Prepared by S.

Venkannah Mechanical and Production Engineering Department

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Mechanical and Production Engineering Department

Prepared by S. Venkannah

INTRODUCTION TO THE METALLURGY LAB.

A crystalline material is one in which
the atoms are situated in a repeating or
periodic array over large atomic
distances.

The unit cell is the basic structural unit

or building block of the crystal
structure and defines the crystal
structure by virtue of its geometry and
t he atom positions within.

Fig 1: Crystal structure showing

positions of atoms

GRAIN STRUCTURE:
Grains are individual crystals of a microstructure. Grains grow from nucleation sites, with
primary phases of metallic alloys commonly growing as dendrites.
When grains meet during the solidification process they will produce a lattice mismatch as the
orientations of the growing crystals will almost certainly be different. This mis-match forms a
grain boundary.
Grain boundaries occur when growing grains meet.

Fig 2 (a): Sketch showing arrangements Fig 2(b) : grain structure of a polycrystalline solid
of atom in grain structure

MECH 2104 & CIVE 1101 October 2000

Prepared by S. Venkannah Mechanical and Production Engineering Department

Phase Diagram
A phase diagram is a temperature -
composition diagram for two or
more elements. It can be thought of
as a "map" giving the
microstructure of the resultant
alloy at any given temperature and
composition.
A binary phase diagram is a phase
diagram of two elements.

Fig 3 (a): Phase equilibrium

diagram of Ag-Cu

Phase
Normally we consider there to be
three phases, or states of matter:
gas, liquid and solid. In materials
science, the term has an additional,
rather more specialised meaning.
Gas phases are of no real relevance,
and we concentrate on liquid and
solid phases.

There can be many solid phases,

distinguished by different greek
letters, the difference between them
being the nature of their atomic
arrangement, or crystal structure.
A phase can exist over a range of
temperatures and compositions,
but it's atomic structure will
remain the same. There may be Fig 3 (b) Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Equilibrium Diagram
only one gas and one liquid phase
for an alloy at a given temperature
and composition, but there can be
many solid phases. Another way of
looking at a phase is that it is a
structurally distinct part of a
materials system.

Heat treatment of metals- An operation or combination of operations involving the controlled heating
and cooling of metals or alloy in the solid state to produce certain desired properties. The improvements
resulting from the heat treatments are mainly due to the development of certain micro-constituents which
have the desired qualities.

MECH 2104 & CIVE 1101 October 2000

Prepared by S. Venkannah Mechanical and Production Engineering Department

Non- equilibrium cooling

Fig 4 : Continuous Cooling Temperature Curve for steel (Higgins)

Microstructure
The microstructure of an alloy
consists of the structure of the
grains and phases which the alloy
possesses. An alloy normally
requires metallographic preparation
and magnification before its
microstructure can be seen.

Fig 4(a) : Cross Section of a laser

weld

MECH 2104 & CIVE 1101 October 2000

Prepared by S. Venkannah Mechanical and Production Engineering Department

Fig 4 (b) : Cross Section of a laser weld in mild steel sheet

GRINDING & POLISHING.

The face to be studied is ground flat.
The ground face is then polished using progressively finer particles of diamond
(usually) until the required finish is obtained (commonly down to a micron or less).

ETCHING.
If required, the specimen is etched. Etchants usually attack a particular phase or a
grain boundary to make it appear a different colour. Kellers etch is an exception to this
rule as it deposits copper onto grain boundaries in Al-Cu alloys.

OPTICAL MICROSCOPY:
With optical microscopy, the light microscope is used to study the microstructure;
optical illumination systems are its basic elements. For materials that are opaque to
visible light (all metals, many ceramics and polymers), only the surface is subject to
observation, and the light microscope must be used in a reflective mode. Contrasts in
the image produced result from differences in reflectivity of the various regions of the
microstructure.

Careful and meticulous surface preparations are necessary to reveal the important
details of the microstructure. The specimen surface must first be ground and polished
to a smooth and mirror like finish. This is accomplished by using successively finer
abrasive papers and powders. The microstructure is revealed by a surface treatment
using an appropriate chemical reagent in a procedure termed etching. The etching
reagents depend on the material used and after etching the specimen must be washed
with alcohol and ether to remove the grease. The atoms at the grain boundary are
chemically more active, and consequently dissolve more readily than those within the
grains forming small grooves. These grooves become discernible when viewed under a
microscope because they reflect light at an angle different from that of the grains
themselves.

MECH 2104 & CIVE 1101 October 2000

Prepared by S. Venkannah Mechanical and Production Engineering Department

When the microstructure of a two phase alloy is to be examined, an etchant is chosen

that produces a different texture for each phase so that the different phases may be
distinguished from each other.

The maximum possible magnification with an electron microscope is approximately

2000 diameters.

RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION & GRAIN GROWTH.

The plastic deformation of any metal produces internal stresses. However, heating of a
plastically deformed metal will effect a relief of the internal stresses and a recovery of
electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability. As the temp. is first increased , no
change in the structure can be detected and the strength properties are not affected.
The internal stresses is markedly decreased during this period. Known as the recovery
period.

Recrystallization: Formation of new crystals

Discuss how and why the properties of an alloy/metal are affected by recovery,
recrystallization and grain growth?

MECHANICAL WORKING : Meatls and alloys can be hot or cold worked and the
Mechanical working of metals will affect their grain structure as well as their
properties.

MECH 2104 & CIVE 1101 October 2000