Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
development economists, such as, Lewis41 (1954) and Ranis & Fie (1961)
income activities of rural sector to higher ones of urban sector and thus,
narrows down the rural-urban gap. However, Lewis and Ranis & Fie
surplus labour in urban sector with substantial and steady influx of rural
that the modern sector, with emphasis on highly capital intensive techniques, is
not capable enough to absorb the natural growth of urban workforce. Rural-
urban areas nor brings about fundamental transformations in rural areas (Smit42
factors to increase urban unemployment rate and affect the carrying capacity of
41
Lewis, W. A. 1954. Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor, The Manchester
School of Economic and Social Studies 22: 139-191.
42
Smit, W. (1998),The Rural Linkages of Urban Households in Durban, South Africa, Environment
and Urbanization, Vol.10 (1), 77-87
83
urban infrastructure. Todaro43 (1969) explains this paradoxical relationship of
therefore, necessary to identify the key factors that are responsible for
migration of people from rural areas to urban areas. People migrate from rural
to urban areas due to various factors. These factors are generally classified as
Push and pull factors. Push factors are those factors which force the people
to leave their places. High intensity of poverty & unemployment, in rural areas,
calamities, social and religious conflicts may be the main push factors.
education facilities, better infrastructure and amenities in the urban areas, are
the key pull factors in the rural-urban migration. This chapter we discuss the
factors and then we conduct the regression analysis to identify the key
One of the most important factors in the mobility of workforce from one region
to other region or from one location to other location is economic. Since rural
43
Todaro, M. (1969) A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed
Countries, American Economic Review Vol.59, 138-148.
84
people lack better employment opportunities in the villages, they migrate to
urban areas where they expect to get productive employment. Those who have
better education and skill have the high probability to get employment in the
urban organized sector, while those who do not have basic education and skills
get opportunity in the expanded informal sector, such as domestic help, hotels
show that most of the migrants, except for forced migrants, move to the urban
Land is one of the most important assets in the rural area. A good quality
household who does not have access to land and other productive assets.
Bundelkhand and Central regions. The high people-land ratio and low
44
Mitchell J.C (1959), The Causes of Labour Migration, Bulletin of the Inter-African Labour
Institute, Vol.6, 12-47.
85
shown an inverse relationship between per capita availability of land and
Shaw47, 1974). Stiglitz (1973) finds that the landless peasants are more
holdings.
high wage and income difference between rural and urban labour
study (ILO, 1966) concludes that the main push factor in the rural to
inequality between rural and urban areas is quite high and it has further
growth of informal economy and the resultant migration from rural areas
45
Singh, S.P. and R.K. Agarwal, (1998), "Rural-Urban Migration: the Role of Push and Pull Factor
Revisited" The Indian Journal of Labour Economics., Vol. 41 (4), pp. 653-68.
46
Stiglitz, J.E. (1973), Alternative Theories of Wage Determination and Unemployment in LDCs,
IDS Discussion Paper, No.125, Narobi.
47
Shaw R.P. (1974), Land Tenure and the Rural Exodus in Latin America, Economic Development
and Cultural Change, Vol. 23(1), 123-132
86
Per worker output is about 3.5 times higher in non-agricultural activities
for both skilled and unskilled workers. Rural workers move to the urban
are thinly and sparsely populated, cities are densely populated and
87
industries. Nevertheless, the employment has been expanded in the
social groups also act as a factor in the mobility of people from rural to
urban areas. If Land and physical resources are concentrated only in few
hands, other people would not be able to get their livelihood in the rural
the farm sector likely to reduce the labour absorption in the farm sector.
Labour is the only of landless workers and if their labour is not gainfully
employed in the rural sector, they would like to migrate to the urban
areas. It may also be argued that the extreme poor people may not be
88
revolution technology used in India, initiated in late 60s, is more
sector, the substitution of factory made tools and other articles for those
change also generates scale effects which tend to increase the demand
50
Tyagi B.P. (1994), Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Jai Prakash Nath & Co., Meerut
89
operated farms is higher than on the bullock-operated farms in Gujarat.
farm activities. It has been observed that a large number of rural workers
the labour requirement per unit of land but the total volume of
employment in the rural areas does not seem to reduce due to the
For instance, absentee land lords may not do the intensive cultivation or
90
household may not get gainful employment throughout the year in
peasant households.
Various social factors also work in the rural to urban migration. In this sub-
family system, male member can migrate leaving his children and wife
at home as the other members of the family can take care of theme,
are better able to promote migration than the nuclear families. The broad
91
5.2.2 Family Conflicts
The society is divided into various social and ethnic groups. Social
exclusion for generations in the rural areas quite often look for
other hand, in urban areas, people are not generally aware of people
92
community or caste and therefore, the people coming from the lower
social strata are not discriminated at the same extent as they are
discriminated in the rural areas. Therefore, other things remain the same,
Better social services and amenities in the urban areas also attract rural
people to urban areas. As compared to rural areas, the cities have better
areas by bright lights of the city. Relatively better off rural people tend
to migrate to the cities more than poor people due to better social
services and amenities in the urban center. In has also been observed
that rich farmers construct their houses in the nearby towns or cities and
their daughters married in those families who have their houses in towns
or cities.
There are several demographic and educational factors that determine the rural-
urban migration. Age, sex, family size, population growth, education, etc are
93
the determined factors in the rural-urban migration. Some of these factors, we
have already discussed in patterns and dimensions of migration in the state. For
young people. The young have a higher probability to move because the returns
on human capital decline with the increase in age after a point. Moreover,
marriage is also one of the contributing factors to migration and marriages are
held in the young age. Further, after a certain age, people would like to settle
at one place. They may have attachment to the place either because they have
contracted they own houses or they have built up a network of friends and
relatively.
would be relatively high. However, the pattern may vary across regions and
Mehta51 (1991) finds a positive relationship between size of family and rural to
and thus minimize the risk that may arise due to more people engaged in risky
51
Mehta G.S., (1991), Socio-Economic Aspects of Migration, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi.
94
agricultural activities. Another demographic factor in the migration is rate of
population growth across regions. The reduction in the mortality rate and slow
decline in the fertility rate increase the population growth which, in turn,
would push more people from rural areas to urban areas. The varying degree of
people from high population pressure areas to low pressure areas. Large scale
out-migration from rural areas of Bihar, UP and some other backward regions
to the urban areas of Maharashtra , Gujarat, Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, etc is the
Education is one of the most significant factors affecting the rural to urban
migration. Education affects the rural to urban migration in two ways. First is
migration for education and second is education fro migration. Rural areas
most have primary and secondary educational facilities and that too of
resourceful parents of rural areas send their children to urban areas for higher
Affirmative actions of the government also help the poor families in their
endeavour. The subsidize education for the SC/ST and other weaker sections of
communities also attract more students from rural areas to urban centres of
higher education.
95
Educated and skilled workers have more probability to migrate from
rural to urban areas than the uneducated and unskilled ones. The current
education system does not much relate to the rural life and activities. For
instance, in most of the cases, the rural students do not get education and skills
at middle and secondary levels in rural schools that are required for agriculture
and other rural activities. While in urban areas, expending formal and informal
skilled workers. Therefore, the educated and skilled workers tend to move
from rural areas to urban areas more than their uneducated and unskilled
counterparts.
Natural and climatic factors also affect the migration of people. The
cyclones, storms, earth quakes, famine, etc, also explain the rural to urban
migration. As water is essential for human life, scarcity of water compels the
farmers to leave their places for long periods to get alternative livelihood
options. The increase in number of frequent droughts is also one of the key
push factors in the rural to urban migration. Flood and other natural disaster
also displace the people in large number. Floods wash away many villages and
destroy crops and leave the rural people jobless and homeless who are forced to
96
migrate to other places, especially in urban areas. Connell52 et.al. (1976) finds
variation in the rural to urban migration. Apart from the above mentioned
wars, insurgency, etc. For example, due the prolong conflicts and terrorist
migrated to the other part of the countries, especially in cities, like Delhi.
employment to each will rural household. The Government has been spending
over Rs.40000 crores on the scheme. Since the workers ensure 100 days of
employment in their village itself, they would be less inclined to move out the
migration has been declined to some extent in those places where the scheme is
52
Connell, J, B. Dasgupta, R. Laishley, M. Lipton (1976), Migration from Rural Areas: The Evidence
from Village Studies, Oxford University Press Delhi.
97
being implemented effectively. Similarly, government policies to develop the
rural non-farm sector may likely to reduce the rural to urban migration. On the
other hand, new economic policies being initiated by the Government of India
since 1991 have encourage Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and domestic
liberal policy regime, the development role of the government has weakened. It
may be pointed out that during this period public investment in agriculture has
Indian agriculture has been going through the severe crisis. Farmers have
substantially declined (Singh, 2008). This reduces the demand for labour in
affects the migration positively. Chatterjee53 and Kundu (1998) argue that cost
is a vital factor in migration. The cost of migration has two components. First
are the money costs which comprise expenditure on transport, food, shelter,
53
Chaterjee, B. and A. Kundu (1998), Cost of Migration and Savings of Rural Labour in a Developing
Economy, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol. 41 (4), 784-94.
98
cost of the inputs into the job search and search for accommodation. Second are
non-money costs which comprise psychic costs associated with personal and
family dislocation and disruption and opportunity costs which include the
earning forgone while traveling, search for and learning a new job. Further, the
urban migration. It is found that the migrants are more like to move to areas
analysis; however, some of the variables had to drop either because they did
not explain the dependent variable or they had the problem of multi-
collinearity. The functional form of the model and the number of variable are
district-wise data on two data points (1991 and 2001). Thus, our analysis is
based on unbalance panel data collected from all districts of Uttar Pradesh.
and workers. These data are classified according to last residence as last
residence outside India, last residence elsewhere India, last residence within
the state of enumeration but outside the place of Enumeration, last residence
99
elsewhere in the district of enumeration, last residence in other districts of the
state of enumeration and last residence in states of India beyond the state of
refers to the flow of rural people to urban area of district of enumeration from
any region of the country, including the district of enumeration while last
rural-urban migration rate based on the last residence elsewhere in the district
from rural area of Jhansi district to urban area of Ghaziabad district would not
urban migration.
1. Rural Literacy (RLIT): It is expected that a high literacy rate in the rural
areas would encourage people to migrant to the urban areas for getting better
urban areas not only for better livelihood but also to get higher education as
tertiary education facilities are not generally available in the rural areas. It is
therefore, hypothesize that literacy rate is one of the pull factors in the rural
100
2. Length of Pucca Road per Lakh Population (PUCCA_R): Better road
3. Net Sown Area per Rural Worker (NSA_RW): Rural livelihoods, among
that if other things remain same, a decline in the net sown area per rural worker
migration.
agriculture. An increase in the net irrigated area raises the on-farm employment
off-farm employment also. Thus, this variable is expected to reduce the rural-
urban migration.
distress nature.
101
6. Percentage of Rural Workforce in Household Industry (R_HHI):
workers and thus can increase the migration of rural people to urban area.
However, urbanization may also reduce migration of rural workers to the urban
areas by two ways. First, it can create employment opportunities in rural non-
farm and farm activities through generating demand for rural products,
cost of living and put more pressure on the carrying capacity of urban basic
infrastructure and amenities and thus discourages the rural to urban migration.
8. Dummy for Central and Bundelkhand Regions (D1= 1 for CR and BK, 0
regions and expect that rural to urban migration rate is higher in these two
102
5.7.1 Total Rural-Urban Migration Rate (RUMT)
urban migration rate as a dependent variable and all the above stated
Table : 5.1
Results of Estimated Regression Coefficients for Rural - Urban
Total Migration (Total Migrants)
DV: RUMT_P
Independent Standard t- P-value
Variables Un-Standarized Error Standardized statistics
Coefficients (SE) Coefficients
(B) ()
Intercept 12.124 2.623 4.621 .000
RLIT 0.005 0.020 0.019 0.232 .817
total rural to urban migration rate (person). The value of R-2 given in the
103
considerably larger than should be explained by chance. The results
for the variable representing length of pucca road per lakh population
104
Three variables, namely, RLIT, NIA, and NSA_RW do not have any
female rural migrants. The purpose is to know whether there exists any
included in the regression model and rest is explained by the factors not
105
coefficients, we find that out of 8 explanatory variables, only 5 variables
Comparing the results given in Table 5.2 to that given in Table 5.1, it is
Table : 5.2
Results of Estimated Regression Coefficients for Rural - Urban
Total Migration (Male Migrants)
DV: RUMT_M
Independent Un- t- P-
Variables standardized Std. Error Standardized statistics value
Coefficients (SE) Coefficients
(B) ()
Intercept 6.989* 2.084 '- 3.354 .001
RLIT -.016 .016 -.093 -.993 .323
PUCCA_R .041* .013 .364 3.152 .002
NSA_RW -1.913 1.437 -.161 -1.331 .186
NIA .019 .013 .154 1.432 .155
R-HHI -.178* .050 -.285 -3.540 .001
CI -.028** .012 -.211 -2.311 .023
URB -.053* .016 -.301 -3.429 .001
D1=CRBK 1.755* .494 .308 3.551 .001
-2
R 0.410
F-Value 11.700*
N 124
Notes: (1) * and ** Significant at 1 and 5 percent level of significance respectively.
(2) Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.
106
Table 5.3 shows the results for rural-urban migration of female
are also found higher for RUMT-F than RUMT_M. Thus, length of
Net irrigated area as percent of new sown area and net sown area per
followed by D1, PUCCA_R, R_HHI and CI. This indicates that the
107
Table : 5.3
Results of Estimated Regression Coefficients for Rural - Urban
Total Migration (Female Migrants)
DV: RUMT_F
Independent Un- t- P-
standardized Std. Error Standardized
Variables statistics value
Coefficients (SE) Coefficients
(B) ()
Intercept 18.069* 4.081 4.427 .000
RLIT 0.025 0.031 0.069 0.822 .413
PUCCA_R 0.045*** 0.026 0.182 1.755 .082
NSA_RW -3.159 2.816 -0.122 -1.122 .264
NIA 0.022 0.026 0.079 .824 .412
R-HHI -0.214*** 0.099 -0.157 -2.174 .032
CI -0.041*** 0.024 -0.141 -1.720 .088
URB -0.246* 0.031 -0.633 -8.051 .000
D1=CRBK 3.547* 0.968 0.285 3.666 .000
R-2 0.526
F-Value 18.060*
N 124
Notes: (1) *, ** and *** Significant at 1, 5 and 10 percent level of significance respectively.
(2) Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.
urban areas. Total migrants include both workers and non-workers. Non-
may not explain the migration of such people to the urban areas. For
example, variables such as NIA, NSA_RW, CI, may not explain the
mobility of non-workers from rural to urban areas while they could have
(RUMW_F). The results are shown in Tables 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6.
sectors in the urban areas. Therefore, if literacy rate among the rural
the villages to get better employment in the urban areas. The value of
coefficient for RLIT indicates that a one percentage point increase in the
migration rate. It may be noted here that RLIT does not have any
significant impact on the total rural migration rate (RUMT_P) but it has
109
(RUMW_P). Length of pucca road per lakh population (PUCCA_R) is
variables. Variable D1, which represents CR and BK, indicates that the
land for cultivation would induce to have greater demand for labour on
farms. This means that as net sown area per rural worker decreases it
would increase the migration of workers from rural to urban areas. Our
5.03 which manifests that a one unit increase in this variable tends to
110
employment increases. Therefore, lack of irrigation facilities seems to be
for variable NIA does not confirm this because it is found statistically
Table : 5.4
Results of Estimated Regression Coefficients for Rural - Urban of workers
(Total Workers)
DV: RUMW_P
Independent Un- t- P-
standardized Std. Error Standardized
Variables statistics value
Coefficients (SE) Coefficients
(B) ()
Intercept 11.214 3.200 - 3.505 .001
RLIT 0.057* 0.024 0.180 2.328 .022
PUCCA_R 0.099* 0.020 0.467 4.903 .000
NSA_RW -5.030** 2.207 -0.228 -2.278 .025
NIA 0.007 0.021 0.032 .362 .718
R-HHI -0.263* 0.077 -0.227 -3.411 .001
CI -0.048** 0.018 -0.196 -2.599 .011
URB -0.129* 0.024 -0.389 -5.377 .000
D1=CRBK 2.825* .759 0.267 3.724 .000
-2
R 0.598
F-Value 23.876
N 124
Notes: (1) * and ** Significant at 1 and 5 percent level of significance respectively.
(2) Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.
111
migration. Table 5.4 also shows the standardized coefficients for the
Rural literacy, NSA_RW and NIA do not have any perceptible impact
dummy variable (D1), representing CR and BK, has the positive impact.
112
Table : 5.5
Results of Estimated Regression Coefficients for Rural - Urban of workers
(Male Workers)
DV: RUMW_M
Independent Un- t- P-
standardized Std. Error Standardized
Variables statistics value
Coefficients (SE) Coefficients
(B) ()
Intercept 9.282 2.973 - 3.122 .002
RLIT 0.004 0.023 0.014 0.164 .870
PUCCA_R 0.072* 0.019 0.418 3.846 .000
NSA_RW -3.158 2.051 -0.175 -1.539 .126
NIA 0.029 0.019 0.153 1.517 .132
R-HHI -0.264* 0.072 -0.279 -3.676 .000
CI -0.045** 0.017 -0.224 -2.596 .011
URB -0.084* 0.022 -0.312 -3.775 .000
D1=CRBK 2.706* 0.705 0.313 3.838 .000
-2
R 0.478
F-Value 15.062*
N 124
Notes: (1) * and ** Significant at 1 and 5 percent level of significance respectively.
(2) Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.
the table that 48.3 percent variations in the rural to urban migration of
pucca road, NSA_RW, NIA and URB are found to have statistically
impact on the dependent variable. Rural literacy and Pucca road do have
113
found inversely related with the dependent variable. Magnitudes of -
explaining the variations in the rural-urban migration rates for male and
female workers. For example, rural literacy does not have any impact on
than the other regions, while in case of female migrant workers, there is
have significant negative impact on RUMW_M but it does not have any
RUMW-M, Pucca raod occupies the first rank, followed by D1, URB,
R_HHI and CI, while in case of RUMW_F, it is URB which has the first
114
Table : 5.6
Results of Estimated Regression Coefficients for Rural - Urban of workers
(Female workers)
DV: RUMW_F
Independent Un- t- P-
standardized Std. Error Standardized
Variables statistics value
Coefficients (SE) Coefficients
(B) ()
Intercept 34.537** 15.634 - 2.209 .029
RLIT 0.551* 0.119 0.407 4.648 .000
PUCCA_R 0.265* 0.098 0.291 2.696 .008
NSA_RW -18.275*** 10.786 -0.192 -1.694 .093
NIA -0.169*** 0.101 -0.168 -1.674 .097
R-HHI -0.467 0.377 -0.093 -1.237 .218
CI -0.085 0.090 -0.080 -.939 .350
URB -0.616* 0.117 -0.433 -5.276 .000
D1=CRBK 3.742 3.707 0.082 1.009 .315
-2
R 0.483
F-Value 15.365*
N 124
Notes: (1) * and ** Significant at 1 and 5 percent level of significance respectively.
(2) Figures in parentheses are t-statistics.
5.8 SUMMING UP
This chapter examines various factors that affect the rural to urban migration.
factors that explain the variation in rural to urban migration. The key
on data collected from 1991 and 2001 population Censuses, with corresponding
district-wise data from Statistical Abstract of the State Government. All the
districts of the State are covered by the study. The entire state is divided into
four regions, namely, WR, CR, BK and ER. Initially 16 variables were selected
for the regression analysis; however, after doing some statistically exercises for
115
model building, including removal of problem of multi-collinearity in some
The empirical results indicate that eight variables together explain 41-55
found significant at 1 per cent level in all the regression models, implying that
chance. The findings of regression analysis show that in case of total rural to
people. Length of pucca road and D1 are found to have positive impact on
R_HHI, and CI. It is evident from the findings that the explanatory variables
explain the rural-urban migration of female population better than that of the
case of RUMT-F than in case of RUMT-M. The F-value is also observed much
116
We have also examined the impact of key determinants on the rural-
the explanatory variables, except for NIA, turn out to be statistically significant
four variables, namely NSA_RW, URB, CI and R_HHI are found inversely
length of pucca road ranks first in terms of its contribution to the RUMW_P,
results also reveal that the contribution of explanatory variables varies across
gender. For example, RLIT does not have any impact on RUMW_M, while it
117
Appendix 5A
Table 5A.1: Details of Dependent Variables
District RUMT_P RUMT_M RUMT_F RUMW_P RUMW_P RUMW_P
1991 census
Saharanpur 7.21 5.75 8.88 6.77 6.71 8.14
Muzaffarnagar 10.13 6.49 14.25 10.09 9.17 24.83
Bijnor 6.80 2.10 12.08 3.45 2.86 18.36
Moradabad 2.95 1.51 4.59 2.16 1.96 5.46
Rampur 2.12 1.35 2.98 1.76 1.62 3.97
Meerut 5.77 3.45 8.43 4.88 4.61 9.39
Ghaziabad 3.22 2.48 4.11 2.82 2.80 3.09
Bulandshahr 4.29 2.33 6.52 3.28 3.03 8.48
Aligarh 6.67 3.23 10.64 5.11 4.63 13.20
Agra 2.97 1.68 4.47 2.28 2.16 4.61
Mathura 7.13 3.46 11.40 5.98 5.40 15.61
Firozabad 6.70 5.37 8.24 7.57 7.36 11.99
Etah 9.16 6.13 12.64 8.75 8.33 17.69
Mainpuri 9.70 7.99 11.64 11.02 10.58 22.02
Budaun 8.45 4.32 13.16 5.78 5.38 16.26
Bareilly 4.65 2.49 7.12 3.36 3.26 5.72
Pilibhit 5.22 2.76 8.06 3.81 3.55 9.49
Shahjahanpur 5.71 3.52 8.21 4.05 4.03 4.44
Farrukabad 4.03 1.90 6.46 3.06 2.50 8.29
Etawah 5.56 2.63 8.93 3.91 3.53 11.47
Kheri 4.30 1.01 8.11 1.85 1.56 8.39
Sitapur 8.58 5.14 12.57 6.86 6.54 12.34
Hardoi 8.01 2.64 14.19 4.29 3.70 15.38
Unnao 15.05 10.44 20.28 14.86 14.11 27.11
Lucknow 1.58 0.90 2.36 1.38 1.23 3.03
Raebareli 11.03 7.83 14.67 11.88 10.66 28.02
Kanpur dehat 13.14 8.87 18.10 13.46 12.05 37.10
Kanpur nagar 0.91 0.63 1.25 0.92 0.88 1.63
Fetahpur 19.02 12.03 27.01 18.75 16.14 50.26
Barabanki 6.50 1.13 12.55 3.01 1.65 15.04
Jalaun 9.70 7.02 12.85 8.86 8.75 10.70
Jhansi 5.80 2.89 9.10 5.58 4.14 18.06
Lalitpur 11.27 8.74 14.11 14.14 13.34 20.94
Hamirpur 11.49 5.95 17.99 10.82 8.16 32.93
Banda 12.62 8.36 17.75 13.16 11.06 31.65
Pratapgarh 11.30 5.31 18.10 9.38 7.08 33.62
Allahabad 3.45 1.62 5.67 2.82 2.10 10.56
Faizabad 4.69 1.52 8.40 2.78 2.32 8.67
Sultanpur 10.89 8.72 13.44 11.50 10.63 21.66
Bairaich 4.96 2.60 7.65 3.98 3.48 12.25
Gonda 8.18 4.66 12.25 7.02 6.16 19.62
Siddharhnagar 8.45 3.98 13.53 6.84 5.22 34.21
Maharajganj 9.09 5.14 13.57 7.83 6.42 23.36
Basti 4.95 2.30 8.03 4.04 3.33 11.57
Gorakhpur 4.60 2.61 6.92 4.23 3.86 9.03
118
Deoria 12.84 7.79 18.54 13.21 11.30 38.45
Mau 2.89 1.31 4.59 2.49 1.88 4.93
Azamgarh 6.85 2.52 11.60 4.61 3.39 13.43
Jaunpur 5.28 1.30 9.70 2.50 1.75 11.52
Balia 12.72 3.12 23.35 7.58 4.43 40.78
Ghazipur 8.80 2.70 15.62 6.26 4.13 28.85
Varanasi 2.53 0.86 4.48 1.76 1.23 7.60
Mirzapur 7.11 1.95 13.07 4.57 2.80 23.53
Sonbhadra 6.70 6.12 7.48 6.35 6.02 13.71
2001 Census
Saharanpur 4.68 2.56 7.12 3.99 3.31 15.51
Muzaffarnagar 8.04 3.84 12.80 8.66 6.01 44.68
Bijnor 6.83 1.97 12.22 4.57 3.03 33.90
Moradabad 3.26 1.61 5.11 3.16 2.45 13.18
Rampur 2.32 1.01 3.77 1.68 1.34 5.20
Jyotiba Phule Nagar 4.77 2.66 7.11 4.42 3.98 7.46
Meerut 3.60 2.23 5.16 4.51 3.79 13.93
Baghpat 10.95 6.38 16.22 13.68 9.58 68.67
Ghaziabad 4.36 3.41 5.46 5.59 5.31 8.91
Gautam Buddha Nagar 3.02 2.46 3.70 2.62 2.57 2.91
Bulandshahr 8.13 3.23 13.66 8.51 4.88 41.73
Aligarh 3.88 2.32 5.66 5.22 4.26 15.98
Hathras 3.42 1.87 5.18 3.54 2.84 12.56
Mathura 5.89 3.38 8.85 7.20 4.79 34.51
Agra 2.09 1.18 3.16 2.62 2.30 6.43
Firozabad 4.89 3.73 6.21 6.55 6.08 11.12
Etah 7.38 4.07 11.11 7.74 6.57 22.52
Mainpuri 9.01 6.66 11.65 11.64 10.74 23.85
Budaun 6.94 2.87 11.51 6.19 4.74 29.01
Bareilly 3.62 1.82 5.65 3.72 2.87 14.32
Pilibhit 5.00 2.65 7.65 6.05 5.27 16.62
Shahjahanpur 3.65 2.00 5.56 3.96 3.47 10.42
Etawah 6.81 5.22 8.62 8.31 7.90 12.84
Auraiya 10.57 6.45 15.22 12.16 9.89 40.85
Farrukhabad 3.29 1.62 5.20 3.50 2.87 9.56
Kannauj 7.23 3.93 10.91 11.96 7.06 49.23
Kheri 8.82 5.37 12.77 9.36 8.73 18.01
Sitapur 8.39 4.60 12.59 9.22 7.11 32.96
Hardoi 8.53 3.69 14.01 7.50 5.36 33.47
Unnao 13.45 8.43 19.05 17.74 14.08 60.50
Lucknow 0.84 0.64 1.08 1.24 1.03 2.91
Rae Bareli 8.04 5.02 11.35 10.99 8.84 30.05
Kanpur Dehat 17.80 12.60 23.79 24.31 21.64 55.96
Kanpur Nagar 0.40 0.32 0.49 0.52 0.48 0.95
Fatehpur 9.94 4.45 16.04 11.70 7.20 54.63
Barabanki 5.90 2.07 10.16 6.15 1.97 34.36
Jalaun 11.75 5.93 18.46 13.29 10.21 46.83
Jhansi 5.26 2.80 8.09 6.82 3.96 27.56
Lalitpur 11.67 7.59 16.21 17.52 13.08 47.41
Hamirpur 12.68 7.56 18.65 19.41 12.31 87.95
Mahoba 7.71 3.81 12.15 11.55 6.12 55.88
Banda 13.90 8.64 20.06 19.13 14.46 57.43
119
Chitrakoot 10.19 5.88 15.12 15.75 11.67 57.85
Pratapgarh 10.11 3.42 17.36 12.26 6.67 55.69
Kaushambi 12.43 2.41 23.55 18.06 4.40 108.57
Allahabad 2.34 1.49 3.37 3.62 2.40 13.01
Faizabad 3.16 0.85 5.88 3.75 1.43 25.16
Ambedkar Nagar 6.88 1.73 12.44 5.03 1.97 38.03
Sultanpur 9.09 5.39 13.24 13.77 9.96 48.42
Bahraich 2.11 0.72 3.67 2.46 1.21 19.01
Shrawasti 7.86 1.98 14.36 4.62 2.56 35.04
Balrampur 6.47 2.30 11.11 7.19 3.92 43.93
Gonda 5.42 3.01 8.26 5.62 4.62 16.24
Siddharthnagar 10.02 3.15 17.58 9.85 5.65 70.99
Basti 6.83 4.07 9.94 7.36 5.78 20.73
Sant Kabir Nagar 8.41 2.50 14.92 8.41 3.44 54.09
Maharajganj 9.95 3.36 17.17 11.19 6.29 61.56
Gorakhpur 4.23 2.24 6.47 4.57 3.42 17.45
Kushinagar 9.96 3.47 17.14 8.13 4.74 54.10
Deoria 11.74 4.27 19.85 10.41 6.08 56.68
Azamgarh 7.50 2.11 13.28 7.40 3.25 31.63
Mau 3.64 1.21 6.24 4.70 1.58 13.30
Ballia 11.47 1.68 22.28 10.91 3.27 75.72
Jaunpur 5.71 1.81 9.98 5.76 2.34 33.18
Ghazipur 8.06 2.14 14.57 7.76 3.40 44.52
Chandauli 9.58 4.39 15.42 11.67 8.11 52.12
Varanasi 1.61 0.83 2.51 1.97 1.31 7.48
Sant Ravidas Nagar Bhadohi 4.23 0.50 8.46 3.33 0.88 30.65
Mirzapur 4.00 0.94 7.49 4.15 1.68 26.64
Sonbhadra 5.59 4.95 6.38 7.99 7.30 19.85
Note: Migration rates are based on last residence elsewhere in the district of enumeration
120
Table A5.2: Details of Independent Variables
1991 Census
Saharanpur 28.3 48.20 0.54 84.20 1.55 160.00 25.54 0.00
MuzaffarNagar 32.3 45.63 0.49 94.10 1.54 155.60 24.60 0.00
Bijnor 30.24 59.72 0.66 64.60 3.73 128.50 25.07 0.00
Moradabad 18.9 37.92 0.57 62.90 1.74 150.70 27.65 0.00
Rampur 14.76 49.97 0.58 68.90 0.90 167.30 26.14 0.00
Meerut 36.91 34.61 0.49 91.80 1.86 158.40 37.02 0.00
Ghaziabad 38.06 36.58 0.47 98.10 0.84 164.70 46.16 0.00
Bulandshahr 33.72 48.36 0.57 89.90 1.28 175.10 20.80 0.00
Aligarh 32.45 39.95 0.57 95.90 2.85 163.60 25.14 0.00
Agra 31.75 53.58 0.63 72.60 3.29 131.60 40.39 0.00
Mathura 28.65 77.08 0.74 90.50 1.65 138.30 23.57 0.00
Firozabad 33.21 56.33 0.58 85.60 0.48 139.70 26.58 0.00
Etah 29.3 61.58 0.63 85.10 1.62 163.20 16.72 0.00
Mainpuri 38.01 63.23 0.58 94.80 0.34 166.50 13.21 0.00
Budaun 16.36 39.57 0.57 71.80 0.51 149.10 17.61 0.00
Bareilly 19.31 38.08 0.55 62.20 1.51 151.20 32.79 0.00
Pilibhit 21.79 55.50 0.71 75.40 0.36 165.10 18.46 0.00
Shahjahanpur 21.77 44.11 0.69 66.60 0.56 150.20 20.76 0.00
Farrukabad 35.73 45.05 0.58 74.30 1.43 146.10 18.63 0.00
Etawah 41.03 59.22 0.49 74.70 0.49 146.80 15.71 0.00
Kheri 21.28 41.59 0.68 32.40 0.54 137.00 10.66 1.00
Sitapur 22.53 39.02 0.52 34.80 1.62 130.60 12.03 1.00
Hardoi 27.24 43.47 0.51 65.50 1.17 146.80 11.74 1.00
Unnao 28.86 50.02 0.48 65.70 1.60 149.20 13.60 1.00
Lucknow 28.25 41.25 0.46 74.80 0.56 135.50 62.66 1.00
Raebareli 28.41 66.35 0.41 73.20 1.23 149.80 9.04 1.00
Kanpur Dehat 40.38 58.86 0.61 57.20 2.57 135.60 5.71 1.00
Kanpur Nagar 39.83 22.63 0.52 72.80 0.06 144.50 84.24 1.00
Fetahpur 34.32 52.70 0.38 53.00 3.36 134.00 9.90 1.00
Barabanki 23.11 42.46 0.53 70.60 2.88 165.10 9.28 1.00
Jalaun 37.7 84.38 1.20 30.50 0.68 107.00 22.08 1.00
Jhansi 33.04 68.01 1.10 35.40 3.12 115.90 39.61 1.00
Lalitpur 20.65 97.51 1.00 49.10 0.66 125.70 14.03 1.00
Hamirpur 28.68 78.25 1.26 24.30 1.20 105.70 17.36 1.00
Banda 25.34 67.18 0.86 20.00 1.36 117.40 12.86 1.00
Pratapgarh 31 56.69 0.36 68.80 0.87 154.10 5.52 0.00
Allahabad 27.23 51.57 0.37 57.50 5.18 142.20 20.77 0.00
faizabad 29.91 38.54 0.37 70.30 1.36 163.10 11.66 0.00
Sultanpur 20.66 58.82 0.39 60.30 1.49 152.80 4.46 0.00
Bairaich 17.54 37.29 0.54 27.50 0.34 157.80 7.85 0.00
Gonda 19.71 35.47 0.45 40.20 0.84 154.00 7.41 0.00
Siddharhnagar 21.59 40.42 0.46 55.90 0.64 151.70 3.48 0.00
Maharajganj 26.79 41.74 0.37 63.30 0.54 170.90 4.95 0.00
Basti 29.4 36.02 0.42 67.70 2.06 151.70 6.42 0.00
Gorakhpur 27.64 25.76 0.38 71.80 0.76 142.10 18.76 0.00
Deoria 27.64 32.43 0.37 62.10 1.51 155.60 7.35 0.00
Mau 29.5 37.65 0.38 78.00 2.95 171.20 16.88 0.00
121
Azamgarh 31.6 42.26 0.40 77.90 5.99 160.90 7.16 0.00
jaunpur 31.83 46.54 0.38 74.50 2.18 158.20 6.89 0.00
Balia 33.43 45.32 0.40 63.80 0.67 153.30 9.91 0.00
Ghazipur 32.53 55.23 0.43 63.50 0.61 149.00 7.38 0.00
Varanasi 32.51 49.18 0.30 77.90 26.66 157.10 27.20 0.00
Mirzapur 28.28 63.58 0.44 55.80 12.02 141.00 13.80 0.00
Sonbhadra 21.7 62.92 0.49 25.80 0.74 141.60 13.40 0.00
2001 Census
Saharanpur 58.80 57.03 0.53 90.84 3.74 157.73 25.81 0.00
Muzaffarnagar 58.80 57.32 0.48 98.47 3.07 151.70 25.51 0.00
Bijnor 57.00 67.92 0.63 81.71 5.70 134.87 24.31 0.00
Moradabad 39.20 54.29 0.45 74.29 3.76 167.98 30.54 0.00
Rampur 34.00 55.10 0.56 94.27 2.87 183.69 24.97 0.00
Jyotiba Phule Nagar 47.90 59.97 0.60 98.25 3.29 156.95 24.56 0.00
Meerut 62.70 34.93 0.52 96.04 3.91 156.25 48.44 0.00
Baghpat 63.30 59.45 0.47 97.27 4.27 157.97 19.71 0.00
Ghaziabad 63.10 41.88 0.40 100.00 4.66 159.38 55.20 0.00
Gautam Buddha Nagar 64.90 53.24 0.79 79.29 3.31 119.20 37.39 0.00
Bulandshahr 58.00 52.38 0.46 86.41 3.71 171.31 23.15 0.00
Aligarh 72.20 60.52 0.59 99.33 4.36 169.14 28.90 0.00
Hathras 61.80 86.23 0.61 98.63 4.79 164.44 19.80 0.00
Mathura 57.70 77.95 0.68 98.14 2.91 158.36 28.30 0.00
Agra 57.30 57.45 0.62 80.97 3.85 142.97 43.30 0.00
Firozabad 63.40 72.09 0.56 94.32 4.78 158.57 30.32 0.00
Etah 52.60 69.88 0.58 87.93 2.41 158.27 17.33 0.00
Mainpuri 63.50 85.86 0.59 94.09 2.25 163.84 14.60 0.00
Budaun 34.70 54.44 0.64 84.78 1.85 162.13 18.15 0.00
Bareilly 42.00 51.07 0.56 76.36 2.56 159.69 32.93 0.00
Pilibhit 47.40 68.93 0.75 88.34 2.65 165.17 17.88 0.00
Shahjahanpur 46.60 52.04 0.73 79.12 2.43 162.55 20.63 0.00
Etawah 67.40 96.72 0.64 78.23 2.61 160.21 23.01 0.00
Auraiya 68.50 62.12 0.58 93.10 2.11 159.87 14.32 0.00
Farrukhabad 58.20 49.54 0.55 77.71 3.37 139.61 21.75 0.00
Kannauj 61.00 70.92 0.48 85.11 7.37 158.55 16.70 0.00
Kheri 46.00 56.84 0.64 71.99 2.86 145.93 10.77 1.00
Sitapur 45.70 53.38 0.52 53.60 3.59 144.20 11.95 1.00
Hardoi 49.90 62.47 0.53 79.21 2.56 152.80 11.99 1.00
Unnao 51.90 73.07 0.50 87.96 3.08 146.79 15.24 1.00
Lucknow 53.90 38.79 0.43 87.32 3.78 157.35 63.63 1.00
Rae Bareli 51.70 64.44 0.49 83.90 3.78 143.25 9.54 1.00
Kanpur Dehat 65.80 150.32 0.61 68.84 2.76 134.43 6.89 1.00
Kanpur Nagar 34 65.70 40.31 0.57 73.71 3.53 153.66 67.12 1.00
Fatehpur 54.60 67.58 0.54 63.14 3.13 140.25 10.30 1.00
Barabanki 45.90 78.28 0.38 83.79 5.08 174.29 9.30 1.00
Jalaun 62.20 122.73 1.23 42.90 2.86 112.88 23.41 1.00
Jhansi 57.50 81.84 1.12 54.85 3.41 126.71 40.79 1.00
Lalitpur 44.80 123.86 1.00 69.57 2.38 134.15 14.52 1.00
Hamirpur 54.40 117.85 1.41 26.77 2.65 110.55 16.65 1.00
Mahoba 49.40 165.43 1.31 41.55 2.82 114.39 21.86 1.00
Banda 50.80 81.50 0.95 33.82 2.84 128.58 15.87 1.00
Chitrakoot 63.60 84.18 0.84 24.57 2.25 111.61 9.99 1.00
Pratapgarh 56.60 83.15 0.40 80.09 5.76 153.19 5.29 0.00
122
Kaushambi 45.80 88.70 0.41 57.60 4.87 134.66 7.10 0.00
Allahabad 56.00 46.17 0.44 71.27 9.70 157.31 24.45 0.00
Faizabad 53.30 59.07 0.38 84.39 3.36 153.99 13.46 0.00
Ambedkar Nagar 57.00 45.49 0.42 98.21 4.41 165.58 8.93 0.00
Sultanpur 54.60 71.64 0.45 75.35 6.68 53.48 4.74 0.00
Bahraich 31.70 37.97 0.49 31.21 2.04 151.79 10.00 0.00
Shrawasti 33.10 52.96 0.51 58.82 1.98 225.51 2.84 0.00
Balrampur 32.00 53.79 0.43 43.78 1.90 165.45 8.06 0.00
Gonda 40.20 45.34 0.43 67.02 2.11 158.89 7.03 0.00
Siddharthnagar 41.20 50.39 0.52 56.05 2.28 135.42 3.81 0.00
Basti 50.90 43.36 0.45 53.37 3.48 140.42 5.56 0.00
Sant Kabir Nagar 49.70 46.82 0.48 72.31 3.75 150.91 7.08 0.00
Maharajganj 45.20 51.24 0.45 72.55 3.22 175.37 5.09 0.00
Gorakhpur 53.70 51.63 0.48 77.48 3.86 146.98 19.59 0.00
Kushinagar 45.80 44.52 0.41 68.16 3.75 141.90 4.58 0.00
Deoria 56.90 58.61 0.48 78.00 3.92 157.50 9.89 0.00
Azamgarh 55.70 57.36 0.43 89.77 7.51 166.73 7.55 0.00
Mau 60.00 48.92 0.43 89.15 8.82 164.67 19.44 0.00
Ballia 56.70 59.28 0.49 74.09 4.69 158.72 9.77 0.00
Jaunpur 58.70 56.78 0.40 78.35 7.40 153.15 7.40 0.00
Ghazipur 58.30 65.97 0.44 80.61 5.38 153.50 7.68 0.00
Chandauli 57.80 77.04 0.46 87.77 8.57 165.68 10.56 0.00
Varanasi 61.90 43.62 0.26 82.61 19.34 148.98 40.16 0.00
Sant Ravidas Nagar
Bhadohi 56.50 66.85 0.30 78.87 27.51 147.73 12.82 0.00
Mirzapur 53.00 71.22 0.50 60.55 11.10 144.76 13.54 0.00
Sonbhadra 40.70 73.79 0.65 26.94 3.11 139.13 18.82 0.00
123
Table A5.3
Zero Order Correlation Matrix of Independent Variables
*****
124