Water Delivery Arrangements On Maintenance of Irrigation Canals PDF

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IMPACT OF WATER DELIVERY ARRANGEMENTS ON MAINTENANCE OF

IRRIGATION CANALS
MSC. THESIS HE 52
Raza-Ur-Rehman Abbasi
MARCH 2000
The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this study do not necessarily
express the views of the International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and
Environmental Engineering.
IMPACT OF WATER DELIVERY ARRANGEMENTS ON MAINTENANCE OF
IRRIGATION CANALS
By
Raza-Ur-Rehman Abbasi
Submitted to the Department of Hydraulic Engineering at the International Institute for

Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental engineering, in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Hydraulic Engineering
March, 2000
Examination Committee
Prof. Dr. Ir. Bart Schultz (IHE , Delft)

Ir. P. Ankum (TUD, Delft)
Ir. H. W. Th. Depeweg (IHE, Delft)
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR INFRASTRUCTURAL

HYDRAULIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... 4

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... 5
LIST OF MAPS ......................................................................................................................... 5
LIST OF ANNEXES ................................................................................................................. 5
LIST OF SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................. 7
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... 9
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................... 11
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 15
1.1 RESEARCH LOCALE ..................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2 - BACKGROUND .......................................................................................... 19
2.1 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................... 19

2.2 IRRIGATION IN PAKISTAN ............................................................................................ 19
2.3 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT TRANSFER ....................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3 - PROBLEM DESCRIPTION ..................................................................... 23
3.1 SETTING ....................................................................................................................... 23

3.2 PRESENT SITUATION .................................................................................................... 24
3.2.1 WATER SUPPLY ASPECTS ...................................................................................... 24
3.2.2 CROPPING POLICY ................................................................................................. 25
3.2.3 WATER DELIVERY CRITERIA.................................................................................. 25
3.2.4 WARABANDI .......................................................................................................... 26
3.2.5 PRODUCTIVITY OF WATER .................................................................................... 30
3.2.6 CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT TRANSFER ............... 31
3.3 RESEARCH ISSUE ......................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 4 - FLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS .................................................................. 33
4.1 SELECTION OF FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM ..................................................................... 33

4.2 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ........................................................................................... 35
4.3 UPSTREAM CONTROL................................................................................................... 36
4.4 DOWNSTREAM CONTROL............................................................................................. 37
4.5 EVALUATION OF SELECTED FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM ................................................ 38
CHAPTER 5 - RESEARCH PLAN ..................................................................................... 39
5.1 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................. 39

5.2 SCOPE AND RELEVANCE OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................... 40
1
CHAPTER 6 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 41
6.1 SYSTEM DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 41

6.2 MODELLING ................................................................................................................. 43
6.3 FRAMEWORK OF EVALUATION .................................................................................... 43
6.3.1 COST ...................................................................................................................... 43
6.3.2 TRANSPARENCY IN WATER DISTRIBUTION ........................................................... 43
6.3.3 SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS .......................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS OF IRRIGATION ASPECTS ............................................... 45
7.1 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................ 45

7.1.1 CLIMATE ................................................................................................................ 45
7.1.2 SOILS ..................................................................................................................... 47
7.1.3 CROPS .................................................................................................................... 47
7.1.4 CROPPING PATTERN AND SOWING DATES ............................................................ 49
7.1.5 FARMING PRACTICES............................................................................................. 50
7.2 SEDIMENT ANALYSIS ................................................................................................... 53
7.3 DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CANALS ................................................................................. 59
7.3.1 REGIME METHOD ................................................................................................... 60
7.3.2 TRACTIVE FORCE METHOD ................................................................................... 60
7.3.3 PERMISSIBLE VELOCITY METHOD.......................................................................... 61
7.3.4 RATIONAL METHOD .............................................................................................. 61
7.3.5 COMPARISON OF REGIME AND TRACTIVE FORCE METHOD .................................. 61
7.4 MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION CANALS ..................................................................... 67
7.4.1 MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES .................................................................................. 67
7.4.2 STRUCTURAL MAINTENANCE................................................................................ 67
7.4.3 HYDRAULIC MAINTENANCE .................................................................................. 68
7.5 CANAL PERFORMANCE STANDARDS ........................................................................... 69
7.6 SCHEMATISATION OF CANAL SYSTEM ........................................................................ 70
7.7 CANAL REGULATION ................................................................................................... 70
7.7.1 PROPORTIONAL DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................. 71
7.7.2 ON REQUEST DISTRIBUTION ................................................................................. 72
7.7.3 ON DEMAND .......................................................................................................... 73
7.7.4 MOISTURE CONTENT VARIATION ......................................................................... 74
CHAPTER 8 - SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ........................................................................ 77
8.1 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................. 77

8.2 SEDIMENT SIZE AND MEAN CONCENTRATION .............................................................. 78
8.3 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT MODE ...................................................................................... 78
8.4 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SETRIC ............................................................................ 82
8.5 MODELLING RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................... 88
8.6 SOME REGIME CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................. 94
8.6.1 SEDIMENTS ............................................................................................................ 94
8.6.2 MATURING OF CANALS .......................................................................................... 95
8.6.3 SLOPE ADJUSTMENTS ............................................................................................ 95
8.6.4 FLOW CAPACITY .................................................................................................... 95
8.7 EVALUATION OF MODELLING UNSTEADY FLOW AS QUASI STEADY FLOW .................. 98
8.8 EVALUATION OF FLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS ............................................................. 100
8.8.1 EQUITY ................................................................................................................ 100
8.8.2 RELIABILITY ........................................................................................................ 100
8.8.3 ADEQUACY .......................................................................................................... 100
2
8.8.4 RESPONSE TIME ................................................................................................... 101
8.8.5 SIMPLICITY IN OPERATION .................................................................................. 101
8.8.6 DESILTATION AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENT ............................................. 101
8.8.7 ROBUSTNESS AGAINST WATER THEFT ................................................................. 101
8.8.8 SEEPAGE LOSSES ................................................................................................. 102
8.8.9 FLEXIBILITY IN WATER DISTRIBUTION ................................................................ 102
8.8.10 COST .................................................................................................................. 102
8.8.11 TRANSPARENCY IN WATER DISTRIBUTION ........................................................ 103
8.9 SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS ............................................................................................... 103
CHAPTER 9 -CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................... 105
9.1 APPLICATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS ...................................................................... 105

9.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ........................................................ 106
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 109
ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................ 113
3
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Historical development of irrigation area in Pakistan ............................... 20
Figure 2: Water Balance of Indus Basin Irrigation System ...................................... 21
Figure 3: The Selection of Flow Control Methods in Irrigation ............................... 34
Figure 4: Illustration Diagram for Proportional Control System (Ankum,1993) ...... 35
Figure 5: Illustration Diagram for Upstream Control System (Ankum,1993)........... 36
Figure 6: Illustration Diagram for Downstream Control System (Ankum,1993) ...... 37
Figure 7: Flow control systems and hypothetical associated maintenance costs ....... 39
Figure 8: Schematic Illustration of Methodology .................................................... 42
Figure 9: Rainfall and Reference Evapotranspiration for the FESS Area ................. 46
Figure 10: Cropping Pattern and Base Periods ........................................................ 49
Figure 11: Design Cropping Pattern and Base Periods ............................................ 50
Figure 12: Required Irrigation Supply at the Tertiary Offtake ................................. 51
Figure 13: Variation of Suspended Load With River Discharge .............................. 56
Figure 14: Percentile Variation of Sand Silt and Clay in Suspended Load ............... 57
Figure 15: Particle Size Analysis Curve for The Suspended Load ........................... 58
Figure 16: Comparison of canal designs by Regime and Tractive Force Method ..... 65
Figure 17: Typical Cross Section Identifying Structural Components in X-section .. 68
Figure 18: Decision making process matrix for the water deliver systems ............... 71
Figure 19: Operation Plan for the proportional distribution system.......................... 72
Figure 20: Operation Plan for the on request distribution system ............................. 73
Figure 21: Operation Plan for the on demand distribution system............................ 74
Figure 22: Moisture content variation in the farms at the canal command level. ...... 75
Figure 23: Initiation of suspension and bed load in irrigation canals........................ 78
Figure 24: Suspended load as function of d50 .......................................................... 79
Figure 25: Suspended load as function of water depth (C=40 m1/2/s & =4 N/m2) ... 80
Figure 26: Suspended load as function of (h=4m & C=40m1/2/s) ......................... 80
Figure 27: Suspended load as function of the Chzy coeff; (h=4m & =4N/m2) ...... 80
Figure 28: Variation of mean concentration in x direction ....................................... 82
Figure 29: Flow chart for water flow, sediment and bed level calculations. ............. 83
Figure 30: Flow chart for calculating the water flow during a time step................... 84
Figure 31: Flow diagram for calculating sediment transport during a time step........ 85
Figure 32: Friction factor as function of maintenance.............................................. 87
Figure 33: Sedimentation variation with discharge for d50=0.2mm & Ci=400ppm ... 89
Figure 36: Discharge-Sedimentation curves for the proportional system ................. 91
Figure 37: Discharge-Sedimentation curves for the on request system .................... 91
Figure 38: Discharge-Sedimentation curves for the on demand system ................... 92
Figure 39: Ci sedimentation curve for proportional distribution system ................ 92
Figure 40: Ci sedimentation curve for on request system...................................... 93
Figure 41: Ci sedimentation curve for on request system...................................... 93
Figure 42: Bed evolution diagram for canal designed to carry 150 m3/s .................. 96
Figure 43: Temporal variation of sediment volume deposited ................................. 96
Figure 44: Bed levels after operating the canals for various discharges for 194 days 97
Figure 45: Temporal impact of low flows on canal regime ...................................... 97
Figure 46: Hydrograph of canal for increase in flow rate situation .......................... 99
Figure 47: Hydrograph of canal for decrease in flow rate situation .......................... 99
Figure 48: Sketch of the regime canal for 150 m3/s discharge ................................. 99
4
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Proposed Infrastructure of Farmers Participation in PIDA ........................ 22

Table 2: Rotation Plan of Sadiqia Division for The Season Kharif 1997 .................. 28
Table 3: Warabandi at Tertiary Level ...................................................................... 29
Table 4: Temporal Variation of Water Use Productivity in ...................................... 30
Table 5: Effect of Reliable Irrigation Supply on Crop Yields in Pakistan ................. 31
Table 6: 33 Years Average Meteorological Data from Bahawalnagar Area.............. 45
Table 7: Cropped Area and Average Yields of Major Crops from the Year 199397 48
Table 8: Design Cropping Pattern............................................................................ 48
Table 9: Major Crops and Planting Season the crops for the FESS Area .................. 49
Table 10: Field Irrigation Methods for the FESS Area ............................................. 50
Table 11: Irrigation Water Requirement Calculations .............................................. 52
Table 12: Results of the Statistical Analysis of The Suspended Load Data .............. 55
Table 13: Sieve Analysis of Suspended Load Data .................................................. 58
Table 14: Canal System Design by Tractive Force Method...................................... 63
Table 15: Canal System Design By Laceys Regime Method .................................. 64
Table 16: Comparison of the Laceys Regime and Tractive Force Method .............. 66
Table 17: Evaluation of flow control systems .........................................................103
LIST OF MAPS
Map 1: Indus Basin Irrigation System of Pakistan ................................................... 17

Map 2: Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia South Area .......................................................... 18
LIST OF ANNEXES
ANNEX A: Irrigation system development in Pakistan

ANNEX B: CROPWAT out put and canal operation scenario calculations
ANNEX C: SETRIC input and final sedimentation output data (SEDIM.OUT)
ANNEX D: DUFLOW input files
ANNEX E: One-year sediment data of Eastern Sadiqia Canal
ANNEX F: Farmers interviews
ANNEX G: Interim data collection report
5
6
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A Area
B Bottom width of canal
c Correction factor for b/d ratios
Ci Initial concentration of sediment load
d Mean diameter of Bed Material
d50 Diameter of the sediment representing 50% cumulative finer than curve
ea Application efficiency.
f Laceys silt factor
g Acceleration due to gravity
m Slope Factor 1 Vertical: m Horizontal
N Mannings roughness coefficient
P Wetted perimeter
Q Discharge
R Hydraulic radius
So Bed slope
V Velocity
Vav Average velocity
w Fall velocity
Y Depth of flow
Density
s Density of solids/sediments
w Density of water
Shear Stress
7
8
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIVAL Volume Flow Control System

CCA Culturable Command Area
CEMAGREF Agricultural & Environmental Engineering Research
CROPWAT Crop and Water (Software)
CWR Crop water requirement
DORC Design of Regime Canals
DUFLOW Dutch Flow (Software)
EAUD Environment & Urban Affairs Division, Govt of Pakistan.
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
FESS Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia South an area in Pakistan
GCA Gross Command Area
GIR Gross Irrigation Requirement
IBIS Indus Basin Irrigation System
ICWE International Conference on Water & Environment
IIMI International Irrigation Management Institute (Now IWMI)
ISRIP International Sedimentation and Reclamation Institute Pakistan
IWMI International Water Management Institute.
NCA National Commission on Agriculture
NIR Net Irrigation Requirement
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
PIDA Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority
PIM Participatory Irrigation Management.
PWD Public Works Department (Pakistan)
SETRIC Sediment Transport in Irrigation Canals
SIC Simulation of Irrigation Canals (Software)
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
USAID United States Aid
X-Section Cross Section
9
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research has benefited from many people either directly or indirectly. I am
grateful to the core Land and Water Development-Hydraulic Engineering Department,
for having confidence in me while giving the opportunity for doing the MSc.
Research through IHE-NFP Fellowship pregramme.
I would like to thank all those who supported me during the research. In the first place
I would like to thank my advisor Ir. H. W. Th. Depeweg for his assistance, guidance
and discussions on items related to my research and encouragement to explore new
ideas. Also my thanks to Prof. Dr. Ir. Bart Schultz for his keen interest, guidance and
support for carrying out the research.
I am also thankful to Mr. Paul Ankum for his help during the research and his nice
lectures during the course work.
Also I would like to thank the staff members of the core land and water development
especially Ir. Paul van Hofwegen, his lectures helped in keeping management aspect
of my thesis in the right direction, and Mr. Eugene Dahmen for his help during the
research.
I also feel grateful to Mr. Peter Hollanders and Mr. R. De Nooy and their welcoming
attitude in case of any problem. Especially Mr. De Nooys laughter was always
encouraging and relaxing during the studies at IHE.
I would also like to say thanks to IIMI Pakistan, especially Dr. S. A. Pratahapar, Paul
Willem Vehmeyer, Salman, Asim, Zubair, Amjad, Hameed and all others for their
help during the data collection campaign.
I am also grateful to Gilles Belaud, for keeping in touch during the research and his
continuos support.
I remain very thankful to my employer, The Punjab Irrigation and Power Department,
Pakistan. I hope that the knowledge and experience I gained during this period will
serve my country in the best possible way.
Last but not least my thanks go to my family, family in law and friends, whose
support and affection encouraged me to complete this research. Finally most of all to
my wife Aroosa and son Fazeel for their continuos support, patience, encouragement
and understanding they gave me during all this period.
11
12
ABSTRACT
In most of the developing countries the irrigation canal systems are working under the
principles of proportional distribution or strict and well defined water rights. The
water rights set in the older times are not favourable from the crop productivity point
of view. Untimely availability of water is considered as a major contributor to low
productivity. One of the opportunities for increasing productivity lies in changing to a
demand oriented water supply system. The prerequisite condition for optimal crop
growth is the right quantity of water at the right time at the right place. This is a
difficult objective to achieve in countries with irrigation systems, which were
developed decades ago.
To move towards more efficient and productive irrigation systems, there is a general
acceptance and growing demand from the farmers to modernise the systems to work
under upstream or downstream flow control systems to better respond to the crop
water requirements. Before switching to altogether new systems of canal operation it
is necessary to evaluate the feasibility of such infrastructural changes and their effects
on the existing socio agro economic environment.
In this research a tool has ben developed which may be helpful for the farmers in
making a choice between the required level of service and associated costs; for the
irrigation authorities and policy makers in decision making for modernisation of the
system; for the consultants in making concepts, designs and cost estimates.
The approach adopted for this research is to consider the objectives from the wider to
the narrower perspective. In the first part the present situation in Pakistan has been
analysed which included the analysis of the water supply aspects, cropping policy,
water delivery criteria, warabandi and present level of productivity of water. As a next
step, after getting an overview at a large scale, the available options for making the
system flexible enough to meet the crop water requirement were studied. This was
followed by a study more focused on the selected research area - Hakra 4R command
area, located in Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia South area of Punjab, Pakistan. After
developing a methodology for the research, all the relevant aspects have been studied
and, if required, the data have been modified to be in line with the modernised
systems. Based on the agro-climatic data for the Hakra 4R area canal, operations have
been developed for various water delivery arrangements i.e. proportional, on request
and on demand water delivery. Next, they were simulated by using SETRIC a
hydrodynamic model for studying the sediment transport in irrigation canals.
The research revealed that for each set of water delivery arrangement (proportional,
on request and on demand water distribution) and sediment load characteristics there
is a linear relationship between the sediment concentration and the volume of
sediment deposited, if the sediment concentration is more than equilibrium
concentration. Also, there is relationship between the discharge, the sediment
concentration and the volume of sediment deposited in the canal, which may be
translated into the maintenance cost for the desiltation.
13
The research revealed that proportional distribution system is the most economic one
followed by on request and then by the on demand system, but the difference in
maintenance costs reduce as we move from bigger to smaller canals. The research
evaluated the impact of canal operation on the sedimentation behaviour and is found
that the volume of sediment deposited increases if the canal is operated at a discharge
lesser than the design.
In the process of developing the tool, for the regime canals, it was found that canals
attain the regime after a certain period of operation. In the new regime the canals
adjusts to a new slope and after that period, there is no sediment deposition any more.
So, it is required that the canals shouldnt be maintained if the canals are in transition
to attain the regime, and, the maintenance standards must be defined in line with the
expected regime condition by using the sediment transport models.
The main output of the research i.e. the curves to assist the actors involved in decision
making for the modernisation of the system, is suggested to be applied by careful
considerations of the assumptions involved, like the uniform sediment load and is so
far only applicable for regime canal. Before using the curves outside the assumed
environment further research is suggested for the development of a more globally
applicable tool.
14
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
The food requirement of mankind is increasing every day due to the population
growth and increase in standard of living. So, there is consensus that a more efficient
and productive operation of the irrigation systems is required to meet the increasing
demand for food in the future.
In most of the developing countries the systems are working under the principles of
proportional distribution or strict and well defined water rights. The water rights set in
the older times are not favourable from the crop productivity point of view. Untimely
availability of water is considered as a major contributor to low productivity. One of
the opportunities for increasing productivity lies in changing over to a demand
oriented water supply system. The prerequisite condition for optimal crop growth is
the right quantity of water at the right time. This is a difficult objective to achieve in
countries with irrigation systems, which were developed decades ago.
To move towards more efficient and productive irrigation systems, there is a general
acceptance and growing demand from the farmers to modernise the systems to work
under upstream or downstream flow control systems to better respond to the crop
water requirements. Before switching to altogether new systems of canal operation it
is necessary to evaluate the feasibility of such infrastructural changes and their effects
on the existing socio agro economic environment.
This research evaluates the possibilities of changing the existing flow control systems
in Pakistan. The evaluation includes the analysis of recurrent maintenance costs and
social implications of switching over to the flow control systems other than
proportional control.
The approach adopted for this research is to consider the objectives from the wider to
the narrower perspective. In the first part the present situation in Pakistan has been
analysed which included the analysis of the water supply aspects, cropping policy,
water delivery criteria, warabandi and present level of productivity of water. As a next
step after getting an overview at a large scale, the available options for making the
system flexible enough to meet the crop water requirement were studied. This was
followed by a study more focused on the selected research area - Hakra 4R command
area, located in Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia South area of Punjab, Pakistan. After
developing a methodology and process diagram for the research, all the aspects
relevant to the research have been studied and, if required, the data have been
modified to be in line with the modernised systems. Based on the agro-climatic data
from the Hakra 4R area canal operations have been developed for various water
delivery arrangements i.e. proportional, on request and on demand water delivery.
Nextly they were simulated by using SETRIC a hydrodynamic model for studying
the sediment transport in canals.
The expected output of the research will be helpful for the farmers in making a choice
between the level of service and associated costs; for the irrigation authorities and
policy makers in decision making for modernisation of the system; for the consultants
in making concepts, design and cost estimates.
15
1.1 Research Locale
The objectives of the research is to develop a relationship between the water delivery
arrangements and associated maintenance costs as illustrated in figure 4. Although, it
was possible to assume all the data for developing the relationship, instead it has been
tried to develop and test the results of the research for real field situations. Whereas,
the option of using assumed data has been applied only for the sensitivity analysis and
analysing the possibility of using the output of the research elsewhere. So, Hakra 4R
area, which is part of the Fordah Eastern Sadiqia South (FESS) area in Pakistan, has
been chosen as the reference area.
Pakistan is located in South Asia and is surrounded by China in the North,

Afghanistan and Iran in the Northwest, India in the East and by the Arabian Sea in the
South. Pakistan has one of the largest irrigation canal network in the world (see map
1).
Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia South (FESS) area is located below the Sulemanki
Headworks. The area is of special importance due to the concentration of research
activities in the land and water sector, during the last decade. One of the research
activities in the area is the organisation of farmers on Hakra 4R canal system for the
joint management or irrigation management transfer (see map 2).
16
Map 1: Indus Basin Irrigation System of Pakistan
17
Map 2: Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia South Area
18
CHAPTER 2 - BACKGROUND
2.1 General
Pakistan, an arid zone country, has a total land area of about 80 million ha, of which
40% or 32 million ha is suitable for crops, range and forest production. A major
portion of the countrys irrigation depends upon the flow in its rivers forming the
tributaries of the River Indus. Maximum temperature in the Indus basin goes upto
50oC in May and June. Annual precipitation is less than 200 mm in most of the areas.
Pan evaporation may exceed 1,500 mm in a year. The Indus basin is one of the
worlds most fertile, thickly populated areas surrounded by high mountains on the
northern and north-western side and by desert on the north-eastern side. On the
southern side the basin boundary goes upto the Arabian Sea.
The Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) has the worlds largest contiguous irrigation
system, designed as run of the river, traversing Pakistan from North-west to South-
east and serving some 14 million ha of fertile lands, mainly in the Punjab and Sind
Provinces of Pakistan.
The Indus Basin has well defined seasons; winter (December - February), spring
(March - April), summer (May - September) and autumn (October - November).
During summer in the plains, the temperature may go as high as 50oC. Between July
and August, the monsoon brings an average of 380 to 510 mm of rain to the plains,
which are the main centre of the agricultural activity. The high evaporation rate,
ranging from 1,250 to 2,800 mm, necessitates irrigation for the agricultural use of the
land.
Along the river and its tributaries are the alluvium plains, which are very fertile, and a
variety of crops are produced in the area. The Indus basin is characterised by a flat
topography and a poor natural drainage.
2.2 Irrigation in Pakistan
Pakistans present resource base is a commutative effort of more than a century of

consistent investment in irrigation development. Figure 1 shows the massive historical
development of the irrigation system and its command areas in Pakistan (For details
see annex A). About 95% of the agriculture land in Pakistan is irrigated by one mean
or the other.
The Indus basin irrigation system is the largest canal network in the world and has
three large reservoirs, 19 headworks, 12 inter-river link canals, 43 main canals and
more than a million tertiary canals. The total length of the canals is about 61,000 km
including communal watercourses. Whereas field ditches have an additional length of
19
more than 1.6 million km. The Indus basin irrigation system is the major source for
the irrigation water and about 130 billion m3 of water is diverted into the main canals.
Canals irrigate about 75 % of the irrigated land, whereas 21% of the area is irrigated
by tube wells and 4% of the area by other sources (Source: Water Sector Investment
Plan 1990). A detailed water balance for Pakistan is illustrated in figure 2
16
14
12
Cummulative CCA
(Million Hectares)
10
0
1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year
Figure 1: Historical development of irrigation area in Pakistan
2.3 Irrigation Management Transfer
Transferring the responsibility for managing the irrigation system from the
government to farmers or private sector organisations is being widely advocated as a
solution to the problem of poor irrigation management and inadequate performance.
The Pakistani government has also launched a program for the gradual transfer of
irrigation management from the government to the farmers. The reasons behind the
irrigation management transfer may be identified as:
To reduce government expenditure on irrigation system operation and
maintenance;
Improve system performance and productivity;
Respond to broader national privatisation policies and programs;
Respond to pressure of external funding agencies.
As one of the major steps towards irrigation management transfer all the provincial
governments have passed the Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA)
Acts in 1997. This act envisages to introduce the major reforms in the organisations
involved in the land and water sector. The reforms consist primarily of
decentralisation and management transfer of the irrigation and drainage system from
20
River Water
Annual Flow Available Flow to Arabian

25%
in Rivers Sea
3
(171.5 B. m ) (42.9 B. m3)
75%
Diversion to Canal
Irrigation System
(128.6 B. m3)
Ground Water 75% 25% Rain Water

Head of
Water Head of Conveyance
Course Water Losses in
SCARP Course
Tubewell (96.5B. m3) Canal System
(11.1B. m3) (32.1 B. m3)
Private
45%
Tubewell
(43.2B.m3)
15% 85% 55%
5% 95%
Conveyance At Field At Field Conveyance At Field

Losses in Nakkas Nakkas Losses in Nakkas
Watercourse (50.6 B. m3) (53.1 B. m3) Watercourse (16 B. m3)
(3.7 B. m3) (43.4 B. m3)
28% 72% 28%
28% 72% 72%
Field Water Water Field Water Field

Application Available for Available for Application Available for Application
Losses Crops Crops Losses Crops Losses
(14.2 B. m3) (36.4B. m3) (38.2 B. m3) (14.9 B. m3) (11.5 B. m3) (4.5 B. m3)
Total Water Availability for Crop Use

(86.1 B. m3)
Figure 2: Water Balance of Indus Basin Irrigation System
21
the Provincial Irrigation Departments to a multi tier system of autonomous institutions
with clearly defined roles and responsibilities within the system, and with a firm
commitment to phase out the subsidies for operation and maintenance (O&M) in five
to seven years (SAR World Bank, 1997). The emerging set-up of the authority and
role of farmers is tabulated in table 1.
Actors System Level Remarks

Involved
Authority Farmers + Provincial Level Inter provincial and steering
Government body for the Area Water
Representatives Boards
Area Water Board Farmers Elected Group of main Financially autonomous
Board canal commands organisation will buy water
from authority and will
operate and maintain system
at main and branch canal
level. Overall in charge of the
authorities officials. Approval
of budgets and new
developments.
Water Users Elected Farmers Main canal Water distribution, operation
Federation system level and maintenance at the
respective system level.
Water Users Farmers Tertiary Unit/ Water distribution at Chak
Association End Level level and proper maintenance
of watercourses.
Table 1: Proposed Infrastructure of Farmers Participation in PIDA
22
CHAPTER 3 - PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
3.1 Setting
There has been a growing recognition from a large number of countries, as well as
from international bodies such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD, 1989), the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (World Bank 1993) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO,
1994) of the need to move to more water demand oriented interventions that consider
the economic value of water. This recognition is illustrated by the following citations.
Member Countries develop and implement effective water demand management

policies in all areas of water services through making greater use of forecasting
future demand of water; appropriate resource pricing for water services; appraisal,
reassessment and transferability of water rights; various non price demand
management measures; and integrated administration arrangement for demand
management (OECD, 1989).
Past failures to recognise the economic value of water has led to wasteful and
environmentally damaging uses of the resources (ICWE, 1992).
A pre-requisite for sustainable management of water as a scarce, vulnerable

resource is the obligation to acknowledge in all planning and development
activities, its full costs. Planning considerations should reflect investment,
environmental protection and operating costs, as well as opportunity cost
reflecting the most valuable alternative use of water The role of water as a
social, economic and life sustaining good should be reflected in demand
management mechanisms. (UNCED, 1992)
The same feelings are reflected in the document jointly prepared by the
Government of Pakistan (EAUD) and The World Conservation Union (1991)
which states that:
To make the best use of the available water and to create conditions of good
agronomic practices, the irrigation system in Pakistan should move towards a
demand-based rather than a supply-based system.
As all the old systems were constructed on the simple principles of water diversion by
raising the water level and a proportional distribution to the farms. With the passage
of time as the pressure on the land and water resource increased, every body realises
now the need for introducing flexibility in system operation in order to save the water
on one hand and increase the productivity of water on the other hand.
23
3.2 Present Situation
Pakistan depends on irrigation, which is vital for more than 90% of the countrys food
and fibre production. Although the country is predominantly arid and semiarid, water
supplies for agricultural uses have been expanding in line with the number of hectares
cropped. Indeed since 1960-61 the irrigation water available per irrigated hectare
increased by 42%.
3.2.1 Water Supply Aspects
In the Indus Basin Irrigation System the surface water is owned by the State and the
Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authorities (as per water rights) administer its
distribution. Water rights were fixed at the time when the irrigation system was
developed on the principle of proportional share per unit area of irrigable land. The
quantity of water given to a piece of land was fixed by considering the properties of
the soil and potential crops in the area and is sufficient for a cropping intensity of
about 80% (varies within a system).
The objective of the restricted supply of water was to distribute evenly the benefits of
the water resource, to minimise the risk of famine, disease or pest attacks and to
assure a certain level of production.
To operate a system effectively, the government authorities have certain discretionary

power related to water rights, like the suspension of the water supplies in case of ill
maintenance of the tertiary canals. Although these watercourses are owned by the
farmers, structurally they cant be separated from the irrigation system.
The water right is held by the agriculture land and not by the owner of the land. Water
rights shift from one farmer to the other with the change in ownership of the land. The
water rights are not a transferable commodity (from one piece of land to the other)
and terminate with a change in land use like building a factory on the agriculture land
etc. In case of legalised lease or tenancy agreements, the water rights remain with the
land. But in some cases of unofficial tenancy arrangement like share cropping, the
water distribution rights within the land of one farmer remain with the owner of the
land and are not transferred to the cultivating farmer.
The Indus Basin Irrigation System is very long, and contiguous and designed on the
run of the river, so is at higher risks of variation in flows and possibilities of break
down. Also keeping in mind the scarcity of the water an institutional mechanism has
been provided to evenly spread the effect of unforeseen situations.
The system operates on the principle of proportional division, with minimal human
intervention. Certain discharges are maintained at the head of the canals to get one-
foot (0.3 m) water depth at the tail end of the system. The farmers are not allowed to
close the system as closing the off takes may result in breaches of the canals.
The irrigation and drainage authority supplies the water at the head of the tertiary
offtake and the internal distribution is principally done by the farmers themselves. In
case of differences among the farmers in distribution of water at the tertiary level, the
24
government provides the services of arbitration through the field office, which is final
and can only be changed by the higher office within the authority or court. For
providing the services the Government authorities have the right to levy water fee and
impose penalties if required.
3.2.2 Cropping Policy
The cropping policy in Pakistan can be categorised as micro level and macro level
policies. The micro level policy gives the farmers a freedom to choose the crops by
keeping in view the availability of the farm inputs (land, labour, water etc) Whereas
the macro level policy, controls the cropping patterns by economic forces. The micro
level policy remains the same, because the farmers are used to it and to avoid
uncertainties in farming. But the macro level policy keeps on changing for the well
being of the country and depends on both the agriculture and industrial sectors
economic situation in the country.
In the present situation the Government has the free cropping policies, if we look only
from the irrigation water supply point of view. But the economic instruments of price
control and subsidies control the cropping pattern, which is solely in the hands of the
Government. A good example for this is the cotton market. During the past few years
the Government regulates the market and keeps a balance between the cotton
industrialists and poor farmers by restricting and allowing the free export of cotton
when required, as the cotton industry has more monopolistic power than the farmers.
For self-sufficiency in food crops, the Government has a policy of buying the entire
wheat crop at higher rates and selling it at cheaper rates to the flourmills under a quota
system.
3.2.3 Water delivery criteria
For a farmer there are three essential criteria for water delivery
Adequacy
Reliability
Equity
Before discussing the pros and cons of the above mentioned criteria it will be good to
agree on the definitions of these criteria.
Adequacy is a measure (indicator) for the delivery of the required amount of water for
optimal growth of the plant. The adequacy is represented by the ratio of the water
delivered and the water required. Basically the adequacy is a good indicator,
especially for assessing the management standard in demand based irrigation systems
Reliability is a measure of performance of the irrigation management and the ability

of the system to make the deliveries as promised. So we can identify various parts of
the irrigation system influencing the reliability irrespective of the water delivery
arrangements. It is one of the important parameters and one of the key objective of the
25
irrigation systems and constitutes the two dimensions of water supply in it, firstly the
quantity of water i.e. the promised amount of water and secondly the time dimension
i.e. at the promised time.
Equity is the term used for representing the equality in realisation of the water right. It
can also be considered as the spatial uniformity of the ratio of delivered amount of
water to the required or scheduled amount of water. In the protective irrigation
systems, equity is a fair principle of justice.
For the Indus Basin Irrigation System, which is a protective irrigation system, the
water scarcity is essential. So it is not possible to meet the water requirements for all
the crops grown in the command area. Adequacy couldnt be the criteria for assessing
the water delivery service. In this situation if we relate the required amount of water
to the promised amount of water then the criteria of adequacy mixes up in reliability
and makes one dimension of it promised quantity of water.
Equity and reliability are the key target/objectives of the Indus Basin Irrigation
System and to realise the objectives, the principle of proportional distribution is
followed in operation and design of the system, which works with a least human
intervention.
If we prioritise the water delivery criteria for the Indus Basin Irrigation System then
equity comes first, followed by reliability. The proportional flow distributors are used
for equity. Where as reliability is tried to achieve through rotation plans, which are
made well in advance.
3.2.4 Warabandi
A policy of imposed delivery is followed in the irrigation systems due to the

permanent scarcity of water in the area. The water delivery policy is in line with the
Government policy of poverty alleviation and maximisation of productivity and crop
diversification.
The delivery schedule followed by the system is Varied amount- Fixed frequency
To make the water allocation procedure transparent the procedure adopted is that on
the one hand it is utmost tried to run the canals on design discharge so that hydraulic
behaviour of the canal doesnt change and the objective of equity can be achieved.
Fluctuations and shortages in the canal flows are inherent to run of the river systems,
so operational rules have been framed to distribute the effect of shortages and
fluctuations in the system evenly. To keep all the procedures transparent a
predetermined schedule for rotations/warabandi of canal in case of shortages of water
is framed.
Principally, at Chak level, the right of decision about the water distribution, is with
the farmers of that Chak, being the command area of a tertiary off take. They are free
to make any water distribution plan as they like. But in case of conflict among the
farmers of a Chak, any farmer may request the Irrigation and Drainage Authority to
26
intervene. In that case the Irrigation and Drainage Authority has some guidelines to
make a Warabandi (water distribution plan) for the farmers of that Chak after
listening to all the farmers involved. The procedure adopted is as follows:
Warabandi is designed on a 7-day basis. Assuming that water will flow
continuously;
First of all, the time required to fill the main watercourse is calculated by
assuming that water will fill one acre length in 3 minutes;
The time required to fill the water course is deducted from the total minutes in a
week i.e. 7 days (10080 minutes), to calculate the net available time;
The net available time is divided by the total command area of a Chak to calculate
the irrigation turn in minutes per acre;
The irrigation time or irrigation turn for each farmer is calculated by multiplying
the land holding of the farmer with the irrigation turn per acre;
Depending on the location of the inlet of the farmer on the main outlet (Nakka)
the additional time for filling the watercourse is given to the farmer. But in case
the farmer has the land at the tail of the water course and his water turn is
followed by some farmer having land upstream of the water course then the time
is deducted from his turn, because all the water available in the water course will
finally flow to his fields;
The water turns are planned in the order of location of land along the
Watercourse;
All the water turns are shifted forward and backward by 12 hours alternately each
year. So, that the farmers irrigating during the night in one year, can have the
facility of day irrigation in the next year and vice versa.
Similarly in case of shortages of water, the canals are operated in rotation/warabandi.

The canal system rotation is harmonised with the Warabandi at the tertiary level. So,
an eight days rotation is framed at the canal level i.e. one day more than days in one
cycle of warabandi at tertiary level. This additional day is provided to evenly
distribute the effect of long-term water shortages among all the farmers.
The rotation plan is chalked out well before the season and is distributed to all the
offices and public representatives involved. The procedure involved for framing the
rotation of canals is as follows:
The canals are divided into groups and subgroups;
The right of access to water is based on the preferences between the groups and
the preference in right to access of water is set alternately in a cyclic way;
Then as there is less likely hood of receiving water for the canals in the second
preference groups, the second groups internal order of preference in right to
access of water is also made explicit. The order of preference keeps on changing
in cyclic way whenever the group comes in second priority of preference;
The plan of rotation of canals is chalked out on a seasonal basis and well before
time with clear mentioned dates. This way of distributing water helps in
distributing the scarcity and abundance of water equally to the farmers of different
canal commands.
One typical example of rotation plan (warabandi) in a group of canal is presented on

the next page as table 2 followed by an example of warabandi at tertiary level
presented as table 3.
27
Rotation Plan For the Season Kharif 1997, Sadiqia Division, Bahawalnagar
Following will be the groups of distributaries for Sadiqia canal
Group A: A1 Fateh System (Fateh Distributary and its minors)
A2 Mehmooda Minor, Bhukan Distributary, Gujyani Distributary
A3 Sadiq Ford Feeder
Group B: B1 Murad Distributary
B2 Yar Wah, Girdhariwala, Sirajwah Distributary
1- Each group will be in first preference for eight days

2- In case of shortage or excess of water program may change
3- SDO Jalwala will be incharge for the rotation plan and will be under the supervision of Executive Engineer Sadiqia.
4- SDOs of Jalwala, Malik and Dahranwala will be the incharge of the rotation plan in their own subdivisions and
in case of shortage of water they will make rotation plans within their subdivisions and make that successful.
From To Groups in the order of preference Second group internal preference
First Second I II III
12-Apr-97 19-Apr-97 B A A2 A3 A1
20-Apr-97 27-Apr-97 A B B2 B1
28-Apr-97 5-May-97 B A A3 A1 A2
6-May-97 14-May-97 A B B1 B2
15-May-97 23-May-97 B A A1 A2 A3
24-May-97 31-May-97 A B B2 B1
1-Jun-97 8-Jun-97 B A A2 A3 A1
9-Jun-97 16-Jun-97 A B B1 B2
17-Jun-97 24-Jun-97 B A A3 A1 A2
25-Jun-97 2-Jul-97 A B B2 B1
3-Jul-97 10-Jul-97 B A A1 A2 A3
11-Jul-97 18-Jul-97 A B B1 B2
19-Jul-97 26-Jul-97 B A A2 A3 A1
27-Jul-97 3-Aug-97 A B B2 B1
4-Aug-97 11-Aug-97 B A A3 A1 A2
12-Aug-97 19-Aug-97 A B B1 B2
20-Aug-97 27-Aug-97 B A A1 A2 A3
28-Aug-97 4-Sep-97 A B B2 B1
5-Sep-97 12-Sep-97 B A A2 A3 A1
13-Sep-97 20-Sep-97 A B B1 B2
21-Sep-97 28-Sep-97 B A A3 A1 A2
29-Sep-97 6-Oct-97 A B B2 B1
7-Oct-97 14-Oct-97 B A A1 A2 A3
Copy: To Chief Engineer Bahawalpur
To SE Canal Circle Bahawalnagar, SDOs Sadiqia Division
To Deputy Collector, Zilladars, Sub Engineers Sadiqia Division
To Duty Commissioner Bahawalnagar, Assistant Commissioners Hasilpur, Bahawalnagar & Minchinabad
To District Information Officer Bahawalnagar
To Director Agriculture, Bahawalnagar, Bahawalpur
To District Councils, Bahawalnagar, Bahawalpur.
To Members Provincial Assembly Constituancy No: 225,226,227,229
To Members National Assembly Constituancy No: 144,145
To Head Signaller Bahawalnagar
Signed
Khalid Mehmood
Executive Engineer
Sadiqia Canal Division, Bahawalnagar.
Table 2: Rotation Plan of Sadiqia Division for The Season Kharif 1997
Distributary : Fordwah ACTUAL WARABANDI SCHEDULE
Watercourse No : 96692-R RABI 1996-97
Date: 09-07-84/09-07-87
IN OUT Remarks
Commanded
commanded
Water Pure
Sr. Khata No. Rectangular Name of Owner Area Deduction Addition Odd year Even year Nakka Nakka
Un
turn water
No. turn Start End Start End
1 235/04 M. Arshad S/O Noor M. 0.71 00:40 00:40 06:00 06:40 18:00 18:40 235/04/05 Head
2 235/04 Abdul Ghafoor S/O Noor M. 7 06:32 06:32 06:40 13:12 18:40 01:12 235/04/05 235/04/05
3 235/2,3,6,7 M. Nawaz, M. Rafiq, M. Aslam S/O M. Khurshid 36 33:38 00:15 33:53 13:12 23:05 01:12 11:05 235/03/21 235/04/05
4 215/16 M. Ashraf S/O Noor M. 9.31 08:42 00:30 09:12 23:05 08:17 11:05 20:17 215/16/05 235/03/21
5 215/12/16 Ismat Ullah S/O Ismail Etc. 10.67 09:58 09:58 08:17 18:15 20:17 06:15 215/16/05 215/16/05
6 215/15/16 Hanifan Bibi W/O Rehmat Ullah Etc. 10.5 09:48 09:48 18:15 04:03 06:15 16:03 215/16/05 215/16/05
7 215/15 Abdul Shakoor S/O Noor M. 3 02:48 00:21 03:09 04:03 07:12 16:03 19:12 215/15/04 215/16/05
8 215/15 M. Akram S/O Noor M. 3 02:48 02:48 07:12 10:00 19:12 22:00 215/15/03,04 215/15/04
9 215/15 Abdul Hameed S/O Noor M. 3 02:48 02:48 10:00 12:48 22:00 00:48 215/15/03,04 215/15/03,04
10 215/10,14,15 Noor M. S/O Karim Bakhsh 13 12:05 12:05 12:48 00:53 00:48 12:53 215/14/23,24 215/15/03,04
11 215/14 M. Zaman S/O Abdul Ghafoor 0.62 00:35 00:35 00:53 01:28 12:53 13:28 215/14/23,24 215/14/23,24
12 215/10 M. Arshad S/O Noor M. 1 00:56 01:08 01:28 02:36 13:28 14:36 215/10/16,25 215/14/23,24
13 215/14 Hanifan Bibi W/O Rehmat Ullah Etc. 8.9 08:18 00:03 08:21 02:36 10:57 14:36 22:57 215/14/13,18 215/10/16,25
14 215/14 M. Ali S/O Karim Bakhsh 2.36 02:13 02:13 10:57 13:10 22:57 01:10 215/14/13,18 215/14/13,18
15 215/13,14 Manzoor Ahmed, Maqbool Ahmed S/O M. Ali 16.87 15:40 00:09 15:49 13:10 04:59 01:10 16:59 215/13/23,24 215/14/13,18
16 215/09,10 Shah M. S/O Shahab Din 12 11:13 00:09 11:22 04:59 16:21 16:59 04:21 215/10/05 215/13/23,24
Bagh 2*4 (8
17 215/09 Bundoo Khan, M. Akhtar S/O Nazir Ahmed 18.5 17:19 00:06 17:25 16:21 09:46 04:21 21:46 215/09/25 215/10/05
acre bagh)
18 215/05 Janat Bibi W/O Ismail 4.37 04:06 00:15 04:21 09:46 14:07 21:46 02:07 215/05/15,16 215/09/25
19 215/05 M. Ismail S/O Ibrahim Etc. 1.37 01:17 01:17 14:07 15:24 02:07 03:24 215/05/15,16 215/05/15,16
20 215/05 Shah M. S/O Shahab Din 0.62 00:35 00:35 15:24 15:59 03:24 03:59 215/05/15,16 215/05/15,16
21 215/05 M. Sharif S/O Abd-Ur-Rehman 2.75 02:35 02:35 15:59 18:34 03:59 06:34 215/05/15,16 215/05/15,16
22 215/05 Rehmat Bibi Etc. 0.12 00:07 00:07 18:34 18:41 06:34 06:41 215/05/15,16 215/05/15,16
23 215/01,05 Waqar Ahmed, Altaf Hussain S/O Sikandar Ali
24 215/01,214/04 Taj Ali, Jamat Ali S/O Karam Ellahi 3.33 03:07 00:15 03:22 18:41 22:03 06:41 10:03 215/01/06,15 215/05/15,16
25 215/01 M. Ali, Rehmat Ali S/O Ghulam Nabi 4.17 03:55 03:55 22:03 01:58 10:03 13:58 215/01/06,15 215/01/06,15
26 215/01 Waqar Ahmed, Altaf Hussain S/O Sikandar Ali 0.66 00:25 00:25 01:58 02:23 13:58 14:23 215/01/15,16 215/01/06,15
27 194/16,195/13 Nazir Ahmed S/O Barkat Ali 1.75 01:38 01:38 02:23 04:01 14:23 16:01 215/01/15,16 215/01/15,16
28 Shaukat Ali, Karam Ellahi Etc. 3.02 02:50 01:06 00:15 01:59 04:01 06:00 16:01 18:00 Head 215/01/15,16
Table 3: Warabandi at Tertiary Level

3.2.5 Productivity of Water
In spite of the importance of irrigated agriculture, water use efficiency has not
increased sufficiently (See table 4). From 1971-76 to 1981-86, although the
availability and use of water increased by 42%, the improvement in water use
productivity was only 7.8% (five year moving averages), not a statistically significant
gain. This result is especially surprising given both the improved crop varieties
available and the 123% increase in fertiliser usage per unit of water available at
farmgate.
The conclusion drawn is that with regard to the most critical input the water, no
significant improvement in efficiency has been achieved. Considerable scope exists
for improving the crop productivity per volume of water.
The total water resource in Pakistan is estimated to be 242 billion m3.
Table 4: Temporal Variation of Water Use Productivity in

Year Production Water Use Water Use Productivity
(million hectare meter1 of (tonnes of wheat per hectare
000 tons of wheat
water at farmgate) per meter of water)
1971 76 7,865 3.62 2.17
1976 81 9,958 4.6 2.16
1981 86 12,044 5.14 2.34
Source: NCA Report, tables 13 & 14.
Crops require water at critical stages of their growth. For wheat, water is required
during tilling, sprouting and grain development, with the greatest loss of yield
happening when water stress occurs at the earlier stage of the plant growth.
The physiological requirements of the plant may be viewed in relation to the delivery
of water through the existing irrigation system. The farmers turn (wara) depends on
the availability of water in the canals operating under the rotation system. The period
between availability of water may be one week or two. So, in this situation it is
difficult to supply the water according to crop needs. Unfortunately although the
availability of water in terms of volume has increased, the availability of water at the
right time hasnt improved.
It is observed that the crop yields increase dramatically, if the water will be available
to the farmers on demand rather on an imposed fixed supply basis. A survey of 521
sample farms was carried out by NCA. In the survey the sample farms were studied,
to evaluate the effect of right time irrigation on the crop yields. In a part of the sample
farms, the farmers created flexibility in water availability by using tube well water in
conjunction to the canal water. The farms using tube-well water (available on
demand) in conjunction with the canal water got much higher yield as compared to
1
Hectare meter: water to cover 1 ha to the depth of 1m - unit of volume of water.
the farms depending totally on the imposed supply of irrigation canals. The results of
the survey are presented in table 5.
Table 5: Effect of Reliable Irrigation Supply on Crop Yields in Pakistan

Non User of Tube- Tube-well water Difference in Yield
well water users
Tonnes per hectare % age
Crop Yields
Sugar cane 29.0 54.7 88.6
Wheat 1.7 2.4 41.1
Rice Irri 1.9 2.9 52.6
Rice Basmati 1.7 2.2 29.4
Source: NCA Report (table XVII.3). Based on a sample survey 521 farms.
Untimely availability of water is therefore considered as a major contributor to low

productivity. The preliminary conclusion to be drawn is that the largest, single
opportunity for increasing productivity lies in changing over to a demand oriented
water supply system.
3.2.6 Conditions for Successful Irrigation Management Transfer
A prime condition for successful irrigation management transfer to the farmers is that
it should provide substantial economic benefits for the majority of the farmers.
Benefits of the self-management should outweigh additional costs. Another crucial
condition for the successful turnover is that sufficient water is made available in time
to the head works or to the offtakes within the scheme. Target deliveries and
schedules should be the result of negotiations between the supplying and recipient
organisation. In many cases, from the point of view of farmers, the irrigation
infrastructure is not functional and appropriate in view of operation by the farmers
themselves. It will be necessary to design and implement alterations better matched to
the farmers needs (IMT in Asia, RAP Publication 1995:31, Report Summary, FAO/
IIMI expert consultation, Bangkok, Thailand).
3.3 Research Issue
From the above discussion the necessity arises that due to the population explosion
and increase in living standard, the food requirement is increasing every day which
necessitates more efficient and productive operation of the irrigation system. On the
other hand a change in operation requires change in infrastructure, which may result
in an increase in maintenance and operational cost. In Pakistan, and most of the
developing countries, where the farmers community consists of small to large
31
farmers, it is very important to carefully evaluate the possible irrigation system
operation scenarios in the existing environment for socio-economic implications.
The MSc research attempts to evaluate the existing and other water delivery and
distribution system, including flow control systems in the socio-economic context; in
the Pakistani environment. Through the research it will be endeavoured to determine
the recurrent maintenance costs for various flow control systems and then in future
the marginal costs may be compared with the marginal benefits. It is not yet clear that
marginal costs of these management interventions are more than the marginal benefits
or not.
32
CHAPTER 4 - FLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS
The irrigation system comprises the conveyance canals and structures to regulate,
divide and to deliver irrigation water to the users. Such a system can be divided into
two parts (Horst, 1998).
a conveyance part comprising of canals and fixed structures such as drops,
culverts and escapes. If well-designed, -constructed and maintained, these
works will convey the water as planned. They generally dont need to be
operated;
an operational part: those points in the system where the water is controlled,
divided, regulated and measured, i.e., the water diversion structures and
offtakes.
The success of an irrigation scheme in meeting the desired objectives mainly depends
on the well designing of the operational part. Whereas the conveyance system is
designed as required by the operational part of flow control system, for meeting the
operational objectives.
In the present study, all the systems are designed such that the system will have the
capability of meeting the peak crop water requirement. But due to human involvement
and physical limitations, it happens quite often that the systems work below its full
capacity.
4.1 Selection of Flow Control System
For selecting the flow control system, it will be assumed that the irrigation system is
operated under a dual management system, which means, the main system including
the tertiary offtakes is under the responsibility of the O&M agency. Whereas the
water users association is responsible for the management within the Chak (tertiary
unit).
For arriving at the specific flow control system, the following questions need to be
answered in accordance with the operational objectives:
What will be the decision-making procedure on the allocation of irrigation water
at the tertiary offtakes?
Imposed, semi-demand or on demand allocation
What will be the method of water allocation to the tertiary unit?
Proportional (Splitted), Intermittent or Adjustable Flow
What type of water delivery arrangement will be provided in the main system?
Proportional (Splitted), Intermittent, Rotational or Adjustable Flow
What type of flow/flow division is required at the tertiary offtake?
Constant flow, Proportional
Answering these questions will lead to the possible flow control arrangements by
using Figure 3 (Ankum, 1995). The salient features of the main flow control system
are as under.
33
Decision Making Procedure - Who decides on water Allocation to The Tertiary Unit?
Imposed Semi Demand On Demand

Allocation Allocation Allocation
Method of Water Allocation - How is Water Allocated to The Tertiary Unit?
Splitted Inter-mittent Adjustable Inter-mittent Adjustable Inter-mittent Adjustable

Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow
to to to to to to to
Tertiary Tertiary Tertiary Tertiary Tertiary Tertiary Tertiary
Offtake Offtake Offtake Offtake Offtake Offtake Offtake
Method of Water Distribution - How is Water Distributed Through the Main System?
Splitted Inter- Rotational Adjustable Adjustable

Flow mittent Flow Flow flow
in Flow in in in
Main in Main Main Main
System Main System System System
Flow Control Systems
Proportional Control Upstream Control Downstream Control

EFLO Control BIVAL Control
Figure 3: The Selection of Flow Control Methods in Irrigation
34
4.2 Proportional Control
A proportional flow control system is built up of proportional weirs, bifurcations and

splitters. All the structures in this system are ungated. In this type of system the
response time is quite big. The conveyance part of the irrigation system has to be
filled before it starts working as a proportional system.
Negative Storage Wedge
Qintended
R1
R2
Canal Section with two regulators at R1 & R2

Qintended
Qactual
Q Q
Qactual
Time Time
Discharge at R1 Discharge at R2
Figure 4: Illustration Diagram for Proportional Control System (Ankum,1993)
Proportional flow control systems work on their own and are usually selected when
no management is required or proper management is not available. This type of
system works good under mono-cropping (Ankum, 1993), or when there is a highly
scarce and fluctuating water supply or when an even distribution of scarce water is
required.
At main canal level, structures are required at flow splitters or bifurcations. In

proportional flow control, proportional weirs are required to work under free flow
conditions to divide the water as desired because in case of weirs working under
submerged flow, the ill maintenance of a canal, or unexpected submergence in one of
the offtake structure, may result in a reduction in the water drawing capacity of that
canal.
The system works as a proportional system under steady flow conditions only. But,
before the system works under the steady state the conveyance canals are first to be
filled. The upstream part of the canal starts receiving the increased supply from the
headworks earlier than the tail portion of the canal, whereas the tail portion takes
water upto a longer time while the discharge is receding. In case of proportional
control the response time is large.
35
4.3 Upstream Control
The proportional distribution was considered a good choice when there was less
knowledge about the crop water requirement and its variation. But with the need for
efficient and demand oriented systems there is a growing demand for switching to the
upstream control system which is merely an addition of gates to the proportional
Controller
Negative
Sensor Storage Wedge
Controller
Sensor
R1 Qintended
R2
Qintended
Qactual
Q Q Q actual
Qactual
Time Time
structures at the regulation points and without any change in the conveyance system.
Figure 5: Illustration Diagram for Upstream Control System (Ankum,1993)
The gates in the upstream control system give flexibility in operation of the canal. The
discharge at a point can be regulated as desired. An illustration of working of
upstream control system is given figure 5
Upstream flow control system requires a lot of changes in the organisational set up
and also in the operational procedures. The response time of the system or part of the
system and the discharge carrying capacities becomes very important parameters in
the decision making process. The whole system needs to be operated and all these
operations will affect the upstream and downstream portions of the system so a
central authority is necessary for the operation of the system.
The operation of such a system needs highly skilled staff and the irregular operations
may result in a lot of fluctuations in the system and as a result the system may fail to
36
achieve the original objectives of the system. Providing a series of control structures
in a canal may reduce the response time in this type of control.
4.4 Downstream Control
The downstream control concept may be introduced to solve the problems of response
time and operational losses associated with the upstream and proportional flow
control. The downstream control is an automated system and does not require a large
set-up for operation as it converge automatically to a hydraulically steady state with
the variation in the demand of water (Ankum,1993).
Controller
Positive
Controller
Sensor
Sensor
R1 Qintended
R2
Qintended Qactual
Q Q actual Q
Qactual
Time Time
Figure 6: Illustration Diagram for Downstream Control System (Ankum,1993)
Downstream control systems are normally equipped with automatic gates. The flow at
the head is dictated by the demand at the downstream part. This system stores water in
the wedge and supplies whenever demanded by emptying the storage wedge,
afterwards the supply at the head again tries to refill the storage wedge and inflow
continues till the water level between the two consecutive structures becomes
horizontal.
But this solution of the problems doesnt come for free. The choice of downstream
control is associated with a costly earthwork due to horizontal banks of the canal, and
very expansive automatic gates.
The two main advantages of downstream control are:
37
No response time, instant delivery when demanded;
There are minimal operational losses as the difference in supply and demand is
stored in the reservoir between two downstream control gates.
This type of flow control is more suitable in flat terrain and for handling silt free
water. The silt laden flows may pose a serious problem of maintenance.
4.5 Evaluation of Selected Flow Control System
The possible flow control systems performance will be evaluated on the criteria of
Equity
Reliability
Adequacy
Response Time
Simplicity in operation
Desiltation and Maintenance Requirement
Seepage losses
Robustness against water theft
Flexibility of water distribution
38
CHAPTER 5 - RESEARCH PLAN
5.1 Objectives
To achieve the objectives of sustainability and optimal productivity of the agricultural

sector, initially the campaign for the remodelling of the irrigation systems was carried
out, then an age of On Farm Improvements came in and a lot of money was spent on the
on-farm development projects. But, now the idea of institutional reform and
modernisation of the irrigation systems is getting more and more attention.
In the future, in the World Bank irrigation scheme model (World Bank web site,
electronic media learning for PIM), the farmers will be in-charge of the system. The
irrigation systems will have the capability of working under the wish and will of the
farmers, and will become more flexible to respond to crop water demands.
But before shifting the responsibilities of managing the irrigation system to the farmers
still there is a lot to be understood and should be explored. The study is an attempt to add
to the knowledge of explaining the effect of changing the systems, which are working
under proportional control to the demand based system i.e. semi-demand or on demand.
The general objective of the research is to develop the relationship of canal operation
scenarios for on demand, on request and imposed water delivery arrangements with
On Demand Water Delivery
On Request Water Delivery

Maintenance
Cost (US $) Imposed Water Delivery
Discharge m3/s
Figure 7: Flow control systems and hypothetical associated maintenance costs
39
the recurrent costs for certain sediment loads in the irrigation water (as illustrated in
Figure 7). The results of the study will be helpful for the:
Farmers to make a choice between various level of service on the basis of costs
associated with the required water delivery arrangement;
Policy makers to compare the marginal benefits in terms of expected rise in yield and
associated benefits with the marginal cost for various delivery arrangements;
Consultants and Irrigation & Drainage Authorities in feasibility studies and cost
estimates.
5.2 Scope and Relevance of The Research
In the developing economies the agricultural sector plays a very important role, in
addition to the economic dimension, it has a social value as well. The agriculture sector
provides the basis for the build up of the socio-cultural values of the society and provides
jobs to the majority of the labour force. It becomes more important that before disturbing
the whole build up of the agriculture sector and the social ecosystem, more insight be got
through modelling about the consequences of the interventions. In most of the countries
the irrigation management transfer policies are receiving a lot of opposition from the
government agencies and some times from the farmers community due to the unknown
facts and apprehensions. The proposed study will provide a decision making tool to study
the intervention of changing the flow control systems and arriving at the best possible
choice.
40
CHAPTER 6 METHODOLOGY
The research concentrates mainly on the sedimentation aspects of water distribution

systems. In this research the behaviour of canals equiped with different infrastructure,
required for various delivery arrangements, has been studied by using sediment transport
models.
The approach of this study is based on an extensive review of the literature that deals
with the subject combined with the knowledge and personal experience. The necessary
data collection was done in the field and is analysed by using various tools SETRIC,
DUFLOW, DORC, CROPWAT, SIC. The steps followed, after the literature review, for
realising the objectives of the study are presented in the figure 8.
6.1 System design
The discharge ranges for the main canal, branch canal, distributary and minor level canals
are identified, and, a dominant discharge value is chosen for each distribution system
level, for further study. Then for each of the selected discharge values, irrigation canals
were designed. As in the subcontinent, regime theories are used for designing the canals
working under proportional control, so, a careful analysis is done to choose the proper
design method. A comparative analysis of the tractive force and regime method has been
done and it is decided due to some limitation, which are explained in the following
chapters, the regime method will be used for the canal design. The downstream control
system is designed using the general principles of reservoir provision, dynamic operation
and automatic D/S control arrangement for supplying water at the doorstep of the tertiary
unit, whenever demanded.
After designing the system the operation scenarios are identified. The maintenance
standards are established in line with the operational objectives of the systems i.e. to meet
the crop water requirement of the irrigated area.
For baseline data, one canal, 4-R Hakra, located in Bahawalnagar district of Pakistan,
which is currently under consideration for the irrigation management transfer to the
farmers, is used as reference. Then the results are compared with the simulation of the on
request and on demand systems for the same physical environment.
41
Cropping pattern Sediment data
Base Periods Suspended Load
Climate data Bed Load
Soil data D50
CROPWAT
Peak CWR Temporal variation

Minimal CWR of CWR
Design Discharge Canal Operation

Scenario
Canal Design
SETRIC/
(X Section)
SIC
Structural and other
maintenance
Maintenance
Sedimentation
Standards
Maintenance
Requirement in US
$
Figure 8: Schematic Illustration of Methodology
42
6.2 Modelling
The irrigation systems are modelled for sediment studies by using the sediment model
SETRIC, which was developed at IHE or SIC which is developed by CEMAGREF. The
modelling will be done for one crop year/cycle period. The sediment deposition at the
end of year are worked out and compared with the other flow control systems and
maintenance standards. This comparison gave an indication of the maintenance
requirement for the respective size of the canal. These preliminary figures may then be
corrected for the regular maintenance requirement of the various delivery arrangements
and so a final figure of the maintenance requirement in terms of money may be
calculated.
6.3 Framework of Evaluation
The second part of the study is the evaluation of the flow control systems. The evaluation
criteria selected for the study is:
Cost
Transparency in water distribution
Social implications
6.3.1 Cost
Structural and civil work demand for the construction of the various flow control systems
is different. The canals designed for proportional control using the regime theory require
different cross section as compared to the canals designed with the tractive force theory,
whereas, the downstream control canals need much more earthwork and expansive
infrastructure as compared to upstream and proportional control canals. So, the initial
capital cost is selected as one of the criteria for the evaluation of various flow control
systems.
6.3.2 Transparency in Water Distribution
Transparency in water distribution has been chosen as a criteria for evaluation because it
is an important factor from the water users and system management point of view. There
is more chance for the reduced leakage, pilferage and farmers organisations to work
effectively with transparent delivery than in a black box system.
43
6.3.3 Social Implications
Various flow control systems with various delivery arrangements may affect the existing
sociocultural set up of the society. At present the farmers community is a mix of small
to large farmers with land holdings of 0.5 to thousands of ha. In this case, higher
maintenance costs may be less favourable for the small farmers who survives with
subsistence level farming but could be favoured by the big farmers due to the increased
productivity of land and significant profit due to economies of scale.
44
CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS OF IRRIGATION ASPECTS
Pakistan is a country, going through a transitional phase in irrigation management. The

present irrigation management at the main system level is in accordance with the canal
and drainage act of 1974, the general procedures adopted by the irrigation authorities
were drafted in 1875 and little changes have been made in those rules afterwards.
At the main system level the system is working on the principles of upstream control, at
the secondary level the system works under proportional control whereas at the tertiary
level the system supplies water intermittently on a fixed rotational basis.
As explained earlier there is a growing desire to make the system flexible to the crop
water requirement in order to ensure an increase in the productivity, which may require
changes in the operation of the canal system. But on the other hand a careful analysis of
the intervention is needed, all about which this research is.
This chapter will deal with the analysis of the existing environment, which may influence
the costs of operating the system in the future.
7.1 Physical Environment
7.1.1 Climate
The climate plays an important role in the production of crops and their irrigation
requirements. Weather conditions are described in terms of averages, extremes,
variability and fluctuations of the various atmospheric conditions like wind, temperature,
humidity, rainfall and sunshine hours.
The climatic conditions of the Hakra 4R area are characterised by large seasonal variation
in all the above-mentioned factors mentioned over a period of time. The data from the
Bahwalnagar meteorological station is spanning 33 years (1963-95) and is presented in
the table 6 .
Description Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily max
20.6 23.2 28.6 35.5 40.7 42 38.4 37.3 36.3 34.2 28.6 22.6 32.3
TempoC
Mean daily min
5.8 8.6 13.7 19.7 24.4 28.3 28 27.4 24.8 18.5 12.3 7.3 18.2
TempoC
Humidity % 69 64 59 47 40 44 64 68 64 56 63 70 59.0
Windspeed km/day 137 175 207 222 259 304 292 255 217 157 130 119 206.2
Mean daily
6.1 6.6 7.7 8.7 9.2 9.2 8.3 8.8 .8.3 8 7.5 6 7.8
Sunshine Hours
Rainfall (mm) 6.6 13.6 16 10.2 8.5 16.8 90 39 12 4.7 2.7 3.4 223.5
Table 6: 33 Years Average Meteorological Data from Bahawalnagar Area
45
Hot summers and mild winters characterise the Hakra 4R area. The hottest month is June
with a maximum temperature of 42 oC whereas the coldest is January with a mean daily
minimum of 5.8 oC. In the same way, the relative humidity varies from 70 to 40%, the
wind speed from 304 km/day to 119 km/day, mean daily sunshine from 9.2 hours to a
minimum of 6 hours in December, whereas the monthly rainfall from 90 mm during the
month of July to a minimum value of 2.7 mm during the month of November.
The climate is considered the most important criterion to assess the crop water
requirement for optimum crop growth and yield. The crop water requirements may
generally be well represented by the reference evapo-transpiration, which represents the
effects of climate on the evapo-transpiration activity of the plants.
350
300
250
200
mm
150
100
50
0
r
r
t
y
ay
r
il
y
ly
ch
ne
r
us
be
be
be
be
ar
ar
pr
Ju
M
ar
Ju
ug
em
nu
em
u
em
A
M
ct
br
A
Ja
ov
ec
O
pt
Fe
Se
D
N
Months
Effective Rainfall ETo
Figure 9: Rainfall and Reference Evapotranspiration for the FESS Area
The reference evapo-transpiration ETo has been calculated by using the FAO s computer
program CROPWAT (FAO, 1992). The meteorological data from the Fordwah Eastern
Sadiqia South (FESS) area has been used for the modelling. The results show that there is
a wide gap in the ETo and effective rainfall, which means that crop growth depends
mainly on the supply of water to the crops from a source other than rainfall. The
46
reference evapo-transpiration has a maximum during the month of June amounting to 327
mm and a minimum of 68 mm during the month of December. The effective rainfall the
rainfall which can be stored in the root zone without losses in deep percolation or surface
runoff, in this case, has been calculated by using the USBR method. The USBR gives the
relationship for calculating the effective rainfall which is as under (FAO, 1992);
Peff = Pmean x (125 0.2 x(Pmean/125) for P < 250 mm

Peff = 125 + 0.1 x Pmean for P > 250 mm
7.1.2 Soils
The soils of the Hakra 4R area are composed of alluvial material carried from the
Himalayan ranges by the Sutluj and Hakra tributaries of the mighty Indus River. The
fluctuation in river flows, floods and ponding of sediment laden water have created a
varied and mixed soil pattern in the area.
The soil parent material is of mixed mineralogical composition. The texture of the soil
varies widely. The soils are reddish brown to greyish brown, mostly moderately coarse
and medium textured, containing a high percentage of fine to very fine sand and silt. The
texture varies from sand to clay, but silty loam and very fine sandy loam are dominant in
the area. Sand is found at shallow depths. Soils of the sub recent flood plain are mostly
loamy and are under perennial irrigation. The clay part consists largely of non swelling
minerals, which may account for the generally favourable permeability characteristics of
the soils. Most soils in the area are moderate to highly permeable; only a small
percentage displays low coefficients of permeability.
The soils of the area, in general are intrinsically fertile and have a high potential
productivity. In many areas, however, organic matter and plant nutrients, such as nitrogen
and phosphorous, have been greatly depleted. When adequate water supply and the
requisite manure or chemical fertilisers are provided, the soils of this area normally attain
a high level of productivity. The productivity of most lands is affected by water logging
and salinity, which can be restored by suitable reclamation procedures (Soil Survey of
Pakistan, 1971)
7.1.3 Crops
From a land suitabailiy classification based on the climate, soils, land use and other
factors, the Hakra 4R area is categorised as Cotton-Wheat area of Pakistan. The Hakra 4R
command area is located in the Bahawalnagar District of the Punjab Province. According
to the records of the Punjab Agriculture Department, wheat is the major crop in the Rabi
season whereas cotton, sugarcane (12 months crop) and rice are the major crops during
the Kharif season. The reported crop area of Bahawalnagar district is 548,948 hectare.
Year-wise cropped area in the Bahawalnagar district area and the average yield are
47
presented in the table 7.
Wheat Cotton Rice Sugarcane

Year Yield Yield Yield Yield
(%) (%) (%) (%)
(kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha)
1993-94 47 800 34 628 1 467 5 14000
1994-95 50 974 34 580 9 473 6 14000
1995-96 50 920 38 563 9 476 5 14800
1996-97 50 920 37 563 8 720 5 15600
Average 49 903 36 583 7 534 5 14600
Table 7: Cropped Area and Average Yields of Major Crops from the Year 199397
From the above given table; follows that 54 % of the area remains under the major crops
during the Rabi season whereas during the Kharif season the area under the main crops
decreases to 48 %. But for analysing the future irrigation demands the following
assumptions were made;
1. The total (100%) area will be, the whole year, under the major crops and the
cropping pattern in terms of proportion of the major crops will remain the same.
2. Sufficient water is available at the source and will be provided to the farms for
optimal growth of crops and maximum yield.
3. The dependable rainfall will also be available in the future and will be distributed
over a year as per records of the 33 years (1963-95) meteorological data.
Based at the above assumptions the design data for calculating the crop water
requirement has been determined, after fixing the area under sugar cane crop to 7%, as
mentioned in table 8. The reason for limiting the sugarcane crop to 7% is that the country
has already a surplus in sugar production, so, there is little reason to raise the sugarcane
crop area.
After deducting 7% of the sugar cane area from the total area (100%), the remaining of
the area is assumed to be under wheat during the rabi season, whereas for the kharif
season we have two major crops other than sugarcane i.e. Cotton and Rice. So, the area
without the sugar cane crop area is assumed to be under the Cotton and Rice in the same
proportion as before.
% Area under
Wheat Cotton Rice Sugarcane Total
crop
Rabi 93 - - 7 100 %
Kharif - 76 17 7 100 %
Table 8: Design Cropping Pattern
48
7.1.4 Cropping Pattern and Sowing Dates
The planting span of the main crops is tabulated in table 9 and represented in the figure
10. The crop base periods are assumed to be as in the CROPWAT programme. In order to
workout the crop water requirement in the sloping portion of the graph, the middle of the
sowing time is taken as the sowing date. That scenario was then analysed and used as a
reference for planning the canal operations and for finding the required water supplies.
The graphical representation of the planting and harvesting dates is shown as figure 11.
The FAO model CROPWAT (FAO, 1992) was then used for the assumed cropping
pattern with the assumption that the same cropping pattern will prevail for all the tertiary
units in the area.
Crop Planting Span
Cotton April - Mid June
Rice July
Sugar cane March - Mid April
Wheat Mid November to end December

Table 9: Major Crops and Planting Season the crops for the FESS Area
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
Wheat
55
% Area
50
45
40 Cotton
35
30
25
20
Wheat
15
10 Rice Nursery Rice

5
Sugarcane
0
J a nua ry F e b rua ry M a rc h A p ril M ay J une J uly A ugus t S e p te m b e r O c to b e r N o ve m b e r D ecem b er
M o n th s
Figure 10: Cropping Pattern and Base Periods
49
100
95
90
85
80
75
70 Cotton
65
60
% Area
55
Wheat
50 Wheat
45
40
35
30
25
20
15 Rice Nursery Rice
10
5
0
Sugarcan
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Months
Figure 11: Design Cropping Pattern and Base Periods
7.1.5 Farming Practices
Farming practices significantly effect the water supplies for the crop growth. In a baseline
survey conducted by IWMI in 1995 for the Hakra 4R area shows that basin irrigation is
used for even more than 97 % of the farms in the head reach and overall more than 95%
(Cheema et al, 1997). So an application efficiency of 65% has been assumed for
calculating the water supplies at the tertiary offtake.
Head Middle Tail Overall

Basin 97.3 94.7 94.9 95.4
Furrow 1.3 0 1 0.8
Basin+ Furrow 1.3 5.3 4.1 3.8
Wild Flooding & Others 0 0 0 0
Total 100 100 100 100
Table 10: Field Irrigation Methods for the FESS Area
50
The results of CROPWAT are presented in figure 12 and show that the crop water
requirement for the assumed cropping pattern is maximum during the month of August
and September whereas minimum occurs during the month of December and earlier part
of January. Therefore the lesser demand during these months will provide a pocket of
time for closing the canals for annual maintenance. The background calculations are
presented in the table11. Whereas the data on crop and soil and the CROPWAT outputs
are attached as Annex B.
1 .4 0
1 .2 0
1 .0 0
0 .8 0
l/s/ha
0 .6 0
0 .4 0
0 .2 0
0 .0 0
Aug
Nov
May
Apr
Dec
Oct
Jun
Jul
Jan
Feb
Sep
Mar
M onths
Figure 12: Required Irrigation Supply at the Tertiary Offtake
51
Jan Jan Jan Feb Feb Feb Mar Mar Mar Apr Apr Apr May May May Jun Jun Jun Jul Jul Jul Aug Aug Aug Sep Sep Sep Oct Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Dec
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Wheat Stage in/de deve deve de/mi mid mid mid mi/lt late late late init init init
NIR Wheat l/s/ha 0.06 0.11 0.21 0.33 0.41 0.49 0.57 0.63 0.61 0.47 0.27 0.08 0.06 0.06
ea 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
GIR Wheat l/s/ha 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1
Area %age 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Supply in l/s 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1
Cotton Stage init init init in/de deve deve deve deve de/mi mid mid mid mid mid mi/lt late late late late
NIR Cotton l/s/ha 0.40 0.43 0.44 0.48 0.62 0.66 0.62 0.59 0.75 0.85 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.76 0.64 0.53 0.41 0.30
ea 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
GIR Cotton l/s/ha 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 1 1 1 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.5
Area %age 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76
Supply in l/s 0.46 0.51 0.51 0.57 0.73 0.77 0.73 0.69 0.88 0.99 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.98 0.89 0.75 0.62 0.48 0.35
Rice Stage NUR N/L LP L/A A A/B B B B/C C C C C/D D D D
NIR - Rice l/s/ha 0.19 0.81 1.55 1.21 0.84 0.89 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.89 0.84 0.76 0.62 0.47 0.33
ea 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
GIR - Rice l/s/ha 0.29 1.25 2.38 1.86 1.30 1.36 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.44 1.37 1.29 1.17 0.96 0.72 0.51
Area %age 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17
Supply in l/s 0.05 0.21 0.41 0.32 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.16 0.12 0.09
Scane Stage late late late late late late late late init init init init init init init init init in/de deve deve deve deve deve deve deve deve de/mi mid mid mid mid mid mid mid mid mi/lt
NIR - Scane l/s/ha 0.23 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.39 0.46 0.52 0.62 0.72 0.81 0.90 0.99 1.07 1.09 1.15 1.20 1.02 0.78 0.59 0.62 0.66 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.55 0.49 0.42 0.36 0.32 0.27 0.22 0.23
ea 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
GIR - Scane l/s/ha 0.35 0.35 0.40 0.46 0.51 0.61 0.71 0.80 0.95 1.10 1.25 1.38 1.52 1.65 1.68 1.78 1.85 1.56 1.19 0.90 0.96 1.02 1.07 1.07 1.06 1.06 0.99 0.92 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.55 0.49 0.41 0.34 0.35
Area %age 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07
Supply in l/s 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
Total Supply in
0.12 0.17 0.33 0.50 0.62 0.74 0.86 0.95 0.94 0.75 0.47 0.10 0.57 0.62 0.63 0.69 0.90 1.10 1.22 1.07 1.17 1.29 1.34 1.33 1.32 1.30 1.19 1.03 0.88 0.69 0.52 0.12 0.03 0.14 0.11 0.11
l/s/ha
Table 11: Irrigation Water Requirement Calculations
52
7.2 Sediment Analysis
Silt transported by streams represent problems of great concern. Silting and scouring
of irrigation channels are one of the main concerns of the irrigation engineers in
Pakistan. In Pakistan the sediment in the canals plays an important role in designing
the canals, head regulators and outlets. Sediment is transported by the channels either
in suspension or by rolling along its bed (bed load).
Silt in suspension travels in flowing water without any contact with the bed for quite a
long distance till the time when the actual sediment concentration becomes higher
than the equilibrium sediment concentration. The later is a function of velocity, water
depth and cross section. The velocity decreases and the silt settle down in the bed or
the side slopes. Suspended sediment distribution is not uniform over a cross section.
The concentration of silt is greater towards the bottom of the canals (PWD, 1963).
Sediment moving along the bed is known as bed load transport. This sediment slides,
rolls or jumps along the bed, depending upon the velocity near the bed. Certain grades
of the silt are, however, capable of moving along the bed or in suspension depending
on the turbulence in flow. In Punjab very few observations have been made along
with the hydraulic data of channels for only establishing the correlation for the
Laceys or Kutters roughness coefficient.
For the determination of the suspended load concentration and size distribution the
samples are usually collected by using the bottle sampler. It consists of a brass frame
holding one litre bottle fitted with a rubber stopper. The stopper may be opened or
closed by a lever at the top of the suspension assembly. The suspension assembly
consists of a brass frame holding the sampling bottle, a graduated suspension pipe
fitted with a lever to open or close the bottle. The precautions taken while sampling
are:
i. The bottle is opened only when it reaches the sampling depth;
ii. The bottle is kept open only for the minimum time required for filling the
bottle, otherwise the (coarse) sediment keep entering the bottle even after the
bottle is filled.
In Punjab, Pakistan, the sediment observation has been carried out over an extended
period of time on some of the selected channels to study the Laceys silt factor and
other problems related to the sedimentation and scouring of the channels. In order to
supply information about the sediment distribution in canals and rivers, there is a
network of sediment observations in the rivers and canals at the head works in
Pakistan. The procedure adopted for analysing the canal water samples at the
Sulemanki Head works is as follows:
Five, one litre samples were collected from various depths of the flowing water;
The water was sieved through the sieve no 80 and 250 and the sediment retained
on the two sieves was collected separately and was categorised as coarse and
medium sand respectively;
The medium and coarse sand was then putted into a sediment measuring tube
having a total volume of 2 cc graduated into 100 parts each graduation mentioning
0.02 cc volume;
53
The concentration of medium and coarse sand was worked out by using the
formula;
Concentration in gram/litre (g/l) = (Point of tube x 0.02 +0.02 x 1.4)/5
Where 0.02 occurring first in the formula represents the volume of each
graduation where as the later is the void ratio and 1.4 is density of the wet sand.
Where as the dividing factor 5 represents the total volume of sample i.e. 5 litres;
For finding out silt, clay and dissolved solids concentration the Hydrometer
Method was used. The sieved water sample was put into a container and a
hydrometer was placed in the container containing the sieved sample. Three
hydrometer readings were with an interval of 3 hours and 25 minutes. The
difference of hydrometer reading for the water sample and distilled water at the
same temperature and at the same time was translated into sediment concentration
in gram/litre by using a rating table;
The first hydrometer reading gives the total concentration of silt, clay and
dissolved material. The second reading gives the concentration of clay and
dissolved whereas the difference of the first two outcomes gives the concentration
of clay. Then the third reading was similarly taken which after following the same
procedure gives the concentration of dissolved solids. Whereas, the difference of
the second and third concentration gives the concentration of clay.
Looking at the sieve numbers it was noted that correct sieves were not used for
categorising the particles as Coarse or Medium Sand by referring to the prevailing soil
classifications. It was told that due to the non-availability of the correct sieves the
available sieves i.e. No. 80 and 250 which are nearest to the required sieve sizes are
used for the analysis. So, keeping in view the actual field situation, for particle size
analysis instead of using particle size given by the soil classification, the opening size
of the corresponding sieve numbers are used.
Hakra 4R is one canal of the Eastern Sadiqia Canal System. The only sediment
observation point located on this system is at the head of the Eastern Sadiqia Canal at
Sulemanki Headworks. The data collected during the year 1992 has been used as
reference for the research, with the assumption that the sediment concentration and
size distribution remains the same every year. The sediment data includes the
sediment concentration of coarse sand, medium sand, silt, clay and dissolved solids
reported in g/l (1 g/l = 1000 ppm). In addition to the sediment concentration also daily
discharge of the canal are available.
As a first step for analysing the data, the temporal variation of the sediment
concentrations was checked by plotting sediment concentrations on the time scale. It
was observed that the sediment concentrations were higher during the flood season
(August October). The hypothesis established was that the sediment concentration
varies with the discharge in the river, which was later on verified by plotting the
discharges along with the sediment concentrations and was proved to be correct. This
may be backed up by the fact that the sediment carrying capacity increases with the
increase in velocity due to the increased discharge in the same channel. The plot is
shown in figure 13.
54
Visual observation of the plot provided the basis for establishing another hypothesis
that the percent share of each sediment category remains constant on the time scale.
To check the second hypothesis the percentile share of sediment categories were
plotted against time and it was established that it may safely be assumed that the
proportions of the coarse, medium sand, silt, and clay remains the same. The plot is
shown as figure14.
After plotting the data some statistical analysis was done for the suspended load. For
statistical analysis the observations taken during the flood season were ignored. The
rationale for ignoring the flood season observations is that due to unpredictable and
higher sediment load the canals are closed to avoid excessive sedimentation in the
canals. It was assumed that the data is normally distributed and some statistical
indicators were calculated and are tabulated in table 12.
Coarse Medium Silt Clay Total Dissolved

Sand Sand
Considering All the Observations Except Taken During Flood Season
Standard Deviation (g/l)
0.0174 0.0557 0.1711 0.0748 0.278 0.0374
Arithmetic Mean (g/l)
0.0169 0.0306 0.3490 0.1820 0.578 0.0779
S.D./Sqrt(n)
0.0024 0.0076 0.0235 0.0103 0.038 0.0051
Upper Limit of average 95% C. Interval for the Average Value
0.0193 0.0382 0.3724 0.1922 0.616 0.0831
Lower Limit average 95% C. Interval for the Average Value
0.0145 0.0229 0.3255 0.1717 0.540 0.0728
Table 12: Results of the Statistical Analysis of The Suspended Load Data
A particle size distribution analysis was carried out by using the arithmetic mean
values. The sediment concentration values in g/l were taken as gram weight - as the
concentrations are for one and same sample of equal volume. As the sediment
categorisation doesnt match to the known soil classification, so, the particle sizes
were adjusted to the sieve sizes used and the categories of clay and dissolved solids
were renamed as coarse clay and fine clay respectively. Whereas the fine clay has
been kept out of the particle size distribution analysis. The calculations made are
tabulated as table 13. and the particle size distribution curve is shown as figure 15.
55
Sediment Analysis of Eastern Sadiqia Canal at Sulemanki Headworks
(Year 1992)
Variation of Sediment Load with Discharge in the River
1 6000
0.9
5000
0.8
Sediment Concentration
0.7
4000
0.6
Discharge
1000 ppm
m /s
0.5 3000
3
0.4
2000
0.3
0.2
1000
0.1
0 0
1/17/ 3/7/9 4/26/ 6/15/ 8/4/9 9/23/ 11/12 1/1/9
92 2 92 92 2 92 /92 3
Date
Coarse Sand Medium Sand Silt Clay Dissolved U/S River Discharge (Sec Axis)
Figure 13: Variation of Suspended Load With River Discharge

Sediment Analysis of Eastern Sadiqia Canal at Sulemanki Headworks
(Year 1992)
Percentile Variation of Sand Silt and Clay
90 180
80 160
70 140
60 120
Discharge (m /s)
3
50 100
% age
40 80
30 60
20 40
10 20
0 0
17-Ja 07-M 26-A 15-Ju 04-A 23-Se 12-N 01-Ja
n -92 ar-92 p r-92 n-92 ug-92 p -92 ov-92 n -93
Date
Coarse Sand Medium Sand Silt Clay Disch. in E. Sadiqia Canal
Figure 14: Percentile Variation of Sand Silt and Clay in Suspended Load
57
Retained Sediment Opening Retained % % age %age
On Size/Grain (gram/litre) Retained Cummulati Cummulati
(Sieve No) Size (mm) ve Finer ve Coarser
80 Coarse sand 0.177 0.0169 2.92 97.08 2.92
250 Med. sand 0.062 0.0306 5.29 91.79 8.21
- Silt 0.005 0.349 60.33 31.46 68.54
- Coarse Clay 0.002 0.182 31.46 0.00 100.00
Table 13: Sieve Analysis of Suspended Load Data
100
90
80 Assumed Grading
Cumulative Percent Finer (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Particle Size (mm)
Figure 15: Particle Size Analysis Curve for The Suspended Load
The curve may then be used to calculate the D50 or any other particle size. In case of
the suspended load data the d50 was found out be equal to 0.01mm and should be used
for further analysis.
But for this research the value of d50 is assumed 0.2 mm and the analysis has been
carried out for various concentrations of the sediment load with assumed mean
diameter size. The reason for assuming the bigger diameter is to get sedimentation in
all the flow control systems to get a better understanding of the possible
interrelationship for various factors. Once the inter relationship is understood, then,
the relationship, if required, may be developed for any other concentration and
sediment characteristics.
7.3 Design of Irrigation Canals
The main criterion for the design of irrigation canals is evolved from the need to
convey the irrigation water requirement. In addition, sediment transport must also be
taken into consideration for designing a canal conveying sediment-laden water
(Mendez, 1998). So that, the design of canals is compatible with the sediment load in
order to have a no silting and non-scouring channel, and to meet the requirement of
irrigation water with the least maintenance.
Vanoni (1975) mentioned that the canal design must be based on an operation study to
determine the pattern of water demand. In that way the sediment transport
characteristics in time can be established. Sediments may be deposited during one
phase of operation and eroded during another phase with a balanced or stabilised
overall condition.
According to FAO (1981), the design objective of a canal is to select such a bottom
slope and geometric dimensions of the cross section that during a certain period the
sediment flowing into in an irrigation canal is equal to the sediment flowing out of the
canal. Changes in equilibrium conditions for sediment transport result in periods of
deposition or erosion.
Chang (1985) mentioned that because of the sediment problems, the geometry and the
slope of the canal must be interrelated in order to maintain sediment equilibrium. The
sediment problem in the design of canals can be controlled by maintaining the
continuity in sediment transport.
Dahmen (1994) pointed out that the irrigation network should be designed and
operated in such a way that:
The needed flow passes at the design water level;
No erosion of canal bottom and banks occurs;
No deposition of sediment in the canal takes place.
In short, there is need for the design of stable irrigation canals during the full
operating life of the irrigation system. For the design of an unlined channel the
following parameters are known
i. Design Discharge, Q;
ii. Surface property i.e. rugosity coefficient n;
iii. Soil property i.e. silt factor f.
And the number of unknowns are three
i. Area of cross section, A;

ii. Hydraulic mean radius, R;
iii. Bed slope So.
59
To begin with, the following two equations are available
i. Q = AV (Continuity Equation)
ii. V = f (n, R, S) (Flow Equation)
Chow (1973), Raudkivi (1990), HR Wallingford (1992) and Simons and Senturk
(1992) mention four methods to design stable canals:
Regime method
Tractive force method
Permissible velocity method
Rational Method
7.3.1 Regime method
The regime method is based on a set of empirical equations. The equations were
developed from observations of alluvial canal systems that were relatively stable or in
regime for a long period of time (HR Wallingford, 1992). It attempts to lay down the
attributes of a stable (non-silting, non-scouring) canal primarily on the basis of
empirical studies of the interaction of the above mentioned factors (Naimed, 1990).
The regime theory is entirely empirical and is based on the data observed in canals in
regime located in Pakistan and is widely used for designing the canals in India and
Pakistan. Most widely used regime theory comes from Lacey. Lacey considered that
the silt is kept in suspension by the vertical component of eddies generated at all
points by the forces normal to wetted perimeter. Laceys theory is not dependent on
the general flow equations like Mannings formula or Kutters equation.
7.3.2 Tractive Force Method
The concept of the tractive force method originates primarily from work done by US
Bureau of Reclamation under Lane (Raudkivi,1990, Wallingford,1992). This method
is based on a consideration of the balance of forces acting on sediment grains. The
tractive force method is suited if the water flow transports very little or no sediment
(Breusers,1993). Since the method assumes no bed material transport, it is only
relevant for canals with coarse bed material and zero (or very small) bed material
sediment input (HR Wallingford, 1992). The tractive force depends upon the shear
stress at the bottom, which can be expressed as = c g Y So, where the value of c for
the bottom is one. The allowable shear stress is given as a function of the mean
diameter and the quality of water. Dahmen (1994) mentioned as a rule of thumb for
many irrigation engineers, that the maximum boundary shear stress is a normal soil
for a normal canal and under normal conditions is between 3 and 5 N/m2. To
apply the tractive force method two other equations are required; one equation to
compute the discharge (Manning, Strickler or Chezys) and one relationship between
the bottom width and the water depth.
60
7.3.3 Permissible velocity method
Velocity is one of the main factors contributing to the sediment transport capacity of
the canal. For alluvial canals there are two extreme velocities; one velocity should be
large to keep the sediment load in suspension and at the same time not too great
enough to erode the bed and sides of the canal. So the minimum velocity which is just
enough to keep the silt in suspension may be taken as criterion to establish the
minimum required velocity whereas the velocity which starts eroding the canal
bed/sides may be taken as the criterion for the maximum permissible velocity. This
velocity is very uncertain and variable and can be estimated only by experience and
judgement (Chow, 1973). Maximum permissible velocities are given depending on
the bed material (Simons and Seturk, 1992)
7.3.4 Rational Method
Out of the four unknown variables i.e. bottom width, water depth, bottom slope and
side slope, the side slope can be fixed, depending on the soils mechanical properties.
Therefore three equations are required to determine the other variables. The equations
used by this method are the alluvial friction predictor, a sediment transport equation
and the third can be obtained from a minimum stream power or maximum sediment
transport efficiency. Sometimes a regime relationship is used to provide the width
equation (HR Wallingford, 1992). Among the rational methods are mentioned: White,
Bettes and Paris (1982) and Chang (1985).
Most of the methods, which are available and described above, are suitable for
specific flow conditions. The canals are designed for the certain discharge and the
canals do well as long as they are operated for that discharge. But in reality the
discharge in the canals is seldom constant. On the other hand the sediment load in the
canal is also not constant, as there are no means available to regulate the sediment
entry in the canals. As most of the time the canals will convey discharges different
from for which they are designed, therefore, it will be often necessary to have a
certain control to maintain the desired flow rates and required water elevations.
7.3.5 Comparison of Regime and Tractive Force Method
To start with a comparative analysis of the Regime and Tractive Force Method all the
discharge values used were assumed to belong to one single system. The value of
critical shear stress was established by using the rule of thumb practice (Dahmen,
1994) and was assumed to be ranging from 3 to 3.5 N/m2.
For the effective transport of the suspended load through the whole system, the
suspended load transport criteria was used. In the related literature, de Vos (1925)
states that relative transport capacity, T/Q, is proportional to the average energy
dissipation per unit of water volume;
61
T/Q = f (w g Vav S)
Where
T/Q = Relative transport capacity

w = The density of water (1000 kg/m3)
Vav = The average velocity of water
S = The hydraulic gradient.
Whereas Vlugter (1962) stated that particles would be transported in any

concentration by flowing water for
w (sVav S)/(s - w)
where
w = the fall velocity (m/s)

3
s = The density of sediment particles (~ 2650 kg/m )
The other authors came to similar conclusion. For the conveyance of the sediment
load in suspension, the hydraulic characteristics of the system should then be such that
w g Vav S = constant or non decreasing
For the conveyance of the suspended load, the canal system was designed in such a
way that the energy of the canal water is greater than 0.5 N/m2 and non-decreasing in
the downstream direction.
In the same way and by consulting the research findings it is concluded that to convey
the non suspended load through the irrigation system, the best criteria would be that
the relative transport capacity for the bed material should be non-decreasing, or, in the
case of possible erosion, should remain constant. The best numeric approximation for
the conveyance of the non suspended material is then (Dahmen, 1994):
Y1/2 S = constant or non-decreasing
The canals were designed to satisfy all the above criteria i.e. critical shear stress
remained between 3 to 3.5 N/m2 , water energy values were greater than 0.5 W/m3
and non decreasing energy for suspended load and Y0.5S for the bed load transport
remained non decreasing in the downstream direction through the system. To meet all
the criteria, a minimum possible slope was provided. The resulting hydraulic design
of the canals is tabulated in the table 14.
62
= 0.5
Q m Y P So A V R B gvS Y So
c
gYS
m3/s mH:1V M M o/oo m2 m/s m m N/m2 W/m3
150 2 3.78 46.7 0.081 173 0.87 3.70 38.3 3.00 0.69 0.157
100 2 3.35 37.0 0.092 121 0.82 3.28 29.5 3.02 0.74 0.168
50 2 2.73 25.1 0.112 67 0.75 2.66 19.0 3.00 0.82 0.185
30 2 2.35 18.9 0.130 43 0.70 2.28 13.6 3.00 0.89 0.199
20 2 2.07 15.1 0.148 30 0.66 2.01 10.5 3.01 0.96 0.213
10 2 1.68 10.4 0.185 17 0.60 1.62 6.6 3.03 1.09 0.240
5 2 1.34 7.1 0.245 9 0.55 1.28 4.1 3.02 1.32 0.283
2 2 0.98 4.4 0.349 4 0.49 0.93 2.2 3.00 1.67 0.346
1 2 0.80 2.8 0.450 2 0.48 0.73 1.4 3.04 2.13 0.402
0.5 1.5 0.62 2.0 0.585 1.1 0.44 0.56 0.9 3.01 2.53 0.461
Table 14: Canal System Design by Tractive Force Method
Next the same canal system was designed by the regime method. In the regime
method the formulae are:
f = 2520 d0.5
P = 4.836 Q0.5
V = 0.6459 (f R)0.5
So = 0.000315 f(5/3)/Q(1/6)
Where:
P = wetted perimeter (m)

R = hydraulic radius (m)
d = bed sediment size (m)
V = mean velocity (m/s)
So = bottom slope (m/m)
f = Laceys silt factor corresponding to bed sediment size
Q = discharge (m3/s)
According to Lacey (1958) these equations are applicable within the following range
of parameters:
Bed material size 0.15 0.4 mm

Discharge 0.14 142 m3/s
Bed Load Small
Bed material non-cohesive
Bed form ripples
63
The discharge range selected for the research i.e. 0.5 to 150 m3/s is almost within the
prescribed range for using the empirical equations i.e. 0.14 142 m3/s. As the highest
discharge is a little bit more than the upper limit, and, in general it is not advisable to
use the empirical equation for the range which is not recommended. But assuming
that as the highest limit is rounded off to 5000 ft3/s (142 m3/s), so, the canal still may
be designed by using the regime equations as the difference in 150 and 142 m3/s is not
much.
The canal system was designed by using the empirical formulae given by Lacey and
the hydraulic design of the canals are presented in table 15.
Q m d f P So A V R Y B
3 2
m /s mH:1V m m o/oo m m/s m m m
150 2 0.00025 0.79 59.23 0.0930 159.1 0.9 2.7 3.1 45.4
100 2 0.00025 0.79 48.36 0.0995 113.5 0.9 2.3 2.7 36.2
50 2 0.00025 0.79 34.20 0.1117 63.7 0.8 1.9 2.2 24.3
30 2 0.00025 0.79 26.49 0.1216 41.6 0.7 1.6 1.9 17.9
20 2 0.00025 0.79 21.63 0.1301 29.7 0.7 1.4 1.7 14.0
10 2 0.00025 0.79 15.29 0.1460 16.7 0.6 1.1 1.4 9.0
5 2 0.00025 0.79 10.81 0.1639 9.3 0.5 0.9 1.2 5.5
2 2 0.00025 0.79 6.84 0.1910 4.4 0.5 0.6 1.0 2.4
1 1.5 0.00025 0.79 4.84 0.2143 2.4 0.4 0.5 0.8 2.1
0.5 1.5 0.00025 0.79 3.42 0.2406 1.4 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.8
Table 15: Canal System Design By Laceys Regime Method
As a next step the results of the design of both methods are drawn on a graph and are
presented as figure 16. The general observations for the two canal design methods are:
i. The Regime Method gives shallower and wider canals but the difference reduces
for smaller discharges. Depending on the sediment criterion applied, even the
situation reverses for smaller discharge;
ii. For higher discharges the velocity given by the Tractive Force Method is higher
but for smaller discharges the Regime Method gives higher velocities.
iii. The canals designed with the Tractive Force Method are steeper and become
even steeper as the design discharge becomes smaller.
64
50 1.0
45 0.9
40 0.8
35 0.7
30 0.6
25 0.5
20 0.4
15 0.3
10 0.2
5 0.1
0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Discharge
D Lacey D Tract F. B Lacey B Tractive F.

So Lacey So Tract F. V Lacey V Tract F.
Velocity and Slope are on Secondary Axis
Figure 16: Comparison of canal designs by Regime and Tractive Force Method
Regime canals, which are carrying substantial sediment loads, are (relatively) much
wider because of limiting boundary shear stresses i.e. Y to be smaller, then b to be
much greater (Dahmen, 1994). For easier comparison the design values from both
canal design methods are jointly presented in table 16.
The observation i and ii are important from an economical point of view as the regime
canals are expensive to built due to higher wetted perimeter for the same discharge.
But observation iii is more important from actual construction point of view. The
smaller canals constitute a larger proportion in any irrigation system. The canals
designed by tractive force method are steeper and in the plain areas most of the times
the required bed slope is not available. In Pakistan, Hakra 4R area has a very small
slope available. So, it was decided that the Regime method will be adopted for Hakra
4R area, because of two reasons:
The slope required to construct the canals designed by the tractive force method is
not available
The existing canals, which were designed by using the regime method are
successfully working for the last 75 years. And the expertise are available locally
for the construction and upkeep of the regime canals. So, it will be wiser to adopt
the Regime Method for the canal design.
65
Q m d f P So A V R Y B
m3/s mH:1V mm m o/oo m2 m/s m m m
Tract. Tract. Tract. Tract. Tract. Tract. Tract. Tract. Tract. Tract.
Lacey Lacey Lacey Lacey Lacey Lacey Lacey Lacey Lacey Lacey Lacey
Force Force Force Force Force Force Force Force Force Force
150 2 2 0.25 - 0.79 - 59.23 46.74 0.0930 0.081 159.1 173.1 0.94 0.87 2.69 3.70 3.08 3.78 45.4 38.3
100 2 2 0.25 - 0.79 - 48.36 36.99 0.0995 0.092 113.5 121.3 0.88 0.82 2.35 3.28 2.73 3.35 36.2 29.5
50 2 2 0.25 - 0.79 - 34.20 25.11 0.1117 0.112 63.7 66.8 0.79 0.75 1.86 2.66 2.22 2.73 24.3 19.0
30 2 2 0.25 - 0.79 - 26.49 18.86 0.1216 0.130 41.6 43.1 0.72 0.70 1.57 2.28 1.91 2.35 17.9 13.6
20 2 2 0.25 - 0.79 - 21.63 15.14 0.1301 0.148 29.7 30.4 0.67 0.66 1.37 2.01 1.70 2.07 14.0 10.5
10 2 2 0.25 - 0.79 - 15.29 10.36 0.1460 0.185 16.7 16.7 0.60 0.60 1.09 1.62 1.41 1.68 9.0 6.6
5 2 2 0.25 - 0.79 - 10.81 7.09 0.1639 0.245 9.3 9.1 0.53 0.55 0.86 1.28 1.19 1.34 5.5 4.1
2 2 2 0.25 - 0.79 - 6.84 4.40 0.1910 0.349 4.4 4.1 0.46 0.49 0.64 0.93 0.99 0.98 2.4 2.2
1 1.5 1.5 0.25 - 0.79 - 4.84 2.84 0.2143 0.450 2.4 2.1 0.41 0.48 0.51 0.73 0.75 0.80 2.1 1.4
0.5 1.5 1.5 0.25 - 0.79 - 3.42 2.02 0.2406 0.585 1.4 1.1 0.36 0.44 0.40 0.56 0.72 0.62 0.8 0.9
Table 16: Comparison of the Laceys Regime and Tractive Force Method
66
7.4 Maintenance of Irrigation Canals
Most of the irrigation systems in Pakistan has been designed on the run of river, the
flows from the high peaks while traveling down to the plains carry large quantities of
silt. The silt entry was one of the major reasons for the failure of the early inundation
canals, and was a big challenge for the designers of the irrigation canals on the Indo-
Pak sub continent. To avoid the silt entry in to the canals silt ejectors and silt
excluders were introduced and special rules were framed. The channels were designed
using regime theories based on the previous experiences and design velocities were
aimed at the non silting and non scouring velocities. The flows through the canals
were not allowed to fall below the 75% of the design for avoiding silt deposition. But
these standards were hard to meet and the channels got silted up resulting in higher
discharges through the outlets in the upstream portion of the upper reach and shortage
of water at the tails of water resulting in inequity. The other reasons for silting up of
the channels could be:
1- Higher than permissible silt concentrations in the water;
2- improper regulation;
3- poor silt distribution of the canal through the outlets;
As mentioned above the silt carried by the waters from the steep slopes need to be
deposited somewhere in the system, upto a certain limit the silt is allowed into the
system and when the silt concentration increases until a certain limit the canals are
closed. This happens during the flood seasons when due to higher and turbulent
velocities, water carries along a lot of silt.
7.4.1 Maintenance Objectives
The maintenance objectives for maintaining the irrigation systems in Pakistan are:
To provide better and reliable services to the water users;
To keep the system in top operational conditions;
To achieve the foregoing objectives at lowest cost;
To achieve the longest life of the system.
The maintenance activities can be divided into two categories:

Structural Maintenance
Hydraulic Maintenance
7.4.2 Structural Maintenance
The maintenance of the parts of the canal not in contact with water for the structural
stability of the canal can be categorized as Structural maintenance. It includes
maintenance of the Banks, dowel, inspection roads, berms etc.
67
Inspection Bank
Bank
Dowel
Inspection Road
Berm Berm
Water Level
Free Board
Figure 17: Typical Cross Section Identifying Structural Components in X-section
7.4.3 Hydraulic Maintenance
The maintenance of the prism and the structures affecting the hydraulic behavior of
the canal can be categorized as hydraulic maintenance. It includes desiltation, berm
cutting and maintenance of the gradients of the canal, regulation structures, weed
growth control and all other maintenance activities related to the hydraulics of the
canal. Most common of the hydraulic maintenance are the desiltation and weed
control.
Desiltation
Looking at the micro level, the analysis of the five years data, 1985-86 to 1989-90, for
the maintenance expenditure of the upper Gugera Division of Punjab province,
showed that on the average about 52% of the budget was spent annually on silt
clearance which is carried out during a short period of three to four weeks during the
canal closure. In the year 1987-88, almost 70% of the budget was spent for this
purpose (IIMI, 1992).
The silt deposited on the canal bed and the sides of the canal reduces the carrying
capacity of the canal. If the canal is in regime and takes its full supply, it is not
necessary to clean the canal to its theoretical cross section. If the canal is not
functioning properly it may be sufficient to clear a portion of the canal to get efficient
working of the canal or it may be necessary to clear the full theoretical cross-section.
Silt deposited at the junctions may not be removed if they are not unduly affecting the
carrying capacity of the canals. But for smaller canals it may be necessary to clear the
canals to their original cross section.
In case of main canals it is usually not practicable to clear silt from the canal bed due
to its size and due to the fact that usually the bed of the big canals remains covered by
a thin sheet of water due to either leakage from the head regulator gates or the ground
water contribution. For bigger canals, to check the silt entry, the silt ejector, silt
excluders and other measures are adopted. However, for the silt entered in the canal
aftter adopting all the preventive measures, is cleaned by using the methods like:
68
Flushing by introducing the discharge higher than the design discharge to
introduce the scouring tendency and is collected downstream by a drain or an
escape channel;
Silt trap; are constructed by digging scattered pits in the canal bed to capture the
silt. The pits are filled with sediment load and new pits are dug if required;
Dredging is also one of the options but is usually avoided due the costs involved
in dredging;
Silt stirring is also one of the options but is rarely used. One of the possibilities of
silt stirring is by applying a water jet to the bed of canals.
The alarming figures representing the share of money spent for desilting activities
necessitate finding out ways for exploring the ways of assessing the value of
maintenance intervention. This research will evaluate the maintenance costs related to
the various flow control systems, involved in the desilting of canals.
Weed control
The unwanted plants which grow in the cross sectional area of the canal reduce the
area and result in an increase in the coefficient of roughness and seepage losses. Thus
the discharge capacity of the flow is reduced and in proportional water distribution
systems the equity in flow distribution is disturbed. The weed growth may reduce the
discharge as much as 15% (Sharma, 1987). Some types of weeds also affect the
quality of water.
For controlling the weed growth, the velocity of the water must be more than 0.6 m/s;
low velocities and shallow depths must be avoided. Especially during the day the
canals should run full so that sunlight doesnt reach the weeds growing at the bed.
If the preventive measures are not adopted at the design or the operation design stage
then the weed growth may only be controlled by mechanical means i.e. plucking by
hands or bed dredging which is very expansive.
7.5 Canal Performance Standards
Performance assessment in the irrigated agriculture sector is a very complex subject.

Irrigation systems often have a number of competing objectives and are assessed by
the interest groups with differing values and perspectives. The irrigation department,
keeping in view their goals and objectives has developed their own set of indicators,
which are directly related to the canal performance. The set of indicators is considered
as indication of quality of the canal management and services in measurable terms.
For this research the canals are assumed to be ideally maintained and it is assumed
that the canal beds will be brought to their design during every closure, in case of any
sedimentation.
69
7.6 Schematisation of Canal System
As the design of the canal system is affected by the fact whether the canals are
independent of each other or belong to one single system, so, it is necessary to define
the linkage in the canals. In this research, for the design stage, it has been assumed
that all the canals belong to one single system the smaller discharge canal follows a
canal with higher discharge.
To keep the research results generic it has been assumed that the length of the canals
is the same i.e. 10 km and the characteristics of the sediment entering the canal are the
same for the all the canals. This assumption can be supported by the fact that the
regime canal are designed to carry all the sediment entering in to the canals. The off
take structures in regime canals are designed as such that they take fair share of the
silt the fair share is assumed to be the 110 % of the parent channel (Mahbub &
Gulhati, 1944). The same fact has been verified by the sediment observation
campaign of ISRIP (International Sedimentation and Reclamation Institute Pakistan)
data during the year 1995, for some of the canals. Another rationale for the
assumption is that the objectives of the research is to compare the
sedimentation/maintenance cost for the various sizes of the canal , keeping the other
factors constant. The discharges of the canals are selected so that they give a clear
picture of the varying behaviour of canals in relation to their size.
Although the canal structures significantly affect the silt distribution and conveyance
through the canal. But in this research it has been assumed that all the canals are
conveyance canals without any intermediate offtake with zero seepage losses. In other
words, this assumption may be considered equivalent to the assumption that all the
structures at the head of the canal and the offtakes in the canal are taking their fair
share of silt.
7.7 Canal Regulation
The canals are assumed to be designed for the productive system that is the canal is
supplying enough water to meet the crop water requirement. The canal regulation
scenarios have been developed by looking at the flexibility and the moisture content
storage capacity of the soil. The moisture storage capacity was used as the detrimental
factor for the maximum supply and the infrastructure of the canal was used as the
detrimental factors for the minimum supply. Then the role of farmers in deciding
about the discharge, time and duration was also established and was used for framing
the canal operation scenarios. The role of farmers in the three assumed types of the
delivery arrangement are described in the figure 18. In the figure shaded portions
means yes and blank cells represent no.
70
On Demand
Farmers
Farmers Participation
Level of service
On Request
Mutual
Proportional
Authority
Discharge When How much
Flexibility
Figure 18: Decision making process matrix for the water deliver systems
7.7.1 Proportional Distribution
In has been assumed for the proportional control/distribution system, the authority is
the one who has the deciding role for the operation of the canals. From the authority
point of view the canal should be operated at:
The full design capacity to keep the hydraulic behaviour of the canal as designed;
The crops water requirement should be met, avoiding the crops to go under stress.
As due to the varying demands of the crops the canal couldnt be operated at the full
design capacity for the whole base period. The rotation was used and the canal was
either running at 100 % of the design discharge or was kept closed.
The design operation of the canal is presented in the figure 19.
According to the regulation plan the canals will be operated at 100% of the design
capacity for 194 days divided into eight irrigation periods, whereas, the canals will
remain closed for the regular annual maintenance from the first day of November to
the 10th day of January. While deciding about the irrigation periods moisture content
variation in the farms have also been taken into account. The moisture content
variation in the farms is presented in the figure 22 (See Annex B for calculations).
71
120%
Discharge in The Canal
CWR as % of Design Discharge
100%
80%
% age Discharge
60%
40%
20%
0%
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Figure 19: Operation Plan for the proportional distribution system.
7.7.2 On Request Distribution
For on request distribution the farmers and the authority mutually determine about the
regulation of the canals. The canals operation scenario has been developed for this
kind of the system by considering:
The canal may be operated at a discharge lesser than its design capacity to
minimise the lag time in response to the request placed by the farmers. The
limiting minimum discharge in this case has been decided equal to 75% of the
design discharge;
The crops water requirement should be met, avoiding the crops to go under stress.
The design operation plan is presented in figure 20. According to this plan of canal
operation the canal will be operated for a total period of 230 days divided into seven
irrigation periods. Out of these 230 days the canals will be operated at 75% of the
design capacity for 110 days, at 90 % of the design discharge for 50 days, at 100% of
the design discharge for thirty days and at 91% of the design discharge for 40 days. A
maintenance period of 70 days starts from November 1 and ends at January 10.
The moisture content variation at the farm level for this canal operation scenario is
presented in the figure 22 (See Annex B for calculations).
72
120%
CWR as % of Design Discharge Discharge in The Canal
100%
80%
% age Discharge
60%
40%
20%
0%
Month
Figure 20: Operation Plan for the on request distribution system
7.7.3 On Demand
In case of the on demand systems it has been assumed that farmers are the main
deciding party for the operation of the canal. Except for the maintenance period which
starts from November 1st and ends at January 10th the farmers are free to draw the
water whenever they like. The canal operation scenario has been designed by
assuming that:
The discharge in the canal will follow the cropwater requirement variation curve
except immediately after the maintenance period when the farmers would like to
fill the root zone to the field capacity.
The farmers will irrigate whenever they will feel the need for that and will try to
maintain the moisture content at the field capacity level.
The canal operation scenario designed for this kind of system is presented in figure
21. The operation scenarion may be translated into two different ways In the first
interpretation, the canal will be operated at varying discharge ranging from 7% of the
design to the 100% of the design discharge, for a period of 290 days in total and the
canal discharge is assumed to be constant during a decade.
In this case the farmers are assumed to be maintaining the moisture at the field
capacity level. The moisture content variation at the field level is presented in the
figure 22 (See Annex B for calculations).
73
120%
CWR as % of Design Discharge Discharge in The Canal

100%
80%
% age Discharge
60%
40%
20%
0%
Month
Figure 21: Operation Plan for the on demand distribution system.
Whereas in second interpretation of the above is that the canals were opearted at the
100% of design discharge but only during the day time or part of a day or the farmers
maximised their leisure time. The operational scenario evolved by this interpretation
is the canal was operated at 100% discharge for 12 hours a day for a period of 160
days, 100% discharge for 16.8 hrs a day for 40 days, at 100 % discharge for 24 hrs a
day for 80 days and at 100% discharge for 14.4 hrs a day for 10 days.
The canals were modelled by using the second interpretation of the operational
scenario.
7.7.4 Moisture Content Variation
To get an overview of the situation at the field level, an analysis of the moisture
content variation has been done. The procedure adopted for this analysis is as follows:
The irrigation requirement in l/s/ha has been transformed into mm and multiplied
by 0.65 to take care of the efficiency.
Assuming that the storage level at the farm is at 185 mm (a value which is
assumed between field capacity and wilting point) at the beginning of the year, the
propagational calculations have been performed by adding the depth of water
supplied minus the water used by the crop. The calculations have been done on
the command area level and by assuming no contribution from the ground water
and no change in the storage level.
74
The moisture content variation for fine sandy loam soils (de Laat, 1999) for the
assumed cropping pattern and water supplies under the different flow control systems
are presented in figure 22.
600
500
Moisture Content in mm
400
300
200
100
0
Months
On Request System Proportional System On Demand System
Wilting Point Field capacity Readily availabale moisture
Figure 22: Moisture content variation in the farms at the canal command level.
75
76
CHAPTER 8 - SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
8.1 Background
Normally, the irrigation canals are designed on the assumption of uniform and steady
flow for both water and sediment. This means that the canals convey water and
sediment to the fields, assuming an equilibrium situation in which the sediment
entering into the irrigation canals will be transported without deposition or erosion.
However, uniform and steady flow is seldom found. Due to operation and
maintenance activities the flow conditions are continuously changing and non-
uniform and unsteady flow conditions are predominant and changes in discharge, flow
velocity and energy gradient occur frequently. The sediment transport, which largely
depends upon the flow velocity, will vary as well. Evaluation of the effects of these
non equilibrium conditions on the sediment transport are required to determine
whether deposition and/or entrainment will or will not occur and what the amount and
distribution of sediment along the canals will be.
Sediment transport and water flows are interrelated and cannot be separated. From a
mathematical point this interrelation for a one-dimensional phenomenon without
changes in the shape of the cross sections can be described by the following
equations:
- water flow equations:
* continuity equation;
* dynamic equation;
- sediment equations:
* friction factor equation;
* sediment transport equation;
* continuity equation for the sediment mass.
Although one-dimensional flow can hardly be found in nature, the flow is considered
one-dimensional with the main flow direction along the canal axis and the general
equations for one-dimensional flow are described by the Saint Venant equations.
From a computational point of view the importance of the unsteadiness of the flow
has two aspects:
the water delivery at any point of the system depends upon the response time,
which influences the supply of the right discharge at the right time. The response
time is a function of distance between the disturbance and the point of interest, the
celerity of the propagation and the operation time of the structures. All the water
delivery methods experience unsteady flow conditions due to the initiation and
termination of irrigation, changes in flow rate, stoppages of lateral flows, etc.
These unsteady flow conditions should be taken into account as they may
seriously affect the water distribution.
the computation of the morphological changes of a canal can be based upon the
assumption of a quasi-steady flow. The time depending changes in the canal
77
bottom so slow that for the computation of the water movement the bottom can be
considered fixed for a single time step (de Vries, 1965).
8.2 Sediment size and mean concentration
Due to the fact that most of the sediment entering the irrigation canals come from
external sources (for instance rivers), the particle size distribution is usually different
from the parent bed material. The size and concentration of sediment depends on the
operation of the sediment trap, sediment excluders, or intake at the headwork.
Normally the sediment entering into the irrigation canals are in the range of very fine
sand, silt and clay and it is assumed that in irrigation canals the sediment is in the
range of 0.05 mm < d50 < 0.5 mm. It is also assumed that the sediment only consists
of non-cohesive material, although some degree of cohesion is present for the smaller
particles. The mean sediment concentration in the irrigation canals is assumed to be
smaller than 500 ppm.
8.3 Sediment transport mode
The sediment transport in irrigation canals is carried out in two modes: suspended
load and bed load. The Shields' curve for initiation of motion and the criteria used by
van Rijn (1993) to initiate suspension clearly show that typical flow conditions in
irrigation canals are large enough to produce the suspension of the sediment particles.
Figure 23: Initiation of suspension and bed load in irrigation canals
Mendez showed that for the water flow and sediment characteristics prevailing in
irrigation canals sediment smaller than 0.1 mm is almost only transported as
78
suspended load; sediment smaller than 0.35 mm is mainly transported as suspended
load and sediment larger than 0.35 mm is transported as both bed and suspended load.
For a given bottom shear stress and roughness characteristics the suspended load
transport increases with the water depth. Once the bottom shear stress for initiation of
suspension has been reached the suspended load transport will increase till it reaches a
certain value. From that point onward, further increase of the bottom shear stress does
not produce important changes in the suspended load.
Figure 24: Suspended load as function of d50
79
Figure 25: Suspended load as function of water depth (C=40 m1/2/s & =4 N/m2)
Figure 26: Suspended load as function of (h=4m & C=40m1/2/s)
Figure 27: Suspended load as function of the Chzy coeff; (h=4m & =4N/m2)
80
The figures 23 clearly show that the sediment is transported both as bed load and
suspended load for the flow conditions prevailing in irrigation canals. Therefore any
predictor to estimate the sediment transport in irrigation canals should take this fact
into account. Sediment transport predictors should be able to compute either the total
transport load (bed load + suspended load) or the bed load and suspended load
separately. Only for very fine sediment (d50 < 0.1 mm) a suspended sediment
transport predictor can be used to estimate the sediment transport capacity of
irrigation canals.
For equilibrium condition the suspended sediment transport is calculated by

integration of the product of the local velocity and the concentration over the depth.
Sediment transport under equilibrium conditions means that the velocity and
concentration distribution are uniform in the flow direction. Moreover, it is assumed
that the sediment transport capacity is equal to the quantity of sediment that can be
carried by the flow without net erosion or deposition. Several formulae are available
for the suspended sediment transport.
To compute the total sediment transport in non-wide channels Mendez developed a

relationship between the total sediment transport and the sediment transport per unit
width. The method include the effects of a finite canal width and side walls. It
considers a non-uniformly distributed shear stress on the bottom and a non-uniform
velocity distribution over the full canal width. For these cross sections, the shape will
have a significant effect on the variables governing the sediment transport (shear
stress, velocity). The side walls cause a non-uniformly distribution of both the shear
stress and the velocity. It is clear that the computation of the total sediment transport
for a trapezoidal cross section requires a modification of the sediment transport
equation due to this non-linear relationship between the sediment transport and the
water depth. In the Engelund-Hansen formula, the sediment transport is proportional
to v5/C3 (eq. 26) and both variables depend on the water depth. For irrigation canals,
which have a trapezoidal cross section, the cross section is replaced by a rectangular
one with a depth equal to the hydraulic radius (R) and a width equal to a modified
width P* with P* = P. The value is determined by dividing the trapezoidal cross
section in vertical slices parallel to the flow direction. For each slice the hydraulic
radius, the Chzy coefficient and mean velocity are calculated. Next the total
sediment transport over the cross section is calculated by:
Qs = B q s
Assuming that the hypothetical, wide canal will have the same mean velocity as the
irrigation canal, the transport is:
Qse = P* qs
For non-equilibrium conditions the sediment transport in irrigation canals will be the
adjustment of the actual sediment transport to the equilibrium sediment transport. A
81
continuous deposition and/or entrainment process will occur due to the changes in the
local flow conditions, which will cause morphological changes in the bottom. The
morphological changes can be found by the depth integrated model, based on the 2-D
convection-diffusion equation as developed by Galappatti (1983). The adaptation
length LA and adaptation time TA are constant for uniform flow. They are defined as
the interval (both in length and time) required for the actual concentration to approach
the equilibrium concentration ce. The adaptation length LA represents the length scale
and the adaptation time TA the time scale (Ribberink, 1986)
Figure 28: Variation of mean concentration in x direction
8.4 General description of SETRIC
Although, it is difficult to predict the quantity of sediment that will be deposited in

irrigation canals, the numerical modelling of sediment transport offers the possibility
of predicting and evaluating the sediment transport under very general flow
conditions. A mathematical model which includes the sediment transport concepts for
the specific conditions of irrigation canals is an important and timely tool for designer
and managers of those systems. Based on that a model is developed to predict
sediment transport and the deposition or entrainment rate for various flow conditions
and sediment inputs during the irrigation season.
The computer programme SETRIC (SEdiment TRansport in Irrigation Canals)

computes the sediment transport in irrigation canals. SETRIC can simulate the water
flow, sediment transport and changes of bottom level in an open network composed of
a main canal and several laterals with/without tertiary outlets.
SETRIC can be used for predicting water and sediment discharges and variations in
the bottom level of the canal. The model is based on an uncoupled solution of the
water flow and sediment transport equations and simulates the sediment deposition in
an irrigation network under changing flow conditions and sediment characteristics
during the irrigation season. The model is very useful for evaluating the effects of the
82
inter-relationship between the irrigation practice and the sediment deposition. The
evaluation might include:
the direct effect of the irrigation practices on the sediment deposition,
including changes in discharge, changes in sediment load, flow control
structures, controlled deposition, operation and maintenance activities,
diverted sediment load to the farmlands etc;
the effect of the sediment deposition on water level variation, water
distribution at outlets, flow control structures etc.
The flow diagram to calculate the change of the bottom level in a canal during one
time step is given below as figure 29.
Start
Read input files
No
Is there lateral discharge?
Yes
Relocate flow in the entire canal
Water flow calculation
Sediment transport calculation
Change of the bottom level in the canal
Store output
of main and/or lateral canals
Figure 29: Flow chart for water flow, sediment and bed level calculations.
83
Flow diagrams of the water flow calculation and sediment transport calculation in a
reach of a canal are shown below as figure 30 & 31.
Start
Read input files
Calculation of Ynormal
and Ycritical
For i = 1 to number of reaches
Calculation of water profile
Yes
Is there a flow control structure ?
Compute water depth at the

upstream side of structure No
Next step
Figure 30: Flow chart for calculating the water flow during a time step
84
Start
Read data from water flow calculation
Calculation of the sediment transport

capacity for the entire reach
For i = 1 to total length of the reach
No Yes
Is there equilibrium condition?
No Yes
Deposition?
C(i) = Ce
Yes
Entrainment?
No Compute the sediment

transport
C(i) = C(i-1)
Next step
Figure 31: Flow diagram for calculating sediment transport during a time step
The general features of the programme includes:

- Water flow: sub-critical, quasi-steady, uniform or non-uniform flows
(gradually varied flow, namely H2, M1, M2, C1, S1 and A2) can be modelled;
- Cross section: open channels with a rectangular or trapezoidal cross section;
- Only friction losses are considered, no local losses due to changes in bottom
level, cross section or discharge are taken into account;
- Changes in the bottom level are considered;
- Irrigation network can be composed by primary and secondary canals with
tertiary outlets, each canal can have several reaches or sections;
- The geometrical dimensions of the canal sections include the following
parameters:
* initial coordinate x: relative location of canal section; most upstream
part is x = 0 m;
* length (l) of the section (m);
* bottom width (B) in m;
* side slope (m): 1 vertical : m horizontal;
85
* roughness: defined by the equivalent roughness coefficient (ks);
* bottom slope (S0);
* bottom elevation at the beginning of the canal section (zb).
- Location of control structures (and/or lateral flows) or changes in the

geometrical dimensions define the boundaries between reaches;
- Lateral discharge (as inflow or outflow) at the end of any section can be
simulated;
- Control sections are at the downstream end of the main canal and secondary
canals; at the downstream section end the water level can be determined by a
structure at that point;
- The flow control structures are schematized by:
* overflow type: crest width, crest level;
* undershot type: width and height of the rectangular opening;
* submerged culverts and inverted siphons: number and diameter of
pipes;
* flumes: constants of the upstream head-discharge relationship;
* drops: incorporated as different bottom level at the boundaries between
two reaches;
* Sediment characteristics are defined by:
- sediment concentration (ppm) at the upstream end of the main
canal;
- sediment size is characterized by the mean diameter; 0.05 mm
> d50 > 0.5 mm. An uniform sediment size distribution with a
geometrical standard deviation equal to 1.4 is used as default.
- Simulation periods: periods with varying irrigation water requirement during
the growing season. Variations of the water requirement depend on the
cropping pattern and the stage of the crops. The growing season is divided into
four stages depending on the crop development and climate conditions (FAO,
1984). Each period in SETRIC is characterized by a number of days and a
number of hours per day, the maximum number is four different periods in
which the discharges can be varied.
- Variations of the roughness conditions in time: sedimentation during the
irrigation season will induce the development of bed forms; different flow
conditions will produce different bed forms. The friction factor is computed
from time to time for each local flow condition and for each cross section.
Composite roughness is also included in the total friction factor for an entire
cross section;
- Maintenance activities can be included; maintenance is referred to by the
obstruction due to weed growth on the banks and its effect on the roughness
conditions:
* ideally maintenance: negligible obstruction degree in time;
* well maintained: a maximum obstruction degree of 10 % is assumed;
* poorly maintained: more than 75% obstruction degree is assumed.
86
Figure 32: Friction factor as function of maintenance
SETRIC requires the following input data:

- Simulation period: characteristics of the period to be simulated include:
* number of periods in which the irrigation season is divided;
* type of maintenance to be expected during the irrigation season;
* details of each period: number of days per period and irrigation hours
per days.
- Canal dimensions:
* for each canal: number of sections and roughness data;
* for each section: location, length, bottom width, roughness coefficient,
side slope, bottom slope, bottom elevation.
- Main and lateral discharges: the irrigation flows during the irrigation period
are required and include the discharge (in m3/s) at the upstream end of the
main canal and the lateral discharge at the upstream end of each lateral for
each period of the irrigation season;
- Sediment data: the sediment entering the main canal are given as the mean
sediment concentration and mean diameter of the particles;
- Sediment transport predictor: for calculating the sediment transport in the
network a selection can be made between the equations of Ackers-White,
Engelund-Hansen and Betties;
- Control sections: controls at the downstream end of the main and lateral canals
are specified by the water level and location of each control section. Flow
control structures at boundaries have to be specified, their downstream water
level will act as control level for the next reach of the canal.
The output data of SETRIC include data of the water flow and suspended sediment
transport calculations. The results are shown in tables or graphs.
87
Tables:
- General information:
* results related to the water flow: normal and critical depth, discharge;
* results related to sediment transport: fall velocity, length step,
minimum and maximum shear stress, shear velocity.
- Concentrations: water depth, equilibrium concentration and actual
concentration for the entire canal;
- Bottom level: the initial bottom level and the change in bottom elevation at the
end of the selected period.
8.5 Modelling Results and Discussion
The objective of the research was to compare the costs involved in the desiltation of
the canals under various flow control systems. For obtaining the non-biased results it
was utmost tried to model the canals in such a way that they are comparative to each
other. The objectives of keeping the systems principally the same except the
difference in the infrastructure the following steps were taken
The length of all the canals were assumed to be same i.e. 10 kilometres;
All the canals were designed by using the same design procedures i.e the regime
theory method i.e. B/Y and So are function of Q;
For proportional and upstream flow control systems the structures at the
downstream end were assumed to be same i.e. the overflow weir with the same
Q-Y relation ship (Q = K Yn) i.e. no heading up in either case, but for
downstream control systems another relationship was developed by using two
flow situations which are horizontal water level for zero discharge and normal
depth for the design discharge;
All the three systems i.e. Proportional Control Systems, Upstream Control or on
request systems and Downstream Control Systems were designed for the same
canal capacities and the same objectives of productive irrigation system
supplying water sufficient for the optimal crop growth.
The sediment characteristics were the same for all the simulated canals.
With all the above listed precautions the canals were simulated by using SETRIC, the
assumptions used for the modelling by SETRIC are:
There is no temporal variation in the sediment load entering the canals;
The canals are ideally maintained;
Ackers & White predictor best describes the sedimentation behaviour of the
canal;
The canal bed and sides are made of cohesive or stable material.
The first simulation was done with a d50 of 0.2 mm and initial concentration of 400
ppm at the head. Then a scenario developed for the proportional distribution (Canals
operated at design discharge for 194 days in a year) system in the section was
88
simulated using the Ackers and White relationship in SETRIC. The simulation was
repeated for the canals with the design discharges 150, 100, 50, 30 and 10. The same
way, then on request regulation plan (110 days at 75% of design discharge, 50 days at
90%, 30 days at 100% and 40 days at 91% of design discharge total 290 days in a
year) was simulated using the same tool, only by changing the inflow definition file in
the previous simulations of the proportional distribution system. Whereas for the
downstream control system another Q ~ H relation was developed and keeping the
other things same as before the downstream control scenario for the on demand
operation (canal was operated at 100% discharge for 12 hours a day for a period of
160 days, 100% discharge for 16.8 hrs a day for 40 days, at 100 % discharge for 24
hrs a day for 80 days and at 100% discharge for 14.4 hrs a day for 10 days) was
simulated. The results of the simulations are presented in the figure 33 .
The results show that, for the proportional and on request operation of the canal, as
design discharge of the canals decreases the difference in the volume of sediment
deposited decreases.
Secondly the volume of the sediment deposited keep on increasing in case of

proportional distribution system which were operated at the design capacity upto the
canal size of 100 m3/s but after that there is a tendency of a decrease in the volume of
sediments deposited. Whereas for the canals operated on the request distribution
system pattern the volume deposited keeps on increasing at least upto the canal size
carrying 150 m3/s.
To check the consistency of the first observation for other initial sediment
concentrations (Ci) and to verify the second observation the canals were simulated for
the same sediment load with an initial sediment concentration of 300 ppm. The results
of the second simulation chain are presented in the figure 34.
V ariation of V olum e of Sedim ent D eposited W ith Discharge

Initial Sedim ent Concentration = 400 ppm , d 50 = 0.2 m m
180000
Volume of Sediment Deposited in 10 km Reach
160000
140000
120000
100000
(m )
3
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
3
Discharge (m /s)
Proportionl D istribution O n R equest D istribution O n D em and D istribution
M ean Line for Proportional D istrib. M ean Line for O n request D istrib. M ean Line for O n D em and D isctrib.
Figure 33: Sedimentation variation with discharge for d50=0.2mm & Ci=400ppm
89
From the results of the second set of simulations the observations based on the results
of the first set of simulations were further refined and it was established that for a
certain sediment load and initial sediment concentration the volume of sediment
deposited keeps on increasing to a certain point and after wards the volume deposited
decreases with an increase in the design capacity of the canal, for a certain operational
scenario.
Then for further strengthening the conclusions drawn from the above two sets of
simulations the canals were simulated for the same sediment load with an initial
concentration of 500 ppm. The results of the simulation are presented in figure 25.
Variation of Volume of Sediment Deposited With Discharge

Initial Sediment Concentration = 300 ppm, d50 = 0.2 mm
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
(m3)
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Discharge (m3/s)
Proportional On Request On Demand
Mean Line for On Demand Distrib. Mean Line for On Request Distrib. Mean Line for Proportional Distrib.
The results of 500 ppm simulations show that the conclusions drawn from the first
two sets of simulations i.e 0.2 mm d50 and initial concenration 400 and 300 ppm
respectively remain valid.
V a ria tio n o f V o lu m e o f S e d im en t D e p o site d W ith D isch a r g e
In itia l S e d im e n t C o n c en tr a tio n = 5 0 0 p p m , d 5 0 = 0 .2 m m
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
(m )
3
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
D isc h a rg e (m 3 /s)
P ro p o rtio n a l O n re q u e st O n D em a n d
M e a n L in e fo r O n R e q u e st O p era tio n M e a n L in e fo r P ro p o rtio n a l O p era tio n M ea n L in e fo r O n D em a n d O p era tio n
90
Another conclusion may also be drawn from the above three sets of the simulations is
that if the regime canals are operated all the time on the design flow rate the
sedimentation in the canal is lesser as compared to the canal operation scenario with a
canal operating at the discharge lesser than the design i.e.for on request and on
demand scenario.
For further narrowing down the conclusions the results of the two operational
scenarios were drawn in two diferent graphs with varying Ci and is presented in the
figure 36, 37 & 38.
Variation of Sedimentation with Discharge for Various Initial Sediment

Concentrations for Proportional Distribution Systems
180000
Volume of Sedimentation in 10 km Reach
160000
140000
120000
100000
(m3)
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
3
Discharge (m )
500 400 300
Mean line for Ci =500 ppm Mean line for Ci =400 ppm Mean line for Ci =300 ppm
Figure 36: Discharge-Sedimentation curves for the proportional system
V ariation of S edim entation w ith D isch arge for V arious Initial Sedim ent
C on centration s for O n R equest System s
180000
160000
Volume of Sedimentation in 10 km Reach (m )
3
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
3
Discharge (m )
500 400 300
M ean line for Ci = 500 ppm M ean line for C i =400 ppm M ean line for Ci = 300 ppm
Figure 37: Discharge-Sedimentation curves for the on request system
91
V ariation of S edim en tation w ith D isch arge for V ariou s Initial S ed im en t
C on centration s for O n D em an d S ystem s
180000
160000
Volume of Sedimentation in 10 km Reach (m )
3
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
3
Discharge (m )
500 400 300
M ean line for C i =500 ppm M ean line for Ci = 400 ppm M ean line for C i =300 ppm
Figure 38: Discharge-Sedimentation curves for the on demand system
From figure 36, 37 & 38, in addition to the previously drawn conclusion another
hypothesis was established that there is a linear relationship between the initial
concentration and the sediment volume deposited. To verify the visual observation the
graph was drawn between the initial concentrations and the sediment volume
deposited for various discharges the graphs are presented as figure 39,40 & 41.
Variation of Sedimentation with Change in Initial Concentration for Proportional Distribution

Scenario
200000
180000
Volume of sediment deposited in 10 km Reach
160000
140000
120000 10
30
(m3)
100000 50
100
80000 150
60000
40000
20000
0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Initial Concentration
(ppm)
Figure 39: Ci sedimentation curve for proportional distribution system
92
Variation of Sedimentation with Change in Initial Concentration for On Request Distribution
Scenario
200000
180000
160000
140000
120000 10
30
(m3)
100000 50
100
80000 150
60000
40000
20000
0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Initial Concentration
(ppm)
Figure 40: Ci sedimentation curve for on request system
The curves showing the relationship of the discharge with the sediment volume
deposited may be divided into two parts. The first part in which the sediment volume
deposited increases with further increase in the discharge and the second part in which
the deposited volume decreases with any further increase in the discharge. Whereas,
for the on request and on demand systems all the simulation results lie in the first
range. That is why the figure 40 has the straight line relationships which are not
crossing each other whereas in the other case figure 39 i.e. the proportional water
distribution scenario the lines are crossing because it contains the data from both
earlier described parts of the discharge and deposited volume curve.
V a ria tio n o f S e d im en ta tio n w ith C h a n g e in In itia l C o n c e n tr a tio n fo r O n D e m a n d D istr ib u tio n

S c e n a rio
200000
180000
160000
140000
120000 10
30
(m3)
100000 50
100
80000 150
60000
40000
20000
0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
In itia l C o n c e n tra tio n
(p p m )
Figure 41: Ci sedimentation curve for on request system
93
But from the all the curves, drawn as figure 39,40 & 41, it can be concluded that for
each canals design discharge there is a linear relationship between sediment load
concentrations and the volume deposited.
8.6 Some regime considerations
The regime method considers the periphery of the open canal, the amount of water
and sediment flowing in it as a single whole and attempts to lay down the attributes of
a stable (non silting/non scouring) canal primarily on the basis of empirical studies of
the interaction of the above mentioned factors (Naimed, 1990).
The regime concept represents a long-term average rather than some instantaneously
variable state. It therefore expresses the natural tendency for channels that convey
sediment within alluvial boundaries to seek a dynamic stability. Canals are called in
regime if they dont change over a period of one or several typical water years. Within
this period, scour and deposition are allowed to occur as long as they do not interfere
with canal operations. Since the observed canals are withdrawing different amounts of
flow and sediment contents from different rivers and since sediment excluders or
ejectors maybe in operation at some of the head works, the regime theory can only
provide some approximate average values for design. Nevertheless, the ample
experience obtained from the design and operation of these canals give some guidance
for the design of stable channels with erodible banks and sediment transport.
8.6.1 Sediments
In general, the Indus Valley irrigation canals have a smaller sediment transport
capacity than the parent rivers, because they have a milder gradient, smaller cross-
sections and discharges than the rivers. Sediment exclusion at the head works of the
canals, sedimentation in silting ponds is therefore the foremost consideration in the
design and operation of these canals. The location and crest level of the canal
regulator at the canal head works should be designed by considering the sediment
entry into the canal system.
In alluvial channels, the distribution of the sediment between branches is also

important. As the velocity and sediment transport are distributed differently over the
depth of a flow, offtakes in a sediment-transporting canal could draw a greater or
lesser concentration of sediment than of the parent canal. Remodelling the bifurcation
structures can make the adjustment of the sediment entering the branches.
The final disposal of both water and sediment in irrigation canals is through the farm
turnouts. The design and location of the structures in relation to the canal bed affect
the sediment transport by these structures. The discharge capacity of a farm turnout
also depends on the command area of that turnout. As the cultivable command area
increases with the development of irrigation by new canals, the discharge capacity has
to be increased. Turnouts on irrigation canals are relatively inexpensive (adjustable
94
pipe turnouts). As the canals mature and the system attains equilibrium, the pipe
turnouts are replaced by semi-permanent modules or modules. The levels of the crest
of these turnouts are then based upon sediment transport considerations as well as the
variation of discharge with the variation of flow in the canals. In smaller canals, the
turnouts are important to the geometry of the canals. It has been found from intensive
observations in Pakistan that the average bed level of the distributary canals adjusts to
the mean crest level of these turnouts. In unstable distributary canals, which may be
silted up, the lowering of the turnouts is one of the favoured solutions.
8.6.2 Maturing of canals
The maturing of new canals is an important aspect in the operation and maintenance
of canals in Pakistan. A new canal designed on the guidelines for geometry and slope
will have bed material, which depends on the local soils and might be different from
the material transported by the river. After a few years of operation, the bed material
will be adjusted to the sediment entering the canal system and the canals will have a
quasi-equilibrium condition. The maturing of the canal include:
development/growth of the side-berms
adjustment of the longitudinal slope
adjustments of the offtake and bifurcation structures
adjustment of irrigation turnouts
Stable alluvial canals are characterized by regular side berms , which are developed
by the deposition of fine silt and clay particles available in the canal flow. Side berms
are generally much less permeable than the canal bed and help in reducing the
seepage losses through the sides. They also have a higher erosion resistance and
hamper any widening tendency of the canals.
8.6.3 Slope adjustments
The energy gradient of a mature canal can differ from that provided in the canal
design and the deviation can be serious in longer canals. Adjustments of the
longitudinal slope can be provided by the construction of drop structures at regular
intervals. These drops often form a part of the bifurcation structures. During the
maturing phase of the canal the crest levels of these drop structures can be raised or
lowered to accommodate the slopes being adopted by the canals.
8.6.4 Flow capacity
In recent years, the design capacities in almost all canals in Pakistan have been
increased to meet the increasing demand for irrigation water. In some cases, this has
been done by remodelling the canal cross-sections and in others by simply
remodelling the structures, raising the banks and forcing the additional water
95
supplies. Often this has resulted in a change of the canal regime established in the past
and in unsymmetrical cross sections in a number of cases.
In the research it has also been tried to better understand the phenomenon of maturing
of the canals. For this in a canal designed to carry 150 m3/s, the canal was operated
for the design discharge for various duration and the changes in the bed elevations
were studied. The results of this modelling exercise are presented as figure .
B e d E v o l u ti o n c u r v e s a f te r o p e r a ti n g th e c a n a l a t d e s ig n d i s c h a r g e f o r v a r i o u s d u r a t io n s
5 0 .4 0
5 0 .2 0
5 0 .0 0
Bed Level (m)
4 9 .8 0
4 9 .6 0
4 9 .4 0
4 9 .2 0
4 9 .0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
D is ta n c e (m )
O r ig in a l B e d L e v e l m 25 d ays m 50 days m 90 day s
100 days m 150 days m 183d ays m 200 days m
365 days m 730 days m 1095 days m
Figure 42: Bed evolution diagram for canal designed to carry 150 m3/s
It is clear from the diagram that the canal bed keeps on changing till the 200 days of
operation and after that the canal bed becomes stable. The canal was initially designed
having a bed material of 0.25 mm and then was operated with the design discharge
carrying the sediment having a mean diameter size of 0.2 mm with constant
concentration of 400 ppm.
Then the temporal variation of the sediment volume deposited was studied by plotting
a graph between the number of days versus cumulative volume deposited in that
duration. The graph is presented in figure .
V a r i a t i o n o f v o lu m e d e p o s it e w it h t h e n u m b e r o f c a n a l r u n n i n g d a y s
45000
40000
35000
30000
Volume Deposited
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
N o. of days
Figure 43: Temporal variation of sediment volume deposited
96
From the curve it is noted that the canal for about 150 m3/s becomes stable after about
400 days of proportional operation (in the modelling , 2 growing seasons). These
outputs may be useful in establishing the maintenance standards. For example, from
the above two graphs we may establish that the canal of 150 m3/s discharge shouldnt
be cleaned if the sediment deposited is not more than 0.3m. Establishing these types
of standards will improve the economic efficiency of the system by reducing
unnecessary spending on desiltation.
To get more insight the same canal was modelled for various discharges for a period
of 194 days. The simulation results are presented in the figure.
B e d V a r ia tio n fo r V a r io u s F lo w C o n d itio n s in th e S a m e C a n a l
3
S im u la tio n P e r io d 1 9 4 d a y s & D e s ig n D is c h a r g e 1 5 0 m /s
5 1 .5
5 1 .0
5 0 .5
Bed Elevation (m)
5 0 .0
4 9 .5
4 9 .0
4 8 .5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
D is tn a c e (m )
In itia l B e d L e v e l Q = 60% Q = 70% Q = 80% Q = 90% Q = 100%
Figure 44: Bed levels after operating the canals for various discharges for 194 days
B ed V a riatio n fo r V a rio u s F lo w C o n d itio n s in th e S am e C a n al

3 3
D es ig n D isc h arg e 1 5 0m /s , o p e ra te d a t 6 0 % (9 0 m /s)
5 1.5
5 1.0
5 0.5
Bed Elevation (m)
5 0.0
4 9.5
4 9.0
4 8.5
0 1 00 0 20 00 3 00 0 400 0 5 00 0 60 00 70 00 8 000 90 00 10 00 0
D istn ac e (m )
Initial B e d L eve l Q 60 % fo r 19 4 d ay s Q 6 0% for 3 88 da ys
Figure 45: Temporal impact of low flows on canal regime

As the deposition behaviour for lesser discharges is different. The canal was operated
for 60% of the design discharge for 388 days and is presented as figure . The results
of the simulation showed that the canal bed became more stable and straight. The
97
results could be interpreted as, there is a regime condition for each discharge value
and that the smaller is the discharge the longer it takes to stabilise for the same canal
and the lower is the discharge the more is the deposition for the same canal.
Figure shows that the deposition increases with decreasing discharge in the same
canal dimensions. For all discharges the actual concentration is the same (400 ppm),
but the equilibrium concentration decreases with the discharge (velocity). Hence for
smaller discharges larger deposition in the canal will be observed.
8.7 Evaluation of modelling unsteady flow as quasi steady flow
In any canal, while changing the discharge from a higher to lower value or vice versa
there is transition period during which the discharge, most of the sediment in the canal
is dropped down by the water at any discharge lesser than which is required to keep
the sediment in the suspended condition. To get an insight of the transition flows and
the response time involved in the canal operation all the canals with differennt design
discharges 10, 30, 50, 100 & 150, were modelled by using the DUFLOW. The
results of the DUFLOW are presented in the figure 46 & 47. In these figures the
discharges of all the canals are standardised and are presented in percentage for the
sake of an easy comparison. Figure 46 represents the situation when the discharge at
the head is suddenly increased from zero to the design discharge (100%), whereas the
figure 47 represents the situation when the discharge is suddenly decreased from the
design discharge (100%) to zero.
Reason for doing the analysis is to evaluate the effect of the limitation of the model.
As the SETRIC only deals with the steady flow situations and it doesnt take into
account the sedimentation which takes place at the beginning of the irrigation period
and at the end of the irrigation period the transient situations as presented in the
figures 46 & 47. Calculations were made for a hypothetical extreme case that a canal
carrying 150 m3/s discharge is suddenly closed and the water in the canal drops all
the sediment on the bed. The test case situation for the canal with a design discharge
of 150 m3/s is presented in the figure 48.
Area = 51.7 * 3.08 = 159.11 m3/m

Assuming Sediment Concentration = 500 ppm (over full canal length)
Volume of Sediment = 159.11 * 500 * 10-6 = 0.07955 m3/m
Equivalent Depth = 1.8 mm (if deposited on the bed)
It follows that if the discharge is changed from design discharge to zero, by assuming
that all the sediment in the canal is dropped on the bed by the water, then in case of
the canals under consideration the deposited depth will never be more than 2 mm
which is not a significant number. So the adjustment of the deposited volume figures
given by the model is not required.
98
H y d r o g r a p h o f T h e S e c tio n a t H e a d R e g u la to r a n d 1 0 K m D /S in T h e R e g im e C a n a ls
1 2 0 .0 0
1 0 0 .0 0
8 0 .0 0
% of Design Discahrge
6 0 .0 0
4 0 .0 0
2 0 .0 0
0 .0 0
22 26 30 34
-2 0 .0 0
T im e (H o u rs )
A t H /R 1 0 m 3 /s 3 0 m 3 /s 5 0 m 3 /s 1 0 0 m 3 /s 1 5 0 m 3 /s
Figure 46: Hydrograph of canal for increase in flow rate situation
H y d r o g r a p h o f T h e S e c t io n a t H e a d R e g u la t o r a n d 1 0 K m D /S in T h e R e g im e C a n a ls
1 2 0 .0 0
1 0 0 .0 0
8 0 .0 0
% of Design Discahrge
6 0 .0 0
4 0 .0 0
2 0 .0 0
0 .0 0
46 50 54 58 62 66
- 2 0 .0 0
T im e (H o u r s )
A t H /R 1 0 m 3 /s 3 0 m 3 /s 5 0 m 3 /s 1 0 0 m 3 /s 1 5 0 m 3 /s
Figure 47: Hydrograph of canal for decrease in flow rate situation
57.86 m
Q=150 m3/s
3.08 m
Ci = 500 ppm
45.4 m
Figure 48: Sketch of the regime canal for 150 m3/s discharge
99
8.8 Evaluation of Flow Control Systems
8.8.1 Equity
Equity may be defined as the equality in realisation of the water rights. In case of
proportional control systems, the head reach farmers of the canal get more water as
compared to the tail reach farmers. Because of the fact that when the wave generated
due to the discharge change, the upstream farmers start getting the water earlier than
the tail reach farmers. Secondly if the sensitivity of the outlets is not one then the
spatial uniformity of discharge is affected again resulting in in-equities. Whereas, for
the upstream control, ideally speaking, there is a possibility of controlling the
discharge. But in reality, it is not an easy job due to the constantly generated
fluctuations in the system, operation at one offtake affects the operation at all other
offtakes. Whereas the concept of the downstream control is only employed when
there is an abundance of water resource, so the equity is not the big issue, As
everyone gets what it wants. So the equity in the downstream control may be rated as
excellent, upstream control as moderate and proportional control as less equal.
8.8.2 Reliability
Reliability of the downstream control may be regarded as excellent as the water

always remains available at the farm step of the farmers. In case of upstream control
systems usually some restrictions are imposed on the low flows, so, it may be rated as
moderately reliable. Whereas for the proportional control systems which are usually
constructed in water scarce situations the water availability always remains uncertain
and is usually subjected to enough water availability at the source. So, proportional
control systems may be assumed to be as the least reliable.
But if we look at all these systems from structural reliability point of view then in that
case the rating is reversed the proportional control system is the most reliable,
followed by the upstream control and then downstream control, which is fully
dependent on the proper functioning of the structures.
8.8.3 Adequacy
If we define the adequacy as a measure for the delivery of the required amount of
water for optimal plant growth, then the downstream control may be rated as
excellently capable of delivering the water as per crop water requirement. Upstream
control also has enough capacity to respond to the crop water requirement and may be
rated as good. Proportional control may also be operated to be in pace with the
varying crop water requirements but the ability to assess the crop water requirement
becomes extremely significant. And sudden deviation of the irrigation requirement
from theory due to the unexpected change in climatic factors may result in crop stress
or loss of water.
100
8.8.4 Response Time
The downstream control is the quickest in responding to the crop water requirement
or farmers need, the water is always available in the canal storage and can be diverted
to the farms whenever needed. In case of upstream control the system is less quick in
response to the crops need but there are some possibilities to improve the response
time like introduction of many control structures, but it could never be as quick as
downstream control. Where as in case of proportional distribution systems there is no
concept of operation, the water will reach at the offtake at fixed time after the water is
released at the head of the canal.
8.8.5 Simplicity in operation
The proportional control systems are the simplest in operation. Once the water is
released at the head, the system automatically distributes the water in the offtakes as
per design. The upstream control is most difficult to operate. Any operation at one
offtake will affect the operation at any other location in the canal. In this type of flow
control a central operation centre is required and high degree of skill is required for
the operation of such systems. Whereas for downstream control system the only
concern is the availability of enough water at the head of the system to meet the
farmers needs.
8.8.6 Desiltation and Maintenance Requirement
The proportional control system is the most economical system, as it needs the least
maintenance of structures, and the prism of canal. The canals are operated usually at
the design capacity, so, the sediment transport capacity remains enough to carry the
sediment and often, desiltation is not required. In case of upstream control systems, as
the system remains under disturbances in the canal flows, so, the fluctuating canal
flows which may be lesser than the design make the canals more vulnerable to
sedimentation, and result in higher maintenance cost for prism. Secondly, the
upstream control systems are equipped with gates, which also need regular
maintenance for proper functioning of the canals. Whereas the downstream control
systems need a lot of money for maintenance of the canal prism and as well as the
structure. Due to the in-built storage of the canals the velocities often become much
lesser than required to transport the sediment, so, the downstream control is usually
considered as a choice only for transporting silt free water.
8.8.7 Robustness against water theft
In case of the proportional control system, all the offtakes are always open and are
never allowed to close, so, any theft or illegal withdrawal will result in lesser (than
101
usual) supply at the tail. So it can easily be detected. Whereas the upstream control
allows the operation at the offtakes so, it is difficult to detect illegal withdrawals
without carrying out a water balance. In case of downstream control as the operation
at one offtake is not affecting the discharge at any other offtake, so, no body may
come to know about illegal withdrawals or water theft. Due to this reason a vigilant
surveillance of the canal bank is required as, even a breach in canal reach may not be
easily detectable at the head of the canal, as the canal system adjusts it self.
8.8.8 Seepage losses
In addition to other factors, the wetted surface area and differential head are the
important factors for determining the seepage losses. If we compare the three flow
control systems the wetted surface area for transporting the unit volume of water is
maximum in case of downstream control, lesser in case of upstream control and least
in case of proportional control. The same way the seepage losses are expected to be
more in case of downstream control, lesser in upstream control and least in
proportional control systems.
8.8.9 Flexibility in water distribution
Downstream control systems offers the maximum flexibility in water distribution,

which allows the farmers to withdraw water whenever and as much they want. For
upstream control there is some room for managing the discharges in the low flow
situations. Whereas for the proportional systems the system only works properly when
the discharge in the canal is within a certain range and the discharge is distributed
according to the predetermined proportions only.
8.8.10 Cost
The downstream control systems are most expansive to build, due to the horizontal
banks and expansive automatic downstream control gates, and in addition to the
construction costs the maintenance costs are also higher than the other flow control
systems, which makes it most expansive system to build and maintain. Whereas
upstream control system are expansive to built as compared to proportional systems
due to provision of gates and their running costs are also higher in comparison to the
proportional system but is lesser than the downstream control systems. Also the
operating staff should be well trained and educated for downstream control. Whereas
for proportional distribution the requirements are much lesser as compared to the
other two types of distribution systems.
102
8.8.11 Transparency in water distribution
The proportional control systems are most transparent systems as they work on the
simple principles of proportionately dividing the available water. Whereas the
upstream control systems are the most complicated from operational point of view.
The operation of gates needs skilled staff and it is usually beyond the capacity of
understanding of the simple farmers. Due to this reason the upstream control projects
ended in failure at many places around the world. In case of downstream control
systems the consideration of transparency is not much important as everybody gets
water on demand.
The above discussion is tabulated as table 17
Proportional Upstream Downstream

Evaluation Criteria
Control Control Control
Equity + ++ +++
Reliability + ++ +++
Adequacy + ++ +++
Response time + + +++
Simplicity in operation +++ + +
Maintenance requirement +++ ++ +
Robustness against water theft +++ ++ +
Seepage losses +++ ++ +
Flexibility in water distribution + ++ +++
Cost +++ ++ +
Transparency in water distribution +++ + +
Table 17: Evaluation of flow control systems
8.9 Social implications
Making a selection of the flow control systems for the existing system or for a new
system needs a careful analysis of the social implication for the intervention. The
system, which may be suitable for the highly mechanised farming, may not be
suitable for the area with subsistence level farming. The farmers know-how about the
various types of flow control systems and their experience to operate the various types
of system is also of prime importance.
Many systems operating under the proportional control systems when were changed
to upstream control ended in failure due to, mainly, poor transparency in water
distribution and non-understandable operation of the canals. The examples of the
failure stories may be found in Bali, Indonesia, Height Valley and Central Valley of
Cochabamba in Bolivia and many other.
The social implications of a system become even more important in water scarce
103
situations, when securing maximum quantity of water is the concern of every farmer.
So, it is recommended that especially modernising the proportional control systems to
the upstream control, following considerations must be taken into account:
The increased cost due to modernisation intervention must be lesser than

additional benefits;
Pilot projects must be completed and checked for social implications before
intervening at the bigger scale;
The community is already familiar with the gate operations;
If the community is not familiar with the gate operation then in that case proper
training activities must be arranged;
All the farmers communities must be equally benefited by the intervention;
Necessary legislative measures establishing responsibilities and accountability
mechanisms should be put in place well in time;
The new development should be in line with the expected future changes in the
system management like establishment of area water boards or formation of water
users associations.
104
CHAPTER 9 -CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The conclusions of the research may be summarised as follows:
For sediment concentrations, larger than the equilibrium concentration, a linear

and unique relationship exists between the sediment characteristics (sediment size
and concentration) and the volume of sediment deposited in a canal.
The relationship between discharge and volume deposited for a specific water
delivery arrangement can be translated into cost for maintenance (desiltation). The
cost will increase when the canal is operated for discharge smaller then the design
discharge.
After a certain operation period canal design according to the regime theory
adjusts themselves to a new stable slope without further sedimentation. The stable
slope depends upon the discharge, and time to attain this situation is longer for
smaller discharges in the same canal.
Regime canals have higher velocities than the canal designed according to the
tractive force theory, for higher discharges. For smaller discharges the velocities
in regime canals are smaller. Bottom slopes of regime canals are less steep than of
canals designed according to the tractive force theory. The difference increases for
smaller design discharges. Regime canals are also wider and less deep than the
canals designed according to the tractive force theory.
The volume of sediment deposited is a realistic powerful tool to evaluate the

impact of water delivery arrangements on the maintenance costs. Together with
other criteria based on equity, reliability and adequacy, designers, irrigation
authorities and water users can decide in an improved, reliable way on the choice
of a flow control system.
9.1 Application of Research Results
The results of the research may carefully be applied in the real situation by keeping in
mind all the assumptions and considerations made in the research. The relationships
developed in this research must be seen as an indication of the actual costs for the
desiltation of canals and not as the actual cost. Secondly the relationships are
developed for the regime canals and may not be used for system to be designed by the
tractive force or any other method.
105
9.2 Recommendations for Further Research
The objective of the research was to develop the relationship of canal operation
scenarios for on demand, on request and imposed water delivery arrangements with
the recurrent costs for certain sediment loads in the irrigation water. The output, as a
tool, was expected to be useful for the:
Farmers to make a choice between various level of service on the basis of costs
associated with the required water delivery arrangement;
Policy makers to compare the marginal benefits in terms of expected rise in yield
and associated benefits with the marginal cost for various delivery arrangements;
Consultants and Irrigation & Drainage Authorities in feasibility studies and cost
estimates.
Although, the results of this research are as expected at the stage of inception, but the
use of this research is limited by the assumption of this research. So, the results of this
research must be considered as a step forward to a more accurate and refined tool.
Although, it seems difficult to develop a generic, globally applicable tool, but, it is
possible to develop the curves predicting the maintenance costs within limits of
reasonable accuracy for a variety of situations.
Basing on the knowledge and experience obtained during the research one of the
adaptable routes for developing a more refined tool could be;
One of the existing canal system must be monitored for period of at least two
water years, the proposed data collection is:
During the first year
Silt entry at the head (daily)
Bed and water levels at various locations (monthly)
Discharge (daily)
Cross sections (monthly)
During the second year:
Silt entry at the head (weekly/monthly)
Bed and water levels at various locations (monthly)
Discharge (daily)
Cross sections (monthly)
By using the first year data:

The performance of SETRIC or any other model to be used as a tool must be
calibrated;
Results of the models should be compared with field measurements in order to
confirm whether the physical processes are well represented in the mathematical
model or there is a deficiency as a result of the assumptions for describing those
processes.
Once the applicability of the model is established, the model developed for one
canal must be tried for the other canal.
106
It is known that various sedimentation predictor formulae will give different
results, if possible, the various predictor techniques might be modified to give the
same results for one canal and the modifications might be verified by using the
improved formulae on other canals.
By using the second year data:

A better idea of accuracy of the tool in relation to change in sediment
concentration and operation might be established.
Possible outputs of this kind of exercise could be:

Evaluation of the model to investigate the response in time and space of the
bottom level to determine water flows and sediment characteristics;
Better insight of influences of the type and operation of flow control structures,
geometrical characteristics of the canals, water flow and incoming sediment
characteristics on the deposition/erosion;
Better understanding of the sediment transport processes under the prevailing flow
conditions in irrigation canals;
It will be helpful in reducing the parities between the various sediment prediction
methods;
Develop a generic and accurate tool for taking decisions regarding the
modernisation of the system.
107
108
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de Laat, 1999, Soil water plant relationship, lecture notes, IHE Delft, The
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112
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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR INFRASTRUCTURAL,

HYDRAULIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Controller Negative Storage

Negative Storage Wedge

On Demand Water Delivery

On Request Water Delivery

Imposed Water Delivery

IMPACT OF WATER DELIVERY ARRANGEMENTS ON MAINTENANCE OF

Submitted to the Department of Hydraulic Engineering at the International Institute for

Prof. Dr. Ir. Bart Schultz (IHE , Delft)

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR INFRASTRUCTURAL

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 15

1.1 RESEARCH LOCALE ..................................................................................................... 16

CHAPTER 2 - BACKGROUND .......................................................................................... 19

2.1 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER 3 - PROBLEM DESCRIPTION ..................................................................... 23

3.1 SETTING ....................................................................................................................... 23

CHAPTER 4 - FLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS .................................................................. 33

4.1 SELECTION OF FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM ..................................................................... 33

CHAPTER 5 - RESEARCH PLAN ..................................................................................... 39

5.1 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................. 39

6.1 SYSTEM DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 41

CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS OF IRRIGATION ASPECTS ............................................... 45

7.1 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................ 45

CHAPTER 8 - SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ........................................................................ 77

8.1 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................. 77

CHAPTER 9 -CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................... 105

9.1 APPLICATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS ...................................................................... 105

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 109

ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................ 113

Table 1: Proposed Infrastructure of Farmers Participation in PIDA ........................ 22

Map 1: Indus Basin Irrigation System of Pakistan ................................................... 17

ANNEX A: Irrigation system development in Pakistan

B Bottom width of canal

c Correction factor for b/d ratios

Ci Initial concentration of sediment load

d Mean diameter of Bed Material

f Laceys silt factor

g Acceleration due to gravity

m Slope Factor 1 Vertical: m Horizontal

N Mannings roughness coefficient

Vav Average velocity

BIVAL Volume Flow Control System

Pakistan is located in South Asia and is surrounded by China in the North,

2.2 Irrigation in Pakistan

Pakistans present resource base is a commutative effort of more than a century of

Figure 1: Historical development of irrigation area in Pakistan

2.3 Irrigation Management Transfer

Annual Flow Available Flow to Arabian

Ground Water 75% 25% Rain Water

Conveyance At Field At Field Conveyance At Field

28% 72% 28%

28% 72% 72%

Field Water Water Field Water Field

Total Water Availability for Crop Use

Figure 2: Water Balance of Indus Basin Irrigation System

Actors System Level Remarks

Member Countries develop and implement effective water demand management

A pre-requisite for sustainable management of water as a scarce, vulnerable

3.2.1 Water Supply Aspects

To operate a system effectively, the government authorities have certain discretionary