în programul Jocurilor Olimpice pentru persoane
‘normale’) cu reguli adaptate la care se adaugă patru discipline specifice – goalball, boccia, rugby în fotoliu
rulant și powerlifting. Programul competiției includ următoarele sporturi de iarnă: schi alpin, hochei pe
gheață, curling și biatlon.
S-a ajuns la participarea a peste 4200 de sportivi din 166 de ţări la Jocurile de vară şi la 506 de
sportivi din 44 de ţări la Jocurile de iarnă [7].
În ceea ce privește reprezentarea României la Jocurile Paralimpice, prima participare a fost în 1972
la Heidelberg (un singur sportiv la tenis de masă). Următoarea participare a României a venit 24 de ani mai
târziu, în 1996, la Atlanta, tot cu un singur sportiv la powerlifting. În 2012, la Londra, am fost reprezentaţi de
6 sportivi la probele de înot, atletism, tenis de masă și ciclism. La Londra a fost obținută și prima medalie de
aur la ciclism, de către Eduard Carol Novak. La ediţia din 2016, de la Rio de Janeiro, Brazilia, delegaţia
României a inclus 12 sportivi la 6 discipline sportive (atletism, ciclism, judo pentru nevăzători, kaiac, înot,
tenis de masă), obţinând o medalie de bronz prin Alexandru Bologa, la judo pentru nevăzători, categoria 60
kg [10].
Jocurile Olimpice pentru persoane cu deficiențe de auz (Deaflympics) s-au desfășurat pentru prima
dată în 1924 la Paris la inițiativa Comitetului Internațional al Sporturilor pentru Persoanele Surde (ICSD) sub
74
denumirea de Jocurile Tăcute. Interesul pentru participarea la această competiție a crescut constant (la prima
ediție a jocurilor de vară au participat 148 sportivi din nouă țări, inclusiv România, ulterior ajungându-se la
peste 2700 de sportivi din 83 de țări afiliate; la jocurile de iarnă au participat la prima ediție în 1949 de la
Seefeld, Austria, 33 de sportivi din 5 țări, iar în 2015 – 336 sportivi din 27 de țări). În 2013, numărul
națiunilor afiliate la ICSD era de 104 [8].
Fondatorul Jocurilor Tăcute este francezul Eugène Rubens-Alcais (sportiv campion la ciclism și
hipoacuzic) care împreună cu un alt sportiv hipoacuzic și campion la atletism și tenis, belgianul Antoine
Dresse, au construit și organizat această întrecere. Elementul de bază al acestui eveniment sportiv îl
constituie faptul că toate persoanele implicate, de la sportivi la arbitri, trebuie să fie cu deficiențe de auz.
Competițiile sportive, atât cele de iarnă, cât și cele de vară, se desfășoară o dată la 4 ani, după un calendar
diferit de cel al Jocurilor Olimpice sau Paralimpice, iar locațiile sunt diferite. Programul Jocurilor include
probe sportive din 19 ramuri sportive pentru ediția de vară și din 5 discipline pentru ediția de iarnă. Regulile
sunt adaptate după specificul deficienței (semnalele sonore și comunicarea sunt înlocuite de semnale acustice
și limbajul semnelor).
În România, activitatea sportivă a persoanelor cu deficiențe de auz este organizată și coordonată de
Asociația Națională a Surzilor, înființată în 1919 [11], care înregistrează azi 31 de filiale. Este una din cele
mai vechi organizații și este membră fondatoare a Comitetului Internațional al Sporturilor pentru Surzi
(International Committee of Sports for the Deaf, ICSD), din 1924. Sportivii români au participat constant la
competițiile sportive mondiale, iar în 1977, Bucureștiul a fost gazda unui astfel de eveniment. Majoritatea
cluburilor sportive din țară sunt denumite Tăcerea (de exemplu, Asociația Sportivă Tăcerea Iași).
Se vorbeşte mereu despre competiţiile sportive ale persoanelor cu dizabilităţi în termeni de respect şi
admiraţie pentru aceştia. Competiţiile organizate pentru ei au aceeaşi amploare ca şi a Jocurilor Olimpice
organizate pentru persoane ‘normale’ şi sunt asociate de mass-media cu valori precum fair-play, autodepăşire,
stima de sine; ducând mai departe deviza “Sportul este pentru toți!”.
Impactul sportului adaptat de performanță

Persoanele cu dizabilități reprezintă un grup social vulnerabil, fiind caracterizat de o serie de aspecte
particulare din punct de vedere psiho-social (dezvoltarea socio-afectivă, specificul structurării personalităţii
şi a comportamentului). Strategia socializării persoanelor cu dizabilităţi trebuie să fie una bazată pe
înţelegere, motiv pentru care ar trebui să se considere punctul de plecare în dezvoltarea personalităţii
acestora.
Literatura de specialitate confirmă o serie de aspecte pozitive ale practicării sportului de
performanță, dar și cu privire la organizarea și desfășurarea unor evenimente sportive de anvergură pentru
persoanele cu dizabilități:
- facilitarea integrării sociale a acestei categorii de persoane prin practicarea sportului (Volkamer și
Zimmer, 1986, Klein, 1989, Kiphard, 1986 citaţi [3]);
- beneficii la nivelul individului din punct de vedere al structurării personalității și al
comportamentului (Henschen &colab., 1992, citat de [3]);
- creșterea nivelului de incluziune socială (acceptare, recunoaștere, coabitare, acces la educație, acces
pe piața muncii) (Roswal, 1983, citat de [3]);
- încurajarea și susținerea egalității dintre indivizi;
- formarea și promovarea unui comportament bazat pe toleranță și acceptare a diversității umane.
Totuși, o serie de consecințe neintenționate se regăsesc în cadrul sportului adaptat de performanță:
- control social ridicat - existenţa unui număr mare de sportivi cu nevoi speciale, legitimaţi în cluburi
şi asociaţii, a antrenorilor şi a celorlalţi membri componenţi ai staff-ului tehnic, a arbitrilor, afilierea la
federaţii sportive pe diferite tipuri de deficienţe, la nivel naţional şi internaţional, recunoscute de diferitele
organizații internaționale specializate. O altă dimensiune a controlului social ridicat se referă la rigurozitatea
programelor respectate de către sportivi în perioadele de pregătire a competițiilor și în timpul acestora.
- imposibilitatea practicării unor ramuri sportive de mai multe categorii de persoane cu dizabilități
(datorită riscului la accidentări, dar și a efectelor negative asupra organismului sportivilor, unele ramuri
sportive nu sunt accesibile sportivilor cu dizabilități).
- lipsa comparației și promovarea segregaționismului – participarea în competiție doar cu persoane cu
același tip de deficiențe favorizează separarea de celelalte grupuri de indivizi [4, 2].
- numărul mare de antrenori, oficiali, voluntari implicaţi în desfăşurarea Jocurilor Paralimpice,
persoane care pot avea sau nu dizabilităţi, pot dezvolta pe de o parte o schimbare a percepţiei asupra
posibilităţilor şi limitelor persoanelor cu dizabilităţi, iar pe de altă parte, o atitudine protectivă faţă de aceştia
75
care uneori nu e tocmai cea potrivită.

- învățarea unui comportament de acceptare a durerii și a accidentărilor ca parte firească a activității
sportive [4]. Practicarea sportului la nivel de înaltă performanță nu mai îndeplinește funcția sanogenetică,
sportivii dobândind dureri și boli cronice (Brody, 1992, Kotarba, 1983 citați de [4])
- natura elitistă a sportului adaptat – atât în cazul persoanelor ‘normale’, cât şi în cazul persoanelor cu
dizabilităţi există o diferenţiere. Nu toţi cei care practică activităţile sportive ating performanțe sportive înalte în
diferite ramuri sportive. Acelaşi principiu al selecţiei, poate chiar mai profund, este aplicat şi în cazul
practicării sporturilor de către persoanele cu nevoi speciale, acestea fiind diferenţiate în varii tipuri şi grade ale
deficienţelor.
Concluzii
Practicarea sportului, în general, și a sportului de performanță, în special, promovează personalitatea
individului, oferă posibilitatea integrării acestuia într-un grup, oferă posibilitatea stabilirii unor noi relaţii, a
unor noi forme de comunicare umană, indiferent de condiția și statutul social al individului.
Sportul este un mijloc util şi facil în integrarea socială a persoanelor cu dizabilităţi. Sportul este
eficient în măsura în care societatea este pregătită să asimileze aceste persoane și să accepte diversitatea.
Bibliografie:
[1]. Dragnea A, Mate-Teodorescu S, Teoria sportului, Edit FEST, București, 2002
[2]. Ionescu S, Introducere în sociologia sportului, Edit Politehnica, Timișoara, 2008
[3]. MTS (Ministerul Tineretului și Sportului), Consiliul Europei, Comitetul pentru dezvoltarea sportului,
Impactul sportului asupra socializării. Semnificația sportului pentru societate, C.C.P.S., București, 1996
[4]. Nixon HL II Sport and Disability, în Handbook of Sports Studies, Cookley J, Dunning E, Sage
Publications, London, 2002
[5]. Rusu O, Sociologia educației fizice și sportului, Edit Casa Demiurg, Iași, 2008
[6]. http://ro.atos.net/ro-ro/home/jocurile-olimpice/jocurile-paralimpice.html
[7]. https://www.paralympic.org/
[8]. https://www.deaflympics.com/icsd.asp?games-facts
[9]. http://specialolympics.ro/
[10]. http://www.mediafax.ro/sport/jocurile-paralimpice-2016-china-a-obtinut-239-de-medalii-romania-s-a-
clasat-pe-locul-76-cu-o-medalie-15726188
[11]. http://ansr.org.ro/
76
HISTORY OF THE SILENT REVOLUTION IN WOMEN’S VOLLEYBALL

IN TURKEY WHERE CONFUSION PREVAILS BETWEEN
EASTERNIZATION AND WESTERNIZATION
EREN ULUÖZ1
1
School of Physical Education and Sports, Çukurova University, Adana/Turkey
Abstract. Previous studies have discussed that religious beliefs, traditions and social barriers seriously constrain
women’s participation in physical activity and sports. In Turkey, however, although there are no restrictions against
the participation of women in either physical activities or sports in the legal sense, it has been reported in many
scientific research-projects conducted that certain segments of the society have a negative attitude against sports.
The aim of this study was to determine the history of the women’s volleyball in Turkey where confusion prevails
between Easternization and Westernization. In this connection, the paper reports on how women’s volleyball has
undergone a successful silent revolution and become internationally successful by overcoming religious and
traditional barriers. In conclusion, the international successes of the Turkish Women’s Volleyball in spite of its short
history, has not emerged as a result of a generally widespread and institutionalized volleyball culture in the country.
Ever since volleyball has emerged in Turkey, it has attained permanent success with the extraordinary contributions
of the Istanbul teams with large budgets, teams owned by state organizations, company teams and individuals like
Selim Sırrı Tarcan, Sabbiha Rifat Erayman and members of the Eczacıbaşı family who were devoted supporters of
sports, especially women’s volleyball.
Keywords: Easternization; Westernization; Turkey; Volleyball; Women
Introduction
Sports have been used as a vehicle of self-expression by individuals at various levels almost in all
societies ever since the advent of the Modern Olympics in 1896 [1]. While sports are phenomena generally
accepted by every segment of the society in the western societies, major restrictions are encountered,
especially in the Near Eastern geographies [2]. Religious beliefs, traditions and social barriers seriously
constrain women’s participation in physical activity and sports [3]. In this connection, it has been reported
that the participation of women in social life is restricted by law or unwritten social rules in many Near
Eastern countries [4]. The situation varies from country to country, from rural to urban areas, and depends on
the impact of Islamic resurgence, secularism, nationalism, Westernization and socialism. Physical education
is officially compulsory in schools but, partly due to traditional attitudes and lack of facilities for segregation
of the sexes, often neglected in practice [3].
In Turkey, however, although there are no restrictions against the participation of women in either
physical activities or sports in the legal sense, it has been reported in many scientific research-projects
conducted that certain segments of the society have a negative attitude against sports [5,6]. One of the main
handicaps before women’s engaging in sports in Turkey, as it is in all the Islamic countries as well, is the
acceptance of the attire, designated for a specific branch of sports which are worn by women performing
sports and creating a perception of nakedness from time to time, as a major sin or shame by a significant
segment of the society. The performance of a sport by a female athlete, who wears a hijab (a head covering
worn in public by some Muslim women) in her daily life due to her faith, in half-naked form is an act that
will definitely encounter a strong social reaction. The subject of the form of dress and the hijab alone has
been reported as a major barrier against conservative Muslim women’s taking part in sports in literature
[4,7].
Analysis of participation in individual sports and the international success attained in Turkey, shows
that a consistent success has been achieved in sports branches like wrestling, boxing and weightlifting,
especially by male athletes. These sports branches have been an integral component of the military basic
trainings which have continued in their primitive form in the Turkish and Islamic countries for centuries
[8,9]. It may be thought that the traditional loyalty to these sports branches rooted in the past may explain the
high rate of participation in Turkey and the successes in international scale.
Analysis of team sports indisputably shows that women’s volleyball is the most successful team sport of
the country. However, even the uniform worn by a female volleyball player is considered as a major sin that
would constitute a reason to go to hell, by a large segment of the society that cannot be regarded as in
significant and even watching volleyball is considered a big sin, let alone playing it. That women’s
volleyball is the most successful team sports among tens of sports branches –with a past of only 50-60 years–
77
of Turkey’s history, in spite of the confusion between Easternization and Westernization that prevails in the
country is the main subject of this article.
The Confusion between Easternization and Westernization in Turkey

After surviving nearly 600 years, the Ottoman State has entered a period of rapid decline after the
1800s, with the effects of the French Revolution in 1789 as well, and it has stayed out of, and fallen behind
the West, failing to keep in step with the philosophical, political and economic developments required by the
age [10-12]. In order to relieve itself from the difficult state it had fallen into in the eighteenth century, the
Empire has decided to leave its traditional attitude aside and undertake change. Ideas of “catching up with
the ‘West’, being Western”, the superiority of which were fully accepted within that century, were suggested
as the only remedy to move out of this difficult state without delay. It is stated that, with this thought and
belief, Westernization movements that would determine everything in the Ottoman society and culture, were
initiated [13]. However, we see that this Westernization desire in the Ottoman Empire is not a demand for
change coming from the public due to social needs or one founded on public view. It is stated that this desire
for change was totally a decision taken in order to relieve the state from the difficult state it had fallen into
and restore its former strength [13]. It is also known that the Ottoman Empire is not in favor of change
resembling the West, especially in the areas of culture and social life. In this sense, most of the applications
similar to those in the West have been realized in the military. It is stated that the purpose here was to
strengthen the army with Westernization applications and enable the State to regain its former strength
without delay [13]. Westernization applications carried out with the purpose of rescuing the Ottoman Empire
have failed to attain this goal, the Ottoman Empire has been abolished and Republic of Turkey has been
established in its place following the World War I. The Republic of Turkey established after the destruction
of the Ottoman Empire, ruled according Islamic Law, and began to be ruled by examples adapted from
Europe in terms of a constitutional regime [13]. However, the Westernization process which began with the
republican form of government was rather different than the Westernization trend that has come into being in
the Ottoman Empire. The Westernization in the Ottoman Empire was a military and political concept aimed
at stopping the decline of the Empire and it did not bear any aspects that directly affected the life style of the
people. On the other hand, the Westernization current that had begun with the establishing of the Republic of
Turkey in 1923, bore radical changes such as secular government rule, a constitutional regime, dress code
renovation, shifting to the Latin alphabet, changing of the calendar system and measurement units and
especially the equality of women and men before the constitution and granting the right to vote and to run for
office to women [14].
However, the reflection and acceptance of the abrupt and sharp alteration made in the country’s form of
rule and its acceptance by the public at a large scale is a process which is still not completed. The people
who were used to be ruled by legal sanctions for a period of 600 years during the Ottoman Empire have
suffered difficulties and continue to do so with regard to adapting to this new form of rule. In the late years
of the Ottoman Empire certain arrangements have been undertaken in the rule of government with the
Tanzimat (Imperial Edict of Gülhane; the political reforms of Sultan Abdulmecid in 1839 and the period
fallowing) for the purpose of the Westernization and modernization [15]. During this period, the Ottoman
Empire has taken a step away from a government system belonging to the Middle Ages, towards a
contemporary state organization in the legal sense [16]. Most of the arrangements have been in the military
area in the Tanzimat period. After these problems had been resolved to a small extent, applications related to
other areas have also gained emphasis during the Tanzimat. The Tanzimat period is a highly significant
period, the effect of which on education, sports and other areas continue up to the present [17]. However, in
spite of these Westernization and Modernization efforts, which have begun with the Tanzimat and have
gained momentum during the republican period and continue at the present, many people, especially in the
central rural and eastern regions of Turkey, see themselves rather distant to the concept of Westernization,
with the effect of religious rituals and feudal structure [18]. As nearly all of the parties in political power
since 1940s, during which the transition into the multi-party system took place, actually believed in
Easternization and made conservative declarations on political campaigns but displayed Western attitudes
only in appearance, is a distinct proof that the Turkish society is in a serious dilemma between
Westernization and Easternization [19].
The Function of Sports in the Ottoman Empire

Together with Westernization, current interactions in the area of the sports have also taken place in the
Ottoman Empire. However, these interactions have been used as an orientation towards the development of
78
military training rather than social activities contributing to people’s daily lives. When we analyze the
organizational structure of sports in the Ottoman State, we see that this has been applied for the purpose of
war training rather than a conscious social activity. Therefore, sports education within the Ottoman State has
taken its place not as curricula in the educational institutions, but as a part of the military training curricula in
military schools [17].
In this sense, institutions where sports education was offered have remained limited to the military
training-instruction intuitions, palace training-instruction institutions and the Tekkes (dervish lodges)
providing public training [17]. As was the case in other Turkish States in History, war related activities such
as wrestling, hunting, marksmanship, archery, horsemanship, swordsmanship, weightlifting, use of iron clubs
and mace (in battle) and jeered are those that stand out [20]. Sports, performed in the form of competitions,
such as wrestling, horsemanship, jeered and archery, have become traditionalized and transformed into
sports of our forefathers. Especially in the magnificent periods of the Ottoman State, wrestling, archery,
horsemanship and jeered games are noted as activities of military origin supported by the Palace and
Padishahs (Sultans of the Ottoman Empire) [21].
In conclusion, sports activities could never become phenomena responding to the social needs of
civilian people, and sports activities have remained as a part of military training in the Ottoman Empire.
Perspectives on Sports Following after the Declaration of the Republic of Turkey

The Westernization movement which has begun with the Tanzimat has become one of the principles
accepted by the republic as well, within the form of framework drawn up by Atatürk (founder of the
Republic of Turkey), in the Turkish society [22]. Many of the Westernization activities realized in the area of
sports especially in the final years of the Ottoman Empire are noted not as social phenomena but as those
completely aimed at supporting military activities. In this connection, it was not possible to even talk about
women’s participation in sports activities at the time, when the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Muslim
Religious Law [23]. Whereas, it is noted that modern sports have emerged in Great Britain and the United
States during the Industrial Revolution process. The difference between modern sports and pre-modern or
traditional sports during the process going from the nineteenth to twentieth century; is the fact that sports has
been limited by rules and numerical measurements, abstracted from war purposes and religion, and the fact
that it has overcome sexual inequality by making participation in sports possible also for women and not
exclusively for man [24]. Rationalization of sports has made the emergence of exclusive bureaucratic sports
organizations setting forth the rules, organizing competitive activities and designing their own policies,
possible.
As a result of the positive developments after declaration of the republican regime, the participation of
the Turkish women in all social activities and sports nationwide has shown an increase every year since then.
With the progress in social, economic, cultural and many other areas and the rise in the economic situation,
career status, educational levels have led to women’s increasing preference of sports activities as a spare time
activity [25,26].
However, this increase in women’s moving towards sports has led to a rather low increase in rural,
central and eastern regions of the country. Serious differences are noticed between people who see
themselves as Western and Modern and those conservative people who fell closer to the Eastern culture in
terms of the world view and life styles. This dilemma felt in social and political life is also felt in the area of
sports. In Turkey, while participation in sports is accepted as a perfectly natural social phenomenon for a
segment of the people, another segment stands seriously against participation in sports due to their religious
beliefs and traditions. This opposition becomes extremely keen when it comes to the participation of women
in sports. As it is the case in many Islamic countries, it is observed that there are serious hindrances also in
Turkey on this matter today and it is noted that women’s participation in sports is viewed as shameful or
sinful.
Brief History of Women in Sports and the Barriers Encountered in Republican Turkey
The Westernization and Easternization conflict in the social and political areas which has begun as of
the late years of the Ottoman Empire and continued up to the present after the declaration of the Republic of
the Turkey, shows itself rather clearly in the areas of physical activity and sports. A certain segment of the
people in Turkey accepts participation in sports as a perfectly natural life style. These individuals are those
people who undertake sports activities, watch sports competitions, guide their children towards physical
activities and accept this as a normal part of their daily lives and those who take part in sportive activities
due to the universal benefits of sports, as reported in numerous studies [11,27].
79
On the other hand, a notable segment of the society seriously opposes participation in sports with the
effect of religious beliefs and traditions. These opposing stands become extremely keen in Turkey when it
comes to women’s participation in sports. As it is the case in many Islamic countries, we observe that there
are serious hindrances in this regard in Turkey as well. Although there has been an increase in the number of
female athletes in Islamic countries in the last decade, Muslim women still form a small minority among the
competitors in international sport events such as the Olympic Games. In many Islamic countries, numerous
girls and women do not have access to physical activities and/or physical education [6].
Although the resistance against women’s taking part in sports in Turkey is not as severe as that in other
Islamic countries, deep contradictions in the social perspectives have brought up the revolution experienced
in women’s volleyball especially in the last 50-60 years in Turkey as a matter which is worth analysis.
Because, in spite of this deep contradiction, an analysis of the history of the Turkish Republic shows that
women’s volleyball is the most successful team sport among all men’s and women’s team sports combined.
Furthermore, analyses of the successes attained at the club and national team levels reveal that the successes
attained by the women’s volleyball teams are greater than those attained by all the other team sport branches
[28-35].
YMCA’s and YWCA’s Activities in Turkey and Turks’ First Encounter with Volleyball of American
Origin
YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association) has defined the main objective of its establishment as
follows: In 1844 twelve young men led by George Williams founded the first YMCA in London, England.
Their objective was the improvement of the spiritual condition of the young men engaged in houses of
business, by the formation of Bible classes, family and social prayer meetings, mutual improvement
societies, or any other spiritual agency [36]. As may be understood from its own definition, the objective of
the organization was to create solidarity among Christian young men and to train them within the framework
of certain principles. At the same time, YMCA had also undertaken a mission like spreading Christianity in
various parts of the world and to have the Christian young men become ideal individuals socially in
accordance with certain principles as well [37]. In line with these objectives, although the difficulties in
operating in a Muslim country have stalled the activities of YMCA and YWCA (Young Women’s Christian
Association) from time to time, the social and sportive activities of these institutions have drawn the interest
of the educated and secular Muslims in time [38].
Volleyball was invented in the U.S.A. in 1895 by an American named William Morgan. Morgan has
developed this game as a YMCA trainer in order to get the people to do sports. He has combined certain
aspects of basketball, baseball, tennis and handball, in order to create a sport that would require less physical
contact than basketball, and called it Mintonette. YMCA has led the spreading of this sport throughout the
world, which was named volleyball later on. Canada, China, Japan, India, Mexico, South America, European
and African countries are those countries where volleyball has rapidly spread out in the 1990s [39].
Volleyball has been brought to Turkey for the first time in 1919 by the YMCA member Dr. Gilbert
Deaver. Dr. Deaver has worked as the YMCA Director in Istanbul between 1919 and 1925. The volleyball
competitions that were initiated in the sport in the said association’s field house in the Çarşıkapı area have
drawn the interest of the Istanbul citizens and have found demand. At the same time, Selim Sırrı Tarcan who
was a physical education instructor at the Erkek Muallim Mektebi (Teachers Training School for Men)
located in the Cağaloğlu area has shown interest in the volleyball played at the YMCA and he has taught this
sport to his students. Teachers who were trained by Selim Sırrı Tarcan between 1920 and 1924 have taken
this sport to the various locations in the country where they were appointed as volleyball instructors and have
contributed to its spreading [28].
History of Women’s Volleyball in Turkey and Its Silent Revolution

The adventure of women’s volleyball in Turkey has commenced with the activities of YMCA and
YWCA in Turkey as was the case in men’s volleyball [38]. However, women’s volleyball played in
Christian schools, like men’s volleyball, in the 1920s could not become widespread among people due to the
religious and social barriers before women’s engagement in sport [28]. Separating women’s volleyball into
two periods, namely, the pre-1958 and post-1958 periods, may be a more appropriate approach. Up to 1958,
the date when the TVF (Turkish Volleyball Federation) has been established, the game was played mainly in
Istanbul and its vicinity in the form of city championships and interschool competitions [29]. As of 1920s
sports club in Istanbul have begun to open women’s volleyball branches. The first women’s volleyball teams
established in Turkey were Galatasaray Sports Club Women’s Volleyball Team and Fenerbahce Sports Club
80
Women’s Volleyball Team. Galatasaray club has established its women’s volleyball team in 1922 and
Fenerbahce club in 1927 [29].
A well-known man of sports, Selim Sırrı Tarcan, mentioned above, who has taken up volleyball
seriously as a clean sport game that developed physical skills, which he saw and played while he took part in
the YMCA sportive activities, and began to teach it to his students. The physical education instructors, who
had graduated from teachers training school mentioned earlier, have also spread this sport at schools in
Istanbul. Schools where volleyball has been played for the first time were Kabataş Lycée, Vefa Lycée,
Pertevniyal Lycée, Galatasaray College, Istiklal Lycée, Haydarpaşa Lycée and Istanbul Lycée for Girls. The
first women’s national volleyball team could be established in the 1950s and played its first game against
Romania in the International Istanbul Tournament [28].
In the years following the establishment of the TVF in 1958, the foundations of the successes of the
women’s volleyball teams in the international scene, which have continued consistently up to the present,
were laid. Although clubs like Enka Sport Club, Beşiktaş Sport Club, Emlakbank Sport Club, Arçelik Sport
Club and Ankara Pazarları Sport Club have attained degrees, once each, in international competitions;
however, they have failed to continue their successful performances with consistency. During the sixty-year
period from 1958 until the present, we see that these four clubs have dominated the scene and possess nearly
all the success attained at international scale. These are, namely, Galatasaray Sport Club, Fenerbahçe Sport
Club, Eczacıbaşı Sport Club, Vakıfbank Sport Club, Güneş Sigorta Sport Club women’s volleyball teams.
The national women’s volleyball teams have also attained international success in different age groups in
parallel with those attained by club teams [29].
Galatasaray Women’s Volleyball Team was established in 1922. The team has won the championship
eight times (in the 1959-60, 1960-61, 1961-62, 1962-63, 1963-64, 1964-65, 1965-66, 1977-78 seasons) in the
Istanbul Women’s Volleyball League and five times (in the 1960-61, 1961-62, 1962-63, 1963-64, 1964-65
seasons) in the Turkish Women’s Volleyball Championship. In international competitions however, the team
has taken the third place in the 1997 CEV (The European Volleyball Confederation) Cup, third place in 2010
Challenge Cup, second place in the 2011-12 CEV Cup and fourth place in the 2012-13 European Champions
League [40].
Vakıfbank Güneş Sigorta Women’s Volleyball Team formed by the merging of this team with Güneş
Sigorta Sports Club established in Istanbul in 1986 and Vakıfbank Sport Club established in Ankara in 1989
prior to the 1999-2000 season. The team has won the championships in the Turkish National Volleyball
Championship Tournaments (in the 1992-93-97-98, 2004-05, 2013-14 seasons), Turkish National Cup
Championship Tournaments (in the 1995-97-98, 2013-14 seasons) and the Turkish Super Cup Championship
(in the2013-14 season). Successful performances attained at international scale are: Second place in the
European Championship Cup (in the 1997-98, 1998-99 seasons), championship in the European Challenge
Cup (in the 2007-08 season), semifinalist in the European Cup (in the 1999 season), third place in the
European Confederation Cup (in the 1999-2000 season), championship in the European Top Teams Cup (in
2003-04 season), second place in the World Champions Cup (in the 2010-11 season), championship in the
European Champions League (in the 2010-11 and 2012-13 seasons), championship in the World Champions
League (2013), second place in the European Champions League (in the 2013-14 season) and third place in
the European Champions League (in the 2014-15 season) [41].
The foundations of Eczacıbaşı Sports Club were laid in 1950s with the football, tennis tournaments and
certain sports activities held under the auspices of the Eczacıbaşı Pharmaceutical Company. These sportive
activities have attained a professional status with the establishing of the Eczacıbaşı Sports Club by Dr. Nejat
Eczacıbaşı and Şakir Eczacıbaşı in 1966 [42]. Dr. Nejat Eczacıbaşı has defined the founding objective of the
club in his book entitled “Kuşaktan Kuşağa” as follows:
… Whereas, let alone the amateurish efforts, even the institutions carrying out sports at
professional level were unable to attain international standards; athletes could not move up to
levels at the quality demanded by the age. Şakir Eczacıbaşı talked about some of his thoughts
regarding sports in 1966; it could be discerned form these thoughts that Eczacıbaşı could play a
pioneering role in this area as well. I supported his thoughts with all my sincerity. The problem
was arising not due to the Turkish youth’s lack of ability; it was arising due to the inadequacies
and shortcomings of the environment. We believed that we would become successful if we brought
knowledge and disciplined work together with adequate opportunities and facilities. Eczacıbaşı
Sports Club has emerged in 1966 in the light of these thoughts and objectives … [43].
The club has become a member of the TVF in 1967. It has raised the most esteemed athletes in Turkish
sports history, especially in the areas of volleyball, basketball, and table tennis. Eczacıbaşı Women’s
81
Volleyball Team joined the Istanbul League in 1968 and it became the Istanbul Champion in the 1969-70
season. Beginning with the 1972-73 season, it has become the Champion of Turkey for seventeen
consecutive seasons and broken a record at the professional level and has won a total of twenty-eight Turkish
Championships. In addition, the team has received the Presidential Cup three times, Turkey Cup eight times
and the Super Cup twice. In international tournaments, Eczacıbaşı Women’s Volleyball Team has brought
the first European Championship Cup to Turkey with the European Cup Winners Cup it had won in the
1998-99 season, became the European Champions League Champion and the World Clubs Champion in
2014-15 season. Moreover, Eczacıbaşı Women’s Volleyball Team took fourth place in the European
Champions Cup in the 1983-84 season, second place in the 1992-93 season European CEV Cup, and became
the champion in the European Cup Winners’ Cup without losing any games, in the 1998-99 season. It took
the third place in the Champions Cup in the 1999-2000 season, fourth place in the European Champions
League in 2001-02 season, third place in the European Top Teams Cup in the 2004-05 season, fourth places
in the European Champions League in the 2008-09 and 2013-14 seasons, won the Championship in the
2014-15 season European Champions League and received the championship Cup in the World Champions
Cup held in the same year [42,44].
Eczacıbaşı women volleyball players who have made the voice of Turkish sports heard in the
international area, by attaining the second place in the one hundredth anniversary of Atatürk’s birth, in 1980,
were declared as “Atatürk’s Girls” by the Turkish press and broadcasting organization [44].
Fenarbahçe Women’s Volleyball Team has succeeded in becoming the champions twice in the TVF
Cup (in the 1959-60 and 1976-77 seasons), ten times in the Istanbul Women’s Volleyball League (in the
1955-56, 1956-57, 1957-58, 1958-59, 1960-61, 1967-68, 1968-69, 1970-71, 1971-72 and 1972-73 seasons),
eight times in the Turkish Women Volleyball Championships (in the 1955-56, 1956-57, 1958-59, 1959-60,
1967-68, 1968-69, 1971-72 seasons), three times in the Turkish Women’s Volleyball Super Cup (in the
2008-09, 2009-10 and 2014-15 seasons), twice in the Turkish Women’s Volleyball Cup (in the 2009-10 and
2014-15 seasons) and four times in the Turkish Women’s Volleyball League (in the 2008-09, 2009-10, 2010-
11 and 2014-15 seasons) [45,46].
A Remarkable Story
One of the most interesting events in world volleyball history is the story of a female volleyball player
Sabbiha Rifat Gürayman, and her struggle for existence it the volleyball sport environment is a story which
we find worth sharing here. In the history of Fenerbahçe Women’s Volleyball an unprecedented and rather
interesting event has occurred in 1929. A women athlete Sabiha Rıfat Gürayman who played in the
Fenerbahçe Men’s Volleyball Team has performed as the captain of the men’s volleyball team and where
this team has become the champion in the 1928-29 season, has perhaps achieved a first in the history of
world volleyball [29]. In an article written on Sabiha Rifat Gürayman, who was also the first female
mechanical engineer of Turkey, with an M.S. degree, the subject is covered as follows:
For her Fenerbahçe was the initial point of “firsts”. In the years between 1927 and 1929 she has not
only played on the Women’s Volleyball Team, but also on the Fenerbahçe Men’s Volleyball Team
and more interesting than that, she has performed as the captain of the Men’s Volleyball Team.
While taking her place in history as a women player who played with men, she has continued her
work with two-three practices a day in order to be able to compete with the Male Players. Sabiha
Gürayman, whose nickname was “flying fingers”, has rescued the men’s team when they were short
of one player and this shortage was remedied by her. She was the first female athlete who
experienced a championship with a men’s team [47].
A newspaper published at the time has relayed the event to its readers as follows:
Fenerbahçe Men’s Volleyball Team which has won the first place in the İstanbul League has
participated in this year’s competition with certain changes. In the meantime, the Fenerbahçe
Ladies’ Team Captain, Lady Gürayman has joined the team. We congratulate Fenerbahçe for the
innovation it has brought to volleyball by forming a mixed team (composed of men and women) in an
official competition for the first time in the sport history of our country [48].
While the tracks of the Ottoman Empire on social life were rather fresh in the country ruled by Islamic
Law until recent years, this attitude displayed by Sabbiha Rifat Gürayman may be considered as a highly
significant event.
82
Although women’s encounter with volleyball has occurred in the 1920s in Turkey, women’s volleyball
could not be fully widespread through the country in spite of the 90 years since then. It is noted that the
teams that have carried women’s volleyball in the country to international success however, are the teams of
the central and western regions, especially led by İstanbul teams. On the other hand, we can also see that the
athletes forming the Turkish National Teams are totally composed of players of these teams.
The Turkish national volleyball teams are ranked within the top ten among other World teams and
among the first five in Europe for years. The junior national women’s teams however, have also won World
and European championships. Furthermore, club teams have displayed highly successful international
performances throughout the history of the country in recent years. The TVF which has been established in
1958 and become autonomous in 2005 has produced infrastructure projects of wide scope within the
revolution of women’s volleyball since the time it was established [49]. However, we see that people who
identify themselves as secular, modern and western have taken part in these projects. The possibility of
widespread application of these infrastructure projects in the central and eastern regions of Turkey, where a
more conservative style of life is practiced, does not arise. Analysis of the distribution of the Turkish First,
Second and Third League teams according to regions clearly displays this inequality. It is noted that, even
today, every one of the twelve teams competing in the Turkish Women’s First League are teams of the
western provinces and Ankara, with Istanbul teams being in the majority, similarly, upon analyzing the
distribution of the teams in the second league by province, we see that teams in the West and Midwest
regions constitute the majority [50]. On the other hand, we also note that the teams that have been
established in the east and competing in the upper leagues however, have been established by personal
efforts and are also made up of players transferred from teams that are based in the western region. It has
been observed that these teams which cannot undertake infrastructure operations in their own regions either
drop down to the lower leagues or are closed down.
Final Considerations
In conclusion, the international successes of the Turkish Women’s Volleyball in spite of its short
history, has not emerged as a result of a generally widespread and institutionalized volleyball culture in the
country. Ever since volleyball has emerged in Turkey, it has attained permanent success with the
extraordinary contributions of the Istanbul teams with large budgets, teams owned by state organizations,
company teams and individuals like Selim Sırrı Tarcan, Sabbiha Rifat Gürayman and members of the
Eczacıbaşı family who were devoted supporters of sports, especially women’s volleyball. Infrastructure
activities need to continue without interruption in order to ensure this type of large scale successes. As of the
first day volleyball was played in Turkey however, the girls of families identifying themselves as secular,
modern and western have displayed consistent participation in the infrastructure. The participation of girls
from families identifying themselves as opposed to westernization or as conservative, in these infrastructure
activities, is almost nil. The attaining of such major international successes in a sports branch which was
deprived of widespread participation in the country overall, can only be explained by the extensive
contributions and special efforts on an institutional basis and the widespread participation of the social
segments identifying themselves as secular, modern and western. Sabiha Rifat Gurayman’s episode in 1929
has become a highly valuable source of inspiration for the struggle of all female athletes and female
volleyball players with regard to participation during the history of Turkish sports. The struggle for existence
she has displayed, in spite of all the social pressures, may be considered as the starting point and the essential
source of motivation for the Turkish women’s volleyball which persists in the present. The description of the
philosophical contradiction in the Turkish society undertaken in this article shows itself with regard to the
subject of Sabiha Rifat Gurayman as well. While she was one of the most important heroes of Turkish sports
and women’s volleyball for some, she was conceived as a culprit who had broken the religious rules.
Women’s volleyball in Turkey has come to the present days under these circumstances and has undersigned
a silent revolution which any national women’s volleyball team of a Muslim country has not been able to
realize so far, or perhaps, will never be able to realize in the future.
Notes on Contributor
Eren Uluöz received his Bachelor’s in Physical Education and Sports at Çukurova University (2007), and
doctorate in Physical Education and Sports at Çukurova University (2015). He is currently employed as a
Specialist in the Training Program for Trainers-Volleyball in School of Physical Education and Sports at
Çukurova University.
83
References
[1] Young, D. C. ‘The Modern Olympics: A struggle for revival’. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1996)
[2] Benn, T.; Pfister, G, and Jawad, H. (eds). ‘Muslim Women and Sport’. (Routledge, 2010): 109-67.
[3] Sfeir, L. ‘The Status of Muslim Women in Sport: Conflict between Cultural Tradition and
Modernization’. Abstract. International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 20.4 (1985): 283-306.
[4] Nakamura, Y. ‘Beyond the hijab: Female Muslims and Physical Activity’. Women in Sport &
Physical Activity Journal 11.2 (2002): 21.
[5] Tatar, G., Erdoğan T., and Pehlivan Z. "The Study of Factors Effecting Doing Sports of Working and
Nonworking Women Aged between 20-40." Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences 11.3
(2009).
[6] Pfister, G. ‘Equality and Social Missions: Muslim Women and Their Opportunities to Participate in
Sport and Physical Activities’. Hacettepe Journal of Sport Sciences, 19 (2008): 250-260.
[7] Hargreaves, J. ‘Sport, Exercise and the Female Muslim Body. Physical Culture, Power and the Body’.
(Routledge, 2007): 74-100.
[8] Karahüseyinoğlu, M. F., and Gundogdu C. ‘The Factor of Gender Directed Towards Traditional
Sport’. NWSA: Sports Sciences, 3.4 (2008): 159-167.
[9] Ritter, H. ‘Ata Binmek, ok Atmak [Horsemanship, Archery]’. Türkiyat Mecmuası 4 (1934): 45-48.
[10] Danişmend, İ. H. ‘İzahlı Osmanlı Tarihi Kronolojisi [Chronology of the Ottoman Empire]’. Vol. 1.
(Türkiye Yayınevi, 1961).
[11] Bulgu, N., Aritan, C. K., and Aşçi, F. H. Daily Life, Women and Physical Activity. Hacettepe
Journal of Sport Sciences, (2007): 18(4), 167-181.
[12] Kodaman, B. ‘A General view to the Reasons for the Rising and Decline of the Ottoman
State’. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 2007.16 (2007).
[13] Çelik, V. O. and Bulgu, N. Physical Education and Sport on Westernized Movements in the Last
Ottoman Period. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. (2010): 24.
[14] Kocatürk, U. ‘Atatürk ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Tarihi Kronolojisi1918-1938[Chronology of Ataturk
and Republic of Turkey]’. Vol. 49. Türk Tarîh Kurumu Basımevi, (1983).
[15] Yıldız, H. D., (ed). ‘150. Yılında Tanzimat [Tanzimat in 150. Years]’. (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu
Basımevi, 1992).
[16] Turhan, M. ‘Kültür Değişmeleri [Culture Changes]’. (İstanbul: MEB yayını Milli Eğitim Basımevi,
1969)
[17] Soyer, F. ‘A Study on Institutional Structurings in Physical Education and Sports Areas and their
Places in School Curricula in the Ottoman Empire (1839-1908 the Tanzimat –Reform – Era)’. Gazi
University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty, (2004)24(1).
[18] Aksoy, M. ‘Başörtüsü-Türban: Batılılaşma-Modernleşme, Laiklik ve Örtünme [Hijab-Turban:
Westernization-Modernization, Secularism and Headscarf]’, (İstanbul: Kitap Yayınevi Ltd., 2005)
[19] Güvenç, M. and Kirmanoğlu H. ‘Electoral Atlas of Turkey 1950-2009: Continues and Changes in
Turkey’s Politics’, (İstanbul: Bilgi University Press: 2009).
[20] Özbay G., and Hergüner G. ‘The Fundamental Supports of Huntıng in Turkish Culture’. Pamukkale
Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 5.5 (1999): 32-49.
[21] Sakaoğlu, N. ‘Osmanlı Sarayında Spor Müsabakaları: Lahanacılar-Bamyacılar [Sports competition
in Ottoman Palaces: Lahanacılar-Bamyacılar]’. Toplumsal Tarih Dergisi, 102 (2002).
[22] Budak, M. ‘Modernleşme Açısından Atatürk'ün Osmanlı Tarihi ve Islahatlarının Eleştirisi [Atatürk’s
Criticism of the Ottoman Empire’s History and Its Reforms in terms of modernization]’. İlmî
Araştırmalar: Dil, Edebiyat, Tarih İncelemeleri, 4 (1997): 55-66.
[23] Aksu, B. ‘Sport and Women as a National Duty’. Hacettepe Journal of Sport Sciences, 23.4 (2012):
220-226.
[24] McComb, D. G. Sports in World History. (Routledge, 2004): 14-6
[25] Tuncel, F. ‘Atatürk, Gençlik ve Spor [Atatürk, Youth and Sports]’. Spormetre Journal, Ankara,
(2003)1:1, 9-10.
[26] Zelyurt, M. K. ‘Sport in Turkish Modernızation: From Reform to Early Republic’. Electronic
Turkish Studies, (2013): 8(12).
[27] Dinç, Z. F., Sevimli, D., and Uluöz, E. ‘Parents’ Opinions about Directıng Their Children to Sports
and Physical Activity’. NWSA: Sports Sciences, (2011): 6(2), 93-102.
[28] Bengü, M. ‘Voleybol’. (İstanbul: Adam Yayıncılık, 1983)
84
[29] Somalı, V. ‘Voleybolun 102 Yılı [102 Years of Volleyball]’. (İstanbul: İnkilap Yayınevi, 1998)
[30] CEV, ‘European National Team Ranking List - Women’ http://www.cev.lu/Rankings/Women.aspx
(accessed 26 January 2015)
[31]CEV, ‘European National Team Ranking List - U18 Women’
http://www.cev.lu/Rankings/WomenU18.aspx (accessed 25 January 2015)
[32]CEV, ‘European National Team Ranking List - U19 Women’
http://www.cev.lu/Rankings/WomenU19.aspx (accessed 25 January 2015)
[33] FIVB, ‘World Ranking - Girls U20’, http://www.fivb.org/en/volleyball/VB_Ranking_U20_2015-
09.asp (accessed 25 January 2015)
[34] FIVB, ‘Senior World Ranking – Women’, http://www.fivb.org/en/volleyball/VB_Ranking_W_2015-
10.asp (accessed 25 January 2015)
[35]FIVB, ‘FIVB World Ranking - Girls U18’,
http://www.fivb.org/en/volleyball/VB_Ranking_U18_2015-08.asp (accessed 25 January 2015)
[36] YMCA, ‘History of YMCA’, http://www.ymca.int/who-we-are/history/ (accessed 26 January 2015)
[37] YMCA, ‘Mission of YMCA’, http://www.ymca.int/who-we-are/mission (accessed 26 January 2015)
[38] Çatalbaş, R. Young Men’s Christian Association’s Activities in Turkey. Journal of the Faculty of
Divinity of Ankara University, 55:1 (2014), ss.101-122
[39] FIVB, ‘Volleyball History’, http://www.fivb.org/en/volleyball/History.asp (accessed 26 January
2015)
[40] Galatasaray Sports Club, “History and Successes” http://www.galatasaray.org/s/bayan-voleybol-
kupalar/132 (accessed 27 January 2015)
[41]Vakıfbank Sports Club, “History and Successes”,
http://www.vakifbanksporkulubu.com/tarihce.aspx?pageID=92 (accessed 27 January 2015)
[42]Eczacıbaşı Sports Club, ‘Women’s Volleyball’
http://www.eczacibasisporkulubu.org.tr/Kadin_Voleybol (accessed 27 January 2015)
[43] Eczacibasi, N. F. ‘Kusaktan Kusaga[from Generation to Generation]’. (Istanbul: Nejat Eczacıbası
Vakfı Yayını 1982).
[44] DHA, ‘Rekorların Takımı Eczacıbaşı [The Team of Records Eczacıbaşı]’, Milliyet Newspaper, 06
December 2013, online, http://www.milliyet.com.tr/rekorlarin-takimi-eczacibasi----1803478-skorerhaber/
[45]Fenerbahçe Sports Club, “History and Successes”
http://www.fenerbahce.org/detay.asp?ContentID=37168 (accessed 27 January 2015)
[46]Fenerbahçe Sports Club, “International Successes”
http://www.fenerbahce.org/detay.asp?ContentID=23311 (accessed 27 January 2015)
[47] Çalık, A. ‘İlklerin Kadını: Sabiha Rıfat Gürayman [The Firsts of Women: Sabiha Rıfat Gürayman] ’,
Turkish-American Web Portal, 31 March 2014, http://yazarlar.gazeteny.com/2014/03/31/ilklerin-kadini-
sabiha-rifat-gurayman/#sthash.HqWMaGyN.dpuf (accessed 27 January 2015)
[48] Fenerleaks, ‘Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü Tarihi -17 [History of Fenerbahçe Sports Club -17]’ ,
https://fenerleaks.wordpress.com/2012/11/22/fenerbahce-spor-kulubu-tarihi-17/ (accessed 27 January
2015)
[49] TVF, ‘TVF Ana Statü [TVF Main Statute]’ , http://www.tvf.org.tr/icerik/18/ (accessed 27 January
2015)
[50] TVF, ‘Kadın Voleybol Fikstürler [Women’s Volleyball Fixtures]’, http://www.tvf.org.tr/icerik/331/
[51] Özbudun, E. ‘From political Islam to Conservative Democracy: the Case of the Justice and
Development Party in Turkey. South European Society & Politics, (2006): 11(3-4), 543-557.
85
CONTENTS
Popovici I.M., Popescu L., Moraru C.E.

MAINTAINING HEALTH THROUGH EXTRACURRICULAR LEISURE EXERCISING................. 3
Açak M.
ASSESSMENT OF THE PROFESSIONAL ABILITIES OF COACHES IN WRESTLING................... 13
Şahin H. M., Esentaş M., Işikgöz E., Üzümcü B., Fidan K., Ayaş G.
ACCORDING TO VARIOUS DEGREEE OF CONFIDENCE AND SOCIAL DESIRABILITY OF
LEVELS ANALYSING PEOPLE WHO EXERCISE IN THE FITNESS CENTERS: EXAMPLE OF
BATMAN.................................................................................................................................................... 19
Tokmak G., Aksoy R.
POINTS OF ATTACHMENT ON FOOTBALL CLUBS: AN APPLICATION ON “THE BIG FOUR”
SUPPORTERS IN TURKISH SUPER LEAGUE...................................................................................... 25
Karakaya Y.E., Abdulla Q.M., Sadeq B.J.
THE COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS TEACHER TRAINING
SYSTEMS IN TURKEY AND IRAQ*...................................................................................................... 37
Pordoğan M.B., Güllü S.
EXAMİNİNG THE ENTREPRENEURSHİP LEVELS OF STUDENTS WHO PLAY/DO NOT
PLAY SPORTS........................................................................................................................................... 42
CENGIZ R., SERDAR E., DONUK B.
COMPARISON OF STATE-TRAIT ANXIETY LEVELS OF STUDENTS LIVING WITH THEIR
FAMILIES AND STUDENTS WHO LIVE SEPARATELY FROM THEIR FAMILIES.......................... 50
Uluöz E.
A LONGITUDINAL STUDY: FIVE YEARS OF RESEARCH ON SPORT INJURIES APPEARED
IN MATCHES IN TURKISH FIRST WOMEN’S VOLLEYBALL LEAGUE......................................... 56
Tel M., Karadağ M., Erdoğan R., Yavuz C.
A REVIEW OF REASONS OF TENNIS PLAYERS PARTICIPATING IN 12-AGE TOURNAMENT
FOR CHOOSING THIS SPORT AND THEIR SOCIO-ECONOMIC LEVELS..................................... 64
Rusu O., Rusu D.
THE IMPACT OF COMPETITION ADAPTED SPORT.......................................................................... 69
Uluöz E.
HISTORY OF THE SILENT REVOLUTION IN WOMEN’S VOLLEYBALL IN TURKEY WHERE
CONFUSION PREVAILS BETWEEN EASTERNIZATION AND WESTERNIZATION..................... 77
86
CUPRINS
Popovici I.M., Popescu L., Moraru C.E.

MENŢINEREA STĂRII DE SĂNĂTATE PRIN ACTIVITĂŢI FIZICE
EXTRAŞCOLARE DE LOISIR................................................................................................................. 8
Rusu O., Rusu D.
IMPACTUL SPORTULUI ADAPTAT DE PERFORMANȚĂ................................................................. 73
87

NR.2 2016 Refacuta

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

NR.2 2016 Refacuta

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Sp Soc Int J Ph Ed Sp 2016 - Volume 16 – Issue 2

“ALTIUS ACADEMY” FOUNDATION

ORIGINAL ARTICLES / ARTICOLE DE CERCETARE

MAINTAINING HEALTH THROUGH EXTRACURRICULAR LEISURE

Ileana-Monica POPOVICI 1, Lucian POPESCU 2, Cristina-Elena MORARU 3

Material and methods

Table 1 Statistical interpretation of anthropological measurements in the two sets of tests

Graph 1 Graphic representations of means obtained in the two sets of tests

Table 2 Statistical interpretation of functional tests

Graph 2 Graphic representation of means obtained in the two sets of tests

Graph 3 Graphic representation of means obtained in the two sets of tests

MENŢINEREA STĂRII DE SĂNĂTATE PRIN ACTIVITĂŢI FIZICE

Ileana-Monica POPOVICI 1, Lucian POPESCU 2, Cristina-Elena MORARU 3

Metodele de cercetare utilizate în studiu au fost: analiza literaturii de specialitate, metoda

Tabel 1 Interpretarea statistică a măsurătorilor antropometrice la cele două testări

Grafic 1 Reprezentarea grafică a mediilor obţinute la cele două testări

a Tabel 2 Interpretarea statistică a testelor funcţionale

Grafic 2 Reprezentarea grafică a mediilor obţinute la cele două testări

Grafic 3 Reprezentarea grafică a mediilor obţinute la cele două testări

ASSESSMENT OF THE PROFESSIONAL ABILITIES OF COACHES IN

Keywords: Wrestling, Coach Assessment, Coach - Athlete Relationship.

Material and methodology

Table 1. Numbers and percentage values of athletes by certain variables.

Table 2. Analysis results of study group by age variable

Table 3. Analysis results of study group by sports age variable

(b) 4-6 78 3,62 ,79

Table 4. Analysis results of study group by education level variable

ACCORDING TO VARIOUS DEGREEE OF CONFIDENCE AND SOCIAL

Key Words: Sport, Fitness, Confidence, Social Desirability, Exercise

POINTS OF ATTACHMENT ON FOOTBALL CLUBS: AN APPLICATION

Keywords: points of attachment, favourableness typologies, brand loyalty.

Data collection tool

Figure I Model of the Research

Analysis techniques and hypotheses

Group Point of N Mean Rank Rank Sum U p

Group Point of N Mean Rank Rank Sum U p

Group Point of N Mean Rank Rank Sum U p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

City 237 325,43

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Galatasaray 301 299,06

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Football Follower 159 412,65

Group Point of N Mean Rank SD X2 p

Discussion and conclusion

Limitations and future research

THE COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

Keywords: Comparative Sports Education, Teacher Education, Universities, Turkey, Iraq

School of Physical Education, Faculty of

Education Period 4 years 4 years 4 years

Hours of Lesson Content Theoretical: 125 Theoretical: 73 Theoretical: 82

Conclusion and suggestions

EXAMİNİNG THE ENTREPRENEURSHİP LEVELS OF STUDENTS WHO

Münire Burcu PORDOĞAN1, Sevim GÜLLÜ2

Keywords: Entrepreneurship in sport, sport management, university students

Material and method