Marginalized Children

Introduction:
Marginalized Children are those who are neglected by parents and society, and they are not taken
care of and less supported. We can see such children form urban slums, from Dalit and tribal
societies, poverty affected areas, street living communities, HIV affected groups and families who
work in unorganized sectors. All the children who are marginalized are economically deprived in
their status (Mohan and Kamalakannan, 2017).
Meaning of Marginalized children:
Generally a person or a group of persons who are segregated from the others in the society, neglected,
do not taken care of by others and abandoned by others are called marginalized. The marginalized
children are also economically deprived in their status. Marginalized children are the neglected
children who are like orphans, without any economic help from others, and they are not able to get
their school education (Mohan and Kamalakannan, 2017).
Marginalized children are a group of children that's confined to the lower or peripheral edge of the
society. Such a group is denied involvement in mainstream economic, political, cultural and social
activities (TNTEU, 2016).

Concept
The process whereby something or someone is pushed to the edge of a group and accorded lesser
importance. This is predominantly a social phenomenon by which a minority or sub-group is
excluded, and their needs or desires ignored. In general, the term marginalization describes the
overt actions or tendencies of human societies, where people who they perceive to undesirable or
without useful function, are excluded, i.e., marginalized. These people, who are marginalized, from
a group or community for their protection and integration and are known as marginalized groups.
This limits their opportunities and means for survival. Peter Leonard defines marginality as, being
outside the mainstream of productive activity
and/or social reproductive activity (TNTEU, 2016).

Characteristics of marginalized groups (TNTEU, 2016)

Usually a minority group has the following characteristics
1) It suffers from discrimination and subordination.
2) They have physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved of, by a
dominant group.
3) They share a sense of collective identity and common burdens.
4) They have shared social rules about who belongs, and who does not.
5) They have a tendency to marry within the group.

Population of children in slums

The census of India defines a slum as a residential area where dwelling units are unfit for human
habitation owing to dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty arrangements and design of such buildings,
narrow or faulty arrangements of streets, lack of ventilation, light or sanitation facilities, or any
combination of these factors detrimental to safety and health. 65.5 million people in urban India
live in slums and constitute 17.4 per cent of the urban population. Out of this 8.1 million (12.3 %
of total slum population) are children in 06 years age group. The lack of data on children in other
age groups and upto 18 years age living in slums is a major limitation of this study (NIUA, 2016).

All slums are not equal: child health conditions Agarwal and Taneja, 2005.
Increasing urbanization has resulted in a faster growth of slum population. Various agencies,
especially those in developing countries are finding it difficult to respond to this situation effectively.
Disparities among slums exist owing to various factors. This has led to varying degrees of health
burden on the slum children. Child health conditions in slums with inadequate services are worse in
comparison to relatively better served slums. Identification, mapping and assessment of all slums is
important for locating the hitherto missed out slums and focusing on the neediest slums. In view of
the differential vulnerabilities across slums, an urban child health program should build context
appropriate and community-need-responsive approaches to improve childrens health in the slums.
Childhood diseases and malnutrition

This study demonstrated a continuing high burden of childhood illnesses among urban slum
dwellers in southern India. On an average, a child was found to be ill for about three months in a
year. In accordance with other studies in impoverished populations, most of the illnesses reported
were of infectious origin. Frequent episodes of illness and the high degree of malnutrition
experienced by children residing in this and similar settings may adversely impact their health and
development, besides placing an additional burden on families
who need to seek healthcare and find resources to manage disease. The apparent lack of a
protective effect of drinking bottled water necessitates conduct of further studies to assess the
effectiveness of alternate strategies, such as improvement of personal and peri-domestic hygiene,
in reducing the burden of GI illnesses in settings with high environmental contamination (Sarkar,
2013).

Nourishment status of children in slums

It is indeed alarming that the percentage of children in the age group of 059 months that are
underweight and stunted is highest among the urban poor and is in fact higher than the overall rural
figures. The problem of undernutrition in children is of a serious magnitude in urban India.
Increasing urbanisation poses a significant challenge to the nutritional status of children especially
those living in urban slums or in poor areas which are not registered as slums. Due to the lack of
investment in public utilities coupled with substantial growth in the urban population due to a
poverty-led massive rural to urban migration, most urban dwellers have poor access to health and
education services as well as inadequate availability of water, sanitation, drainage and garbage
collection services. A significant majority of the urban poor reside in informal settlements and
slums which are usually overcrowded, devoid of basic amenities and surrounded by a hazardous
environment. The grave urban scenario of undernutrition confirms the hardships faced by poorer
urban children. An analysis of under-nutrition data of eight cities also reports that the poorest
quantile has the worst underweight and stunting status as compared to the rest of the urban
population. With reference to the underweight prevalence rates, the difference in the various
Nourishment status of children in slums
It is indeed alarming that the percentage of children in the age group of 059 months that are
underweight and stunted is highest among the urban poor and is in fact higher than the overall rural
figures. The problem of undernutrition in children is of a serious magnitude in urban India.
Increasing urbanisation poses a significant challenge to the nutritional status of children especially
those living in urban slums or in poor areas which are not registered as slums. Due to the lack of
investment in public utilities coupled with substantial growth in the urban population due to a
poverty-led massive rural to urban migration, most urban dwellers have poor access to health and
education services as well as inadequate availability of water, sanitation, drainage and garbage
collection services. A significant majority of the urban poor reside in informal settlements and
slums which are usually overcrowded, devoid of basic amenities and surrounded by a hazardous
environment. The grave urban scenario of undernutrition confirms the hardships faced by poorer
urban children. An analysis of under-nutrition data of eight cities also reports that the poorest
quantile has the worst underweight and stunting status as compared to the rest of the urban
population. With reference to the underweight prevalence rates, the difference in the various
population groups is comparatively low in Kolkata and Nagpur. In most cities, the difference in
percentage of children stunted is much higher in the poorest quartile as compared to urban slums
while the difference is comparatively lower between urban slums and non-urban areas.
population groups is comparatively low in Kolkata and Nagpur. In most cities, the difference in
percentage of children stunted is much higher in the poorest quartile as compared to urban slums
while the difference is comparatively lower between urban slums and non-urban areas.

Diarrhoea on social maturity, intelligence and physical growth

Despite the limitations, this study demonstrates the negative effect of early childhood protozoan
diarrhoea, especially giardial diarrhoea, on growth and cognition in Indian children as early as 3
years of age. Followup testing of cognitive function and growth in these children at school-age will
add valuable information on the longer-term effects of protozoan diarrhoea. The role of
asymptomatic giardial and cryptosporidial infections on cognitive function and growth in Indian
children also needs to be assessed in future prospective studies (Ajjampur, 2011)

Urban poor children are devoid of basic rights of survival, development and protection, and are
marginalised in challenging conditions in overcrowded settlements; they also face the constant
threat of eviction. They suffer exclusion from essential services like health care, clean water,
sanitation, education, electricity, etc. Their existence is not acknowledged, as neither their births
nor deaths are registered. They are the favourite prey of disease and
disasters. Childhood to them is a mere nightmare. They are the victims of crime and exploitation,
and some of them may become criminals as they learn to live in that situation.
They are trapped in the vicious cycle of exploitation and crime. They are prone to addiction. They
may get engaged in prostitution and suffer from teenage pregnancy, illegitimate births, HIV
infection, etc. Apart from these physical factors, social determinants are equally important (Ambey
et al., 2013)

Contributory risk factors for development delay

Biological risk factors (Nair and Radhakrishnan, 2004)
There is now clear evidence that low birth weight is the single most important biological risk factor
for developmental delay and that as the birth weight comes down by every 500 grams there is a
corresponding reduction in the Bayley developmental scores. In the slums of Dhaka, Bangladesh,
where the low birth weight prevalence is as high as 46.4%; 70% of them being SGA infants and 17%
premature, it was found that the catch-up growth was limited and that although the weight at 12
months of age was largely a function of weight at birth, there was a greater plasticity of growth in
the first 3 months of life than later in the first year, suggesting that these infants may respond to
targeted postnatal interventions during the first three months of life.
Environmental risk factors (Nair and Radhakrishnan, 2004)
The primary environment of any individual especially during infancy, is the family and more so, the
mother. The developmental problems in the child are greatly determined by the biological variables,
but the environment has the potential for influencing early developmental difficulties.
Hence a child with environmental risk of living in deprived settlements may sometimes
present with developmental delay as, child development is said to be the interplay between genetic
and environmental factors, the genes setting the limits of achievement and the environment
determining whether he/she achieves it or not. Poverty, substandard housing, overcrowding,
inadequate water, sanitation and sewage disposal facilities and related environmental risks and
insecurity characteristic of a slum has a great impact on the survival and quality of life of the urban
poor children, especially the below 3 age group.

Mothers in slums are more prone to depression which affects the quality of maternal interaction with
the child and this combined with poor home environment, inadequate provision of sufficient and
appropriate play materials has been understood as leading to poor language and fine-motor skills in
these children as
compared to the better off children in the urban area.

Hence it can be stated that all the above factors place the children in the urban slums at greater risk
for acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, measles, malaria and malnutrition, the five major causes
of 70% of under five mortality.
Nourishment status of children in slums
It is indeed alarming that the percentage of children in the age group of 059 months that are
underweight and stunted is highest among the urban poor and is in fact higher than the overall rural
figures. The problem of undernutrition in children is of a serious magnitude in urban India.
Increasing urbanisation poses a significant challenge to the nutritional status of children especially
those living in urban slums or in poor areas which are not registered as slums. Due to the lack of
investment in public utilities coupled with substantial growth in the urban population due to a
poverty-led massive rural to urban migration, most urban dwellers have poor access to health and
education services as well as inadequate availability of water, sanitation, drainage and garbage
collection services. A significant majority of the urban poor reside in informal settlements and
slums which are usually overcrowded, devoid of basic amenities and surrounded by a hazardous
environment. The grave urban scenario of undernutrition confirms the hardships faced by poorer
urban children. An analysis of under-nutrition data of eight cities also reports that the poorest
quantile has the worst underweight and stunting status as compared to the rest of the urban
population. With reference to the underweight prevalence rates, the difference in the various
population groups is comparatively low in Kolkata and Nagpur. In most cities, the difference in
percentage of children stunted is much higher in the poorest quartile as compared to urban slums
while the difference is comparatively lower between urban slums and non-urban areas.

Learning Achievement of Slum Children in Delhi (Aggarwal and Chugh, 2003)

The analysis of the six selected slums clearly reflects that the slums are bereft of necessary physical
and civic amenities, with no schooling facilities or with poor schooling facilities. The plans have
been made to provide schooling in the difficult terrains and hilly areas but no provision has been
made for the marginalized population of urban areas with regard to the availability of schools to
these children in the neighbourhood or within slum areas. The schools, which are provided to them,
have poor infrastructure, over-crowded and teachers are not trained to deal with the learners who
reside in temporary settlement with poor physical facilities. The socio-economic backwardness is
further exacerbated by the poor quality schools available to these children. The data collected on
achievement competencies on the field collaborates this hypothesis.
The data revealed that the performance of the slum children was much below the expected levels in
both the subjects and in both the grades. Children of unrecognised schools have performed much
better than the Government schools children in mathematics but not in language. Most of the
unrecognised schools have English language as medium of instruction and probably these children
could not get familiar with this language. The achievement in mathematics is significantly lower
than the language in Grade IV. This is true for most of the schools. The low achievement specially
no response is a matter of serious concern and needs special attention of curriculum developers
and translators. The achievement scores based on competencies of Grade IV were lower than those
obtained by learners in Grade I. Besides the complexities of concepts and subjects, the transition
from oral to written mode of communication and evaluation may be one of the factors responsible
for this pattern of scoring. Low educational qualifications of the teachers in mathematics could be
one possible reason. Low motivation of the teachers to teach the children of poor socio-economic
background and low educational status of the mother could be another probable cause. The poor
achievement in mathematics for a large proportion of children requires further probing and
investigation. If the remedial measures are not initiated, the quality of education cannot be assured.
The analysis of response patterns for individual questions has identified the competencies on which
the special emphasis should be given in order to bring a conceptual clarity among the school children.
There is a need to move from the traditional modes of teaching to modern methods of teaching.
When we compare the achievement results of unrecognised schools with that of Government schools
it is clear that with small and inadequate infrastructure, less financial resources and untrained
teachers with low salaries, children of unrecognised schools are performing better especially in
mathematics than those of the Government schools.
Deprivation of Education: A Study of Slum Children in Delhi, India
A household survey in slum areas shows that only just over half the children are in school. It also
shows that a high over-age and dropout ratio exists among slum children. Over-age is often the
outcome of late admission to school. Late admission is caused both by demand side (migration from
rural areas to slums) and by supply side (lack of school capacity for all children, a short period of
admission, requirement of birth certificate etc.). School availability at a short distance does not
explain why quite a large number of slum children are still less educated. Economic problems were
one of the main reasons why children did not attend school.
Some recent studies indicate that fee-paying private schooling prevalent in slum areas increased and
catered for the need of low income families. Slum children in this household study, however,
except for a few, attend government school. What is worse, half of private school-going-children
dropped out. The improvement of quality and quantity of government schools remains an important
policy agenda for children in the lower echelons of society, who have no choice but to attend
government schools. Some policy and practice amendments, such as collaboration with anganwadi,
extension of subsidy for stationery, books etc., are recommended to improve admission, retention
and completion of compulsory education (Tsujita, 2009).

Policy Options: Learning Achievement of Slum Children in Delhi (Aggarwal and Chugh, 2003)

Generally, the municipal corporations are responsible for the provision of primary education
facilities within the municipal boundaries. These provisions are made from the municipal budget,
which is under severe constraints for most of the municipalities. Moreover, each municipality
follows a different set of norms for opening and maintenance of primary schools. Many suggestions
have been made to improve the school effectiveness in municipal areas. Some of these are:

Establishment of norms for opening and upgrading of schools, provision of teachers and other
facilities for the schools located within the municipal limits;

Motivation of teachers for understanding the problems of slum children. Special training of
teachers is required to ensure that the problems of urban children are properly tackled. The urban
children face special problems in the form of child abuse, danger of infections due to unhygienic
slum conditions. Teachers need to make them aware about the importance of personal and
environmental cleanliness.
Developing a network of government and private schools to share common resources. Co-
operation of private school teachers and volunteers should be sought for helping these children in
increasing their basic competencies.
The NGOs and self-help groups operating in the slums can be mobilised to organise remedial
teaching at some central locations in the slums. This will build confidence among the children who
are not able to keep pace with others.
The present scenario demands that teachers should make the children understand that classroom
is a safe place to experiment. Teachers should encourage children to take risks, to have courage to
explore, to keep time for thinking and reflection and to generate in them the capacity to concentrate.
If the children are provided with a greater friendly space to learning through joyous activities,
attractive texts and materials and free interaction with the teacher and their peer group, the learning
competency would greatly improve. Teachers should be trained to manage the classroom without
the use of rods.

The slum children have a peculiar problem as they visit the hometown generally during the
harvesting season with their parents and overstay there during the academic session. Remedial
teaching should be arranged as most of them have the similar time and period of their absence. The
school days otherwise should be adjusted accordingly.

The data from the field reveals that certain concepts are either not dealt or hurried through in the
class. Members from the community should be involved for the monitoring of the coverage of
curriculum.

To improve the competency in mathematics, serious modification is needed in the curriculum and
teaching methodology of mathematics. Teachers should give assignments to the children on each
topic and they should be discussed in the classroom. Few solved sample paper on each topic should
be circulated amongst the students.

For improving the competencies in language, audio and video-cassettes should

be used. Children should be given the simple storybooks to read and teacher
should take the feedback from the children.

To improve the competency of language in unrecognized schools it is suggested

that they should keep Hindi as medium of instruction and English language is
kept as a separate subject. Curriculum and teaching methodology of English
language needs modification.
Socio-cultural aspects of menstruation
Menstruation is associated with taboos and restrictions on work, sex, food and bathing, but the
taboos observed by most of the women were avoidance of sex and not participating in religious
practices; the taboo on not going into the kitchen, which had been observed in rural joint
households, was not being observed after migration from rural areas due to lack of social support
mechanisms. There is a clear need to provide information to young women on these subjects in
ways that are acceptable to their parents, schools and the larger community, and that allow them to
raise their own concerns. Education on these subjects should be envisaged as a long-term,
continuous process, beginning well before menarche and continuing long after it (Garg et al.,
2001).

All slums are not equal: child health conditions Agarwal and Taneja, 2005.

Continually increasing urban slum population has posed several health challenges.
Disparities in infant and child mortality rates, malnutrition, and incidence of diarrhea across
different slums exist owing to differing socio-economic, environmental and infrastructural
conditions.
Identification, mapping and assessment of all slums are important for locating missed slums
and also for prioritizing the neediest. This helps address inequity and exclusion.
Context-appropriate approaches responsive to the social and financial disadvantages of the
most vulnerable slums are crucial for addressing the health challenges of slum population.

Slum Free Cities:

Slum Free Cities is operationalised through a government scheme called Rajiv Awas Yojana
(RAY), using JNNURM support. RAY sees slum settlements as spatial entities that can be
identified, targeted and reached through the following development options:
1 slum improvement: extending infrastructure in the slums where residents have themselves
constructed incremental housing
2 slum upgrading: extending infrastructure in the slums along with facilitation of housing unit
upgrading, to support incremental housing
3 slum redevelopment: in-situ redevelopment of the entire slum after demolition of the existing
built structures
4 slum resettlement: in case of untenable slums, to be rehabilitated on alternative sites.
RAY provides detailed guidelines for spatial analysis and situation assessment and recommends a
participative process, involving slum communities with the help of ngos and community-based
organisations active in the area of slum housing and development, to identify possible
development options. Slum Free Cities provides an opportunity for new thinking, as well as posing
a problem to municipalities and ngos who may not have the technical knowledge
and imagination to create innovative community-driven solutions.
As the well-being of children in terms of health, nutrition, education and protection is closely
connected to the quality of physical living environments and to the delivery of and access to
services, children must be central to slum improvement programmes. Slum improvements funded
by jnnurm should be used to make Indian cities childfriendly, and build on the assets of intricate
social networks, inherent walkability and mixed uses which are considered by new planning
theories to be vital in making neighbourhoods sustainable (Neuwirth, 2005; Brugman,
2009).
Slum Free Cities planning guidelines already incorporate many elements that could secure
childrens right to an adequate standard of living, such as secure tenure, improved housing, reliable
services and access to health and education. However, intentions are often not translated into
action. Childrens direct participation in local area planning and design for slum improvements
would be a good step forward in creating child-friendly cities in India.

Action for Childrens Environments (ACE) is currently working on a study supported by the
Bernard van Leer Foundation to understand how the first phase of JNNURM-funded slum
improvements have affected children, with the aim of informing these policies and improving the
practice of planning and implementation of projects to make slum redevelopment more child-
friendly.

STATUS OF CHILDREN IN URBAN INDIA, BASELINE STUDY (NIUA (2016)

Children in national urban development agenda

The current urban development agenda in the country provides a great opportunity for creation of
better cities for children. For the first time children have been considered as stakeholders in the urban
development framework. The Smart Cities Mission Statement and Guidelines recognise children as
key stakeholders. The mission which covers 100 cities, stipulates that consultation process in cities
need to take account of all citizens including vulnerable sections of society like differently-abled,
children, elderly etc. Some smart city features outlined in the mission document that have a direct
impact on children include:
Creation of walkable localities: Inclusion of pedestrian friendly pathways, encouragement of non-
motorised transport (e.g. walking and cycling); creation or refurbishment of the road network not
only for vehicles and public transport, but also for pedestrians and cyclists; provision of necessary
administrative services within walking or cycling distance; attention to reducing congestion, air
pollution and resource depletion.
Preservation and development of open spaces: development of parks, playgrounds, and recreational
spaces in order to enhance the quality of life of citizens, reducing the urban heat effects in areas
and promoting eco-balance; encroachment-free public areas, ensuring safety of citizens especially
children, women and elderly.
Housing and inclusiveness: This includes expansion of housing opportunities for all.

The mission guidelines for Atal Mission for Urban Rejuvenation and Transformation (AMRUT)
which aims at creation and development of infrastructure in 500 cities also takes into cognisance the
specific needs of children. This mission aims at enhancing not only the living conditions of children
by improving the basic infrastructure services in the city but also aims at enhancing amenity value
of cities by creating and upgrading green spaces, parks and recreation centres, especially for children.
The mission components include development of green spaces and parks with special provision for
child-friendly components. The reforms milestones and timelines for AMRUT cities specify the
development of at least one childrens park every year and the formulation of a mechanism for
maintenance of parks, playgrounds and recreational areas relying on People Public Private
Partnership (PPPP) mode. As per the mission guidelines, urban local bodies will have to make
funding provisions for parks and will have to establish a system for maintenance with participation
of local residents. Another thrust area within the AMRUT Mission that would have a significant
impact on childrens health includes establishing a pollution monitoring system in cities, including
Air Quality Monitoring.
The third major urban development programme which would help improve the living conditions of
children is the Swachh Bharat (Clean India) Mission which aims at making the country open
defecation free by 2019. This programme focuses at improving access to better sanitation facilities
at both homes and schools,and is one of the crucial urban development programmes from the
context of childrens health and development.

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Nair, MKC and Radhakrishnan, SR. 2004. Early Childhood Development in Deprived Urban
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Suneela Garg, Nandini Sharma, Ragini Sahay. 2001. Socio-cultural aspects of menstruation in an
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Siddharth Agarwal Shivani Taneja. 2005. All Slums are Not Equal: Child Health Conditions
Among the Urban Poor. Indian Pediatrics. 42: 3, 233-244.

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NIUA (2016) STATUS OF CHILDREN IN URBAN INDIA, BASELINE STUDY, 2016 Delhi,
India.