Flow assurance refers to a successful, safe and uninterrupted transport of hydrocarbons from a

reservoir to processing facilities and the hydrocarbons further to the refinery or the consumer.
Sub sea pipelines are to have restricted pressure drops and long life. The hydrocarbons typically flow
through the pipelines as a mixture of oil, gas, some solids and water. This is often referred to as a
multiphase transport, which is a simultaneous flow consisting of gas, oil, water and sometimes solids
through a pipeline. Multiphase flow can cause slugging particularly in risers which can make surface
facilities inefficient.

Hydrates }

Wax/paraffin deposition } Fluid control

Scale }

Emulsions }

Slugging } Flow control

Sand }

Typical deposits found inside operating oil and gas pipelines include– salts and scales, corrosion
products (including ‘black powder – iron oxide,iron sulfide), paraffin wax, asphaltenes, hydrates, sand
and well fines, napthenates, emulsions, sludge, and water.

The main three modes of control of solid deposits are:

o Heat tracing & providing good insulation

o Chemical injections
o Pigging

Scales:- Most common are

 Calcium carbonate (calcite and aragonite)

 Sulfate salts of calcium (gypsum), strontium (celestite), and barium (barite)—radium may also
be found in the lattice, especially that of barium sulfate
 Sulfide scales—iron(II), zinc, and lead(II) salts are the most common
 Sodium chloride (halite)
They are mainly caused due to fall in temperature and pressure conditions.
In the initial condition, Salts are dissolved in the water present in the reservoir. In the process of
production, the conditions such as temperature, pressure, pH change; these salts in the water may
precipitate as solids and deposit as scales.

The scale can reduce pipeline diameter and plug vessels and equipment and lead to lost production.
The built up scale can cause serious corrosion. The dislodged scale deposits will affect the quality of
the oil.

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 In case of injection water, the dislodged material (scale) can plug the perforations of reservoir creating
a higher back pressure for water injection.

There are three basic approaches to deal with scale formation:

 Scale control/inhibitor chemical injection at well head or at facility – can avoid the scaling.
 The scale formation may be allowed and removed periodically by physical means (pigging etc.)or
by chemical treatments.
 Incase of injected seawater - During treatment of sea water for injection, Sulphate concentrations
are reduced and restricted (by R O) so that it will not precipitate the calcium sulphate etc. when it
flows into the reservoir (with the calcium ions in the reservoir rocks).
Continuous dosage of scale inhibitor and periodic pigging of pipelines can counter the scale buildup.

A variety of chemicals are introduced at

Wellhead (Well discharge point) to achieve flow assurance, including;

 HYDRATE INHIBITOR - to control hydrates formation

 CORROSION INHIBITOR - control corrosion activity in the line

 DRAG REDUCING AGENT (reduces the viscosity of the fluid and increases the throughput )

 WAX INHIBITOR (Reduces the wax formation)

There are also chemicals injected downhole (bottom of well tubing);

 CORROSION INHIBITOR/SCALE INHIBITOR - dual action chemical

 WATER TO REDUCE SALINTY OF PRODUCED WATER - (clean water) to avoid salt deposition

 DEMULSIFIER AGENT/OTHER COCKTAILS & SOLVENTS - break emulsion / other purposes

MOST SUB SEA PIPELINES REQUIRE PIGGING TO CLEAN THE LINE OR TO INSPECT THE LINE INTERNALLY

Corrosion products – Corrosion is an electrochemical, reduction oxidation process. Localised anodes

and cathodes are set up on the surface of the metal. Iron carbonate, Iron sulphide and iron oxide are the
common products. Black powder is a solid contaminant in finished product pipelines. The material may
be wet and have a tar-like appearance, or dry and be a very fine powder, sometimes like smoke. Black
powder can cause a range of problems, including product contamination, equipment contamination,
erosion wear in compressors, instrument and filter clogging, erosion and sealing problems for valves,
and flow reduction.

Paraffin wax – These are solids at ambient temperatures made up of long –chain (C<18), normal or
branched alkane compounds. C16 to C25 give soft mushy waxes and higher paraffins give
harder waxes. The effects are

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  Reduction or plugging of pipework, blocking flow—this can be downhole if the well temperature
is low, or topside in cold climate or subsea transportation.
 Increased fluid viscosity leading to increased pumping pressure.
 Restartability issues caused by wax gel strength.
 Reduced operating efficiency and process upsets with interruptions to production or shutdowns.
 Costly and technically challenging removal, especially in deepwater pipelines.
 Safety hazard due to deposits interfering with the operation of valves and instruments.
 Disposal problems associated with accumulated wax.
The solution is to preserve the temperature of the fluid above WAT, wax appearance temperature,
by improved insulation of transporting pipe lines and heat tracing. Injection of wax inhibitors at well
head and injection of drag reducers can control wax deposition. In the worst case, injection of
chemical can be done in the bottom of the well tubing through macaroni line. Poly acrylamide with
wastes from the production of glycerol at 400mg per litre is used for the inhibition.

Mixing of waxy crude oils, particularly heavy crudes, with a diluent is sometimes applied to avoid wax
problems in pipelines. Mixing of crudes at the subsea manifolds from the producers with low WAT
can be effective. Light crude with a lower Wax Appearance Temperature or pour point reduces the
over all WAT and pour points.

Asphaltenes – Organic solids consisting various poly aromatic structures with aliphatic chains. They also
contain atoms as Sulphur, Oxygen, Nitrogen and metals as Vanadium, Nickel and iron. Heavy molecules
and can be with MW greater than 1000 Da. Heaviest compounds of crude oil; also called as cholestrtol
of crude oil. These break out as solid particles when the pressure in the line drops below a certain level
and as much of the gas separates out of the crude oil. The pH of the fluids to be maintained nearer to
the neutral condition.

Hydrates – Gas hydrates are ice like clathrate solids that are formed from liquid water and small
hydrocarbons at higher pressures and lower temperatures. These can grow in size to the extent of
completely blocking the flow in the line. Hydrate formation can be avoided by maintaining the
temperature above the hydrate formation temperature for the operating pressure. Injection of Hydrate
inhibitors such as MEG (Mano ethylene glycol) or methanol at well head can also avoid hydrate
formation.

Emulsion – Emulsions are colloidal dispersions, droplets of one phase dispersed in a second phase.
Emulsifying agents are asphaltenes (a term given to a variety of compounds containing sulphur,
nitrogen, oxygen, etc), resins, organic acids, metallic salts, silts, clays and many others cause the stable
emulsion. Crude oil is almost always produced as a water-in-oil emulsion, that is, water droplets
stabilized in a continuous crude oil phase. Emulsions can attribute to increased viscosity and pose
troubles at the processing plant at the surface. Demulsifier chemicals are injected into the emulsion
bearing oil to destabilize the emulsifying agents.

Corrosion: Most important types are Electro chemical and Stress corrosion.

3
Elecro chemical corrosion proceeds with oxidation at anode and reduction at cathode.

Electro chemical corrosion proceeds when electrolytic fluid (aqueous solution), Oxygen, CO2 & H2S
such agents are present.

Factors affecting the rates are: Temperature, Pressure, Conductivity, pH, Fluid velocity, Heat treatment
of the material (crystal structure integrity), Dissimilar metals and stresses (constant and cyclical).

Oxygen Corrosion: Absorbed oxygen from the air by the moisture corrodes the exposed steel. By
deoxygenating the water the corrosion is avoided in the water injection lines.

Carbondioxide: Dissoves in water to form carbonic acid. Reacts with iron to form FeCO3 and H2.

Hydrogen Sulfide: In water it dissolves to form a weak acid. Reacts with iron to form FeS and H2.
Sulfide stresss corrosion / Hydrogen embrittlement, lead to spontaneous brittle- failures.

MIC, Microbe induced corrosion is a very much prevalent corrosion caused by chemical processes
initiated by the metabolism of anaerobic microorganisms in the produced fluids. The reduction of
sulfate ions by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) under anaerobic conditions is of particular concern.
Most MIC takes the form of pits that form underneath colonies of bacteria, also known as biofilms and
which frequently develop within mineral and bio deposits. Biofilm creates a protective environment
where conditions can become corrosive and corrosion is accelerated. Surface scale formation is one of
the critical factors governing localized corrosion rates.

Internal corrosion of equipments / pipelines are dealt by:

 Oxygen scavenging
 Chemical Inhibition
 Removal of dissolved gases (dearation)
 pH control
 Internal coating
 Reduction of Stress, shock load and vibration
 Regular removal of debris and deposits by pigging.
 Installing sacrificial anodes such as Aluminium.
 Impressive current cathodic protection

Corrosion Inhibitors:

 Barrier Layer formers, form a thin film, a few molecules thick adheres to the metal surface.
 Neutralising inhibitors neutralizes the aggressive constitutents – poly amides reduce the
hydrogen ion concentration.
 Scavengers - Oxygen scavenger reacts with the present oxygen and consumes it.

4
Water - Their deposition in a pipeline is not preferred and can lead to issues, such as increased back
pressures, decreased flow, reduced system reliability, and the risk of full or partial blockage.

Pipeline pigs are run at regular intervals through the line to remove debris before it can become an
issue.

Apart from these deposition of solids etc. SLUG FLOW is also a concern.

Slugs can be generated by different mechanisms in a pipeline:

 Terrain slugging is caused by the elevations in the pipeline, which follows the ground elevation or
the sea bed. Liquid can accumulate at a low point of the pipeline until sufficient pressure builds up
behind it. Once the liquid is pushed out of the low point, it can form a slug.
 Hydrodynamic slugging is caused by gas flowing at a fast rate over a slower flowing liquid phase.
The gas will form waves on the liquid surface, which may grow to bridge the whole cross-section of
the line. This creates a blockage on the gas flow, which travels as a slug through the line.
 Riser-based slugging, also known as severe slugging, is associated with the pipeline risers often
found in offshore oil production facilities. Liquids accumulate at the bottom of the riser until
sufficient pressure is generated behind it to push the liquids over the top of the riser, overcoming
the static head. Behind this slug of liquid follows a slug of gas, until sufficient liquids have
accumulated at the bottom to form a new liquid slug. The period of the cycle increases and worsens
the efficiency of the surface facilities as the height of the risers increase and the gas content of the
fluids get reduced. Effective ways followed for dealing riser based slugging are

 Gas injection from surface in the middle of the riser reduces the severity of slugging.
 Choking the flow at the inlet to the surface
 Flow control at the inlet to the surface with feed forward or feed backward controls
 Subsea separation and transporting the gas phase and liquid phase by separate lines with
necessary pressure boosters.

 Pigging slugs are caused by pigging operations in the pipeline. The pig is designed to push all or
most of the liquids contents of the pipeline to the outlet. This intentionally creates a liquid slug.
Slugs formed by terrain slugging, hydrodynamic slugging or riser-based slugging are periodical in nature.
Whether a slug is able to reach the outlet of the pipeline depends on the rate at which liquids are added
to the slug at the front (i.e. in the direction of flow) and the rate at which liquids leave the slug at the
back. Some slugs will grow as they travel the pipeline, while others are damped and disappear before
reaching the outlet of the pipeline.

Flow assurance during the transfer of hydrocarbons from a reservoir to processing facilities and later to
the consumers via subsea lines needs knowledge of fluid properties and the thermal-hydraulic state of
the system to develop strategies for control of formation of solids such as hydrates, wax, asphaltenes
and scale. Subsea lines are used as

5
 Gathering pipelines: Group of smaller interconnected pipelines which forms well organized
and reasonably constructed networks with the purpose of bringing oil or natural gas from
several nearby wells to a processing facility. These pipelines are normally short, a couple of
hundred meters and with small diameters.
 Transportation pipelines : Primarily long onshore or offshore lines with large diameter,
carrying products (oil, gas, refined products) between cities, countries and even continents.
These transportation networks comprise several compressor stations in gas lines or pump
stations for crude and multiproduct pipelines.
 Oil pipelines: Oil pipelines are made of steel tubes and are typically applied with diameters
ranging from 4 to 48 inches. The oil is held in motion by pump stations along the line, and flows
at speed of approximately 1 to 6 m/s [3 to 20 ft/s].
 Multiphase pipelines: Multi-product pipelines transport two or more different products
simultaneously in the same annulus pipe. Usually there is no physical separation between the
different products and is often referred to as multiphase flow
 Gas pipelines: For natural gas, pipelines are constructed of carbon steel with a diameter
ranging from 2 to 60 inches, depending of the type of line. Compressor stations along the line
are keeping the gas pressured up . Natural gas pipelines can be tens or even hundreds of
kilometers long and it is essential for instrumentation along the length of the pipeline to locate
any blockage with required degree of accuracy.
 Singles-phase gas transportation: Single-phase gas transportation refers to the flow of gaseous
hydrocarbons in a pipeline, where the presence of liquids should be avoided. For single-phase
gas lines, the hydrocarbon and water dew points are critical factors. The dew point of a gas at a
certain pressure is the temperature at which liquids will start to precipitate. The consequences
of not meeting the dew point requirements will badly affect the flow assurance. The risk of
hydrate formation inside a pipeline system is always present with the presence of free water.
 Single-phase liquids transportation: Single-phase liquids transportation involves the movement
of hydrocarbon liquids in pipeline systems, typically crude oil, where the occurrence of free gas
should be prevented. Heavier gas components (NGLs), are often included in the flow of crude oil
or condensate. By maintaining a sufficient pressure in order to avoid the formation of free gas,
crude oil or condensate can be transported in a single-phase pipeline. The pipeline pressure
should, at any time, be maintained above the vapor pressure of the liquid
 Two-phase flow: Two-phase flow involves transportation of gas and liquids (typically
condensate) in separate phases together in a pipeline. When gas and condensate (in separate
phases) flow currently in a pipeline, liquid accumulations in low points of the pipeline
topography may cause flow restrictions. To prevent any effect of this, special sweeping pigs are
regularly run through the flow-line to push out the liquid-buildups.
 Multiphase gas and liquid flow: A multiphase flow system is the simultaneous transport of
liquid hydrocarbons, gas, water and solid particles in a pipeline. The hydrocarbon liquids are the
predominant flow component. The main challenge for such oil-dominated systems is the
pressure drops along the line, thus the selection of pipeline diameter is highly essential in
relation to maintain a satisfactory flow to arrive at the host facility.

6
  Multiphase gas-condensate systems: Multiphase gas-condensate systems are pipelines carrying
hydrocarbon liquids, gas, water and solids, where gas is the predominant flow component. In
such pipeline systems, it is substantial to predict water and condensate accumulations to ensure
flow assurance.

BLOCKAGES IN PIPELINES: Piping systems are similar to arteries and veins of the human body. Pipelines
are a suitable and most economical solution for transportation of hydrocarbons for long distances;
however, risks associated with blockage formation of transported products are still high. The formation
of hydrates is considered to be the largest problem by an order of magnitude to the others.

Blockages or restrictions are one major issue for the pipeline system. They occur as a result of the
building up of different substances such as wax, asphaltenes, sand, hydrates and black powder from
corrosion products, and emulsions. At certain favorable conditions, these depositions begin to grow
and are then reducing the inner diameter of the pipeline until they have agglomerated to block the
entire span of a pipeline section. These deposits are primarily due to changes in flow condition such as:
temperature, pressure, flow velocity, and reactions between component fluids.

Conventional procedures for pipeline remediation to remove these obstacles introduce the means of
periodic and extensive pigging, chemical injection through umbilicals and high performance thermal
insulation

Flow assurance is often described as an operation that provides a reliable and controlled flow of fluids
from reservoir to the market. Due to significant technical headaches and challenges, providing safe and
efficient flow assurance requires interdisciplinary focus on the issue and efforts of specialist team’s
composed of scientists, engineers and operation engineers. NGH predictions can be determined by the
use of simulation software and computational methods. On the other hand, predicting hydrate
formation requires more detailed experience and experimental studies for each individual reservoir.

Five main Natural Gas Hydrates (NGH) prevention measures have been implemented to safeguard flow
assurance

i)Dehydration of wet gas and water removal (removal of water and water vapor content in the gas so
that formation of liquid water in the pipe line is avoided - onshore or offshore)

ii. Operating temperatures and temperatures away from the hydrate formation region.

iii. Injection of Thermodynamic Inhibitors (THI) such as methanol, glycol etc. to effectively decrease the
hydrate formation temperature and inhibit or retard NGH crystal formation

iv. Injection of Kinetic Inhibitors (KI) to prevent the aggregation of hydrate crystals

NGH INHIBITION FOR SUBSEA PIPELINES

There exist three chemical methods for preventing hydrates from blocking pipelines; i. Thermodynamic
Inhibitors (THI) ii. Kinetic Inhibitors (KI) iii. Anti-Agglomerators (AA)

7
Early warning signals of hydrate formation

I. Pigging returns: Pigging returns should be investigated properly for evidence of hydrate particles. The
hydrate particles are stable even at atmospheric pressure (Meta stable equilibrium) in a pig receiver.

ii. Changes in fluid rates and compositions at the separator: If the water arrival decreases significantly at
the separator, it may indicate hydrate formation in the flowline. It is also suggested that changes is gas
composition provides an early indication of hydrate formation in the pipeline.

iii. Pressure drop increases: The pressure drop (∆𝑃) increases and the flow rate decreases if the pipe
diameter is restricted by hydrate agglomeration at the pipe walls in a gas line.

This approach can lead to substantial cost savings because of the small amount of the inhibitor required for injection — < 1% of
the weight of water. It can help to maintain effective pumping and storage capabilities, and can lead to the design of smaller
production facilities. The kinetic control approach, using what are known as low dose hydrate inhibitors, features either kinetic
hydrate inhibitors (KHIs), which delay the nucleation and crystal growth of hydrates, or anti-agglomerants (AAs), which do not
stop the nucleation, but instead prevent the agglomeration. In both cases, hydrates can form if enough time is allowed because
the hydrate’s formation remains thermodynamically feasible. Two types of KHIs have been developed and commercialized in
recent years. The first one is a water-soluble polymeric material that has a tendency to form hydrogen bonding with the water,
thereby preventing hydrate formation. Typical examples of polymeric KHIs are based on polymers of cyclic amide (lactam), such
as polyvinyl caprolactam and polyvinyl pyrrolidone, or of other amides, such as polyethyloxazoline and N-methyl-N-
vinylacetamide. The second type is a non-polymeric material, such as tetrapentylammonium bromide and butoxy-ethanol. Even
though the latter performs poorly as a KHI because of their weak interaction with the hydrate surface, they are very effective as
synergists. The field of KHIs is not a new field.

Flow assurance for offshore and subsea facilities

Flow assurance, by definition, focuses on the whole engineering and production life cycle from the reservoir
through refining, to ensure with high confidence that the reservoir fluids can be moved from the reservoir to the
refinery smoothly and without interruption.

The full scope of subsea flow assurance is shown in Fig. 2. Flow assurance is sometimes referred to as “cash
assurance” because breakdown in flow assurance anywhere in the entire cycle would be expected to lead to
monetary losses. A few specific flow assurance issues are discussed next.

8
 

Fig. 1—Full scope of flow assurance (courtesy of MSL Engineering).

Fig. 2—Flow assurance matters for subsea tieback systems (courtesy of BP).

In general, production chemistry problems are one of four types:

9
 Problems caused by fouling. This is defined as the deposition of any unwanted matter in a
system and includes scales, corrosion products, wax (paraffin wax), asphaltenes, naphthenates,
biofouling, and gas hydrates.

Problems caused by the physical properties of the fluid. Foams, emulsions, and viscous flow are
examples.

Problems that affect the structural integrity of the facilities and the safety of the workforce.
These are mainly corrosion-related issues.

Problems that are environmental or economic. Oily water discharge can damage the envi-
ronment, and the presence of sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has envi-
ronmental and economic consequences.

The resolution of these problems can be made by the application of nonchemical techniques and
through the use of properly selected chemical additives. Among the many nonchemical techniques
that are available, the following examples are commonly used:
 Insulation (retaining heat to delay the onset of waxes or gas hydrate formation)
 Heating a flowline (preventing and remediating waxes and gas hydrates)
 Maintaining high pressure (delaying asphaltene flocculation, carbonate scale,
naphthenates)
 Use of corrosion-resistant materials and coatings (minimizing corrosion)
 Increase in flow rate/turbulence (minimizing asphaltenes, waxes, biofilm)
 Membranes and fine filters (removing fines, colloidal particles, and specific ions as
sulphates in case of treating sea water for injection
 Pigging of flowlines (preventing build-up of solids in pipes)
 Scraping tools (removing deposits, especially downhole)
• Application of vacuum (removing gases from water)
• Screens and plugs (for water shut-off downhole)
• Screens and gravel packs (for sand control)

Oilfield production chemicals are therefore required to overcome or minimize the effects of the
production chemistry problems listed above. In summary, they may be classified as follows:
 Inhibitors to minimize fouling and solvents to remove preexisting deposits
 Corrosion inhibitors to improve integrity management
 Chemicals added for some other benefit, including environmental compliance

Flow assurance chemical issues usually relate to solids deposition problems (fouling), such as wax
(paraffins), asphaltenes, scale, naphthenate, and gas hydrates in flowlines.

There are two general chemical strategies for the prevention of these deposits: either to use a
dispersant, which allows solid particles to form but disperses them in the production stream
without deposition, or to control solids formation by using an inhibitor.
Most new large fields are being found offshore in ever-increasing water depths and/or colder
environments. In addition, smaller offshore fields are often “tied back” to existing platforms or
other infrastructure requiring long, subsea multiphase flow pipelines.

10
The extremes of high pressure and low subsea temperatures and long fluid residence times place
greater challenges on flow assurance, particularly mitigating gas hydrate and wax (paraffin)
deposition. As with other production chemistry issues, a strategy for the prevention of gas
hydrate deposition must be worked out at the field-planning stage. Chemically, one can use
thermodynamic hydrate inhibitors (THIs) or the more recently developed low-dosage hydrate
inhibitors (LDHIs).
Wax deposition may not be fully prevented by using wax (paraffin) inhibitors; however, regular
mechanical pigging may possibly help keep the pipeline wax-free.

To reduce the amount of water handled by subsea lines , the production of water can be reduced
from the well either mechanically or chemically, using so-called water shut-off treatments that
block water flow. This may also alleviate scale-formation problems. Normally, treatment with a
scale inhibitor, downhole and/or topside, is required to prevent scaling. Asphaltene, wax, and
inorganic scales can all be removed using various chemical dissolver treatments.

Other downhole chemical treatments include water and gas shut-off and sand consolidation.

Direct Electrical Heating (DEH) technology keeps subsea flowlines flowing as oil and gas projects
go deeper and longer. The DEH technology prevents hydrate and wax formation with a robust,
field proven and efficient method for flow assurance. There are developments in Direct
Electrical Heating (DEH) technology for subsea flowlines. (Nexans was a DEH pioneer and in
2000 installed the first system on the Åsgard field, operated by Statoil).
9 out of the 10 fields operate with DEH in operation. Flow challenges Oil and gas exploration
and production is moving towards harsher environments, such as deeper water far from shore
and longer subsea tie-backs. This trend causes new potential flow assurance challenges for
operators. In deep water in particular, the high pressure and low temperature found at the
ocean floor increase the chances of hydrate and wax formation. Wax and hydrates are the
“cholesterol” of the subsea flowlines, which might slow or even completely block the flow of oil
and gas. Hydrates can be formed when water is present in the untreated well stream. At high
pressures hydrate might start to form at temperatures up to 25-30°C, increasing the risk for
hydrate blockage of the flowline. Problems occur when hydrates agglomerate together into a
slush-like material, typically during shutdown situations in long tiebacks. Wax is another source
of blockages that occurs in some flowlines. When the temperature of the fluid drops below the
wax appearance temperature (WAT), wax precipitates out. It hardens and adheres to the inside
surface of the pipe, sometimes enough to cause a plug. Flow assurance solutions Typically,
methods of preventing hydrate formation usually involved injecting chemicals into the well
stream but this is not a green solution and it requires valuable space topside for processing the
chemicals. DEH, is a technology which was qualified in 1998. The low maintenance cost and
minimal OPEX of DEH compared to traditional systems with chemicals and pressure evacuation
makes it an economical attractive solution.

DEH works DEH is a single phase electrical heating system that heats the flowline above the
hydrate and wax formation temperature by transmitting an AC current through the flowline.
Cables supply the current (and hydraulics if needed for other functions) from the topside power
system down to the Piggyback Cable that is strapped to the length of flowline to be heated.
Current is then transmitted via the Piggyback Cable and returns through the flowline and sea.
Due to magnetic field set up by this cable the flowline then becomes the primary return

11
 conductor in the system which is heated due to its own electrical resistance and the majority of
the heat development takes place in the flowline.

The longest flowline with DEH technology currently in operation is Tyrihans, operated by Statoil.
The production line is an 18” 42 km flowline.

With a water depth of between 390 and 1,070 meters, the Lianzi oil field development in a
unitized offshore zone between the Republic of Congo and the Republic of Angola, will be the
world’s deepest DEH system. The complete DEH system will include DEH Riser Cable, Armored
Feeder Cable, a 43 km long Piggyback Cable and all associated accessories for connection to the
flowline that will connect the Lianzi Development Project subsea facilities with the platform. The
Piggyback Cable incorporates IPS and fiber for break detection and temperature monitoring.
The DEH system is designed for both wax and hydrate management.

Flexible pipelines are widely used all over the world. Several manufacturers exist, each one with
a design which is defined by the configuration of the structures and by the material utilized.
These flexible pipelines are basically formed by alternate layers of steel spirals intercalated with
layers of an insulating material, such as, for instance, a polyamide-based elastomer. The internal
steel layer is interlocked, whereas the outermost layer is constituted by a crossed armoring,
with the purpose of providing the pipeline with a stronger structural reinforcement, this whole
ensemble being coated by a polyamide layer.

The flexible pipelines utilized in production systems in case of installations limited to water
depths of nearly 600 m are basically constituted by concentric layers, having a spiraled carcase
in stainless steel, a polyamide layer , a double layer of cross armorings and an external
polyamide layer . For water depths in excess of nearly 600 m, the flexible pipeline receives a
reinforcement of a spiraled carcase of zeta wire , between the polyamide layer and the double
layer of crossed armorings.

Reliable subsurface chemical injection

Chemical injection mandrels enable injection of chemicals in applications beyond the pressure,
temperature, and tensile-load resistance restrictions of conventional products. They are assembled as
part of the tubing string when the well is being prepared for chemical injection. A stainless steel or
MONEL chemical injection capillary tube is attached to the mandrel at surface; the mandrel and
injection line are then run to the desired depth with the completion.

Chemicals are used for corrosion prevention, as well as to inhibit formation of gas hydrates, scale,
asphaltenes, or paraffin in critical equipment in the tubing string.

Certain chemicals may need to be injected into oil or gas wells to counteract such conditions as scaling, hydrate
formation, and corrosion. Traditionally, the injection dosages to individual wells have been controlled through valves
located on the topside facilities. However, this requires a separate chemical feed line for each well – all the way from
the chemical supply tank on the platform, through the control valve and the umbilical to the subsea well. In other
words, the distribution of chemicals to each well is performed on the surface. For a subsea field development, the
larger the number of trees and the longer the step-out from the host platform result in additional costs for each

12
separate stainless steel tube bundled in the subsea umbilical.

Solution:

Subsea chemical distribution is a better method that greatly reduces umbilical cost since only a single chemical feed
line is required from the surface to the seabed. A subsea chemical distribution manifold branches the chemical feed
to each well, and subsea chemical injection valves on each tree controls the dosage of the different chemicals to
each well. Emerson is a pioneer in the area of subsea chemical distribution with the Roxar range of subsea chemical
injection valves providing accurate, electrical control of the injection dosage. These valves also include built-in
measurement of the injection flow rates, thus providing instantaneous feedback to topside operators that the desired
injection dosage is actually being achieved at each tree. The most rigorous erosion testing proves the reliability of
these valves in the most demanding applications, with injection flow rates up to 400 l/min.

Flow regimes in multiphase flow:

The different flow regimes in multiphase flow are dependent on the velocity of the liquid and gas
flow, the distribution of the phases and the inclination of the pipe.

In vertical flow, there will always be some kind of mixed flow. At high superficial velocities, slug
flow is avoided, and bubble flow will occur. The type of bubble flow depends on the distribution
between the liquid and the gas. Superficial velocity is the volume flow per pipe area.

In horizontal flow at low velocities, the flow will be gravity dominated, resulting in a stratification
of the flow. At higher pressures, which results in higher velocities, the friction and mixing forces
will create bubble or slug flow. When the flow consists of mostly gas, the liquid will collect along
the pipe at high velocities, and create annular flow.

Slug flow:

With multiphase transport, slugging flow has become a problem. Slug flow is the result of the
liquid layer of the mixture filling up the whole area of the pipe, blocking the gas flow. This creates
a pressure buildup, which then pushes the liquid slug with an increased velocity. Such slugs may
lead to reduced production, erosion on the pipeline or in some cases damage to the topside
equipment. Slug flow may be the result of unstable wavy flow or the design of the pipeline/riser
leading to liquid accumulations. Slug flow may be generated by different mechanisms in the
pipeline, such as hydrodynamic slugging, slugs due to pigging and riser slugging.

Hydrodynamic slugging is caused by the gas flowing with a higher velocity than the liquid. This
forms waves on the top of the liquid layer, which create slugs if they cover the whole cross
section of the pipeline. The slugs created this way are usually small, and are not considered a
threat to the process. It might lead to erosion and reduced production.

Slugs due to pigging are caused by the pig, which is designed to push the liquid and gas in front
of itself to the outlet, while cleaning the pipe for wax and corrosion products depositions. Riser

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 slugging or severe slugging is caused by the transition between a pipeline and the riser as seen in
Figure. The liquid will accumulate at the bottom of the riser until enough pressure is generated
to push the liquid all the way up through the riser. Gas will flow after the liquid slug until new
liquid has built up enough volume to block the cross section at the bottom of the riser again. The
slugs may be as long as the riser and this causes the topside facilities to receive long periods of
only liquid, followed by a period of almost only gas. Equipment like the separator cannot handle
this kind of flow. Severe slugging is considered as slugs with a period of 10-180 minutes.

Measures against slug flow:

Slug catcher: A slug catcher is a vessel with sufficient volume to store the largest slugs expected
from the well. It is placed as a buffer between the outlet of the riser and the process facilities.
This is possible because of the period between the slugs, providing enough time to drain the slug
catcher in a controlled manner. However the disadvantages of the slug catcher are that it is
expensive and occupies a lot of area.

Topside chocking: By closing the topside choke valve, severe slugging might be avoided, but this
will reduce production. Topside chocking is one of the first solutions proposed for the severe
slugging problem. By chocking, the back pressure will increase, and help push the liquid up the
riser.

Riser base gas injection: Gas injection at the riser base increases the back pressure and might
eliminate the severe slugging. This requires large amounts of gas injected. The amount of
pressured gas needed results in this method alone not being economical, but a combination
where topside chocking is used, and has given some usable results

Full separation: Full separation of the phases subsea would also solve the problem. However the
subsea separation technology is fresh and it is not economical to do this compared to the other
solutions. Subsea separation is considered the most important technology to be developed. This
is due to t

The cost savings related to putting some of the process facilities on the sea bottom.

Potential issues Evaluations / studies to be performed

Hydrate formation Develop hydrate management strategy

(Understand actual Company hydrate
strategy if already existing)
Requirement of insulation
Ensure MEG/Methanol distribution (if
actual)
MEG/methanol injection points

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Wax deposits Establish WAT (Wax Appereance
Temperature)
Insulation requirements
Pigging requirements
Multiphase flow Branching
Branching Ensure MEG distribution
Ensure liquid distribution
Flow regime

Fluid properties Establish or verify hydrate formation

temperature
Establish or verify wax appearance
temperature
Establish composition to be used in the
different simulations tools; HYSYS steady
state, OLGA, CFD, HYSYS dynamics,
Calculations input to hydrate formation
potential and gas ingress

Potential issues Evaluations / studies to be performed

Sand production Erosion (see erosion)

Sand accumulation

Erosion due to sand production General assessment with DNV-RP-0501

Detailed investigation with CFD
Sand management
Steering criteria for production

Thermal requirement General assessment based on hydrate

strategy, wax management and assessment
of influence of temperature on process as
separation / compression
Insulation
No-touch time
Cool down time
Detailed investigation of thermal
requirements with FEA and CFD

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Multiphase simulations
Flow regime investigation
Terrain slugging in flowline
Potential issues
Riser slugging and stability
Dynamic simulations
Operational Philosophy
Conceptual screening
Bottlenecking of pressure drop
Control of flow regime in flowlines
Control of flow regime inlet separation
equipement investigated by
simulations/testing
OLGA/FlowManager™ dynamic simulations
to investigate inlet conditions
OLGA and Flow Manager simulations in
upstream and downstream flowlines
Simulation model, OLGA /Flow Manager,
corresponding to actual geometries inlet, on
station and outlet
Evaluations / studies to be performed
Simulations by OLGA and Flow Manager to
investigate oscillation velocities related to
sand transport and process control
Simulations of after flushing outlet
conditions
Gas lift
Impact from shut-down, start-up, sensitivity
to flow regimes are incorporated in the
simulations and in the flow assurance
strategies
Hydrate strategy, de-pressurization and
other Flow Assurance issues are properly
handled in operational procedures with
special emphasize on shut-down and start-
up
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Chemical injection points and PDT General requirements
instrumentation

Emulsion Company premises: Downhole injection of

de-emulsifiers through gas-lift valve
The use of de-emulsifiers affects the design
of the separation equipment

Corrosion Material selection

Asphaltenes Evaluation composition and chemicals

Flow induced vibrations Evaluations flow induced vibrations

Monitoring Online FAS (Flow Assurance System)

CPM (Conditioning Performance
Monitoring)

Discuss about various types of corrosion and prevention chemicals used, in oil and gas industry.

There are many types of corrosion that occur in the oilfield, including
General corrosion
Localized corrosion
Pitting and crevice corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Erosion corrosion
Microbially influenced corrosion (MIC)
Cracking corrosion (sulfide stress corrosion & chloride stress corrosion)
 General corrosion is uniform wastage of metal along the whole tubing or flowline and the
easiest to manage.
 Localized corrosion is more common and occurs at specific points.

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  Galvanic corrosion is a process in which one metal corrodes preferentially when in electrical
contact with a different type of metal and both metals in contact with an electrolyte.
 Pitting and crevice corrosion are similar types of extreme localized corrosion that leads to the
creation of small holes in the metal. Pitting corrosion is particularly prevalent at high chloride
ion concentrations.
 Erosion corrosion is also called flow-induced localized corrosion. Erosion corrosion is a complex
materials degradation mechanism involving the combined effects of mechanical erosion and
electrochemical corrosion. It is known to be induced by high shear stresses in strong flows.
 MIC is a very prevalent corrosion caused by the reduction of sulfate ions by sulfate-reducing
bacteria (SRBs) under anaerobic conditions. Most MIC takes the form of pits that form
underneath colonies of bacteria, also known as biofilms and which frequently develop within
mineral and bio deposits. Biofilm creates a protective environment where conditions can
become corrosive and corrosion is accelerated. Surface scale formation is one of the critical
factors governing localized corrosion rates.
 Stress Corrosion–Occurs in metal that is subject to both stress and a corrosive environment. It
can start at a “stress riser” like a wrench mark or packer slip mark.
 Hydrogen Embrittlement–Atomic hydrogen diffuses into the grain boundary of the metal,
generating trapped larger molecules of hydrogen molecules, resulting in metal embrittlement.
 Sufide Stress Corrosion - Occurs when metal is in tension and exposed to H2S and water.
Generated atomic hydrogen moves between grains of the metal reducing metal ductility.

Corrosion inhibitors can be categorized as follows

Cathodic
Vapor phase or volatile
Film forming
• Amides and imidazolines - Ethoxylated and propoxylated alkylphenol amines, converted into
the amides with a fatty acid or similar long chain diacids, are effective in controlling sour and
sweet corrosion.

• Salts of nitrogenous molecules with carboxylic acids (fatty acids, naphthenic acids)

• Nitrogen quaternaries - • A thio-substituted, quaternary ammonium salt is useful in

controlling corrosion such as that caused by CO2 and H2S.

• Polyoxylated amines, amides, and imidazolines. Aqueous compositions containing the glycol
and the polyoxyalkylene amine also exhibit a low foaming tendency.
• Nitrogen hetero cyclics

Vapor-phase corrosion inhibitors are organic compounds that have sufficient vapor pressure under
ambient atmospheric conditions to essentially travel to the surface of the metal by gas diffusion and
physically adsorbing onto the surface.
Examples are
Dicyclohexylamine nitrite
Dicyclohexylamine carbonate

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Diethylamine phosphate
Small volatile amines such as trimethylamine
Benzotriazole

Blends of light amines and imidazolines are also used effectively.

Film forming inhibitors

Film-forming corrosion inhibitors are particularly useful for the prevention of chloride, CO2, and H2S
corrosion. They can be deployed in continuous injection or batch treatment either downhole or at the
wellhead. Typical dosages of active FFCI components are often in the range 10–100 ppm.
This type of corrosion inhibitor is adsorbed on to the metal surface (or a ferrous scale surface such as
siderite, iron carbonate), forming a protective layer that physically prevents corrosive chemicals such as
water and chloride ions from penetrating to the metal surface.
Encapsulated time-release pellets containing FFCIs have also been deployed downhole. Examples are
thio glycolic acid, diethylene triamine, and naphthene acid imidazolines.

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