Angular Velocity

Angular velocity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Classical mechanics
Second law of motion

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In physics, the angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular

displacement and is a vector quantity (more precisely, a pseudovector) which
specifies the angular speed (rotational speed) of an object and the axis about which
the object is rotating. The SI unit of angular velocity is radians per second, although it
may be measured in other units such as degrees per second, degrees per hour, etc.
Angular velocity is usually represented by the symbol omega (, rarely ).
The direction of the angular velocity vector is perpendicular to the plane of rotation,
in a direction which is usually specified by the right-hand rule.[1]
Contents
1 Angular velocity of a particle
o 1.1 Particle in two dimensions
o 1.2 Particle in three dimensions
1.2.1 Addition of angular velocity vectors
2 Rotating frames
o 2.1 Angular velocity vector for a frame
2.1.1 Addition of angular velocity vectors in frames
2.1.2 Components from the vectors of the frame
2.1.3 Components from Euler angles
2.1.4 Components from infinitesimal rotation matrices
o 2.2 Angular velocity tensor
o 2.3 Properties of angular velocity tensors
2.3.1 Exponential of W
2.3.2 W is skew-symmetric
2.3.3 Duality with respect to the velocity vector
o 2.4 Coordinate-free description
o 2.5 Angular velocity as a vector field
3 Rigid body considerations
o 3.1 Consistency
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Angular velocity of a particle

Particle in two dimensions
The angular velocity of the particle at P with respect to the origin O is determined by
the perpendicular component of the velocity vector v.
The angular velocity describes the speed of rotation and the orientation of the
instantaneous axis about which the rotation occurs. The direction of the angular
velocity pseudovector will be along the axis of rotation; in this case (counter-
clockwise rotation) the vector points up.
The angular velocity of a particle is measured around or relative to a point, called the
origin. As shown in the diagram (with angles and in radians), if a line is drawn
from the origin (O) to the particle (P), then the velocity (v) of the particle has a
component along the radius (radial component, v) and a component perpendicular to
the radius (cross-radial component, v). If there is no radial component, then the
particle moves in a circle. On the other hand, if there is no cross-radial component,
then the particle moves along a straight line from the origin.
A radial motion produces no change in the direction of the particle relative to the
origin, so for purposes of finding the angular velocity the radial component can be
ignored. Therefore, the rotation is completely produced by the perpendicular motion
around the origin, and the angular velocity is completely determined by this
component.
In two dimensions the angular velocity is given by
This is related to the cross-radial (tangential) velocity by:[1]
An explicit formula for v in terms of v and is:
Combining the above equations gives a formula for :
In two dimensions the angular velocity is a single number that has no direction, but it
does have a sense or orientation. In two dimensions the angular velocity is a
pseudoscalar, a quantity that changes its sign under a parity inversion (for example if
one of the axes is inverted or if they are swapped). The positive direction of rotation is
taken, by convention, to be in the direction towards the y axis from the x axis. If parity
is inverted, but the sense of a rotation does not, then the sign of the angular velocity
changes.
There are three types of angular velocity involved in the movement on an ellipse
corresponding to the three anomalies (true, eccentric and mean).
Particle in three dimensions
In three dimensions, the angular velocity becomes a bit more complicated. The
angular velocity in this case is generally thought of as a vector, or more precisely, a
pseudovector. It now has not only a magnitude, but a direction as well. The magnitude
is the angular speed, and the direction describes the axis of rotation. The right-hand
rule indicates the positive direction of the angular velocity pseudovector.
Let be a unitary vector along the instantaneous rotation axis, so that from the top of
the vector the rotation is counter-clock-wise. The angular velocity vector is then
defined as:
Just as in the two dimensional case, a particle will have a component of its velocity
along the radius from the origin to the particle, and another component perpendicular
to that radius. The combination of the origin point and the perpendicular component
of the velocity defines a plane of rotation in which the behavior of the particle (for
that instant) appears just as it does in the two dimensional case. The axis of rotation is
then a line normal to this plane, and this axis defined the direction of the angular
velocity pseudovector, while the magnitude is the same as the pseudoscalar value
found in the 2-dimensional case. Using the unit vector defined before, the angular
velocity vector may be written in a manner similar to that for two dimensions:
which, by the definition of the cross product, can be written:
Addition of angular velocity vectors
If a point rotates with in a frame which rotates itself with angular speed with
respect to an external frame , we can define the addition of as the angular
velocity vector of the point with respect to .
With this operation defined like this, angular velocity, which is a pseudovector,
becomes also a real vector because it has two operations:
An internal operation (addition) which is associative, commutative,

distributive and with zero and unity elements
An external operation (external product), with the normal properties for an
external product.
This is the definition of a vector space. The only property that presents difficulties to
prove is the commutativity of the addition. This can be proven from the fact that the
velocity tensor W (see below) is skew-symmetric. Therefore is a rotation
matrix and in a time dt is an infinitesimal rotation matrix. Therefore it can be
expanded as
The composition of rotations is not commutative, but when they are infinitesimal
rotations the first order approximation of the previous series can be taken and
and therefore
Rotating frames
Given a rotating frame composed by three unitary vectors, all the three must have the
same angular speed in any instant. In such a frame each vector is a particular case of
the previous case (moving particle), in which the module of the vector is constant.
Though it just a particular case of a moving particle, this is a very important one for
its relationship with the rigid body study, and special tools have been developed for
this case. There are two possible ways to describe the angular velocity of a rotating
frame: the angular velocity vector and the angular velocity tensor. Both entities are
related and they can be calculated from each other.
Angular velocity vector for a frame
It is defined as the angular velocity of each of the vectors of the frame, in a consistent
way with the general definition.
It is known by the Euler's rotation theorem that for a rotating frame there exists an
instantaneous axis of rotation in any instant. In the case of a frame, the angular
velocity vector is over the instantaneous axis of rotation.
Any transversal section of a plane perpendicular to this axis has to behave as a two
dimensional rotation. Thus, the magnitude of the angular velocity vector at a given
time t is consistent with the two dimensions case.
Angular velocity is a vector defining an addition operation. Components can be

calculated from the derivatives of the parameters defining the moving frame (Euler
angles or rotation matrices)
Addition of angular velocity vectors in frames

Schematic construction for addition of angular velocity vectors for rotating frames
As in the general case, the addition operation for angular velocity vectors can be
defined using movement composition. In the case of rotating frames, the movement
composition is simpler than the general case because the final matrix is always a
product of rotation matrices.
As in the general case, addition is commutative
Components from the vectors of the frame
Substituting in the expression
any vector e of the frame we obtain , and therefore
As the columns of the matrix of the frame are the components of its vectors, this
allows also to calculate from the matrix of the frame and its derivative.
Components from Euler angles

Diagram showing Euler frame in green
The components of the angular velocity pseudovector were first calculated by

Leonhard Euler using his Euler angles and an intermediate frame made out of the
intermediate frames of the construction:
One axis of the reference frame (the precession axis)

The line of nodes of the moving frame respect the reference frame (nutation
axis)
One axis of the moving frame (the intrinsic rotation axis)
Euler proved that the projections of the angular velocity pseudovector over these three
axes was the derivative of its associated angle (which is equivalent to decompose the
instant rotation in three instantaneous Euler rotations). Therefore:[2]
This basis is not orthonormal and it is difficult to use, but now the velocity vector can
be changed to the fixed frame or to the moving frame with just a change of bases. For
example, changing to the mobile frame:
where IJK are unit vectors for the frame fixed in the moving body. This example has
been made using the Z-X-Z convention for Euler angles.[3]
Components from infinitesimal rotation matrices
The components of the angular velocity vector can be calculated from infinitesimal
rotations (if available) as follows:
As any rotation matrix has a single real eigenvalue, which is +1, this
eigenvalue shows the rotation axis.
Its module can be deduced from the value of the infinitesimal rotation.
Angular velocity tensor

See also: Skew-symmetric matrix
It can be introduced from rotation matrices. Any vector that rotates around an axis
with an angular speed vector (as defined before) satisfies:
We can introduce here the angular velocity tensor associated to the angular speed :
This tensor W(t) will act as if it were a operator :
Given the orientation matrix A(t) of a frame, we can obtain its instant angular
velocity tensor W as follows. We know that:
As angular speed must be the same for the three vectors of a rotating frame, if we
have a matrix A(t) whose columns are the vectors of the frame, we can write for the
three vectors as a whole:
And therefore the angular velocity tensor we are looking for is:
Properties of angular velocity tensors
See also: Infinitesimal rotation
In general, the angular velocity in an n-dimensional space is the time derivative of the
angular displacement tensor which is a second rank skew-symmetric tensor.
This tensor W will have n(n-1)/2 independent components and this number is the
dimension of the Lie algebra of the Lie group of rotations of an n-dimensional inner
product space.[4]
Exponential of W
In three dimensions angular velocity can be represented by a pseudovector because

second rank tensors are dual to pseudovectors in three dimensions.
As . This can be read as a differential equation that defines A(t)

knowing W(t).
And if the angular speed is constant then W is also constant and the equation can be
integrated. The result is:
which shows a connection with the Lie group of rotations.
W is skew-symmetric
It is possible to prove that angular velocity tensor are skew symmetric matrices which
means that a satisfies .
To prove it we start taking the time derivative of being R(t) a rotation matrix:
because R(t) is a rotation matrix
Applying the formula (AB)T = BTAT:
Thus, W is the negative of its transpose, which implies it is a skew symmetric matrix.
Duality with respect to the velocity vector
The tensor is a matrix with this structure:

As it is a skew symmetric matrix it has a Hodge dual vector which is precisely the
previous angular velocity vector :
Coordinate-free description
At any instant, , the angular velocity tensor represents a linear map between the
position vectors and their velocity vectors of a rigid body rotating around
the origin:
where we omitted the parameter, and regard and as elements of the same 3-
dimensional Euclidean vector space .
The relation between this linear map and the angular velocity pseudovector is the
following.
Because of W is the derivative of an orthogonal transformation, the
bilinear form is skew-symmetric. (Here stands for the scalar product). So we can
apply the fact of exterior algebra that there is a unique linear form on that
where is the wedge product of and .
Taking the dual vector L* of L we get
Introducing , as the Hodge dual of L*, and apply further Hodge dual
identities we arrive at
where
by definition.
Because is an arbitrary vector, from nondegeneracy of scalar product follows

Angular velocity as a vector field
For angular velocity tensor maps velocities to positions, it is a vector field. In

particular, this vector field is a Killing vector field belonging to an element of the Lie
algebra so(3) of the 3-dimensional rotation group SO(3). This element of so(3) can
also be regarded as the angular velocity vector.
Rigid body considerations

See also: axes conventions
Position of point P located in the rigid body (shown in blue). Ri is the position with
respect to the lab frame, centered at O and ri is the position with respect to the rigid
body frame, centered at O' . The origin of the rigid body frame is at vector position R
from the lab frame.
The same equations for the angular speed can be obtained reasoning over a rotating
rigid body. Here is not assumed that the rigid body rotates around the origin. Instead it
can be supposed rotating around an arbitrary point which is moving with a linear
velocity V(t) in each instant.
To obtain the equations it is convenient to imagine a rigid body attached to the frames
and consider a coordinate system that is fixed with respect to the rigid body. Then we
will study the coordinate transformations between this coordinate and the fixed
"laboratory" system.
As shown in the figure on the right, the lab system's origin is at point O, the rigid
body system origin is at O' and the vector from O to O' is R. A particle (i) in the rigid
body is located at point P and the vector position of this particle is Ri in the lab frame,
and at position ri in the body frame. It is seen that the position of the particle can be
written:
The defining characteristic of a rigid body is that the distance between any two points
in a rigid body is unchanging in time. This means that the length of the vector is
unchanging. By Euler's rotation theorem, we may replace the vector with
where is a 3x3 rotation matrix and is the position of the particle at some fixed
point in time, say t=0. This replacement is useful, because now it is only the rotation
matrix which is changing in time and not the reference vector , as the rigid body
rotates about point O'. Also, since the three columns of the rotation matrix represent
the three versors of a reference frame rotating together with the rigid body, any
rotation about any axis becomes now visible, while the vector would not rotate if
the rotation axis were parallel to it, and hence it would only describe a rotation about
an axis perpendicular to it (i.e., it would not see the component of the angular velocity
pseudovector parallel to it, and would only allow the computation of the component
perpendicular to it). The position of the particle is now written as:
Taking the time derivative yields the velocity of the particle:
where Vi is the velocity of the particle (in the lab frame) and V is the velocity of O'
(the origin of the rigid body frame). Since is a rotation matrix its inverse is its
transpose. So we substitute :
or
where is the previous angular velocity tensor.
It can be proved that this is a skew symmetric matrix, so we can take its dual to get a
3 dimensional pseudovector which is precisely the previous angular velocity vector
:
Substituting for W into the above velocity expression, and replacing matrix
multiplication by an equivalent cross product:
It can be seen that the velocity of a point in a rigid body can be divided into two terms
the velocity of a reference point fixed in the rigid body plus the cross product term
involving the angular velocity of the particle with respect to the reference point. This
angular velocity is the "spin" angular velocity of the rigid body as opposed to the
angular velocity of the reference point O' about the origin O.
Consistency
We have supposed that the rigid body rotates around an arbitrary point. We should
prove that the angular velocity previously defined is independent from the choice of
origin, which means that the angular velocity is an intrinsic property of the spinning
rigid body.
Proving the independence of angular velocity from choice of origin
See the graph to the right: The origin of lab frame is O, while O1 and O2 are two fixed
points on the rigid body, whose velocity is and respectively. Suppose the
angular velocity with respect to O1 and O2 is and respectively. Since point P
and O2 have only one velocity,
The above two yields that
Since the point P (and thus ) is arbitrary, it follows that
If the reference point is the instantaneous axis of rotation the expression of velocity of
a point in the rigid body will have just the angular velocity term. This is because the
velocity of instantaneous axis of rotation is zero. An example of instantaneous axis of
rotation is the hinge of a door. Another example is the point of contact of a pure
rolling spherical rigid body.
Radian per second

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Angular frequency (in radians per second), is larger than frequency (in cycles per second,
also calledHz), by a factor of 2, because 2 rad/s = 1 Hz.
Unit information
Unit system SI derived unit
Unit of Rotational speed
Symbol rad/s or rads1
The radian per second (symbol: rads1 or rad/s) is the SI unit of rotational speed
(angular velocity), commonly denoted by the Greek letter (omega). The radian per
second is also the unit of angular frequency. The radian per second is defined as the
change in the orientation of an object, in radians, every second.
Angular frequency (Ordinary) frequency
2 radians per second exactly 1 hertz (Hz)
1 radian per second approximately 0.159155 Hz

1 radian per second approximately 57.29578 degrees per second
1 radian per second approximately 9.5493 revolutions per minute (rpm)
0.1047 radian per second approximately 1 rpm
Note that because the radian is a dimensionless unit, the radian per second is
dimensionally equivalent to the hertzboth are defined as one s1. This means that
great care must be taken to avoid confusing angular frequency and frequency .
One of the important uses of the unit radian per second is in calculation of the power
transmitted by a shaft. In the International System, widely used in physics and
engineering, the power, p, delivered to the shaft is given by the product of (in
radians per second) times the torque, , in newton-meters applied to the shaft. Thus, p
= , and the unit is the watt, with no numerical coefficient needed.
In other systems, the calculation is somewhat more complicated, because if one

multiplies angular velocity in revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) times the torque in
pound-feet, then a multiplicative constant is needed to give the result in horsepower.
1 rad/s = 60/2 rpm exactly = 9.55 rpm approx.
1 rad/s = 1/2 Hz exactly = 0.159 Hz approx.
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Time
Torque, Moment
Velocity, speed
Viscosity dynamic
Viscosity kinematic
Volume
Volume flow
Weight
Acceleration
foot/second2, meter/second2, gal, galileo, inch/second2
1 m/s2 = 3.28084 ft/s2 = 100 cm/s2 = 39.37 inch per second squared (inch/s2)
1 ft/s2 = 0.3048 m/s2 = 30.48 cm/s2
1 g = 9.80665 m/s2 = 32.17405 ft/s2 = 386.1 in/s2 = 35 kph/s = 22 mph/s
Angle
1 circle = 360 degrees = 400 grades = 21600 minutes = 6.28318 radians = 12

signs
1 circumference = 360 degrees = 6.28318 radians
1 radian = 0.15915 circumference = 57.29578 degree = 3437.747 minute =
0.63662 quadrant = 0.15915 revolution = 206265 second
Area
acre, are, barn, sq.ft., sq.in., foot2, hectare, inch2, mile2, section, meter2, township,
yard2, hectares
1 m2 = 1550 in2 = 10.764 ft2 = 1.1968 yd2 = 3.861x10-7 mile2

1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2 = 144 in2 = 0.1111 yd2 = 3.587x10-8 mile2
1 in2 = 6.452 cm2 = 6.452x10-4 m2 = 6.944x10-3 ft2 = 7.716x10-4 yd2 =
2.491x10-10 mile2
1 yd2 = 0.8361 m2 = 1296 in2 = 9 ft2 = 0.3228x10-6 mile2
1 mile2 = 2.590x106 m2 = 0.4015x1010 in2 = 2.788x107 ft2 = 3.098x106
yd2=640 Acres
1 acre = 1/640 square mile = 0.404686 ha (Hectares) = 4046.86 m2 =
43560.174 Sq.Ft. (Int) = 43560 Sq.Ft. (US Survey) = 4840 Sq.Yds. =
40.46873 are
1 km2 = 102 ha2 = 106 m2 = 1010 cm2 = 1012 mm2
1 ha (Hectare) = 104 m2 = 108 cm2 = 1010 mm2 = 2.471 Acres
1 cm2 = 10-4 m2 = 0.155 in2
1 mm2 = 1.55x10-3in2
1 township = 36 square mile = 23040 acre = 36 section = 9.323957 107 m2 =
9324 hectare = 93.24 square kilometer
1 section = 1 square mile = 2.59 106 m2 = 2.59 square kilometer = 259 hectare
= 3.0976 106 square yards = 640 acre =
1 are = 0.024711 acre (Int) = 1 sq dekameter = 1076.39 sq foot = 100 sq meter
= 3.86102x10-5 sq mile = 119.599 sq yard
1 barn = 1x10-24 sq cm
1 centiare = 0.01 are = 10.764 sq foot = 1550 sq inch = 1 sq meter = 1.19599
sq yard
1 circular mil = 1x10-6 circular inch = 5.06707x10-6 sq cm = 7.85398x10-7 sq
inch = 0.000507 sq mm = 0.7854 sq mill
1 hectare = 2.471 acre 0 100 are = 1x108 sq cm = 107639.1 sq foot = 10000 sq
meter = 0.00386 sq mile = 395.367 sq rod
1 rood = 1/4 acre = 1011.5 m2 = 40 sq rods = 40 sq perches
1 sq rod = 1 sq perch = 30 sq yards = 25.2928 m2 = 1/160 acre
1 arpent = about 0.85 acre = 3439.1 m2
1 Marla = 30.25 Sq. Yards = 25.2928 Sq. Metres = 272.25 Sq. Feet = 0.00625
Acre = 0.05 Kanal
Japan
1 tsubo = 3.306 m2
1 se = 99.17 m2
1 ho-ri = 15.42 km2
Russia
1 kwadr. archin = 0.5058 m2

1 kwadr. saschen = 4.5522 m2
1 dessjatine = 10925 m2
1 kwadr. werst = 1.138 km2
Capacitance
1 abfarad = 1x109 farad = 1x1015 microfarad = 8.98755x1020 statfarad

1 farad = 1x10-9 abfarad = 1.00049 farads (nt) = 1x106 microfarad =
8.98755x1011 statfarad
Conductance
1 abmho = 1000 megamho = 1x109 mho = 8.98755x1020 statmho
Current
1 abampere = 10 ampere = 1.03638x10-4 faraday/sec(chem) = 2.99792x1010

statampere = 1 biot
1 ampere = 0.1 abampere = 1.00015 ampere (Int) = 1 coulomb/sec =
1.03638x10-5 faraday/sec (chem) 1x106 microampere = 1000 milliampere =
2.99792x109 statampere
1 ampere (Int) = 0.99985 ampere
1 biot = 10 ampere
Density
kg/cubic meter, gram/centimeter3, lmb/cubic inch, lbm/cubic foot, slug/cubic foot,

kilogram/cubic meter, lbm/gallon (US liq)
Density Water 1000 kg/m3 = 62.43 Lbs./Cu.Ft = 8.33 Lbs./Gal. = 0.1337
Cu.Ft./Gal.
1 lb/ft3 = 16.018 kg/m3 = 0.016 g/cm3 = 0.00926 oz/in3 = 2.57 oz/gal
(Imperial) = 2.139 oz/gal (U.S.) = 0.0005787 lb/in3 = 27 lb/yd3 = 0.161 lb/gal
(Imperial) = 0.134 lb/gal (U.S) = 0.0121 ton/yd3
1 slug/ft3 = 515.379 kg/m3
1 kg/l = 62.43 lb/ft3
1 kg/m3 = 0.001 g/cm3 = 1 g/liter = 0.0005780 oz/in3 = 0.16036 oz/gal
(Imperial) = 0.1335 oz/gal (U.S.) = 0.0624 lb/ft3 = 0.000036127 lb/in3 =
1.6856 lb/yd3 = 0.010022 lb/gal (Imperial) = 0.008345 lb/gal (U.S) =
0.0007525 ton/yd3
Electric Charge
1 abcoulomb = 0.00278 ampere-hour = 10 coulomb = 6.24151x1019 electronic

charge = 1.03632x10-4 faraday (chem) = 2.99792x1010 statcoulomb
1 ampere hour = 360 abcoulomb = 3600 coulomb = 0.03731 faraday (chem)
1 coulomb = 0.1 abcoulomb = 0.000278 ampere hour = 1 ampere second =
1.00015002 coulomb (Int) = 1.0363x10-5 faraday (chem) = 1.0360x10-5
faraday (phys) = 2.9979x109 statcoulomb
Electromotive Force, Voltage Difference
abvolt = 0.01 microvolt = 1x10-5 millivolt = 1x10-8 volt
Energy, Unit of Heat
British Thermal Unit (Btu), calorie, joule, kilojoule, electron volt, erg, foot lbf, foot
poundal, kilocalorie, kilowatt hour, watt hour,
1 J (Joule) = 0.1020 kpm = 2.778x10-7 kWh = 2.389x10-4 kcal = 0.7376 ft lbf =

1 (kg m2)/s2 = 1 watt second = 1 Nm = 9.478x10-4 Btu
1 kpm = 9.80665 J = 2.724x10-6 kWh = 2.342x10-3 kcal = 7.233 ft lbf =
9.295x10-3 Btu
1 kWh = 3.6x106 J = 3.671x105 kpm = 859.9 kcal = 2.656x106 ft lbf =
3.412x103 Btu
1 kJ = 1 kNm = 1kWs = 103 J = 0.947813 Btu = 737.6 ft lbf = 0.23884 kcal
1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1055.06 J = 107.6 kpm = 2.92875x10-4 kWh =
251.996 calorie (IT - International Table calorie) = 0.252 kcal = 777.649 ft lbf
= 1.0544x1010 erg = 0.293 watt hour = 0.999331 Btu (Int Steam Tab) =
0.998560 Btu (mean) = 25020.1 foot-poundal = 107.514 kg force meter =
1.0751x107 gram-force cm = 0.000393 hp-hour = 10.456 liter atm = 1054.35
wattsecond
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 kcal = 4186.8 J = 426.9 kp m = 1.163x10-3 kWh = 3.088 ft lbf = 3.9683 Btu
= 1000 cal
1 ft lbf (foot pound force) = 1.3558 J = 0.1383 kp m = 3.766x10-7 kWh =
3.238x10-4 kcal = 1.285x10-3 Btu
1 hp h (horse power hour) = 2.6846x106 J = 0.7457 kWh
1 erg = 1 (g cm2)/s2 = 10-7 J = 1 dyne-centimeter
1 electron volt = 1 eV = 1.602x10-19 J
1 Q = 1018 Btu = 1.055x1021 J
1 Quad = 1015 Btu
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
1 kg m = 7.233 ft lb = 0.00929 Btu = 9.806 Joule
Energy per unit mass
1 kJ/kg = 1 J/g = 0.4299 Btu/ lbm = 0.23884 kcal/kg

1 Btu/lbm = 2.326 kJ/kg = 0.55 kcal/kg
1 kcal/kg = 4.1868 kJ/kg = 1.8 Btu/lbm
Energy per unit volume
1 Btu/US gal = 278.7 Btu/liter
Flow - see Volume flow
Force
dyne, kilogram force (kgf), kilopound force, kip, lbf (pound force), ounce force
(avoirdupois), poundal, newton
1 N (Newton) = 0.1020 kp = 7.233 pdl = 7.233/32.174 lbf = 0.2248 lbf = 1 (kg

m)/s2 = 105 dyne = 1/9.80665 kgf
1 lbf (Pound force) = 4.44822 N = 0.4536 kp = 32.17 pdl = 4.448x105 dyn
1 dyne = 1 (g cm)/s2
1 kg has a weight of 1 kp
1 kp (Kilopond) = 9.80665 N = 2.205 lbf = 70.93 pdl
1 pdl (Poundal) = 0.13826 N = 0.01409 kp = 0.03108 lbf
a kip is a non-SI unit of force - it equals 1,000 pounds-force

1 kip = 4448.2216 Newtons (N) = 4.4482216 kilonewtons (kN)
Frequency
1 hertz = 1 cycle/sec
Heat flow rate
1 Btu/sec = 1055.1 W
1 kW (kJ/s) = 102.0 kpm/s = 859.9 kcal/h = 3413 Btu/h = 1.360 hk = 1.341 hp
= 738 ft lb/s = 1000 J/s = 3.6x106 J/h
1 kpm/s = 9.8067x10-3 kW = 8.432 kcal/h = 32.47 Btu/h = 0.01333 hk =
0.01316 hp = 7.237 ft lb/s
1 kcal/h = 1.163x10-3 kW = 0.1186 kpm/s = 3.969 Btu/h = 1.582x10-3 hk =
1.560x10-3 hp = 0.8583 ft lb/s
1 Btu/h = 2.931x10-4 kW = 0.0299 kpm/s = 0.252 kcal/h = 3.986x10-4 hk =
3.939x10-4 hp = 0.2163 ft lb/s
1 kcal/h = 1.16x10-3 kW
1 hk (metric horse power) = 0.735499 kW = 75.00 kpm/s = 632.5 kcal/h =
2510 Btu/h = 0.9863 hp = 542.8 ft lb/s
1 hp = 0.74570 kW = 76.04 kpm/s = 641.2 kcal/h = 2545 Btu/h = 1.014 hk =
550.3 ft lb/s
1 ft lb/s = 1.35501 kW = 0.1382 kpm/s = 1.165 kcal/h = 4.625 Btu/h =
1.843x10-3 hk = 1.817x10-3 hp
1 ton of refrigeration = 200 Btu/min
Heat flux
1 Btu/(ft2 h) = 3.1525 W/m2 = 0.000271 kCal/(cm2 h)

1 kCal/(cm2 h) = 11587 W/m2 = 3690 Btu/(ft2 h)
Heat generation per unit volume
1 Btu/ft3 = 8.9 kcal/m3 = 3.73x104 J/m3

1 Btu/ft3 h = 10.343 W/m3
1 kcal/m3 = 0.112 Btu/ft3
Heat generation per unit mass
1 Btu/lb = 0.556 kcal/kg = 2326 J/kg

1 kcal/kg = 1.800 Btu/lb
Heat transfer coefficient
1 Btu/(ft2 h oF) = 5.678 W/(m2 K) = 4.882 kcal/(h m2 oC)

1 W/(m2 K) = 0.85984 kcal/(h m2 oC) = 0.1761 Btu/(ft2 h oF)
1 kcal/(h m2 oC) = 1.163 W/(m2 K) = 0.205 Btu/(ft2 h oF)
Hydraulic Gradients
1 ftH2O/100 ft = 0.44 psi/100 ft = 9.8 kPa/100 m = 1000 mmH2O/100 m

1 psi/100 ft = 2.3 ftH2O/100 ft = 2288 mmH2O/100 ft = 22.46 kPa/100 m
Inductance
abhenry = 1x10-9 henry

nery = 1x109 abhenry = 0.9995 henry (Int) = 1000 millihenry = 1.113x10-12
stathenry
Information Storage
1 bit = 0.125 byte (computers)

1 byte = 8 bit
Length
feet, meters, centimeters, kilometers, miles, furlongs, yards, micrometers,
inches,angstrom, cubit, fathom, foot, hand, league, light year, micron, mil, nautical
mile, rod,
1 m (meter) = 3.2808 ft = 39.37 in = 1.0936 yd = 6.214x10-4 mile

1 km = 0.6214 mile = 3281 ft = 1094 yds
1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m = 0.08333 ft = 0.02778 yd =
1.578x10-5 mile
1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in = 0.3333 yd = 1.894x10-4 mile = 30.48 cm =
304.8 mm
1 mm = 10-3 m
1 cm = 10-2 m = 0.3937 in = 0.0328 ft = 1x108 Aangstrom = 0.03281 foot =
0.0984 hand (horses) = 0.3937 inch = 1x10-5 kilometer = 0.0497 link (Gunter)
= 0.0328 (Ramden) = 10000 micrometer = 10000 micron = 5.3996x10-6 mile
(naut) = 6.2137x10-6 mile (US statute) = 10 millimeter = 1x107 millimicron =
393.7 mil = 2.371 picas (printers) 28.4528 point (printers) = 0.00199 rod (US
Survey) = 0.01094 yard
1 mm = 0.03937 in = 1000 micron
1 Aangstrom = 10-10 m = 1x10-8 cm = 3.937x10-9 inch = 1x10-4 micrometer =
0.0001 micron = 0.1 millimicron
1 fermis (nuclear size) = 1 fm = 10-15 m
1 mile = 1.6093 km = 1609.3 m = 63346 in = 5280 ft = 1760 yd
1 mil (Norway and Sweden) = 10 kilometres
1 nm (nautical mile, sea mile) = 1852 metres = 1.151 mile = 6076.1 feet =
0.016667 degree of latitude
1 yd (yard) = 0.9144 m = 36 in = 3 ft = 5.682x10-4 mile
1 Furlong = 660 feet = 40 rods = 1/8 mile
1 rod = 5.5 yards = 1 pole = 1 perch = 16 1/2 ft = 5.029 m
1 land league = 3 miles
1 Fathom = 6 feet = 1.828804 meters
1 Astronomical Unit = Average Distance between the Earth and the Sun =
1.495978x1011 m
1 cable (UK) = 0.00167 degree latitude = 185.37 meter
1 cable length (US Survey) = 120 fathom (US Survey) = 720 foot (US Survey)
= 219.456 meter
1 caliber = 0.01 inch = 0.254 mm
1 chain (Gunter or US Survey) = 2011.7 centimeter = 66.00013 foot = 66 foot
(US Survey) = 0.1 Furlong (US Survey) = 792 inch (US Survey) = 100 link
(Gunter) = 66.00013 link (Ramden) = 20.117 meter = 0.0125 mile (US statute)
= 4 rod (US Survey) = 22 yard (US Survey)
1 engineer's chain = 100 ft = 100 links = 30.48 m
1 light year = 63241.08 Astronomical Units (AU) = 9.46053x1015 m =
5.8786x1012 mile (US statute) = 0.306601 parsec
1 parsec (pc) = the distance at which one AU would subtend a second of arc =
3.085678 x 1016 m = 3.261633 ly = 206265 AU
Luminous Emittance (Illuminance)
1 lumen/sq ft = 1 foot candle = 1x104 lux = 1 phot

1 lux = 0.0929 foot candle = 1 lumen /sq meter = 0.0001 phot
Luminous Flux
1 candle power = 12.566 lumen

1 lumen = 1 candela steradian = 0.07958 candle power (spherical) = 0.0015
watt
Luminous Intensity
1 candela = 1.091 hefner candle (Germ) = 1 lumen/steradian
Magnetic Flux Density
1 gamma flux = 1x10-5 gauss = 1 x10-6 gram = 1 microgram = 1x10-9 tesla

1 gauss = 0.9997 gauss (Int) = 1x105 gamma = 1 gilbert/cm = 1 maxwell/sq
cm = 1 line/sq cm = 6.4516 line/sq inch = 1x10-4 tesla = 1x10-8 weber/sq cm =
6.452x10-8 weber/sq inch = 1x10-4 weber/sq meter
Magnitude of a Physical Quantity (Power or intensity relative to a

specified or implied reference level)
1 bel = 10 decibel
1 decibel = 0.1 bel
Mass, Weight
the difference between mass and weight
pounds, kilograms, grams, ounces, grains, tons (long), tons (short), tons (metric),
carat, grain, ounce mass, pound mass (lbm), slug, tonne
1 kg = 1,000 gram = 2.2046 lb = 6.8521x10-2 slug

1 lbm = 16 oz = 0.4536 kg = 453.6 g = 7000 grains = 0.03108 slug
1 slug = 14.594 kg = 32.174 lbm
1 grain = 0.000143 lb = 0.0648 g
1 g = 15.43 grains = 0.0353 oz = 0.002205 lb
1 qt = 0.9464 liters
1 metric ton (or tonne) = 1 tonne mtrique = 1000 kg = 106 g = 109 mg =
1.10231131 short tons
1 short ton = 2000 lbs = 907.18474 kg
1 long ton = 2240 pounds = 1,016.0469088 kg
1 oz (ounce) = 28.35 g = 437.5 grains = 0.0625 lb = 0.0000279 long ton (UK)
= 0.00003125 long ton (US) = 0.000558 long hundredweight (UK) = 0.000625
long hundredweight (US) = 0.004464 stone = 16 dram
1 troy pound = 12 troy ounces
1 troy ounce = 1/12 troy pound = 31.1034768 grams = 480 grains
1 scruple = 20 grains
1 dram = 3 scruples
1 apothecary ounce = 8 drams
1 apothecary pound = 12 apothecary ounces
1 pennyweight = 24 grains
1 Gal. H2O = 8.33 Lbs. H2O
1 cental (US) = 45.359 kilogram = 100 pound
1 carat (metric) = 3.0865 grain = 0.2 gram = 200 milligram
1 hectogram = 100 gram = 0.26769 pound (apoth or troy) = 0.2205 pound
(avdp)
1 u (atomic mass) = 1/12 atomic mass units of with the carbon-12 atom
(definition of atomic mass) = 1.66054 x 10-27 kg = 931.494 MeV
Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity - An introduction and
definition of density, specific weight and specific gravity. Formulas with
examples.
Mass flow rate
1 lb/h = 1.26x10-4 kg/s

1 lb/s = 0.4536 kg/s
1 lb/min = 7.56x10-3 kg/s = 27.216 kg/h
1 kg/s = 3,600 kg/h = 132.28 lb/min
1 kg/h = 2.778x10-4 kg/s = 3.67x10-2 lb/min
Moment of Inertia
1 kg m2 = 10000 kg cm2 = 54675 ounce in2 = 3417.2 lb in2 = 23.73 lb ft2
Nautical Measure
1 league = 3 nautical miles

1 nautical mile = 6067.10 feet = 1.1508 statute miles
1 knot (nautical unit of speed) = 1 nautical mile per hour
one degree at the equator = 60 nautical miles = 69.047 statute miles
360 degrees = 21600 nautical miles = 24856.8 statute miles = circumference at
equator
Power
horsepower, kilowatt, watt,btu/second, calorie/second, foot lbf/second,

kilocalorie/second
1 W = 1 kg m2/s3 = 1 Nm/s = 1 J/s = 10000000 ergs per second

1 kW = 1000 Watts = 3412 Btu/h = 737.6/550 British hp = 1.341 British hp =
103/9.80665 kgf m/s = 737.6 ft lbf/s = 103/(9.80665 75) metric hp
1 hp (English horse power) = 745.7 W = 0.746 kW = 550 ft lb/s = 2545 Btu/h
= 33000 ft lb/m = 1.0139 metric horse power ~= 1.0 KVA
1 horsepower (mech) = 2542.47 Btu (mean)/hr = 42.375 Btu (mean)/min =
0.7062 Btu (mean)/sec = 6.416x105 calorie/hr (termo) = 6.412x105 calorie
(IST)/hr = 6.4069x105 calorie(mean)/hr = 10694 calorie/min (thermo) = 10686
calorie (IST)/min = 10678 calorie (mean)/min = 10.686 calorie, kg/min (IST)
= 7.457x109 erg/sec = 1980000 foot pound-force/hr = 33000 foot pound-
force/min = 550 foot pound-force/sec = 0.076 horsepower (boiler) = 0.9996
horsepower (electric) = 1.0139 horsepower (metric) = 745.7 joule/sec =
0.7457 kilowatt = 0.7456 kilowatt (Int) = 0.212 ton of refrigeration = 745.7
watt
1 horsepower (boiler) = 33445.6 Btu (mean)/hr = 140671.6 calorie/min
(thermo) = 140469.4 calorie (mean)/min = 140742.3 calorie (20oC)/min
9.8095x1010 erg/sec = 434107 foot-pound-force/min = 13.1548 horsepower
(mech) = 13.1495 horsepower (electric) = 13.3372 horsepower (metric) =
13.1487 horsepower (water) = 9809.5 joule/sec = 9.8095 kilowatt
1 horsepower (electric) = 2547.16 Btu/hr (thermo) = 2545.46 Btu (IST)/hr =
2543.49 Btu (mean)/hr = 178.298 calorie/sec (thermo) = 641.87 calorie, kg/hr
(thermo) = 7.46x109 erg/sec = 33013 foot pound-force/min = 550.2 foot
pound-force/sec = 1.0004 horsepower (mech) = 0.07605 horsepower (boiler) =
1.01428 horsepower (metric) = 0.99994 horsepower (water) = 746 joule/sec =
0.746 kilowatt = 746 watt
1 horsepower (metric) = 2511.3 Btu/hr (thermo) = 2509.6 Btu (IST)/hr =
2507.7 Btu (mean)/hr = 6.328x105 calorie/hr (thermo) = 6.324x105 calorie
(IST)/hr = 6.319x105 calorie (mean)/hr = 7.35x109 ergs/sec = 32548.6 foot
pound-force/min = 542.476 foot pound-force/sec = 0.9863 horsepower (mech)
= 0.07498 horsepower (boiler) = 0.9859 horsepower (electric) = 0.98587
horsepower (water) = 75 kg-force meter/sec (kg m/s) = 0.7355 kilowatt
= 735.499 W = 75 kg m/s
1 horsepower (water) = 33015 foot pound-force/min = 1.00046 horsepower
(mech) = 0.07605 horsepower (boiler) = 1.00006 horsepower (electric) =
1.01434 horsepower (metric) = 0.746043 kilowatt
1 refrigeration Ton = 12000 Btu/h cooling = 3.516 kW = 3025.9 k Calories/h
1 cooling tower Ton = 15000 Btu/h = 3782 k Calories/h
1 ft lb/s = 1.3558 W
1 Btu/s = 1055.1 W
1 Btu/h = 1 Btuh = 0.293 W = 0.001 MBH
1 cheval vapeur (French) = 0.98632 horsepower
Power per unit area
1 W/m2 = 0.3170 Btu/(h ft2) = 0.85984 kcal/(h m2)
Pressure
atmosphere, centimeters of mercury, foot of water, bar, barye, centimeter of water,

dyne/centimeter2, inch of mercury, inch of water, kgf/centimeter2, kgf/meter2,
lbf/foot2, lbf/inch2 (psi), millibar, millimeter of mercury, pascal, torr, newton/meter2
Standard Atmospheric Pressure 1 atm = 101.325 kN/m2 = 1.01325 bar =

101.325 kPa = 14.7 psia = 0 psig = 29.92 in Hg = 760 torr = 33.95 Ft.H2O =
407.2 In.W.G (Water Gauge) = 2116.8 Lbs./Sq.Ft.
1 N/m2 = 1 Pa = 1.4504x10-4 lb/in2 = 1x10-5 bar = 4.03x10-3 in water =
0.336x10-3 ft water = 0.1024 mm water = 0.295x10-3 in mercury = 7.55x10-3
mm mercury = 0.1024 kg/m2 = 0.993x10-5 atm
1 Pa = 10-6 N/mm2 = 10-5 bar = 0.1020 kp/m2 = 1.02x10-4 m H2O = 9.869x10-6
atm = 1.45x10-4 psi (lbf/in2)
1 N/mm2 = 106 Pa = 10 bar = 1.020x105 kp/m2 = 102.0 m H2O = 9.869 atm =
145.0 psi (lbf/in2)
1 mmHg = 1 torr = 0.01934 lb/in2
1 atm = 101,325 Pa (N/m2) = 1.013x102 kN/m2 = 1.033x104 kp/m2 = 1.033
kp/cm2 = 1.013 bar = 14.696 psi (lb/in2) = 407.1 in H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC) =
33.9 ft H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 10.33 m H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 29.92 in
mercury at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 760 mm mercury at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 760 torr
1 bar = 1x105 Pa (N/m2) = 0.1 N/mm2 = 10197 kp/m2 = 10.20 m H2O =
0.98692 atm = 14.5038 psi (lbf/in2) = 1x106 dyne/sq cm = 750 mmHg = 1x106
barye (French) = 75.0062 cm Hg (0oC) = 33.4883 ft H2O (60oF) = 1019.72
gram-force/sq cm = 29.530 in Hg (32oF) = 1.01972 kg-force/sq cm = 1000
millibar = 2088.54 pound-force/sq foot
1 kp/m2 = 9.81 Pa (N/m2) = 9.807x10-6 N/mm2 = 10-3 m H2O = 1 mm H2O =
0.9681x10-4 atm = 1.422x10-3 psi (lb/in2) = 0.0394 in H2O = 0.0736 mm
mercury
1 psi (lb/in2) = 144 psf (lbf/ft2) = 6894.8 Pa (N/m2) = 6.895x10-3 N/mm2 =
6.895x10-2 bar = 27.71 in H2O at 62oF (16.7oC) = 703.1 mm H2O at 62oF
(16.7oC) = 2.0416 in mercury at 62oF (16.7oC) = 51.8 mm mercury at 62oF
(16.7oC) = 703.6 kg/m2 = 0.06895 atm = 2.307 Ft. H2O = 16 ounces
1 psf (lbf/ft2) = 47.88 N/m2 (Pa) = 0.006944 lbf/in2 (psi)
1 dyn/cm2 = 145.04x10-7 lbf/in2
1 in mercury (Hg) = 3,376.8 N/m2= 0.49 lb/in2 = 12.8 in water
1 Ounce = 1.73 In.W.C.
1 Ft.H2O = 0.4335 psi = 62.43 Lbs./Sq.Ft.
1 in water = 248.8 N/m2= 0.0361 lb/in2 = 25.4 kg/m2 = 0.0739 in mercury
1 m H2O = 9806.7 Pa = 9.807x10-3 N/mm2 = 0.0987 bar = 1000 kp/m2 =
0.09678 atm = 1.422 psi (lbf/in2)
1 mm water = 9.81 Pa (N/m2) = 1 kg/m2 = 0.0736 mm mercury = 0.9677x10-4
atm
1 mm mercury = 0.0193 lb/in2 = 133 N/m2 = 12.8 mm water
1 barye (French) = 1.0 dyne/sq cm = 0.10 newton/sq meter = 0.10 Pascal
Note! When using pressure units based on liquid columns (like mm Water, in Water,
mm Hg ...) - be aware that densities of liquids varies with temperature. For more exact
conversions consult temperature density sources for the actual liquids.
Radioactivity
1 becquerel = amount of material which will produce 1 nuclear decay per

second = 2.7027x10-11 curie = 1 disintegration/sec
1 curie = amount of material that will produce 3.7 x 1010 nuclear decays per
second = 3.7 x 1010 becquerels
Resistance, Electrical
1 abohm = 1x10-15 megohm = 0.001 microohm = 1x10-9 ohm
Rotation
revolutions,
1 r/min (rpm) = 0.01667 r/s = 0.105 rad/s
1 r/s = 60 r/min = 6.28 rad/s
1 rad/s = 9.55 r/min (rpm) = 0.159 r/s (rps)
Specific energy, enthalpy, entropy
1 Btu/lbm = 2326.1 J/kg = 0.55556 kcal/kg = 778.2 ft lbf / lbm = 3.9 10-4 hp hr /
lbm = 5.4 lbf/in2 / lbm/ft3 = 0.237 kp m / g = 5.56 10-4 kcal/g = 2.326 kJ/kg
1 J/kg = 4.299x10-4 Btu/lbm = 2.388x10-4 kcal/kg
1 kcal/kg = 1.80 Btu/lbm = 4187 J/kg
Specific Heat
1 J/(kg K) = 2.389x10-4 kcal/(kg oC) = 2.389x10-4 Btu/(lbm oF)

1 kJ/(kg K) = 0.2389 kcal/(kg oC) = 0.2389 Btu/(lbm oF)
1 Btu/(lbm oF) = 4186.8 J/ (kg K) = 1 kcal/(kg oC)
1 kcal/(kg oC) = 4186.8 J/ (kg K) = 1 Btu/(lbm oF)
Specific Energy
1 kJ/kg = 1 J/g = 0.4299 Btu/ lbm = 0.23884 kcal/kg

1 Btu/lbm = 2.326 kJ/kg = 0.55 kcal/kg
1 kcal/kg = 4.1868 kJ/kg = 1.8 Btu/lbm
Specific Volume
1 m3/kg = 16.02 ft3/lbm = 27680 in3/lbm = 119.8 US gal/lbm = 1000 liter/kg

1 liter/kg = 0.016 ft3/lbm = 27.7 in3/lbm = 0.12 US gal/lbm = 0.001 m3/kg
1 ft3/lbm = 1728 in3/lbm = 7.48 US gal/lbm = 62.43 liter/kg = 0.062 m3/kg
1 in3/lbm = 0.00058 ft3/lbm = 0.0043 US gal/lbm = 0.036 liter/kg = 0.000036
m3/kg
1 US gal/lbm = 0.134 ft3/lbm = 231 in3/lbm = 8.35 liter/kg = 0.0083 m3/kg
Stress
1 psi (lb/in2) = 144 psf (lbf/ft2)= 6894.8 Pa (N/m2) = 6.895x10-3 N/mm2

1 N/m2 = 1 Pa = 1.4504x10-4 lb/in2
Surveyor's Measure
1 mile = 8 furlongs = 80 chains

1furlong = 10 chains = 220 yards
1 chain = 4 rods = 22 yards = 66 feet = 100 links
1 link = 7.92 inches
Temperature
celsius, rankine, kelvin, centigrade, fahrenheit,

1 oC (dt) = 1.8 oF (dt ) - temperature difference
1 oF (dt) = 0.555 oC (dt) - temperature difference
0 oC corresponds to 32 oF, 273.16 K and 491.69 R
1 oR = 5/9 K
T(oF) = [T(oC)](9/5) + 32
T(oF) = [T(K) - 273.15](9/5) + 32
T(oC) = 5/9[T(oF) - 32]
Thermal Conductivity
1 W/(m K) = 0.85984 kcal/(h m oC) = 0.5779 Btu/(ft h oF) = 0.048 Btu/(in h

o
F)
1 Btu/(ft h oF) = 1.731 W/(m K) = 1.488 kcal/(h m oC)
1 kcal/(h m oC) = 1.163 W/(m K) = 0.6720 Btu/(ft h oF)
Thermal Diffusivity
1 ft2 /s = 0.0929 m2/s

1 ft2 /h = 2.581x10-5 m2/s
Thermal resistance
1 (h oF)/Btu = 1.8958 K/W
Time
year, month, day, hour, minute, second, millisecond
1 h = 3600 s = 60 min
1 ms (millisecond) = 10-3 s
1 s (microsecond) = 10-6 s
1 ns (nanosecond) = 10-9 s
1 day (mean solar) = 1.0027379 day (sidereal) = 24 hour (mean solar) =
24.06571 hour (sidereal) = 0.0027397 year (calendar) = 0.002738 year
(sidereal) = 0.002738 year (tropical)
1 second = 9192631770 cycles of the standard Cs-133 transition (the
definition of the second)
Torque, Moment
foot-pound torque, newton-meter
1 ft lb = 1.356 Nm
Velocity, Speed
foot/second, inch/second, meter/second, kilometer/hour, knot, mile/hour,nautical mile

per hour
1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s
1 ft/min = 5.08x10-3 m/s = 0.0183 km/h = 0.0114 mph
1 mph = 0.44703 m/s = 1.609 km/h = 88 ft/min = 5280 ft/hr = 1.467 Ft./sec. =
0.8684 knots
1 m/s = 3.6 km/h = 196.85 ft/min = 2.237 mph
1 km/h = 0.2778 m/s = 54.68 ft/min = 0.6214 mph = 0.5396 knot
1 knot (nautical mile per hour) = 0.514444444 m/s = 1.852 kilometers per
hour = 1.1515 miles per hour= 1 nautical miles per hour
1 League = 3.0 Miles
1 cm/sec = 1.9685 foot/min = 0.0328 foot/sec = 0.036 km/hr = 0.0194 knots
(Int) = 0.6 meter/min = 0.02237 mile/hr = 0.000373 mile/min
Viscosity Dynamic
1 lb/(ft s) = 1.4879 Pa s = 14.88 P = 1488 cP = 0.1517 (kp s)/m2

1 cP (Centipoise) = 10-3 Pa s = 0.01 Poise = 1.020x10-4 kp s/m2 = 6.721x10-4
lb/(ft s) = 0.00100 (N s)/m2 = 0.01 gram/(cm sec) = 2.4191 lb/(ft hr)
1 kg/(m s ) = 1 (N s)/m2 = 0.6720 lbm/(ft s) = 10 Poise
1 P (Poise) = 0.1 Pa s = 100 cP = 1.020x10-2 kp s/m2 = 6.721x10-2 lb/(ft s) =
0.1 kg/ms
1 Pa s (N s/m2) = 10 P (Poise) = 103 cP = 0.1020 kp s/m2 = 0.6721 lb/(ft s)
1 kp s/m2 = 9.80665 Pa s = 98.07 P = 9,807 cP = 6.591 lb/(ft s)
1 reyns = 1 1bf s/in2 = 6894.76 Pa s
Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity - An introduction to dynamic,
absolute and kinematic viscosity and how to convert between CentiStokes
(cSt), CentiPoises (cP), Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU) and degree Engler.
Viscosity Kinematic
1 ft2/s = 0.0929 m2/s

1 ft2/ h = 2.581x10-5m2/s
1 St (Stokes) = 1x10-4 m2/s = 100 cSt = 1.076x10-3 ft2/s
1 m2/s = 104 St = 106 cSt = 10.764 ft2/s= 38750 ft2/h
1 cSt (Centistoke) = 10-6 m2/s = 0.01 Stokes = 1.076x10-5 ft2/s = 1 square
mm/sec
Volume
barrel, gallon, cubic centimeter (cm3), cubic feet (foot3), cubic inch (inch3), cubic
meter (meter3), cubic yard (yard3), quarts, liters, acre foot, board foot, bushel, cord,
cup, dram, fluid ounce, peck, pint, quart, tablespoon, teaspoon,
1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3= 28.32 dm3 = 0.03704 yd3 = 6.229 Imp. gal (UK) = 7.481
gal (US) = 1,728 cu inch = 2.296x10-5 acre foot = 12 board foot (timber) =
0.7786 bushel (UK) = 0.8036 bushel (US, dry) = 0.00781 cord (firewood) =
0.0625 cord foot (timber) = 28316.8 cu centimeter = 6.42851 gallon (US, dry)
= 7.48052 gallon (US, liq) = 28.3168 liter = 996.614 ounce (UK, liq) =
957.506 ounce (US, liq) = 51.4281 pint (US, dry) = 59.84442 pint (US, liq) =
25.714 quart (US, dry) = 29.922 quart (US, liq)
1 in3 = 1.6387x10-5 m3 = 1.639x10-2 dm3 (liter) = 16.39 cm3 = 16390 mm3 =
0.000579 ft3
1 Gallon (U.S.) = 3.785x10-3 m3 = 3.785 dm3 (liter) = 231 in3 = 0.13368 ft3 =
4.951x10-3 yd3 = 0.8327 Imp. gal (UK) = 4 Quarts = 8 Pints
1 Imp. gallon (UK) = 4.546x10-3 m3 = 4.546 dm3 = 0.1605 ft3 = 5.946x10-3 yd3
= 1.201 gal (US)
1 dm3 (Liter) = 10-3 m3 = 0.03532 ft3 = 1.308x10-3 yd3 = 0.220 Imp gal (UK) =
0.2642 Gallons (US) = 1.057 Quarts = 2.113 Pints
1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3 = 764.6 dm3 = 27 ft3 = 168.2 Imp. gal (UK) = 202.0 gal
(US) = 46,656 Cu.In. = 1616 Pints = 807.9 Quarts = 764.6 Liters
1 pint (pt) = 0.568 dm3 (liter) = 16 fl. oz. (fluid ounce) = 28.88 in3
1 km3 = 109 m3 = 1012 dm3 (liter) = 1015 cm3 = 1018 mm3
1 cm3 = 0.061 in3 = 0.00042 board foot = 2.7496x10-5 bushel (UK) =
2.8378x10-5 bushel (US, dry) = 3.5315x10-5 cu foot = 0.06102 cu inch = 1x10-
6
cu meter = 1.308x10-6 cu yard = 0.28156 drachm (UK, liq) = 0.27051 dram
(US, liq) = 0.000227 gallon (UK) = 0.00027 gallon (US, dry) = 0.000264
gallon (US, liq) = 0.0074 gill (UK) = 0.00845 gill (US) = 0.001 liter =
0.035195 ounce (UK, liq) = 0.033814 ounce (US, liq) = 0.00182 pint (US,
dry) = 0.00211 pint (US, liq) = 0.00088 quart (UK) = 0.00091 quart (US, dry)
= 0.00106 quart (US, liq)
1 m3 = 103 dm3 (liter) = 35.31 ft3 = 1.3093 yd3 = 220.0 Imp. gal (UK) = 264.2
gal (US) = 61023 Cu.In. = 35.31 Cu.Ft = 0.1 decistere
1 Hogshead = 63 gallon = 8.42184 Cu.Ft
1 barrel (UK) = 1.5 bag (UK) = 1.41541 barrel (US, dry) = 1.37251 barrel
(US, liq) = 4.5 bushel (UK) = 4.64426 bushel (US, dry) = 5.77957 cu ft =
0.16366 cu meter = 36 gallon (UK) = 163.6592 liter
1 barrel beer = 31.5 gallons beer
1 barrel whiskey = 45 gallons whiskey
1 barrel (US, oil) = 1.33 barrel (US, liq) = 5.61458 cu foot = 42 gallons (US,
liq) = 158.9873 liter
1 barrel (US, dry) = 0.969696 barrel (US, liq) = 3.28122 bushel (US, dry) =
4.0833 cu ft = 7056 cu inch = 0.11563 cu meter = 104.999 quart (US, dry)
1 barrel (US, liq) = 1.03125 barrel (US, dry) = 0.75 barrel (US, oil) = 4.2109
cu foot = 7276.5 cu inch = 0.11924 cu meter = 26.22924 gallon (UK) = 31.5
gallon (US, liq) = 119.24 liter =
1 bushel = 1.2445 Cu.Ft. = 32 Quarts (Dry) = 64 Pints (dry) = 4 Pecks
1 bushel (UK) = 0.3333 bag (UK) = 1.03206 bushel (US) = 36368.7 cu cm =
1.28435 cu foot = 2219 cu inch = 8 gallon (UK) = 36.3687 liter
1 bushel (US, dry) = 0.30476 barrel (US, dry) = 0.96894 bushel (UK) =
35239.07 cu cm = 1.24446 cu foot = 2150.42 cu inch = 0.03524 cu meter
0.04609 cu yard = 8 gallon (US, dry) = 9.30918 gallon (US, liq) = 35.23907
liter = 1191.57 ounce (US, liq) = 4 peck (US) = 64 pint (US, dry) = 32 quart
(US, dry) = 37.23671 quart (US, liq)
1 quart (qt) = 2 pints = 57.75 in3 = 1/8 dry quarts
1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 2 tablespoons = 1.805 in3 = 29.574 milliliters
1 cord (firewood) = 128 cu foot = 8 cord foot (timber) = 3.6246 cu meter
1 cord foot (timber) = 0.125 cord (firewood) = 16 cu foot
1 peck = 8 dry quarts
1 cup = 8 fl.oz. (fluid ounce)
1 cup (metric) = 200 milliliter
1 cup, tea = 0.25 pint = 142.06 milliliter
1 board foot = piece of lumber 1 foot wide x 1 foot long x 1 inch thick =
2359.74 cu cm = 0.083333 cu foot = 144 cu inch
1 acre foot = 43560 cu foot = 1233.482 cu meter = 1613.33 cu yard =
3.259x105 gallon (US liquid)
1 acre inch = 3630 cu foot = 102.7901531 cu meter = 134.44 cu yard =
27154.286 gallon (US)
1 bucket (UK) = 18184.35 cu cm = 4 gallon (UK)
1 butt (UK. liq) = 16.2549 bushel (US) = 20.2285 cu foot = 0.57281 cu meter
= 151.3197 gallon (US)
1 chaldron (UK, liq) = 36 bushel (UK)
1 dram (US, liq) = 3.6967 cu cm = 0.225586 cu inch = 1.04084 drachm (UK,
liq) = 0.03125 gill (US) = 3.69669 millimeter = 60 minim (US) = 0.125 ounce
(US, liq) = 0.0078125 pint (US, liq)
1 fifth (US, liq) = 17.067 jigger (US, liq) = 0.75708 liter = 25.6 ounce (US,
liq) = 1.6 pint (US, liq) = 25.6 pony (US, liq) = 0.8 quartt (US, liq) = 25.6 shot
(US, liq)
1 firkin (UK) = 1.125 bushel (UK) = 40914.8 cu cm = 1.44489 cu foot =
1.20095 firkin (US) = 9 gallon (UK) = 40.91481 liter = 72 pint (UK)
1 hectoliter = 2.7496 bushel (UK) = 2.8378 bushel (US, dry) = 1x105 cu cm =
3.5315 cu foot = 26.417 gallon (US, liq) = 100 liter = 3381.4 ounce (US, liq) =
11.351 peck (US)
Volume Flow
1 dm3/s (kg/s water) = 13.20 Imp. gal (UK)/min

1 m3/s = 3600 m3/h = 1000 dm3(liter)/s = 35.32 ft3/s = 2118.9 ft3/min = 13200
Imp.gal (UK)/min = 15852 gal (US)/min
1 m3/h = 2.7778x10-4 m3/s = 0.2778 dm3(litre)/s = 9.810x10-3 ft3/s = 0.5886
ft3/min (cfm) = 3.667 Imp.gal (UK)/min = 4.403 gal (US)/min
1 m3/h = 103 dm3(litre)/h = 16.67 dm3(litre)/min = 0.27878 dm3(litre)/s
1 ft3/min = 1.7 m3/h = 0.47 l/s = 62.43 Lbs.H2O/Min.
1 dm3(litre)/s = 10-3 m3/s = 3.6 m3/h = 0.03532 ft3/s = 2.1189 ft3/min (cfm) =
13.200 Imp.gal (UK)/min = 15.852 gal (US)/min = 792 Imp. gal (UK)/h
1 dm3(litre)/s = 60 litre/min = 3600 litre/h
1 ft3/s = 0.0283168 m3/s = 101.9 m3/h = 28.32 dm3(litre)/s = 60 ft3/min =
373.7 Imp.gal (UK)/min = 448.9 gal (US)/min
1 Imp.gal (UK)/min = 7.57682x10-5 m3/s = 0.273 m3/h = 0.0758 dm3(litre)/s =
2.675x10-3 ft3/s = 0.1605 ft3/min = 1.201 gal (US)/min
1 gal (US)/min =6.30888x10-5 m3/s = 0.227 m3/h = 0.06309 dm3(litre)/s =
2.228x10-3 ft3/s = 0.1337 ft3/min = 0.8327 Imperial gal (UK)/min
Weight see Mass
Common Engineering Unit Conversions - Basic Units

Parameter (Basic Units) SI Units English/American Units
mass (m) kilogram (kg) pound mass (lbm)
length - distance (L) meter (m) foot or inch (ft or in)
time (t) second (s)
current (I) Ampere (A)
Derived Units
Parameter (Derived Units) SI Units English/American Units

Force - weight (F or W) Newton (N) pound or ounce (lbf or oz)
Torque (T) Newton-meter (Nm) foot-pound (ft-lb or in-lb)
Work - energy (W or E) Joule (J) foot-pound (ft-lb or in-lb
Power (P) Watt (W) horsepower (hp or W)
Voltage, EMF (V) Volt (V)
Resistance (R) ohms ()
Inertia (J) kilogram-meter2 (kg-m2) inch-pound-second2 (in-lb-s2)
plane angle (, , , etc.) radian (rad) degree or radian (deg or rad)
rotation () revolution (rev)
velocity - linear (v) meter per sec. (m/s) inch per second (in/s)
acceleration (a) meter per second (m/s ) inch per second2 (in/s2)
2 2
velocity - angular () rad per second (rad/s)

velocity - rotational () rev per minute (rpm)
accel - angular () rad per second2 (rad/s2)
Basic Definitions & Formulae
Parameter Formula SI Units Formula English/American Units Formula

1 lbf = 1 lbf / (386 in / s2) * 386 in
Force - accel (F = m * a) 1 N = 1 kg * 1 m / s2
/ s2
Torque - accel (T = J * 1 Nm = 1 kg-m2 * 1 rad
1 in-lb = 1 in-bl-s2 * 1 rad / s2
) / s2
Voltage, EMF (V = I *
1V=1A*1
R)
Work - Energy (E = F * 1 in-lb = .113 Nm = .113 Ws =
1J=1N*1m
L) .113 J
Energy - elect (E = V * I
1J=1V*1A*1s
* t)
Power (P = F * v) 1W=1N*1m/s 1 hp = 550 ft-lb / s = 745.7 W
Power (P = T * ) 1 W = 1 Nm * 1 rad / s (note: radians have no units)
Power (P = V * I) 1W=1V*1A
Power (P = E / t) 1W=1J/1s
Power (P = I2 * R) 1 W = 1 A2 * 1
Motor Constants
Parameter Formula SI Units Formula English/American Units Formula

Torque const (Kt = T / I) Kt = Nm / A Kt = in-lb / A
Voltage const (Ke = V / ) Ke = V / (rad / s) Ke = V / krpm
Servo Motor Formulae
English/American Units
Parameter Formula SI Units Formula
Formula
Current Draw (I + T / Kt) 1 A = 1 Nm / (Nm / A) 1 A = 1 in-lb / (in-lb / A)
Voltage Required (V = IRa 1 V = A + V / (rad / s) * 1 V = A + V / (krpm) *
+ Ke * ) (rad / s) (krpm)
Conversions:
To convert from units of A to units of B, find the value at the intersection of A and B,
then multiply your number by this value. Example: to convert from cm to microns,
multiply value in cm by 1.00E+04.
Length Conversion
A (below) B (right) micron (m) mm cm m in ft

micron (m) 1 0.001 1.00E-04 1.00E-06 3.94E-05 3.28E-06
mm 1000 1 0.1 0.001 0.03937 3.28E-03
cm 1.00E+04 10 1 0.01 0.3937 0.03281
m 1.00E+06 1000 100 1 39.37 3.281
in 2.54E+04 25.4 2.54 0.0254 1 0.0833
ft 3.05E+05 304.8 30.48 0.3048 12 1
Mass Conversion
A (below) B (right) g kg slug ozm lbm

g 1 0.001 6.85E-05 0.0353 2.20E-03
kg 1000 1 6.85E-02 35.274 2.2046
slug 1.46E+04 14.59 1 514.78 32.17
ozm 28.35 0.0284 1.94E-03 1 0.0625
lbm 453.6 0.4536 0.0311 16 1
Force Conversion
A (below) B (right) N kgf gf ozf lbf

N 1 0.102 101.97 3.596 0.225
kgf 9.81 1 1000 35.274 2.205
gf 9.81E-03 0.001 1 0.0353 2.21E-03
ozf 0.28 0.0283 28.35 1 0.0625
lbf 4.45 0.4536 453.6 16 1
Torque Conversion
A (below) B (right) g-cm kg-cm kg-m N-m oz-in lb-in lb-ft

g-cm 1 0.001 1.00E-05 9.81E-05 0.014 8.68E-04 7.23E-05
kg-cm 1000 1 0.01 0.098 13.89 0.868 0.072
kg-m 1.00E+05 100 1 9.81 1389 86.8 7.23
N-m 1.02E+04 10.2 0.102 1 141.6 8.85 0.738
oz-in 72.01 0.072 7.21E-04 7.06E-03 1 0.063 5.21E-03
lb-in 1.15E+03 1.152 0.012 0.113 16 1 0.083
lb-ft 1.38E+04 13.83 0.138 1.356 192 12 1
Power Conversion
A (below) B (right) Watts kW Horsepower in-lb/s ft-lb/s

Watts 1 100E-03 1.34E-03 8.85 0.74
kW 1000 1 1.34 8851 738
Horsepower 746 0.746 1 6600 550
in-lb/s 0.113 1.13E-04 1.52E-04 1 0.083
ft-lb/s 1.35 1.36E-03 1.82E-03 12 1
Linear Velocity Conversion
A (below) B (right) mm/s cm/s m/s in/s ft/s in/min ft/min

mm/s 1 0.1 0.001 0.0394 3.28E-03 2.362 0.1968
cm/s 10 1 0.01 0.394 0.0328 23.62 1.97
m/s 1000 100 1 39.37 3.281 2362.2 196.9
in/s 25.4 2.54 0.0254 1 0.083 60 5
ft/s 304.8 30.48 0.3048 12 1 720 60
in/min 0.423 0.0423 4.23E-04 0.0167 1.39E-03 1 0.0833
ft/min 5.08 0.508 5.08E-03 0.2 0.0167 12 1
Angular Velocity Conversion
A (below) B (right) deg/s rad/s rpm rps

deg/s 1 0.0175 0.167 2.78E-03
rad/s 57.3 1 9.55 0.159
rpm 6 0.105 1 0.0167
rps 360 6.28 60 1
Rotary Inertia Conversion
A
(belo kg-
kg- lb-in- lb-ft- oz-
w) B g-cm2 2
kg-cm g-cm-s cm- 2
lb-in2 lb-ft2 oz-in2
m2 s2 s2 in-s2
(right s2
)
1.02 1.00 8.85
7.38 3.42E- 2.37 5.50E- 1.42
g-cm2 1 0.001 0.001
E-06 E-07 E-07
E-08 04 E-06 03 E-05
kg- 0.00 0.000 8.85
7.38 2.40 0.01
1000 1 1.02 0.342 5.47
cm2 1 1
E-05 E-04 E-03 4
g-cm- 0.00 9.81 8.68
7.23 2.30 0.01
2 981 0.981 1 0.335 5.36
s 1 E-05 E-04
E-05 E-03 4
kg- 9.81E+ 0.098 0.86
0.07 13.8
2 981 1000 1 335.1 2.33 5362
cm-s 05 2 1 8 9
1.00E+ 10.1 0.73 3417. 23.73 141.
kg-m2 10000 10190 1 8.85 54675
07 9 8 74 4 6
lb-in- 1.13E+ 1.15E+ 1.15 0.08
2 1130 0.113 1 386.1 2.68 6177 16
s 06 03 2 3
lb-ft- 1.36E+ 1.36E+ 1.38E+ 13.8 7.41E+
1.36 12 1 4633 32.2 192
s2 07 04 04 3 04
0.00 2.93 2.60 2.16 6.90 0.04
lb-in2 2926 2.93 2.98 1 16
3 E-04 E-03 E-04 E-03 1
4.21E+ 0.042 0.37 0.03
lb-ft2 421.4 429.7 0.43 144 1 2304 5.97
05 1 3 1
1.87 1.83 1.62 1.35 0.062 4.34 2.60
oz-in2 182.9 0.183 0.187 1
E-04 E-05 E-04 E-05 5 E-04 E-03
oz-in- 7.06E+ 0.07 0.06 5.20
70.62 72 0.007 24.13 0.168 386.1 1
s2 04 2 3 E-03
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Resources, Tools and Basic Information for Engineering and Design of Technical
Applications! - adapts seamlessly to phones, pads and desktops!
- "the most efficient way to navigate the
Engineering ToolBox!"
Density, Specific Weight and Specific

Gravity
An introduction and definition of density, specific
weight and specific gravity - formulas with examples
Density
Density is defined as an objects mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.
Mass and Weight - the Difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An
explanation of the difference between weight and mass.
The density can be expressed as
= m / V = 1 / vg (1)
where
= density (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
m = mass (kg, slugs)
V = volume (m3, ft3)
vg = specific volume (m3/kg, ft3/slug)
The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (U.S.) units are lb/ft3 (slugs/ft3).
While people often use pounds per cubic foot as a measure of density in the U.S.,
pounds are really a measure of force, not mass. Slugs are the correct measure of mass.
You can multiply slugs by 32.2 for a rough value in pounds.
1 gram/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3

Unit converter
The higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed inside the substance.
Density is a physical
property constant at a given temperature and density can help to identify a substance.
Densities and material properties for common materials
Relative Density (Specific Gravity)
Substance Relative Density

Acetylene 0.0017
Air, dry 0.0013
Alcohol 0.82
Aluminum 2.72
Brass 8.48
Cadmium 8.57
Substance Relative Density
Chromium 7.03
Copper 8.79
Carbon dioxide 0.00198
Carbon monoxide 0.00126
Cast iron 7.20
Hydrogen 0.00009
Lead 11.35
Mercury 13.59
Nickel 8.73
Nitrogen 0.00125
Nylon 1.12
Oxygen 0.00143
Paraffin 0.80
Petrol 0.72
PVC 1.36
Rubber 0.96
Steel 7.82
Tin 7.28
Zinc 7.12
o
Water (4 C) 1.00
Water, sea 1.02
density of water at different temperatures - SI and Imperial units
Example - Density of a Golf ball
A golf ball has a diameter of 42 mm and a mass of 45 g. The volume of the golf ball
can be calculated as
V = (4 / 3) ((42 mm) (0.001 m/mm) / 2)3
= 3.8 10-5 m3
The density of the golf ball can be calculated as
= (45 g) (0.001 kg/g) / (3.8 10-5 m3)
= 1184 kg/m3
Example - Use the Density to Identify the Material:
An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml.
(milliliter).
The density can be calculated as
= [(18.5 g) / (1000 g/kg)] / [(23.4 ml) / (1000 ml/l) (1000 l/m3)]
= (18.5 10-3 kg) / (23.4 10-6 m3)
= 790 (kg/m3)
If we look up densities of some common liquids, we can find that ethyl alcohol, or
ethanol, has a density of 789 kg/m3. The liquid may be ethyl alcohol!
Example - Use Density to Calculate the Mass of a Volume
The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3. Calculate the mass of 0.17 m3 titanium!
m = (0.17 m3) (4507 kg/m3)
= 766.2 (kg)
Specific Weight
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.
Mass and Weight - the difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An
explanation of the difference between weight and mass.
Specific Weight can be expressed as
=g (2)
where
= specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)
= density (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2, 32.174 ft/s2)
The SI-units of specific weight are N/m3. The imperial units are lb/ft3. The local
acceleration g is under normal conditions 9.807 m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174 ft/s2 in
imperial units.
Example - Specific Weight Water
Specific weight for water at 39 oF (4 oC) is 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.81 kN/m3) in imperial units.
With a density of water 1000 kg/m3 - specific weight in SI units can be calculated as
= (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)

= 9810 (N/m3)
= 9.81 (kN/m3)
With a density of water 1.940 slugs/ft3 - specific weight in SI units can be calculated
as
= (1.940 slugs/ft3) (32.174 ft/s2)
= 62.4 (lb/ft3)
Example - Specific Weight Some other Materials
Specific Weight -
Product Imperial Units SI Units
3
(lb/ft ) (kN/m3)
Aluminium 172 27
Brass 540 84.5
Copper 570 89
Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74
Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Mercury 847 133.7
SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 64 10.1
Stainless Steel 499 - 512 78 - 80
Water 62.4 9.81
Wrought Iron 474 - 499 74 - 78
Material Properties
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
The Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density of

the substance to the density of water at a specified temperature. Specific Gravity can
be expressed
SG = substance / H2O (3)
where
SG = Specific Gravity of the substance
substance = density of the fluid or substance (kg/m3)
H2O = density of water - normally at temperature 4 oC (kg/m3)

It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39oF) as reference since at this point
the density of water is at the highest - 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.
Thermal Properties of Water Density, Freezing temperature, Boiling

temperature, Latent heat of melting, Latent heat of evaporation, Critical
temperature ...
Since Specific Weight is dimensionless it has the same value in the metric SI system
as in the imperial English system (BG). At the reference point the Specific Gravity
has same numerically value as density.
It is common to use relate specific gravity for both liquids and solids to water.
Example - Specific Gravity
If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m3, 7.85 grams per cubic centimeter (cm3), 7.85
kilograms per liter, or 7.85 metric tons per cubic meter - the specific gravity of iron
related to water is
SG = (7850 kg/m3) / (1000 kg/m3)
= 7.85
water density is 1000 kg/m3
Specific Gravity Gases
The Specific Gravity - SG - of gases relates to air and is a dimensionless unit defined
as the ratio of density of the gas to the density of air at a specified temperature and
pressure. In general conditions according NTP - Normal Temperature and Pressure -
defined as air at 20oC (293.15 K, 68oF) and 1 atm ( 101.325 kN/m2, 101.325 kPa, 14.7
psia, 0 psig, 30 in Hg, 760 torr), where density of air is 1.205 kg/m3 - is used.
Specific Gravity of a gas can be calculated as
SG = gas / air (3)
where
SG = specific gravity of gas
gas = density of gas (kg/m3)
air = density of air (kg/m3)
Note that when the densities of the gas and the air are evaluated at the same pressure
and temperature - the SG can be calculated utilizing only the molecular weights.
Mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
Problems>Chapter- Energy Analysis -
Open Systems
EXAMPLE 4-A1 A 5 kW pump is raising water to an elevation of 25 m from the

free surface of a lake. The temperature of water increases by 0.1oC. Neglecting any
change in KE, determine the mass flow rate. What-if-scenario: How would the
conclusion change if the pumping power were 10 kW?
Solution:
Navigate to HOME.Daemons.Systems.Open. SteadyState.Generic

(does not involve special topics such as reaction, psychrometry or gas
dynamics) .SingleFlow (only one inlet and one exit) .SolidLiquid.
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i-state (free surface) and
water(L) for the working fluid. Enter pressure (ambient), temperature (say
20oC), and calculate the state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the e-state. Enter pressure as
'=p1', temperature as '=T1+0.1' , z (=25 m). Calculate the state.
Go to the Devices-Analysis window. Load state-1 for i-state, state-2

for e-state, and enter Qdot=0, and Wdot_ext=-5 kW. A Calculate produces
mdot_i=mdot_e= 7.53 kg/s.
Load Device-Analysis window. Change Wdot_ext to -10 kW and

calculate. A Super-Calculate produces mdot_i=mdot_e= 15.07 kg/s.
TEST CODE : HOME.Daemons.Systems.Open.SteadyState.

Generic.SingleFlow.SolidLiquid
States {
State-1: Water(L);
Given: { p1= 1.0 atm; T1= 20.0 deg-C; Vel1= 0.0 m/s;
z1= 0.0 m; }
State-2: Water(L);
Given: { p2= "p1" atm; T2= "T1+0.1" deg-C;
Vel2= 0.0 m/s; z2= 25.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
Device-A: i-State = State-1; e-State = State-2;
Given: { Qdot= 0.0 kW; Wdot_ext= -5.0 kW;
T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-B1 Argon gas enters an adiabatic compressor at 100 kPa and 25oC
with a velocity of 20 m/s, and exits at 1 MPa, 550oC and 100 m/s. The inlet area of the
compressor is 75 cm2. Determine the power of the compressor. What-if-scenario:
How would the conclusion change if the inlet area were 100 cm2?
Solution:
Navigate to HOME.Daemons.Systems.Open.SteadyState.Generic
dynamics) .SingleFlow (only one inlet and one exit) .PerfGas (for noble gases
the specific heats are constant.)
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i-state and Argon(Ar) for
working fluid. Enter pressure, temperature, area and velocity, and calculate the
state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the e-state. Enter pressure,
temperature, velocity and mass flow rate (since exit mass flow rate equals to
inlet therefore mdot2 can be entered as '=mdot1'), calculate the state.
Go to the Device-Analysis window. Load state-1 for i-state, state-2 for

e-state, and enter Qdot=0. A Calculate produces Wdot_ext= -67.19 kW.
Go back to the states window and load State-1. Change A1 to 100 cm2
and calculate. A Super-Calculate produces Wdot_ext= -89.59 kW.

Generic.SingleFlow.PerfGas
States {
State-1: Argon(Ar);
Given: { p1= 100.0 kPa; T1= 25.0 deg-C; Vel1= 20.0 m/s;
z1= 0.0 m; A1= 75.0 cm^2; }
State-2: Argon(Ar);
Given: { p2= 1.0 MPa; T2= 550.0 deg-C; Vel2= 100.0 m/s;
z2= 0.0 m; mdot2= "mdot1" kg/s; }
}
Analysis {
Given: { Qdot= 0.0 kW; T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-C1 Carbon dioxide enters a nozzle at 35 psia, 1400oF, and 250 ft/s
and exits at 12 psia and 1200oF. Determine the exit velocity. What-if-scenario: How
would the conclusion change if carbon dioxide entered at 500 ft/s?
Solution:

dynamics) .SingleFlow (only one inlet and one exit) .IdealGas (variable
specific heats).
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i-state. Select CO2 for
working fluid and English for units. Enter pressure, temperature, and velocity.
To make unit mass the basis of the problem, enter the mass flow rate as 1
lbm/s. Calculate the state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the e-state. Make the velocity
unknown by un-checking the property checkbox. Enter pressure, temperature,
mass flow rate (as '=mdot1'), calculate the state.

e-state, and enter Wdot_ext=0, Qdot=0. An Calculate produces
j_e=j_i=344.8402 Btu/lbm. A Super-Calculate produces V2=1730.02 ft/s.
Go back to the states window and load State-1. Change Vel1 to 500
ft/s and calculate. A Super-Calculate produces V2=1783.39 ft/s.

Generic.SingleFlow.IdealGas
States {
State-1: CO2;
Given: { p1= 35.0 psia; T1= 1400.0 deg-F; Vel1= 250.0 ft/s;
z1= 0.0 ft; mdot1= 1.0 lbm/s; }
State-2: CO2;
Given: { p2= 12.0 psia; T2= 1200.0 deg-F; z2= 0.0 ft;
mdot2= "mdot1" lbm/s; }
}
Analysis {
Given: { Qdot= 0.0 Btu/min; Wdot_ext= 0.0 ft.lbf/s;
T_B= 77.0 deg-F; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-E1 Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 6 MPa and 600 oC,
50 m/s, and exits at 50 kPa and 100oC and 150 m/s. The turbine produces 5 MW.
Determine the mass flow rate. Neglects PE. What-if-scenario: How would the
conclusion change if the turbine produced 10 MW?
Solution:

dynamics) .SingleFlow (only one inlet and one exit) .PhaseChanger.
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i-state and H2O for
working fluid. Enter pressure, temperature and velocity, and calculate the
state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the e-state. Enter pressure,
temperature and velocity, and calculate the state.
e-state, and enter Qdot=0 kW, Wdot_ext=5 MW, and Calculate. Super-
Calculate produces mdot_e = mdot_i = 5.1759 kg/s.
Load Device-Analysis window. Wdot_ext to 10 MW and calculate. A

Super-Calculate produces mdot_e = mdot_i = 10.3519 kg/s.

Generic.SingleFlow.PhaseChanger
States {
State-1: H2O;
Given: { p1= 6.0 MPa; T1= 600.0 deg-C;
Vel1= 50.0 m/s; z1= 0.0 m; }
State-2: H2O;
Given: { p2= 50.0 kPa; T2= 100.0 deg-C;
Vel2= 150.0 m/s; z2= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
Given: { Qdot= 0.0 kW; Wdot_ext= 5.0 MW;
T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-E2 Steam enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 3 MPa, 670 K, 50

m/s, and exits at 2 MPa, 200 m/s. If the nozzle has an inlet area of 7 cm2, determine
the exit area. Neglects PE. What-if-scenario: How would the conclusion change if the
exit velocity were 400 m/s?
Solution:

Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i-state. Enter p=3 MPa,
T=670 K, Vel=50 m/s, and A=7 cm2. Calculate the state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the e-state. Enter p=2 MPa
and Vel=200 m/s. Calculate the state partially.
Go to the Devices-Analysis window. Load state-1 for i-state, state-2

for e-state, and enter Qdot=0 and Wdot_ext=0. Calculate to produce
j_exit=j_inlet. A Super-Calculate to produce A=2.59 cm2 .
Go back to the states window and load state-2. Change the Vel2 to 400
m/s. A Calculate produces A=1.23 cm2. [Note: If you use an even higher
exit velocity, say, 1000 m/s, the exit area will be even smaller. However, if
you go to the analysis panel (after an Super-Calculate), you will see that the
quantity Sdot_gen will be negative. That is the 2nd law is violated after the
exit velocity increases beyond a certain value (sonic speed) for this nozzle (a
sub-sonic one). Nozzle design is covered again in Chapter 15.

States {
State-1: H2O;
Given: { p1= 3.0 MPa; T1= 670.0 K; Vel1= 50.0 m/s;
z1= 0.0 m; A1= 7.0 cm^2; }
State-2: H2O;
Given: { p2= 2.0 MPa; Vel2= 200.0 m/s; z2= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
Given: { Qdot= 0.0 kW; Wdot_ext= 0.0 kW;
T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-E3 Steam enters a turbine steadily at 10 MPa and 550 oC, 50 m/s,
and exits at 25 kPa and 95% quality. The inlet and exit areas are 150 cm2 and 4000
cm2 respectively. A heat loss of 50 kJ/kg occurs in the turbine. Determine the mass
flow rate, exit velocity and the power output. What-if-scenario: How would the
conclusion change if the inlet area were 50 cm2?
Solution:

Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i-state. Enter pressure,
temperature, velocity, area and calculate the state. The mass flow rate is
evaluated as mdot=21.04 kg/s.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the e-state. Make the velocity
unknown by un-checking the property checkbox. Enter pressure, quality, and
area. Calculate the state.

e-state, and enter Qdot as '=50*21.04' kW. A Calculate produces mdot_e, and
A Super-Calculate produces Wdot_ext=21.11 MW and
Vel_e=Vel2=310.12 m/s.
Go back to the states window and load State-1. Change A1 to 50cm2

and calculate. A Super-Calculate produces mdot = 7.01 kg/s,
Wdot_ext=8.04 MW and Vel_e=Vel2=103.37 m/s

States {
State-1: H2O;
z1= 0.0 m; A1= 150.0 cm^2; }
State-2: H2O;
Given: { p2= 25.0 kPa; x2= 95.0 %; z2= 0.0 m;
A2= 4000.0 cm^2; }
}
Analysis {
}
EXAMPLE 4-F1 Refrigerant-12 is throttled by a valve from the saturated liquid

state at 800 kPa to a pressure of 150 kPa at a flow rate of 0.5 kg/s. Determine the
temperature after throttling. What-if-scenario: How would the temperature change
if the R-12 were throttled down to 100 kPa?
Solution:

Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i-state and R-12 for
working fluid. Enter pressure, x=0 fraction, and mass flow rate, and calculate
the state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the exit state. Enter pressure
and calculate the state.

e-state, and enter Qdot=Wdot_ext=0. A Calculate produces j_e=67.3027. A
Super-Calculate produces the exit temperature as: -20.16oC.
In the TEST-Code generated on the I/O panel change p2 to 100 kPa.

Load and Super-Calculate to produce the new exit temperature as Go to the
Device-Analysis window. Load state-1 for i-state, state-2 for e-state, and enter
Qdot=Wdot_ext=0. A Calculate produces j_e=67.3027. A Super-Calculate
produces the exit temperature as: -30.1oC.

States {
State-1: R-12;
Given: { p1= 800.0 kPa; x1= 0.0 fraction; Vel1= 0.0 m/s;
z1= 0.0 m; mdot1= 0.5 kg/s; }
State-2: R-12;
Given: { p2= 150.0 kPa; Vel2= 0.0 m/s; z2= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-H1 Refrigerant-134a enters an adiabatic compressor as saturated

vapor at 120 kPa at a rate of 1 m3/min and exits at 1 MPa. The compressor has an
adiabatic efficiency of 85%. Assuming the surrounding conditions to be 100 kPa,
25oC, determine the compressor power. What-if-scenario: How would the conclusion
change if the compressor had an adiabatic efficiency of 70%?
Solution:

Let State-1 represent the i-State and State-3 represent the e-State.
Because the actual exit state is related to an ideal exit state through adiabatic
efficiency, let State-2 represent that ideal state isentropic to State-1 and
isobaric to State-3.
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i-state and R-134a for
working fluid. Enter pressure, x=1 fraction, and volume flow rate, and
calculate the state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the isentropic s-state. Enter
pressure(as '=p3'), entropy (as '=s1') and mass flow rate('=mdot1') . Calculate
the state.
Choose State-3 from the state selector as the e-state. For a compressor,
eta_adb=Wdot_ideal/Wdot_actual = (j1-j2)/(j1-j3); Enter j3(as '=j1-(j1-
j2)/0.85' and pressure. Calculate the state.

e-state, and enter Qdot=0. A Calculate produces Wdot_ext=-5.36 kW.
Go back to the states window and load State-3. Change j3 to '=j1-(j1-

j2)/0.7' and calculate. A Super-Calculate produces Wdot_ext=-6.51 kW.

States {
State-1: R-134a;
Given: { p1= 120.0 kPa; x1= 1.0 fraction; Vel1= 0.0 m/s;
z1= 0.0 m; Voldot1= 1.0 m^3/min; }
State-2: R-134a;
Given: { p2= "p3" kPa; s2= "s1" kJ/kg.K; Vel2= 0.0 m/s;
z2= 0.0 m; mdot2= "mdot1" kg/s; }
State-3: R-134a;
Given: { p3= 1.0 MPa; Vel3= 0.0 m/s; z3= 0.0 m;
j3= "j1-(j1-j2)/0.85" kJ/kg; }
}
Analysis {
}
EXAMPLE 4-EE1 Liquid water at 100 kPa and 10oC is heated by mixing it with
an unknown amount of steam at 100 kPa and 200oC. Liquid water enters the chamber
at 1 kg/s, and the chamber looses heat at a rate of 500 kJ/min with the ambient at
25oC. If the mixture leaves at 100 kPa and 50oC, determine the mass flow rate of
steam.
Solution:

dynamics) .FlowMixed(two flows are getting mixed) .PhaseChanger.
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the i1-state. Enter

temperature, pressure and mass flow rate, calculate (partially) the state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the i2-state. Enter

temperature and pressure. Calculate the state.
Choose State-3 from the state selector as the e1-state. Enter

Go to the Device-Analysis window. Load state-1 for i1-state, state-2

for i2-state, and state-3 for the e1-state, leaving e2-state plugged. Enter Qdot=-
500 kJ/min and Wdot_ext=0. A Calculate produces mass flow rate of steam as
mdot_i2=mdot2=0.066 kg/s.

Generic.FlowMixed.PhaseChanger
States {
State-1: H2O;
z1= 0.0 m; mdot1= 1.0 kg/s; }
State-2: H2O;
z2= 0.0 m; }
State-3: H2O;
z3= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
Device-A: i-State = State-1, State-2;
e-State = State-3; Mixing: true
Given: { Qdot= -500.0 kJ/min; Wdot_ext= 0.0 kW;
T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-EEE1 Steam enters a closed feedwater heater at 1.1 MPa and 200oC
and leaves as saturated liquid at the same pressure. Feedwater enters the heater at 2.5
MPa and 50oC and leaves 12oC below the exit temperature of steam at the same
pressure. Neglecting any heat losses, determine the mass flow rate ratio. What-if-
scenario: How would the conclusion change if the feedwater left 30oC below the exit
temperature of steam?
Solution:
Navigate to
HOME.Daemons.Systems.Open.SteadyState.Generic.FlowUnmixed(two
flows are separated) .PhaseChanger.
Let State-1 and State-2 represent the inlet and exit states for fluid A
(iA and eA states) and State-3 and State-4 represent iB and eB states (A for
feedwater and B for steam).
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the iA-state. Enter mass flow
rate (Let, mdot1=1 kg/s) temperature and pressure (2.5 MPa). Calculate the
state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the eA-state. Enter mass flow
rate ('=mdot'), pressure ('=p1') and temperature('=T4-12'). Calculate the state
partially.
Choose State-3 from the state selector as the iB-state. Enter

Choose State-4 from the state selector as the eB-state. Enter

pressure('=p3') and x=0. Calculate the state.
Go to the Device-Analysis window. Load state-1 for iA-state, state-2

for eA-state, state-3 for the iB-state and state-4 for the eB-state. Enter
Qdot=Wdot_ext=0 and calculate. A Super-Calculate produces mass flow rate
of steam as: mdot_iB=mdot3=0.2541 kg/s.
Go back to the states window and load State-2. Change T2 to 'T4-30'

and calculate. A Super-Calculate produces mdot_iB=mdot3=0.2158 kg/s.

Generic.FlowUnmixed.PhaseChanger
States {
State-1: H2O;
z1= 0.0 m; mdot1= 1.0 kg/s; }
State-2: H2O;
Given: { p2= "p1" MPa; T2= "T4-12" deg-C;
Vel2= 0.0 m/s; z2= 0.0 m; mdot2= "mdot1" kg/s; }
State-3: H2O;
z3= 0.0 m; }
State-4: H2O;
Given: { p4= "p3" MPa; x4= 0.0 fraction; Vel4= 0.0 m/s;
z4= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
Device-A: i-State = State-1, State-3;
e-State = State-2, State-4; Mixing: false
T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-BB1 A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.2 m3 of neon at

20oC. The mass of the piston is such that it maintains a constant pressure of 200 kPa
inside. A valve is now opened and neon is allowed to escape until the volume reduces
to half the initial volume. At the same time heat transfer with outside at 20oC ensures
a constant temperature inside. Determine the heat transfer.
Solution:
Navigate to HOME.Daemons.Systems.Open.Process (a clear begin

and finish) .PerfGas.
Select the gas(Ne) from the gas selector.
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the b-state. Enter pressure,
temperature, and volume, and calculate the state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the f-state. Enter pressure,
temperature, and volume (half the original), and calculate the state.
Choose State-3 from the state selector as the e-state. Enter pressure
and temperature, and calculate the state.
Go to the Process-Analysis window. Load state-1 for b-state, state-2

for f-state, and state-3 for the e-state. The only kind of work transfer (other
than the flow work) is the boundary work. Hence, enter
W=W_B+W_O=200(0.1-0.2)=-20 kJ. A Calculate produces Q=0 kJ.
TEST CODE : HOME.Daemons.Systems.Open.Process.

PerfGas
States {
State-1: Neon(Ne);
z1= 0.0 m; Vol1= 0.2 m^3; }
State-2: Neon(Ne);
Given: { p2= "p1" kPa; T2= "T1" deg-C; Vel2= 0.0 m/s;
z2= 0.0 m; Vol2= "Vol1/2" m^3; }
State-3: Neon(Ne);
Given: { p3= "p1" kPa; T3= "T1" deg-C; Vel3= 0.0 m/s;
z3= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
Process-A: ie-State = State-Null, State-3;
bf-State = State-1, State-2;
Given: { W_ext=-20.0 kJ; T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-CC1 An insulated rigid tank is initially evacuated. A valve is

opened, and air at 100 kPa 20oC enters the tank until the pressure in the tank reaches
100 kPa when the valve is closed. Determine the final temperature of the air in the
tank. Assume variable specific heats.
Solution:

and finish) .IdealGas.
Select the gas(air) from the gas selector.
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the b-state. Enter mass=0,
and calculate the state.
calculate the state.
Choose State-3 from the state selector as the i-state. Enter pressure and
temperature, and calculate the state.

for f-state, and state-3 for the i-state. Enter Q=W_B+W_O=0 and Calculate. A
Super-Calculate produces the final temperature as: T2=136.1oC.

IdealGas
States {
State-1: Air;
Given: { Vel1= 0.0 m/s; z1= 0.0 m; m1= 0.0 kg; }
State-2: Air;
Given: { p2= 100.0 kPa; Vel2= 0.0 m/s; z2= 0.0 m; }
State-3: Air;
z3= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
Process-A: ie-State = State-3, State-Null;
Given: { Q= 0.0 kJ; W_ext=0.0 kJ; T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-EE1 A 0.5 m3 tank initially contains saturated liquid water at 200oC.
A valve in the bottom of the tank is opened and half the liquid is drained. Heat is
transferred from a source at 300oC to maintain constant temperature inside the tank.
Determine the heat transfer. What-if-scenario: How would the conclusion change
if the 0.5 m3 tank initially contained saturated liquid water at 100oC?
Solution:

and finish) .PhaseChanger.
Choose State-1 from the state selector as the b-state. Enter quality
(x=0), temperature, and volume, and calculate the state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the f-state. Enter

pressure('=p1'), volume('=Vol1'), and mass ('=m1/2'). Calculate the state.
Choose State-3 from the state selector as the e-state. Enter pressure
and x=0, and calculate the state.

for f-state, and state-3 for the e-state. Enter W_B+W_O=0 and T_B=300oC. A
Calculate produces Q=3843.12 kJ.
Go back to the States window and load State-1. Change T1 to 100oC

and calculate. A Super-Calculate produces Q=339.53 kJ.

PhaseChanger
States {
State-1: H2O;
Given: { T1= 200.0 deg-C; x1= 0.0 %; Vel1= 0.0 m/s;
z1= 0.0 m; Vol1= 0.5 m^3; }
State-2: H2O;
Given: { p2= "p1" kPa; Vel2= 0.0 m/s; z2= 0.0 m;
m2= "m1/2" kg; Vol2= "Vol1" m^3; }
State-3: H2O;
Given: { p3= "p1" kPa; x3= 0.0 %; Vel3= 0.0 m/s;
z3= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
Process-A: ie-State = State-Null, State-3;
Given: { W_ext=0.0 kJ; T_B= 300 deg-C; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-EE2 A 0.2 ft3 pressure cooker has an operating pressure of 40 psia.
Initially 50% of the volume is filled with vapor and the rest with liquid water.
Determine the heat transfer necessary to vaporize all the water in the cooker. What-if-
scenario: How would the conclusion change if initially 20% of the volume were
filled with vapor?
Solution:

Select English units. Choose State-1 from the state selector as the b-
state. Enter vapor fraction (y=50%), pressure and volume, and calculate the
state.
Choose State-2 from the state selector as the f-state. Enter

pressure('=p1'), volume('=Vol1') and quality (y=100%), 'Calculate' the state.
Choose State-3 from the state selector as the i-state. Enter

pressure('=p1') and y=100%, and calculate the state.

for f-state, and state-3 for the e-state. Enter W_B+W_O=0. A Calculate
produces Q=5445.91 Btu.
Go back to the states window and load State-1. Change y1 to 20% and
calculate. A Super-Calculate produces Q=8713.41 Btu.

PhaseChanger
States {
State-1: H2O;
Given: { p1= 40.0 psia; y1= 50.0 %; Vel1= 0.0 ft/s;
z1= 0.0 ft; Vol1= 0.2 ft^3; }
State-2: H2O;
Given: { p2= "p1" psia; y2= 100.0 %; Vel2= 0.0 ft/s;
z2= 0.0 ft; Vol2= "Vol1" ft^3; }
State-3: H2O;
Given: { p3= "p1" psia; y3= 100.0 %; Vel3= 0.0 ft/s;
z3= 0.0 ft; }
}
Analysis {
Given: { W_ext=0.0 ft.lbf; T_B= 77.0 deg-F; }
}
EXAMPLE 4-FF1 A 0.2 m3 tank initially contains R-12 at 1 MPa and x=1. The
tank is charged to 1.2 MPa, x=0 from a supply line that carries R-12 at 1.5 MPa,
30oC. Determine (a) the final temperature and (b) the heat transfer.
Solution:

Choose State-1 from the state selector as the b-state and R-12 for
working fluid. Enter quality (x), pressure and volume, and calculate the state.
quality and volume, and calculate the state.
Choose State-3 from the state selector as the i-state. Enter pressure and
temperature, and calculate the state.

for f-state, and state-3 for the i-state. Enter W_B+W_O=0. A Calculate
produces Q=2803.89 kJ.

PhaseChanger
States {
State-1: R-12;
Given: { p1= 1.0 MPa; x1= 1.0 fraction; Vel1= 0.0 m/s;
z1= 0.0 m; Vol1= 0.2 m^3; }
State-2: R-12;
Given: { p2= 1.2 MPa; x2= 0.0 fraction; Vel2= 0.0 m/s;
z2= 0.0 m; Vol2= "Vol1" m^3; }
State-3: R-12;
z3= 0.0 m; }
}
Analysis {
bf-State = State-1, State-2; mmm
Given: { W_ext=0.0 kJ; T_B= 25.0 deg-C; }
Mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
Problems>Chapter- Cycle Analysis
EXAMPLE 5-1 A Carnot heat engine with an efficiency of 60% receives

heat from a source at a rate of 3000 kJ/min, and rejects the waste heat to a
medium at 300 K. Determine (a) the power that is generated by the engine, (b)
the source temperature.
Solution:
Navigate to HOME.Daemons.Systems.Closed (heat engine,

only exchanges heat and work with surroundings and, therefore, a
closed system).SteadyState.
Select the unit system (SI) and the engine type (heat engine).
They are also the default choice.
Enter T_C, Qdot_H and eta_rev,th. Also enter Sdot_gen=0 as

the engine is reversible (no entropy generation). A Calculate produces
Wdot_net=30 kW, T_H=750 K.
EXAMPLE 5-2 A gas turbine has a thermal efficiency of 21% and develops
a power output of 8 MW. Determine the fuel consumption rate if the heating
value of the fuel is 50 MJ/kg.
Solution:

Select the unit system (SI) and the engine type (heat engine).
They are also the default choice.
Enter Wdot_net and the thermal efficiency. A Calculate

produces Qdot_H=38.1 MW. Hence the fuel consumption rate is
38.1/50=0.76 kg/s.
EXAMPLE 5-3 An air-conditioning system maintains a house at a

temperature of 20oC while the outside is 40oC. If the cooling load on this
house is 10 tons, determine (a) the reversible power, (b) the reversible power
if the interior is made 5 degree warmer.
Solution:
Navigate to HOME.Daemons.Systems.Closed (a refrigerator

exchanges only heat and work with surroundings and, therefore, is a
Select the unit system (SI) and Refrigerator by clicking the

appropriate radio-buttons.
Enter T_H, and T_C. The refrigerator works between these two
temperature and must remove energy at a rate of 10 tons. Therefore,
Qdot_C=10 tons. Enter Q_C (first input 10 and then select the unit as
'ton(refrig)'). Calculate to produce Wdot_rev=2.4 kW.
Change T_C to 25oC. A Calculate produces Wdot_rev=1.77

kW, a 26% drop in the power consumption.
EXAMPLE 5-4 To keep a refrigerator in steady state at 2oC, heat has to be

removed from it at a rate of 200 kJ/min. If the surrounding air is at 27oC,
determine the minimum power input to the refrigerator and the maximum
COP.
Solution:

Select the unit system (SI) and Refrigerator by clicking the

Enter T_H, and T_C. The refrigeration cycle works between

the cold reservoir (inside) and the hot reservoir (outside air). The heat
removed from inside is, therefore, Qdot_C (=200 kJ/min). Enter it, and
calculate to obtain Wdot_rev=0.3 kW and COP_rev=11.
EXAMPLE 5-5 On a cold night a house is loosing heat at a rate of 80,000

Btu/h. A reversible heat pump maintains the house at 70oF, while the outside
temperature is 30oF. Determine the heating cost for the night (8 hours)
assuming the price of 10 cents/kWh for electricity. Also determine the heating
cost if resistance heating is used instead.
Solution:
Navigate to HOME.Daemons.Systems.Closed (a heat pump,

Select the unit system (English) and Heat Pump by clicking the
Enter T_H, and T_C. The heat lost by the house must be
supplied by the heat pump. Therefore Qdot_H is known. Enter Qdot_H
(1333.33 Btu/min) and calculate to obtain W_rev=1.77 kW (you have
to change the unit to kW). For the night the electricity cost =
1.77*8*.10= 1.42 dollars.
If resistance heating is used instead, the entire heat loss must

be supplied by electricity. Therefore the cost would be: 23.44*8*.1=
18.75 dollars.

Angular Velocity

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Angular Velocity

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Angular velocity

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Second law of motion

In physics, the angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular

Angular velocity of a particle

In two dimensions the angular velocity is given by

This is related to the cross-radial (tangential) velocity by:[1]

An explicit formula for v in terms of v and is:

Combining the above equations gives a formula for :

Particle in three dimensions

which, by the definition of the cross product, can be written:

Addition of angular velocity vectors

An internal operation (addition) which is associative, commutative,

Angular velocity vector for a frame

Angular velocity is a vector defining an addition operation. Components can be

Addition of angular velocity vectors in frames

As in the general case, addition is commutative

Components from the vectors of the frame

Substituting in the expression

any vector e of the frame we obtain , and therefore

Components from Euler angles

The components of the angular velocity pseudovector were first calculated by

One axis of the reference frame (the precession axis)

Components from infinitesimal rotation matrices

Angular velocity tensor

This tensor W(t) will act as if it were a operator :

Properties of angular velocity tensors

See also: Infinitesimal rotation

In three dimensions angular velocity can be represented by a pseudovector because

As . This can be read as a differential equation that defines A(t)

which shows a connection with the Lie group of rotations.

means that a satisfies .

because R(t) is a rotation matrix

Applying the formula (AB)T = BTAT:

Duality with respect to the velocity vector

The tensor is a matrix with this structure:

Because of W is the derivative of an orthogonal transformation, the

where is the wedge product of and .

Taking the dual vector L* of L we get

Because is an arbitrary vector, from nondegeneracy of scalar product follows

For angular velocity tensor maps velocities to positions, it is a vector field. In

Rigid body considerations

Taking the time derivative yields the velocity of the particle:

where is the previous angular velocity tensor.

Proving the independence of angular velocity from choice of origin

The above two yields that

Since the point P (and thus ) is arbitrary, it follows that

Radian per second

Unit system SI derived unit

Unit of Rotational speed

Symbol rad/s or rads1

Angular frequency (Ordinary) frequency

2 radians per second exactly 1 hertz (Hz)

1 radian per second approximately 0.159155 Hz

1 radian per second approximately 9.5493 revolutions per minute (rpm)

0.1047 radian per second approximately 1 rpm

In other systems, the calculation is somewhat more complicated, because if one

1 rad/s = 60/2 rpm exactly = 9.55 rpm approx.

1 rad/s = 1/2 Hz exactly = 0.159 Hz approx.

Unit Converter with most Common

foot/second2, meter/second2, gal, galileo, inch/second2

1 circle = 360 degrees = 400 grades = 21600 minutes = 6.28318 radians = 12

1 m2 = 1550 in2 = 10.764 ft2 = 1.1968 yd2 = 3.861x10-7 mile2