Accepted Manuscript

Recycled construction and demolition materials in permeable pavement systems:

Geotechnical and hydraulic characteristics

Md. Aminur Rahman , PhD Student, Dr Monzur A. Imteaz , Senior Lecturer, Arul
Arulrajah , Associate Professor, Jegatheesan Piratheepan , Lecturer, Mahdi Miri
Disfani , Lecturer
PII: S0959-6526(14)01222-0
DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.042
Reference: JCLP 4931

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 17 April 2014

Revised Date: 6 November 2014
Accepted Date: 13 November 2014

Please cite this article as: Rahman MA, Imteaz MA, Arulrajah A, Piratheepan J, Disfani MM, Recycled
construction and demolition materials in permeable pavement systems: Geotechnical and hydraulic
characteristics, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.11.042.

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
1 Recycled construction and demolition materials in permeable pavement
2 systems: Geotechnical and hydraulic characteristics

3
4 Md. Aminur Rahman1, Monzur A. Imteaz*2, Arul Arulrajah3, Jegatheesan
5 Piratheepan4, and Mahdi Miri Disfani4
6

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7 PhD Student, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia.

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9 Senior Lecturer, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia.

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11 Associate Professor, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia.

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13 Lecturer, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia.
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21 *Corresponding Author:
22 Dr Monzur Imteaz
23 Faculty of Engineering & Industrial Sciences (H38),
24 Swinburne University of Technology,
25 P.O. Box 218, Hawthorn VIC 3122
26 Australia
27 Email: mimteaz@swin.edu.au
28 Phone: +613-92145630
29 Fax: +613-92148264
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30 Abstract

31 Permeable pavements are increasingly being used as urban stormwater management systems.

32 Permeable pavement systems enable stormwater to infiltrate through the pavement surface

33 and into the filter layer. Three common recycled construction and demolition (C&D)

34 materials; crushed brick (CB), recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and reclaimed asphalt

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35 pavement (RAP) were investigated in combination with nonwoven geotextile to assess their

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36 suitability as filter materials in permeable pavements. A series of laboratory tests was

37 undertaken to assess the geotechnical and hydraulic characteristics of the C&D materials in

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38 permeable pavement applications. As a worst case scenario, stormwater mixtures were

prepared in the laboratory with a slightly higher than the average pollutant concentrations in

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40 stormwater runoff events occurring in urban areas. Constant head permeability tests were

41 carried out to investigate the stormwater filtration capacity and clogging behaviour of C&D
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42 materials. A series of hydraulic conductivity tests was also conducted to investigate the effect

43 of variations in the properties of filter media, sediment particle sizes, density of the filter
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44 media and clogging effects over time. This research found that the geotextile layer increases
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45 pollutant removal efficiency of the C&D materials; however has potential to cause more

46 clogging due to continuous accumulations of sediments in a long period. . In terms of usage

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47 in permeable pavement filter layer, C&D materials were found to have geotechnical and
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48 hydraulic properties equivalent or superior to that of typical quarry granular materials. The
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49 Model for Urban Stormwater Improvement Conceptualisation (MUSIC) was furthermore

50 employed to predict the pollutant removal efficiency of the C&D materials and the predicted

51 results were validated with the laboratory experiments.

52 Keywords: Recycled material, geotextile, permeable pavement, geotechnical property,

53 hydraulic property, clogging.

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54 1. Introduction

55 Permeable pavement systems have emerged as a topic of considerable interest in

56 recent years. The main objectives of permeable pavement systems are to increase

57 groundwater recharge, reduce surface runoff, treat stormwater and prevent pollution of

58 receiving water bodies through surface runoff. Typically, permeable pavement systems

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59 enable stormwater to infiltrate through the pavement surface, into the filter layer and

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60 eventually releasing it as flow either through pipeline or surrounding soils. Moreover,

61 permeable pavement systems have large hydraulic conductivity rates except when residue has

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62 accrued on the pavement surface (Bean et al. 2007). Furthermore, various types of substances

such as dust particles, rubber from tyres and other particles from surrounding environment

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64 have a major effect on urban runoff waste. Traditionally, permeable pavements are used for

65 light duty pavement due to insufficient structural loading and geotechnical design
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66 considerations (Scholz and Grabowiecki, 2007). Permeable pavement systems are useful for

67 light vehicles and pedestrian as well as storm water treatment, infiltration, storage and
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68 distribution. A typical cross section of a permeable pavement system is shown in Fig. 1.

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69 Permeable pavement systems are designed to collect stormwater on the pavement

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70 surface and then to allow it to infiltrates into the subgrade layer and deeper ground. The

71 conventional road pavement is impervious and it accumulates large amounts of runoff water
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72 during storms which creates flash flooding and this water also carries different types of
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73 pollutants (EPA, U.S., 2005). Several researchers studied the benefits of permeable pavement

74 in reducing pavement runoff and pollutants (Chopra et al. 2010).

75 With rapid industrialization and population growth, large amounts of land are being

76 used in infrastructures such as roads, footpaths and parking lots in both urban and rural areas.

77 It is now imperative to design and manage these developments in an integrated way so that

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78 this can reduce runoff, as well as pollutants that are transported during storms. Urban runoff

79 is one of the main causes of pollution and hence stormwater management is an increasing

80 priority worldwide. Permeable pavements are however difficult to implement on a large scale

81 due to cost and infrastructure factors and hence they are often combined with non-permeable

82 surfaces to cover only a limited percentage, rather than the whole catchment area. Permeable

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83 pavement is a useful technique of urban stormwater management which can help to prevent

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84 flooding and control pollution. The clogging behaviour and stormwater treatment of

85 permeable pavement systems in urban catchment areas has been discussed by Newton et al.

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86 (2003). The proficiency of permeable pavement systems in reducing peak flood discharges

87 has been confirmed by several researchers (Bean et al., 2007).

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88 The primary causes of infiltration reduction in permeable pavements are solids

89 accompanying stormwater runoff, solids infiltration into the ground and exfiltration capacity.
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90 Emerson et al. (2010) reported that the infiltration rates reduce by one to two orders of

91 magnitude after three years with permeable pavers; although this may also vary among sites.
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92 Barrett et al. (1998) reported that permeable roads with larger daily traffic volume had higher
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93 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) concentrations. Generally, a portion of the sediment is

94 captured near the surface of the permeable pavement where it can be removed by periodic
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95 maintenance. However, there are no natural mechanisms and hence restore infiltration
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96 capacity in permeable pavement systems and periodic surface maintenance is necessary to

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97 remove accumulated sediments and restore infiltration. Several researchers described the

98 infiltration reduction and clogging behaviour of the permeable pavement systems in terms of

99 traffic conditions and locations (Boving et al. 2008).

100 Clogging is a process that develops due to the accumulation and deposition of

101 sediments from stormwater over time (Bouwer, 2002). Usually this clogging forms at the

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102 interface between filter and underlying soil (Siriwardene et al. 2007). Therefore, porosity and

103 hydraulic conductivity decreases, leading to the decrease in the infiltration rate. Several

104 studies on pollutant removal and clogging in quarry aggregates have been conducted (Bean et

105 al., 2007). Influence of clogging effects on the effective age of permeable pavement has also

106 been discussed by Pezzaniti et al. (2009).

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107 The aggregate sizes and hydraulic performances of filter materials should be precise

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108 so that the permeable pavement is able to drain runoff quickly and store enough water to

109 avoid flash flooding. The hydraulic performance of permeable highway shoulder pavement,

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110 which can capture stormwater runoff from the pavement surface, has been assessed by Chai

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111 et al. (2012). In addition, the laboratory measurements of hydraulic performance and several
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112 treatment options including permeable pavement systems have been discussed by several

113 researchers (Hatt et al. 2009).

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114 Melbourne is the capital of the state of Victoria, Australia. The Victorian state

government has put into effect a zero-waste policy directive in which all wastes, regardless of
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116 quantity, should be diverted from landfill. Challenges of low-carbon economies and resource
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117 depletion are major factors in pushing toward reuse of C&D materials in roadwork
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118 applications (DSEWPC 2012). The extensive amount of waste generated by various

119 industries and human activities has made the disposal of solid waste a major problem in
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120 Victoria, as well as around the world (Rahman et al. 2014a). In Australia, approximately 8.7
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121 Mt of demolition concrete, 1.3 Mt of demolition brick, 3.3 Mt of waste excavation rock, 1.0

122 Mt of waste glass and 1.2 Mt of reclaimed asphalt pavements are stockpiled annually and

123 these stockpiles are growing radically (Clay et al. 2007; Sustainability Victoria, 2010).

124 Recycling of C&D materials into sustainable civil engineering applications is of

125 global importance, as new ways to conserve the natural resources and reducing the amount of

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126 waste materials being sent to landfill are sought globally (Blengini and Garbarino, 2010;

127 Rodrigues et al. 2013). This includes C&D aggregates such as RCA, which can be used as

128 bitumen bound materials, pipe bedding, embankments and fill (Arulrajah et al. 2014a), CB

129 can be used as pavement sub-base, landscaping, ground cover and filler for concrete

130 construction (Arulrajah et al. 2012a), RAP can be returned into pavement base or sub-base

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131 applications (Puppala et al. 2011; Arulrajah et al. 2014b), crushed glass in road sub-base

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132 applications (Grubb et al. 2006) and waste excavation rock in pavement sub-base applications

133 (Tsang et al. 2005; Arulrajah et al. 2012b). It is also noted that some previous studies

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134 demonstrated environmental risk on using some recycled materials such as recycled glass, fly

135 ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag due to presence of some hazardous chemicals

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(Horpibulsuk et al. 2012; Disfani et al. 2012). However, some recent studies ascertain that the
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137 recycled materials used in this research are not having significant environmental effects (Yu
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138 and Shui, 2014).

139 The collection, sorting, transportation and reusing of C&D materials may have some
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140 negative environmental and public perception effects (Rahman et al. 2014b). However, as the
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141 goal is to divert waste from landfills, the public is generally supportive of any attempt to be

142 sustainable and resourceful. Also as the permeable drainage section is not visible, people
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143 from society would not be concerned about this application. In addition, different researchers
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144 found that C&D materials have less environmental and social effects as leachate release and
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145 existing heavy metals are within the acceptable limit for civil engineering applications

146 (Arulrajah et al. 2013).

147 The sustainable usages of waste materials in stormwater systems and geotechnical

148 engineering applications have considerable social and economic benefits to industrialized and

149 developing nations (Sieffert, et al. 2014). Simultaneously, shortages of natural mineral

150 resources and increasing waste disposal costs have brought added significance to the
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151 recycling and reusing of C&D waste in recent years (Arulrajah et al. 2014a). Landfill cost is

152 also a major concern in traditional dumping of C&D waste materials. Furthermore, there are

153 some additional levy charges introduced by state and local governments which add up to the

154 landfill cost. Therefore, reusing of C&D waste would be a more economical solution

155 compare to using natural virgin aggregate in permeable pavement systems (Lindsey, 2011).

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156 Several researchers stated that natural virgin materials have been used in permeable

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157 pavement drainage applications (Shackel et al. 2008). In recent years, recycled materials also

158 been used in pavement applications, however still there are some issues that need to be

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159 addressed for further improvement. The usage of C&D materials in permeable pavements

160 would provide a sustainable solution and furthermore it will reduce the demand for limited

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quarry natural resources (Reid et al. 2009; Zong et al. 2014). The recycling of waste materials
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162 will significantly reduce carbon footprints as compared to traditional quarried materials and
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163 ultimately it will lead to a more sustainable environment (Tam, 2009; Hkkinen and Vares,

164 2011).
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165 A comparison of the C&D materials properties is required for permeable pavement
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166 as this will be of importance to consultants, contractors, designers, local councils, state road

167 authorities, operators, and end-users alike in their potential usage in civil engineering
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168 applications. However, Melbourne Water and state road authorities have introduced these
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169 predominant C&D waste materials as permeable filter materials in many suburbs surrounding
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170 Melbourne. These C&D waste materials are also being used as permeable drainage

171 aggregates in many other countries such as Australia, New Zealand, USA and some European

172 countries (DDC, 2005; Melbourne Water, 2012). For example, urban runoff and clogging

173 performance of the permeable pavement have been investigated by Fassman and Blackbourne

174 (2010) in New Zealand.

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175 An attempt has been made in this research to encourage reusing of C&D materials as

176 permeable pavement filter materials in urban storm water management systems. The

177 geotechnical and hydraulic behaviour of C&D materials in permeable pavement systems has

178 yet to be established. There is also a lack of information on the treatment performance of

179 various pollutants (Total suspended solid, total nitrogen and total phosphorus) of C&D

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180 materials in permeable pavements. The present study investigates the hydraulic performance

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181 and pollutants removal efficiency of permeable pavement systems through a novel approach

182 using C&D materials in combination with geotextile. To replicate polluted stormwater,

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183 influent suspensions were prepared in the laboratory, by adding sediments with distilled

184 water. These influent suspensions were passed through different samples of C&D materials

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and pollutant concentrations in the effluent were also measured. Several researches have been
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186 done involving modelling of pollutants treatment in urban stormwater systems (Pitt et al.
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187 2004; Strynchuk et al. 2003). However, estimation of the pollutants in urban permeable

188 pavement systems during a storm event is very complex because such estimations correlate to
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189 multiple media, environments and various time scales (Ahyerre et al. 1998). Another attempt
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190 has also been made in this research to validate laboratory test results with the simulated

191 results using the MUSIC program.

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192 2. Materials and Methods

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193 Recycled C&D materials were collected from a recycling site in the state of Victoria,
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194 Australia. Commercially available nonwoven geotextile was also used in this study. The

195 samples were first oven dried and subsequently different laboratory tests were undertaken on

196 the recycled aggregates targeting their usage as alternative filter materials in urban

197 stormwater permeable pavement systems. As recycled C&D materials also contain different

198 types of unwanted materials such as wood, paper, cardboard and plastics, therefore screening

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199 and hand picking methods were used for pre-treatment of the materials prior to reuse.

200 Physical, geotechnical, hydraulic conductivity and chemical tests were subsequently carried

201 out in this research. Statistical analysis of the pollutant removal of C&D materials with and

202 without geotextiles was performed and the pollutant removals were predicted by.

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203 2.1 Physical and Geotechnical Testing

204 The particle size distribution tests of C&D materials were conducted by sieve analysis

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205 according to ASTM D422-63 (2007). The particle size distribution for C&D materials

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206 targeted lower and upper bound reference lines for aggregates in pavement applications

207 (Arulrajah et al. 2012a) which is similar to type 1 gradation C material recommended in

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208 ASTM specification for soil-aggregate sub-base, base and surface courses materials (ASTM
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209 D1241, 2007). Initially the samples were washed with distilled water through a sieve size of

210 75 m. The retained samples were taken and dried for 24 hours before further sieve analysis
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211 tests.
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212 Specific gravity and water absorption tests of coarse (retained on 4.75 mm sieve) and
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213 fine aggregates (passed through 4.75 mm sieve) were undertaken according to ASTM C127

214 (2007). The pH tests were performed in accordance with BS 1377 (1990). About 30 g of dry
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215 sample, which passed through a 200 m sieve, was taken and 75 ml of distilled water was

216 added in the sample and stirred for a few minutes before suspension was left standing
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217 overnight. The suspension was stirred immediately before testing. The pH value of the
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218 suspension was measured by a digital meter with a glass electrode. The loss of ignition

219 method was used to determine the organic content of the aggregates (ASTM D2974, 2007).

220 To determine the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content, modified compaction

221 tests were undertaken on the recycled materials (ASTM D1557, 2009).

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222 2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity and Water Quality Testing

223 Infiltration or hydraulic conductivity test is a useful technique to determine the

224 permeability of the samples. Constant head method is used for coarse grained samples and

225 falling head method is used for fine grained samples. A laboratory test setup of constant head

226 hydraulic conductivity testing apparatus was used in this research for determining the

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227 coefficient of hydraulic conductivity of the C&D materials. The schematic diagram of the

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228 hydraulic conductivity testing apparatus is shown in Fig. 2. Commercially available

229 nonwoven geotextile with a hydraulic conductivity of 1.6 mm/s and porosity of 89% was

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230 used in the research. The physical and hydraulic properties of the geotextile are summarised

231 in Table 1. The C&D materials were selected between the lower and upper bound limits as

232
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per the local road authority requirements which will allow sufficient infiltration through the
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233 media. As the hydraulic conductivity test is a very basic test, either Australian or ASTM
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234 standard test procedure should be good enough for these types of particular C&D materials.

235 For the current research, the hydraulic conductivity tests were performed in accordance with
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236 the Australian standard (SAA, 2003), which is also similar to ASTM D2434-68 (2006). The
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237 infiltration or permeability tests were carried out for three replicate samples for each test. To

238 maintain consistency of the results, tests were performed under the same laboratory
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239 conditions. The approximate test duration was between 90 and 120 seconds for each test. As
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240 C&D aggregate was used in this research, the above mentioned test duration was sufficient to
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241 collect enough outflow water to calculate the permeability value. The sample for this test was

242 compacted with modified Proctor compaction effort at optimum moisture content (OMC) and

243 maximum dry density (MDD). Furthermore, a series of samples with lower and higher

244 densities was used to investigate the hydraulic conductivity on the effect of density.

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245 The influent suspensions were prepared in the laboratory by adding known amounts

246 of pollutants (approximately 250 mg/L to 450 mg/L) with distilled water, which is slightly

247 higher than the average TSS concentrations in stormwater runoff generated in urban areas

248 (Kim and Sansalone, 2008; Li and Davis, 2008). The effluent sediment concentrations after

249 filtration through various filter media such as sand, carbon sand, peat sand and composed

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250 sand, have been measured by several researchers (Hatt et al. 2005; Clark and Pitt, 2009).

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251 Different sizes of the sediment particles (75 m to 600 m) were selected to investigate the

252 effect of sediment sizes. A number of hydraulic conductivity tests with variable C&D particle

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253 sizes (1.18 mm to 13.20 mm) and density (1850 kg/m3 to 2400 kg/m3) were undertaken in this

254 research. As worst case scenario, a series of hydraulic conductivity tests were carried out

255
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using fine coarse aggregates (1.18 mm to 2.36 mm) and 450 mg/L of pollutants concentration
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256 as influent suspension to investigate the clogging effects over time. Water samples to (i.e.
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257 inflow) and from (i.e. outflow) the C&D filter media were collected. These water samples

258 were analysed for TSS, TN (Total Nitrogen) and TP (Total Phosphorus) using Australian
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259 standard (SAA, 2003; Standard Methods, 1998) conducted by a well-known commercial
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260 environmental laboratory.

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261 2.3 Statistical Analysis and Water Quality Modelling

262 Statistical analysis of the experimental results was performed to compare the
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263 reinforced and unreinforced C&D materials. To compare the parameters between each test,
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264 two hypothesis tests were analysed using two-tailed t-tests, using 1% and 5% level of

265 significance. The null hypothesis states that each parameter should be similar to the other and

266 the level of significance () is defined as the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis.

267 Hence, it is safe to reject the critical () value if it is very small (Franks et al. 2012).

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268 MUSIC (Model for Urban Stormwater Improvement Conceptualisation) developed by

269 Wong et al. (2002) enables users to evaluate conceptual design of stormwater management

270 systems to ensure they are appropriate for their catchments. MUSIC is a stochastic model,

271 which stochastically calculates generation of stormwater pollutants (gross pollutants, total

272 suspended solids, total phosphorus and total nitrogen) from catchment(s). MUSIC provides

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273 the ability to simulate both quantity and quality of runoff from different types of catchments

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274 (i.e. urban, agricultural and forest). Pollutants generation in MUSIC can be calculated either

275 using mean concentration or log-normally generated distribution. The log-normal

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276 distribution included in the MUSIC allows the user to alter the mean and standard deviation

277 parameters from the default values. Fletcher and Deletic (2007) conducted a comprehensive

278
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review of statistical generation and estimation of pollutant loads from catchments. Duncan
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279 (1999) undertook a comprehensive review of stormwater quality in urban catchments and this
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280 review forms the basis for default values of event average concentration of total suspended

281 solids, total phosphorus and total nitrogen adopted in the MUSIC.
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282 In the present study, MUSIC was used to simulate pollutants removal efficiencies of
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283 the C&D materials. The MUSICs simulations of the TSS, TN and TP removal efficiencies

284 were validated with the experimental results. Different C&D materials are represented by
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285 their relevant hydraulic conductivity values in MUSIC program. To simulate the effects of
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286 different types of C&D materials, hydraulic conductivity results found from the experimental
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287 results were selected as model input data. As MUSIC requires rainfall data, a random 6

288 minutes interval recorded rainfall series from the year 1959 was selected for this purpose.

289 The MUSICs default parameters regarding inflow pollutants concentrations were adjusted to

290 generate the same influent pollutants concentrations used in the experiments.

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291 3. Results and Discussion

292 The physical and geotechnical properties of the C&D materials in urban stormwater

293 permeable pavement applications and comparison with typical specified requirements are

294 presented in Table 2.

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295 3.1 Physical and Geotechnical Properties

296 The physical properties were tested from three replicate samples for each test to

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297 maintain consistency of the results. The specific gravity of RCA, CB and RAP were found to

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298 meet specified requirements. The specific gravity for RAP was however found to be a little

299 lower than RCA and CB materials. This may be attributed to the fact that some bitumen

300
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contents presence with RAP sample which have low density. The specific gravity results for
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301 the C&D materials indicate that they can be considered as high quality aggregates. It can

302 also be noted from Table 2 that the specific gravity value of coarse aggregates is slightly
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303 higher than that of the fine aggregates for RCA materials due to lower organic content and
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304 higher density. The water absorptions of coarse aggregates are lower than the fine aggregates
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305 for all recycled materials except for CB. This is because fine particles have larger surface

306 area and hence it can absorb more water than the coarse particles. It is found that the water
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307 absorption values of recycled materials range from 6% to 14% while for a natural aggregate

308 the value does not exceed 3% (Poon and Chan, 2006). Therefore, it can be considered as
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309 good quality materials and suitable for civil engineering applications. The gradation curves of
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310 the C&D materials are shown in Fig. 3(a), and compared with the local engineering and

311 water authorities specifications for the usage of quarried materials in urban stormwater

312 management systems. Based on the gradation curves, the grain size distribution parameters

313 including Cu, Cc, and percentage of gravel, sand and fine particles are summarised in Table 2.

314 The results show that the properties obtained from particle size distribution were within the

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315 typical requirements for various civil engineering applications. The particle size distribution

316 curve of the suspension solids is shown in Fig. 3 (b). The result shows that the particles are

317 less than 300 microns which satisfy the local water authorities minimum (<300 microns)

318 requirement (Duncan, 1999).

319 Soil classification symbols from the Australian Soil Classification System (ASCS),

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320 the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the AAHOTO systems are presented in

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321 Table 2. According to the ASCS, the investigated C&D materials (RCA, CB and RAP) have

322 approximately equal amounts of sand and gravel fractions, enabling them to be classified as

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323 well-graded gravel (GW). The results show that the C&D aggregates were consistent with the

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324 requirements of typical aggregates for civil engineering applications such as flexible
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325 pavement sub-bases, footpaths and backfilling purposes (Arulrajah et al. 2014c; Rahman et

326 al. 2014a).

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327 The results of modified compaction tests conducted on the recycled C&D materials

are shown in Table 2. The modified compaction results indicate that RCA had the highest
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329 MDD, while RAP had the lowest due to the presence of bitumen substances with RAP. The
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330 OMC of the C&D materials indicate that RAP had the lowest OMC of 8.30%, while CB had
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331 the highest of 12.75%. This is may be due to the fact that CB had higher pore spaces and

332 hence it can absorb more water than other C&D materials. The organic contents of the C&D
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333 materials were found to be low except for RAP, which was also found within the acceptable
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334 ranges. The results show that RCA had the lowest organic content than CB and RAP

335 aggregates. This is may be attributed to the fact that RCA consists with cement, sand and

336 stone which have low eruption property. The pH values of the C&D materials indicate that it

337 were slightly alkaline, though still within expected limits. Kolay et al. (2011) stated that pH

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338 value depends on the organic contents, as therefore RAP had the lowest pH value due to

339 higher organic content.

340 3.2 Hydraulic Conductivity and Water Quality Testing

341 Constant head hydraulic conductivity tests of the C&D materials were undertaken in

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342 this research under different conditions such as different sediment percentages, sediment

343 sizes, aggregate densities, and aggregate sizes. The effluent suspensions were collected and

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344 tested from a commercial environmental laboratory to investigate the hydraulic properties

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345 and trapping efficiencies of the C&D materials.

346 Fig. 4 shows the hydraulic behaviour of the C&D materials (with and without a

347
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geotextile layer) under various sediment concentrations (250 mg/L to 450 mg/L) used in this
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348 study. Although these concentration levels are slightly higher than the average concentration

349 generated from urban areas, those were selected in this research as a worst case scenario
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350 (Kim and Sansalone, 2008; Li and Davis, 2008). Among the tested C&D materials, hydraulic
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351 conductivity is the highest for RAP and the lowest for CB. This is because, RAP had the
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352 lowest fine contents when compared with RCA and CB aggregates, and hence it had the

353 highest hydraulic conductivity value. In general, the hydraulic conductivity values of the
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354 C&D materials are higher than that of natural aggregate with same soil classification (Poon

355 and Chan, 2006). The hydraulic conductivity values were found to be within the range of
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356 those specified for the usage in filter media in urban stormwater permeable pavement systems
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357 (Melbourne Water, 2001). For any given C&D materials used in this research, the hydraulic

358 behaviour is almost the same for various sediment concentrations. Therefore, the authors

359 believe that it is difficult to find the difference in hydraulic behaviour for various sediment

360 concentrations and short term laboratory investigations. However, after a long period

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361 significant difference in hydraulic conductivities may be observed due to accumulated

362 clogging of sediments.

363 It is also expected that the particle sizes of filter media has an effect on hydraulic

364 conductivity performance. Therefore, different filter media with various particle size ranges

365 between 1.18 mm and 13.20 mm were used in this research. The suspension concentration of

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366 450 mg/L was selected for this particular series of tests as the worst case scenario. Higher

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367 hydraulic conductivity was observed when higher particle sizes were used as filter media. It

368 is due to larger void spaces between larger particle sizes which eventually led to higher

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369 hydraulic conductivity. The relationship between inflow sediment concentration and

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370 hydraulic conductivity can be approximated with power function as shown in Fig. 5. It is to
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371 be noted that these relationships are expected to vary with the filter media porosity/density

372 and the amount of accumulated clogging. Several researchers also found similar results,
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373 where hydraulic conductivity increased with the increases of particle size (Shepherd, 1989).

374 Another series of hydraulic conductivity tests was undertaken to assess the effects of
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375 density of the filter media on hydraulic conductivity. The finer sizes (1.18 mm to 2.36 mm)
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376 of particle were used for filter media as it represents as a worst case scenario in regards to

377 hydraulic conductivity. The results are shown in Fig. 6, where density variations are
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378 considered at MDD, slightly higher and lower than MDD for the selected C&D materials
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379 used in this research. From the figure it can be seen that the filter media density and the
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380 hydraulic conductivity have an inverse linear relationship, i.e. with the increase of density,

381 hydraulic conductivity decreases linearly. However, this sort of linear relationship may not

382 exist for other materials. It is to be noted that the results may vary for a wider range and

383 several more variable numbers of density. Assouline (2006) also discussed a relationship

384 between bulk density and hydraulic conductivity of the soils and found a linear trend between

385 those parameters, which is similar to the current finding. However, due to compaction
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386 energy, some water released from the sample which may have negative effects on the

387 permeability results. To overcome this problem, moisture contents with different fractions,

388 control compaction or undisturbed samples with larger size could be considered in order to

389 achieve more reliable results in future research.

390 Long term clogging is one of the major concerns of infiltration through permeable

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391 pavement systems. The clogging also depends on the sediments particle sizes and filter media

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392 particle sizes. Therefore, hydraulic conductivity tests were conducted with different sizes of

393 sediment and lower sizes of filter media particles and the results are shown in Fig. 7. The

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394 results show that hydraulic conductivity decreased with the increases of sediment sizes, as

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395 larger sediment particles can easily seal the void spaces of the filter media. This relationship
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396 is dependent on the grain size and mineralogy of the sediments (Bryant et al. 1975). In

397 practical field, different types of particles such as plastics, woods, dust and rubber from tyres
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398 in surrounding environment of permeable pavement during storm event may create some

399 negative impacts on the hydraulic properties. However, the pavement surface should be
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400 cleaned periodically to maintain higher permeability in filter layer. It is noted that correct
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401 procedures such as gloves, overalls and dust masks with adequate ventilation system should

402 be used during cleaning the pavement surface as rubber crumb contains some chemical
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403 elements. The typical chemical composition of rubber crumb have been discussed by
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404 Richardson et al. (2011) which was determined according to IS 7490 (1997). The chemical
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405 composition of the rubber crumb results are shown in Table 3. It shows that the

406 mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) value is 0.5 and this is only concern with regard to human

407 health and safety. It is noted that the stearic acid has not any significant problem when used

408 in the alkaline characteristics environment.

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409 To assess the clogging of filter media over the time after several filtrations, the same

410 test was repeated up to ten times (with one day intervals) for each of the tested materials

411 (with and without geotextile). The hydraulic conductivity and clogging characteristics mainly

412 depend on the filter media aggregate sizes (Shainberg et al. 1997). Finer filter media (1.18

413 mm to 2.36 mm) were used in this series of hydraulic conductivity tests as a worst case

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414 scenario. Fig. 8 shows the hydraulic conductivity results for ten cycles of the selected C&D

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415 materials. From Fig. 8, it is shown that hydraulic conductivity commenced reducing after

416 several cycles of the tests, as after several cycles significant amount of sediments were

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417 trapped within the filter media causing impediment to the subsequent inflow. The results also

418 show that the highest clogging observed in CB and the lowest clogging from RAP aggregate

419 due to void spaces.

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420 The rate of average hydraulic conductivity reduction in each cycle was approximately
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421 1% for all the cases. Though magnitude of reduction is very small, after a long period and

422 numerous storm events bringing inflows with high sediment concentrations, these higher
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423 concentrations are likely to cause significant flow impediments to the inflows due to
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424 successive accumulation (clogging) of sediments within the filter media, which eventually

425 may jeopardise the effectiveness of any such system. The design of permeable pavement
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426 should be considered in terms of reduction in permeability and pollutant removal efficiency
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427 over time due to sediment accumulation and clogging. Argue (2004) found from laboratory
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428 and modelling studies that the permeability decreased 30-50% after a certain period of

429 service life for permeable pavement. The clogging effects of the pavement layers (filter

430 media) have also been discussed by other researchers (Winter et al. 2003). According to

431 Coustumer et al. (2008), after a certain performance period the effective hydraulic

432 conductivity can be assumed as 50% of the design value, and this value should be matched

433 with the relevant specifications. Nevertheless, filter media may need replacing after a certain
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434 period of use and further in-depth investigations may be needed to provide reasonable

435 estimation of the operational period of such systems.

436 Fig. 9 shows the relationships between inflow and outflow TSS concentrations for all

437 the materials (with and without geotextile). Fine aggregates as filter media and larger density

438 of sediments (450 mg/L) were used as a worst case scenario in this series of hydraulic

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439 conductivity tests. As evident, outflow TSS concentrations linearly increase with the

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440 increases of inflow TSS concentrations for all the C&D materials. For the same inflow TSS

441 concentrations, outflow TSS concentrations are much lower for the cases where geotextile

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442 was used. This is due to the additional filtration caused by the geotextile. Also, for the cases

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443 with geotextile, the rate of outflow TSS concentration (i.e. slopes of the lines in Fig. 9)
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444 increases with the increase of inflow TSS concentration for all the materials. On average,

445 among the materials, CB has the highest trapping efficiency and RAP has the lowest trapping
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446 efficiency. However, in general differences in trapping efficiencies among these materials are

447 very small. This is may be due to short term laboratory experiments rather than long term
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448 investigation. However, it is recommended that field experimental works would be

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449 undertaken to achieve significant results from these particular C&D materials.
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450 An assessment of pollutants removal through finer C&D materials and geotextile was

451 undertaken in this research. The results obtained from single layer and double layer
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452 geotextiles are shown in Table 4. The results show that the gross pollutants of TSS, TN and
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453 TP were significantly reduced through C&D media when double layer geotextiles were used.

454 In some cases, the effects of a geotextile layer on pollutants removal performance are not

455 significant; it might be due to larger geotextile pore sizes and smaller pollutants particle sizes.

456 This is also may be attributed to the fact that some bound pollutants (especially phosphorus)

457 are mainly associated with smaller particles and trapping of such smaller particles is not

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458 achievable through tested filter media. However, for a longer period of such sediment

459 accumulations, the filter media is expected to become clogged, and eventually would be able

460 to trap smaller particles (Hatt et al. 2005). Nevertheless, some irregular variations in the

461 results might be due to the mixing variations in the dosing tank while testing.

462 The pollutant removal efficiency is the highest for CB and the lowest for RAP

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463 aggregate. These phenomena can be correlated with the hydraulic conductivity characteristics

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464 of the C&D materials, which was the highest for RAP and the lowest for CB aggregate. It is

465 proved that the higher the hydraulic conductivity, the lower the pollutant removal efficiency.

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466 Hatt et al. (2005) also found similar observation from gravel and sand media. It is to be noted

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467 that the laboratory experiments were carried out with samples of smaller depth. In practice,
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468 pavement filter media thickness would be higher, as such higher pollutant removal

469 efficiencies are expected. It is noted that the combination of geotextile and C&D materials
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470 exhibit higher pollutant removal efficiency than the C&D materials alone while the hydraulic

471 conductivity remains almost the same (refer to Figs. 5 and 9). Previous researchers also stated
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472 that the combination of geotextile and permeable pavement base can significantly reduce
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473 contaminants or gross pollutants from stormwater runoff (Tota-Maharaj et al. 2012). The

474 authors believe that 100% pollutants removal efficiency is achievable in many cases,
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475 however with the compromise of reducing hydraulic conductivity, which is not recommended
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476 with the consideration of urban flooding. As such, there should be always a balance of target
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477 pollutants removal efficiency and acceptable hydraulic conductivity.

478 3.3 Statistical Analysis and Water Quality Modelling

479 Statistical analysis was carried out using the experimental data on inflow and outflow

480 concentration which is represented as regression line as shown in Fig. 9. The statistical

481 analysis from Fig. 9 indicates that the slopes for RCA+Geotextile, CB+Geotextile and

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482 RAP+Geotextile regressions lines are almost similar to each other at 5% level of significance

483 (Tables 5 and 6) where the mass of pollutants removal through the above media is

484 statistically the same. Similarly, the slopes obtained from RCA, CB and RAP regressions

485 lines are also almost the same at 1% level of significance. However they are significantly

486 different when geotextile was used with the C&D materials. The y-intercept values from Fig.

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487 9 and Table 5 for the regression lines for RCA+Geotextile and RAP+Geotextile are equal at

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488 5% level of significance (Table 6). Similarly, y-intercept values for CB and CB+Geotextile

489 are also the same at 5% level of significance.

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490 A set of experimental results was analysed using MUSIC program for the permeable

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491 pavement system. The MUSIC was simulated for a fictitious catchment area. A typical
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492 permeable pavement systems surface area was selected so that the discharge to surface area

493 ratio of the model was the same as the discharge to surface area ratio of the experimental
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494 specimen. The comparison of experimental and MUSIC modelling results are shown in

495 Table 7. From the table it is shown that MUSIC simulations for TSS, TN and TP reductions
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496 through C&D material are very close to the experimental results. However, maximum TSS
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497 reduction (90%) was obtained from CB model analysis and maximum reduction for TN

498 (61.8%) and TP (70.2%) were found from RAP model analysis. Imteaz et al. (2013)
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499 compared the MUSICs estimations with different experimental measurements in different
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500 countries for three different treatment systems including permeable pavement. They also
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501 noted MUSICs overestimation in regards to pollutants removal efficiencies. However,

502 reported deviations were much higher in their study.

503 4. Conclusions

504 The results obtained from C&D materials were compared with the fine particle size

505 filter media considering as worst case scenario for permeable pavement systems.
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506 The pH values of the materials indicate that the materials to be slightly alkaline,

507 though still within expected limits. The compaction characteristics of the various C&D

508 materials were found to be in a consistent range and equivalent to those expected of a

509 quarried material. The water absorptions of coarse aggregates were less than the fine

510 aggregates for all the cases except for CB aggregate. The fine particles have cumulative

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511 larger specific surface, which led to absorb more water than the coarse particles. The specific

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512 gravity values of C&D materials were found to meet specified requirements and these

513 indicate that they can be considered high quality aggregates. The organic contents of the

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514 recycled C&D materials were found to be low, except for RAP for which the organic content

515 was also found within the acceptable ranges. The hydraulic conductivity of the recycled

516
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materials can be described as low for RCA and CB and high for RAP aggregate. The lowest
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517 pollutant removal was observed from RAP aggregate, as the hydraulic conductivity of RAP is
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518 higher than that of RCA and CB aggregates.

519 The results show that hydraulic conductivity increased with the increase of filter
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520 media particle size, with the decrease of density and with the decrease of inflow sediment
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521 sizes. Furthermore, it was found that the hydraulic conductivity reduced slightly after 10

522 cycles of experiments. To overcome this potential clogging effect and maintain water quality,
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523 larger aggregates of filter media with suitable geotextile layer can be used to obtain required
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524 hydraulic conductivity while achieving sufficient pollutants removals. However, a long-term
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525 in-depth field investigation is necessary to assess potential effects of long-term clogging

526 behaviours of such systems with and without geotextile layers and with different sizes of

527 aggregates. Comparisons between experimental results and the MUSIC model reveal that

528 TSS, TN and TP values were also very close and the results obtained from MUSIC model are

529 slightly higher than the laboratory experimental results.

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530 The results presented would provide the reader with an indication of the testing

531 methodology, geotechnical properties, hydraulic properties, chemical properties and

532 performance of these traditionally waste materials in permeable pavement applications.

533 Based on the extensive suite of geotechnical, hydraulic and chemical tests, it is concluded

534 that the C&D materials used in this research are suitable alternative filter materials in

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535 permeable pavement systems.

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536

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727 Winter, K.J. and Goetz, D., 2003. The impact of sewage composition on the soil clogging

728 phenomena of vertical flow constructed wetlands. Water Sc. Tech., 48 (5), 9-14.

729 Wong, T.H.F., Fletcher, T.D., Duncan, H.P., Coleman, J.R. and Jenkins, G.A., 2002. A

730 Model for Urban Stormwater Improvement Conceptualization, in Integrated

731 Assessment and Decision Support. Proceedings of the 1st Biennial Meeting of the
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732 International Environmental Modelling and Software Society, Lugano, Switzerland,

733 1, 48-53.

734 Zong, L., Fei, Z. and Zhang, S., 2014. Permeability of recycled aggregate concrete containing

735 fly ash and clay brick waste, J. Clean. Prod., 70, 175-182.

736 Yu, R. and Shui, Z., 2014. Efficient reuse of the recycled construction waste cementitious

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737 Materials, J. Clean. Prod., 78, 202-207.

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738

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739 List of Tables

740 Table 1: Physical and hydraulic properties of the nonwoven geotextile

741 Table 2: Physical and geotechnical properties of C&D materials

742 Table 3: Analysis of rubber crumb (IS 7490: 1997)

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743 Table 4: Assessment of pollutants removal from finer C&D materials using geotextiles

744 Table 5: Slope and constant values (b1 and b0) and their corresponding standard error

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745 Table 6: Critical levels of significance obtained from statistical two-tailed t-tests analysis

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746 Table 7: Comparison of model and experimental results for permeable pavement

747

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748 Table 1: Physical and hydraulic properties of the nonwoven geotextile

Physical properties Hydraulic properties

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Pore size Flow rate Permittivity Hydraulic conductivity Porosity Unit weight Thickness Grab tensile Trapezoidal Tear
(m) (L/m2/s) (s-1) k (mm/s) (%) (kN/m3) (mm) strength (N) Strength (N)

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80 120 1.2 1.6 89 5.04 3.25 2130 740

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749

750

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752

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757
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760 Table 2: Physical and geotechnical properties of C&D materials

Typical Specified
Geotechnical Properties RCA CB RAP
Requirements

Coefficient of uniformity (cu) 78.0 71.0 7.8 >4

Coefficient of curvature (cc) 2.9 2.8 1.8 1 Cc 3
Gravel contents (%) 47.9 52.6 56.3 40-100

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Sand contents (%) 42.2 38.4 41.6 30-50
Fine contents (%) 9.9 9.0 2.1 <10

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USCS classification GP-GM GW GW GW/SW

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ASCS classification GP-GM GP-GM GP GW/SW
AASHTO classification A-1-a A-1-a A-1-a A-1-a

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Specific gravity - Coarse AN 2.7 2.4 2.3 >2.0
Specific gravity - Fine 2.6 2.5 2.3 >2.0
Water absorption - Coarse (%) 6.7 13.8 12.02 <10
Water absorption - Fine (%) 7.1 10.3 13.9 <10
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Organic content (%) 1.8 2.0 4.03 5

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pH 10.5 9.5 7.2 6-11

Compaction (Modified): MDD (kg/m3) 2100 2010 1900 1750
TE

Compaction (Modified): OMC (%) 12.5 12.8 8.3 8-15

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763 Table 3: Analysis of rubber crumb (IS 7490: 1997)

Sample Ingredients Parts per hundred - Rubber

1 Rubber Crumb 100 (As rubber hydrocarbon)

2 Zinc Oxide 5.0

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3 Stearic acid 2.0

4 MBT 0.50

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5 Sulphur 3.0

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765 Table 4: Assessment of pollutants removal from finer C&D materials using geotextiles
766
RCA RCA+Geotextile CB CB+Geotextile RAP RAP+Geotextile
Test Type

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Influent Layer-1 Layer-2 Layer-1 Layer-2 Layer-1 Layer-2
Effluent Effluent Effluent Effluent Effluent Effluent Effluent Effluent Effluent

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TSS (mg/L) 250 36.50 16.90 8.5 28.50 12.58 7.2 46.80 23.10 15.7
Total Nitrogen (mg/L) 2.75 1.80 0.92 0.9 1.73 1.10 0.65 1.15 0.45 0.31

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Total Phosphorous (mg/L) 2.35 1.50 0.65 0.75 1.25 0.70 0.42 0.79 0.29 0.12

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767 Note: Layer-1 denoted as single layer geotextile and

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768 Layer-2 denoted as double layer geotextile

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769 Table 5: Slope and constant values (b1 and b0) and their corresponding standard error

Material Type b1 Se (b1) b0 Se (b0)

RCA 0.37 0.005 0.04 0.002

RCA+Geotextile 0.20 0.004 0.02 0.001
CB 0.33 0.009 0.03 0.003

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CB+Geotextile 0.19 0.004 0.03 0.001
RAP 0.31 0.003 0.01 0.001
RAP+Geotextile 0.21 0.006 0.02 0.002

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770 Table 6: Critical levels of significance obtained from statistical two-tailed t-tests analysis

Parameter in Material Type

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Material Type
linear regression RCA RCA+Geotextile CB CB+Geotextile RAP RAP+Geotextile
b1 RCA 1 <0.0001 0.1287 <0.0001 0.0092 <0.0001

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RCA+Geotextile <0.0001 1 <0.0001 0.0803 <0.0001 0.0661
CB 0.1445 <0.0001 1 <0.0001 0.3216 <0.0001

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CB+Geotextile <0.0001 0.0820 < 0.0001 1 <0.0001 <0.0001
RAP 0.0092 <0.0001 0.3034 <0.0001 1 <0.0001

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RAP+Geotextile <0.0001 0.0697 <0.0001 0.0122 <0.0001 1
b0 RCA

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RCA+Geotextile 1 0.0080 0.1025 0.0155 0.0143 0.0110
CB 0.0051 1 0.0010 0.3612 0.1805 0.9401

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CB+Geotextile 0.0829 0.0010 1 0.0017 0.0013 0.0015
RAP 0.0159 0.4286 0.0026 1 0.7440 0.0015

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RAP+Geotextile 0.0116 0.2155 0.0016 0.7164 1 0.2827

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773 Table 7: Comparison of model and experimental results for permeable pavement

Inflow
Elements Reduction in outflow parameters (%)
parameters
RCA CB RAP
Experiment Model Experiment Model Experiment Model
TSS (mg/L) 250 85.40 87.04 88.60 90.00 81.28 83.4
TN (mg/L) 2.75 34.55 37.45 37.09 40.00 58.18 61.8

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TP (mg/L) 2.35 36.17 40.43 46.81 51.06 66.38 70.2
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775 List of Figures

776 Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of a typical permeable pavement cross section.

777 Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of testing setup for hydraulic conductivity testing.

778 Fig. 3: Particle size distribution of C&D materials.

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779 Fig. 4: Effect of sediment concentration on hydraulic conductivity.

780 Fig. 5: Effect of particle size on hydraulic conductivity.

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781 Fig. 6: Effect of density on hydraulic conductivity.

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782 Fig. 7: Effect of sediments particle size on hydraulic conductivity.

783 Fig. 8: Effect of time with influent suspension on clogging.

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784 Fig. 9: Effect of influent suspension percentages on effluent suspension.
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Walkway
Permeable paving surface layer
Durable stone Runoff Choker course

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Geotextile layer Subbase storage layer

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Subgrade layer
Perforated pipe

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Mixer

Influent suspension

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Control valve

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Constant head
water jar

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Inlet tube Overflow tube
Geotextile filter

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132 mm

C&D filter media

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152 mm
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Outlet tube Head loss tube

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Sampling bottle
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0.01 0.1 1 10 100

100
Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA)

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80
Crushed Brick (CB)

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60

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40 Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)
Percentage Passing (%)

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Fig. 3(a)
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Suspension soilids particle size distribution

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RCA RCA+Geotextile CB CB+Geotextile RAP RAP+Geotextile

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Hydraulic conductivity (mm/h)

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Inflow TSS (mg/L)
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RCA: k = 35.383 PS0.5546
RCA+Geotextile: k = 34.747 PS0.5575
CB: k = 19.475 PS0.7363
160 CB+Geotextile: k = 18.902 PS0.7453

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RAP: k = 65.86 PS0.35
RAP+Geotextile: k = 64.262 PS0.3579
140 Note: "PS" denoted as particle size

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Hydraulic conductivity, k (mm/h)

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Filter media particle size (mm)
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Hydraulic conductivity, k (mm/h)

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Filter media particle density (Mg/m3)
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RCA RCA+Geotextile CB CB+Geotextile RAP RAP+Geotextile

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Hydraulic conductivity, k ((mm/h)

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0.10

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Effluent TSS (g/L)

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RAP+Geotextile
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Influent TSS (g/L)
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HIGHLIGHTS

Accumulation of clogging effect for recycled materials was analysed.

Permeability tests were performed with different variables.

Water modelling results were compared with laboratory experiments.

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Statistical analysis was developed using experimental data.

Recycled materials are suitable in permeable pavement applications.

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