Documenti di Didattica
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Frontier Group
U.S. PIRG Education Fund
April 2012
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following individuals for providing analysis, editorial
assistance, and review for this report: David Burwell, Carnegie Endowment for Interna-
tional Peace; Todd Litman, Victoria Transport Policy Institute; Adie Tomer, Brookings
Institution; and Clark Williams-Derry, Sightline Institute. A special thanks is extended to
Jordan Schneider at Frontier Group for her editorial assistance.
The authors bear any responsibility for factual errors. The views expressed in this report
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of those who provided
review.
Frontier Group conducts research and policy analysis to support a cleaner, healthier and
more democratic society. Our mission is to inject accurate information and compelling
ideas into public policy debates at the local, state and federal levels. For more information
about Frontier Group, please visit our website at www.frontiergroup.org.
With public debate around important issues often dominated by special interests pursuing
their own narrow agendas, U.S. PIRG Education Fund offers an independent voice that
works on behalf of the public interest. U.S. PIRG Education Fund, a 501(c)(3) organiza-
tion, works to protect consumers and promote good government. We investigate prob-
lems, craft solutions, educate the public, and offer Americans meaningful opportunities for
civic participation. For more information, please visit our website at uspirgedfund.org.
Cover Photo Credit: Regional Transit System (RTS) for the City of Gainesville, Florida
Design and Layout: Harriet Eckstein Graphic Design
Table of Contents
Executive Summary 1
Introduction 5
Notes 29
Executive Summary
F
rom World War II until just a few and steady pace. The changing transpor-
years ago, the number of miles driven tation preferences of young peopleand
annually on Americas roads steadily Americans overallthrow those assump-
increased. Then, at the turn of the cen- tions into doubt. The time has come for
tury, something changed: Americans be- transportation policy to reflect the needs
gan driving less. By 2011, the average and desires of todays Americansnot the
American was driving 6 percent fewer worn-out conventional wisdom from days
miles per year than in 2004. (See Figure gone by.
ES-1.)
The trend away from driving has been
Figure ES-1: Vehicle-Miles Traveled Per Capita Peaked in 2004
led by young people. From 2001 to 2009,
the average annual number of vehicle-
miles traveled by young people (16 to
34-year-olds) decreased from 10,300
miles to 7,900 miles per capitaa drop
of 23 percent. The trend away from
steady growth in driving is likely to be
long-lastingeven once the economy re-
covers. Young people are driving less for
a host of reasonshigher gas prices, new
licensing laws, improvements in technolo-
gy that support alternative transportation,
and changes in Generation Ys values and
preferencesall factors that are likely to
have an impact for years to come.
Federal and local governments have his-
torically made massive investments in new
highway capacity on the assumption that
driving will continue to increase at a rapid
Executive Summary
Americas young people are decreasing Many of Americas youth prefer to
the amount they drive and increasing live places where they can easily walk,
their use of transportation alternatives. bike, and take public transportation.
According to a recent study by the
According to the National House- National Association for Realtors,
hold Travel Survey, from 2001 to young people are the generation
2009, the annual number of vehicle- most likely to prefer to live in an area
miles traveled by young people (16 to characterized by nearby shopping,
34-year-olds) decreased from 10,300 restaurants, schools, and public trans-
miles to 7,900 miles per capitaa portation as opposed to sprawl.
drop of 23 percent.
Some young people purposely reduce
In 2009, 16 to 34-year-olds as a their driving in an effort to curb their
whole took 24 percent more bike environmental impact. In the KRC
trips than they took in 2001, despite Zipcar survey, 16 percent of 18 to
the age group actually shrinking in 34-year-olds polled said they strongly
size by 2 percent. agreed with the statement, I want to
protect the environment, so I drive
In 2009, 16 to 34-year-olds walked less. This is compared to approxi-
to destinations 16 percent more mately 9 percent of older generations.
frequently than did 16 to 34-year-
olds living in 2001. The trend toward reduced driving
among young people is likely to persist
From 2001 to 2009, the number as a result of technological changes and
of passenger-miles traveled by 16 increased legal and financial barriers to
to 34-year-olds on public transit driving.
increased by 40 percent.
Technology:
According to Federal Highway
Administration, from 2000 to 2010, o Communications technology,
the share of 14 to 34-year-olds which provides young people with
without a drivers license increased new social networking and recre-
from 21 percent to 26 percent. ational possibilities, has become a
substitute for some car trips.
Young peoples transportation priori-
ties and preferences differ from those o Improvements in technology
of older generations. make transportation alternatives
more convenient. Websites and
Many young people choose to re- smart phone apps that provide
place driving with alternative trans- real-time transit data make
portation. According to a recent sur- public transportation easier to
vey by KRC Research and Zipcar, 45 use, particularly for infrequent
percent of young people (18-34 years users. Meanwhile, technology has
old) polled said they have consciously opened the door for new trans-
made an effort to replace driving portation alternatives, such as
with transportation alternativesthis the car-sharing and bike-sharing
is compared with approximately 32 services that have taken root in
percent of all older populations. numerous American cities.
Executive Summary
is time for policy-makers to consider the consider a new vision for transportation
implication of changes in driving habits policy that reflects the needs of 21st cen-
for the nations transportation infrastruc- tury America.
ture decisions and funding practices, and
I
n the years after World War II, Ameri- highways.1 And that grand road-building
cans love affair with the car reached full project has continued even up to the pres-
flower. ent daysince 1980, American road build-
To the post-war generation, cars were ers have constructed an average of more
a symbol of maturity, prosperity and free- than 22,000 new lane-miles every year.2
dom. Acquiring a drivers license was a Times have changed, however. The
rite of passage for young peoplesome- open road that once beckoned to an ear-
thing that was ideally done as close to ones lier generation of young people has been
sixteenth birthday as possible. Owning (or slowly replaced by congested highways
at least having access to) a car was a young traversing a landscape of suburban sprawl.
persons ticket to freedom, friends and ad- Once a symbol of freedom and Americas
venture. For American families, a car was can-do spirit, the automobile has become
also a ticket to the good life in the sub- for many a financial straitjacket that limits
urbs, away from crowded and increasingly life options, as well as a symbol of the na-
troubled cities. tions enduring dependence on oil. Urban
Americas post-war leadersand those livingwhether in cities, older suburbs,
in the generations that followedsatisfied or new mixed-use neighborhoodsis get-
Americans demand for mobility by car by ting a serious look by many young people
engaging in the greatest road-building en- anxious to avoid long commutes, be close
deavor the world had ever seen, at great to friends and activities, and lessen their
public expense. They embarked on the environmental impact. Meanwhile, the
largest public works project in human his- emergence of the Internet, mobile tech-
tory up until that point, the construction nologies and social networking has upend-
of more than 40,000 miles of Interstate ed the way Americans, especially younger
Introduction
Americans, interact with each other and many of those changes are here to stay.
the world. An earlier generation of American lead-
There is now little room for doubt: ers embraced and worked toward a vision
many Americans transportation needs and of a more mobile America linked by high-
desires are changing. And they are chang- ways and automobiles. Today, for better
ing fastest among the people who have the and for worse, we are living their legacy.
most to gain or lose from the investments Will Americas policy-makers have the
we make in new transportation infrastruc- dexterity, the vision and the courage to
ture: the young. This report documents meet these changing needsand by so
the many ways in which young people are doing, put America on a path to a cleaner,
changing their transportation behavior and more resilient transportation system that
their desires for the futureand argues that is less dependent on oil?
D
uring the second half of the 20th cen- Since the mid-2000s however, the num-
tury, the total number of miles driv- ber of miles driven in Americaboth total
en in America steadily increased. and per capitahas fallen. Since 2004, the
Then, at the turn of the century, the trend average number of vehicle-miles driven
changed. Americans now drive less than per capita has decreased by 6 percent. (See
we did in the mid-2000sboth in abso- Figure 1.) And since 2007, when Ameri-
lute and per-capita terms. cans total vehicle travel peaked, the total
Todays youth are leading this decline in number of miles driven in America has
vehicle-miles traveled. Some young peo- fallen 2.3 percent. (See Figure 2.) Ameri-
ple do not drive at all because they either cans as a whole drove fewer miles in 2011
do not own a car or do not have a license. than they drove in 2004.4
Those who do drive are taking fewer Todays youth lead the decline in ve-
trips and driving shorter distances. At the hicle-miles traveled. While Generation X
same time, more young people are in- (age 35-49) and the Baby Boomers (age
stead choosing to walk, bike or take public 50-65) have seen modest drops in the dis-
transportation, or to stay connected using tance they travel in cars, Generation Y
mobile technologies instead of traveling. (age 16-34) is now driving significantly
less than young generations have in pri-
or decades. According to the National
Household Travel Survey (NHTS), be-
tween 2001 and 2009, the average num-
Todays Youth Drive Less ber of vehicle-miles traveled by young
Between 1970 and 2004, the number of people (16 to 34-year-olds) decreased
vehicle-miles traveled per capita increased from 10,300 miles to 7,900 miles per cap-
by an average of 1.8 percent annually, and itaa drop of 23 percent.7 The National
the total number of vehicle-miles traveled Household Transportation Survey shows
increased by an average of 2.9 percent that this is the result of:
annually.3
D ecreased driving among young people is not unique to America, but rather a
phenomenon becoming characteristic of developed countries. In a 2011 study
by the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, researchers found
that of the 14 countries studied other than the United States, seven developed coun-
triesSweden, Norway, Great Britain, Canada, Japan, South Korea and Germa-
nyshowed a recent decrease in the percentage of young people with drivers li-
censes. The other seven countriesFinland, Israel, The Netherlands, Switzerland,
Spain, Latvia and Polandmany of them less developed, showed an increase in the
percentage of young people with licenses.11
In addition to licensing rates, driving rates have also fallen in many developed
countries. Vehicle-miles traveled have either leveled off or fallen in Western Euro-
pean countries including Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Neth-
erlands and Spain.12 Although data on driving rates for young people are not eas-
ily available, the German Income and Expenditure survey shows that the share of
young households without cars in Germany increased from 20 percent to 28 percent
from 1998 to 2008.13
Figure 3: Heavy and Light Rail Ridership Increases Across the US20
while several million simultaneously retire 22.) The percentage of people between the
old ones. Historically, the number of auto- ages of 20 and 34 without licenses has also
mobiles on the road has steadily increased increased. The number of 20 to 34-year-
because newly registered automobiles olds without a drivers license increased
outnumbered retired automobiles. Since from 10.4 percent to 15.7 percent between
2006, the number of vehicles on Americas 2000 and 2010. (See Figure 5.)
roads has hit a plateau after decades of
growth.21 (See Figure 4.)
populated urban cores where people can strip malls with mixed-use developments
walk, bike and take public transit instead that have access to public transit.26
of driving. There has also been an increase This increase in downtown construc-
of interest in walkable, mixed-use devel- tion is clearly demonstrated by trends in
opments in suburban communities. Some building permits. In the decades before
people living in these communities, espe- this shift back to downtown areas, the
cially those in Generation Y, do not own number of building permits in exurbs and
cars. According to the Bureau of Trans- far-lying suburbs dramatically outnum-
portation Statistics, households in urban bered the number of permits in inner cit-
areas are 2.5 times more likely not to pos- ies. However, a recent study by the U.S.
sess a car than households in rural areas.25 Environmental Protection Agency of 50
The rising demand for homes in central- metropolitan areas shows that the pro-
ly-located locations is being met through portion of building permits in central city
the revitalization of aging urban areas in neighborhoods has significantly increased
major cities as well as the reconstruction in recent years. In nearly half of the metro-
of downtown and single-use (e.g. retail) politan areas, the share of new residential
areas into mixed-use walkable and tran- building permits in urban core communi-
sit-oriented developments in smaller cit- ties dramatically increased. For example,
ies. This transformation has already taken in the New York City metropolitan area,
place in several cities. Arlington County the central citys share of residential build-
in Virginia, Bellevue in Washington, and ing permits increased from 15 percent in
Pasadena in California have all replaced the early 1990s to 48 percent in the mid-
M
any members of Generation Y have really important to a lot of the kids in the
reduced their driving because they culture, but it is not the central focus like
choose to take transportation alter- it was 25 years ago. 33 Instead, young peo-
natives instead of cars to school, work and ple choose to spend time on their studies,
recreation, and because many have chosen extracurricular activities and social media.
to live in ways that require less time behind Recent polls have also documented this
the wheel of a car. Growing evidence shift away from driving and toward alter-
both anecdotal and quantitativesuggests native transportation. According to a re-
that some of this change is being driven by cent survey by KRC Research and Zipcar,
shifts in young peoples priorities and pref- 45 percent of young people (18-34 years
erences, shifts that could very well persist as old) reported to have made a conscious ef-
Generation Y ages. fort in the previous year to reduce their
drivingthis is compared with approxi-
mately 32 percent of the rest of the popu-
lation.34 (See Figure 6.)
In the survey by KRC Research and Zipcar, participants were asked to what extent they
agreed with the statement, In the past year, I have consciously made an effort to re-
duce how much I drive, and instead take public transportation, bike/walk or carpool
when possible. The percent of the age group that said they strongly or somewhat
agreed is displayed below.35
grocery stores, restaurants, and houses of within walking and biking distance that
worship, and have nearby access to public makes driving less necessary.36 According
transportation. These preferences con- to a Chicago Tribune article, what residents
trast with the preferences of older and enjoy about Arlington Heights, among
past generations, many of whom strongly other qualities, is its mobility. Residents say
valued living in suburban single family that Arlington Heights family-friendly
homes with transportation dependent on melding of top-ranked schools, an out-
automobiles. standing park district, convenient access
Living in a place that is walkable and to Chicago and revived downtown repre-
transit-oriented has become increasingly sent an appealing mix.37 The citys Metra
popular in recent years, even outside of city commuter rail station, located downtown,
centers. For example, Arlington Heights in is three blocks from the library (which is
Illinois, which moved to transit-oriented visited by 2,600 people a day38), four blocks
development ahead of many other places in from a recreational park, and is surrounded
America, has become a cherished place to by restaurants, shops, schools, theaters and
live. The suburb, located 25 miles north- other amenities39and the Metra com-
west of Chicago, has 77,000 residents, a mute to downtown Chicago takes only 50
combination of single-family and multi- minutes.40
family homes, and a number of amenities National surveys and polls have also
In the National Association of Realtors survey, participants were asked if they would
prefer to live in an area with smart growth or sprawl. The percent of the age group
that said they preferred smart growth is displayed below.
In the National Association for Realtors survey, participants were asked to rate the
importance (on a scale of very important, somewhat important, not very
important, and not at all important) of having nine specific social amenities (e.g.,
restaurants) within walking distance of their homes. The percentages of participants
that answered very important for each amenity are averaged by age group and
displayed below.
In the National Association for Realtors survey, participants were asked to rate the
importance (on a scale of very important, somewhat important, not very im-
portant, and not at all important) of having (1) bus routes and (2) rail lines within
walking distance of their homes. The percentages of participants that answered very
important for bus routes and rail lines are averaged by age group and displayed below.
T Communication Technology
ransportation investments last for de-
cades. So it is important for transpor-
tation policy-makers to understand Substitutes for Driving and
whether trends such as the recent decline Supports Alternative
in driving are temporary or are likely to be
long-lasting.
Transportation
While temporary factors such as the re- Improvements to and expanded accessibil-
cession have contributed to the decline in ity of communications technology reduce
driving, the shift in transportation attitudes the number of trips taken in cars. Social
and behaviors among young people appears networking technology has become a sub-
likely to persist as they get older and as new stitute for some types of car trips. Web-
people reach driving age. Social network- sites and smart phone apps, which did not
ing sites, smart phones and other new com- exist 20 years ago, provide real-time transit
munications innovations not only provide data (e.g. Nextbus) and make public trans-
an alternative to driving in their own right portation easier to use, particularly for
but they also provide a platform for trans- infrequent users. Meanwhile, technology
portation services such as real-time transit advances have also facilitated the growth
information and car- and bike-sharing ser- of car-sharing and bike-sharing services,
vices that did not exist a decade or two ago. enabling users to reserve, pay for, and lo-
Legal barriers, such as recent Graduated cate cars or bikes anytime of the day.
Drivers Licensing laws that now require Todays communications technology
potential drivers to take more behind-the- used for social networking has become
wheel training and restrict young peoples a substitute for some car trips. Younger
driving behavior will also likely act as a people today value constant interconnec-
continued barrier to driving. Other young tivity to their peers through websites and
people avoid driving because increased fuel mobile phone applications, social net-
prices have made driving more expensive working platforms (Facebook, Twitter,
a situation that is unlikely to change mark- Foursquare), instant messaging software,
edly in the foreseeable future. cell phones and video chatting platforms
In the survey by KRC Research and Zipcar, participants were asked to what extent they
agreed with the statement, With access to social networking sites such as Facebook
and Twitter, text messaging and online gaming, I sometimes choose to spend time
with friends online instead of driving to see them. The percent of the age group
that said they strongly or somewhat agreed is displayed below.46
(Skype). Some young people who spend survey, 54 percent of young people polled
time interacting with friends through strongly or somewhat agreed with the
communications technology have less statement that I sometimes choose to
time and desire to drive to see someone. spend time with friends online instead of
Communicating through these new driving to see them. That compares with
technologies has decreased the necessity only 18 percent of Baby Boomers (age
for young people to use cars. Michelle Wei, 55+).45 (See Figure 10.)
for example, from Herndon, Virginia, who Websites and smart phone applications
did not get her license until she was a se- that provide real-time transit data, such as
nior, was content without driving because Nextbus, make public transportation easier
of the social media available to her. She to use, particularly for infrequent users.
claims, in an article in the Washington Post, Real-time transit data allow riders to see
If I couldnt get a ride to see my friend when the next bus, train, or subway will
who lives a town over, I could talk on IM arrive, how long the trip will take, and what
. . . or Skype. The digital world, she said, transfers will be necessary on the journey.
made it very easy not to drive.44 Twenty years ago, public transportation was
Ms. Wei is not alonea recent sur- most accessible to experienced riders, who
vey by Zipcar and KRC Research found knew the routes, schedules, and frequencies.
that many young people substitute social Even then, buses, trains and subways that
networking for driving. According to the were late would waste passenger time.
G
DL laws reduce young peoples driving during the first few years they are
eligible to drive. But GDL laws may have a longer lasting impact. Recent re-
search at the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute found
that the percentage of licensed drivers among people who were 20 to 44 years old in
1983 did not increase as those people agedin other words, according to the study,
for all practical purposes, for the cohorts born between 1939 and 1963, all those who
wanted to get a drivers license did so by age 20.62 (emphasis in original)
Should this finding prove to be true for todays young peoplewhich is very
uncertainchanges in drivers licensing laws that delay the acquisition of a license
could potentially have long-lasting repercussions for driving behaviors later in life.
of North Carolina, these hurdles and re- Increased Fuel Prices Push
strictions have caused much of the decline
in the number of licensed 16-year-olds.58
People to Cheaper
To many teenagers, studying and extracur- Transportation Alternatives
ricular activities are a greater priority than Increased fuel prices have made driving
the tens of hours of behind-the-wheel more expensive, reducing the frequency
practice and high cost necessary to receive with which peopleespecially younger
a license.59 people with less disposable incometravel
GDL laws are likely to remain in effect in cars. The average cost for filling up the
because they have been successful in keep- tank in 2001 was $1,100 for the year (in
ing young drivers safe. From the years 2011 dollars).63 With gasoline prices soar-
between 1993 and 1995, to the years be- ing to $3.50 on average since then, filling
tween 2003 and 2005, fatal crashes involv- up the same tank today costs $2,300
ing 16-year-old drivers decreased 23 per- more than twice as expensive and a seri-
cent.60 According to a report by Preusser ous deterrent for drivers to get behind the
Research Group, the most effective provi- wheel.64
sion in keeping young drivers safe is the While gasoline prices will fluctuate in
extension of the time period in which they the future, they are unlikely to return to
must be supervised, which restricts young the low levels of 1980s or 1990s, and unless
drivers mobility and deters them getting a the United States accelerates its adoption
license.61 Since GDL laws successes make of electric vehicles, it will likely be more
them unlikely to be rolled back by state expensive to fill up the tank in the future
legislatures, they will likely continue to be than it is today. According to the U.S. En-
a deterrent for young people considering ergy Information Administrations projec-
applying for licenses. tions, gas prices are expected to increase
by 26 percent (adjusted for inflation) from
2010 to 2020.65 (See Figure 12.)
Note: High Oil Prices refers to $200 per barrel (in 2009 dollars). Medium Oil Prices refers
to $125 per barrel. Low Oil Prices refers to $50 per barrel.
Figure 13: Young People Reduce Their Driving to Protect the Environment68
In the survey by KRC Research and Zipcar, participants were asked to what extent
they agreed with the statement, I want to protect the environment, so I drive less.
The percent of the age group that said they strongly or somewhat agreed is dis-
played below.
A
mericas transportation policies have Information Administration projected that
long been predicated on the as- by 2010, the total number of vehicle-miles
sumption that driving will continue traveled on Americas roads would reach
to increase. The changing transportation 3.4 trillion.80 However, in 2010, decreased
preferences of young peopleand Ameri- driving rates caused the vehicle-miles
cans overallthrow that assumption into traveled to total just less than 3 trillion
doubt. Transportation decision-makers at milesa difference of 11 percent.81
all levelsfederal, state and localneed The shift away from six decades of in-
to understand the trends that are leading creasing vehicle travel to a new reality of
to the reduction in driving among young slow-growing or even declining vehicle
people and engage in a thorough recon- travel has potentially seismic implica-
sideration of Americas transportation tions for transportation policy. It calls
policy-making to ensure that it serves both into question the wisdom of our current
the needs of todays and tomorrows young transportation investment priorities as
Americans and moves the nation toward well as the sources of revenue used to pay
a cleaner, more sustainable and economi- for those priorities. It creates both a mul-
cally vibrant future. titude of new opportunities as well as dif-
Transportation infrastructure decisions ficult challenges.
have long-lasting implications. Highways, The data in this report suggest a pos-
transit lines and sidewalks have useful lives sible future in which:
measured in decadesand sometimes cen-
turies. To make the best of limited resourc- The demand for transportation
es, transportation planners must anticipate overall stagnates due to the substi-
trends 10, 20 or 40 years into the future. tution of mobile technologies for
Since World War II, the vision the U.S. some transportation services and the
government has had of the future has been emerging consumer preference for
one of consistent increases in driving. walkable, less auto-dependent forms
In 2000, for example, the U.S. Energy of development.
Notes 29
Survey, downloaded from nhts.ornl.gov/det, the total number of bike person trips,
21 November 2011. The vehicle trips per transit person trips and walk person trips
driver in 2001 and 2009 were derived by for 16 to 34-year-olds per the NTHS. The
dividing the total number of vehicle trips total number of alternative transportation
by the total number of drivers for 16 to 34- trips for each year was then divided by
year-olds for each year. the number of 16 to 34-year-olds for each
year, which gives the total number of
9 The average trip lengths in 2001 (10.1 alternative transportation trips per person.
miles) and in 2009 (9.5 miles) were derived 117 more miles was derived by subtracting
by dividing the total vehicle miles traveled the number of miles traveled on alternative
by the total number of vehicle trips for transportation per person in 2001 from the
each year for 16 to 34-year-olds, per the number of miles traveled on alternative
Federal Highway Administration, National transportation per person in 2009. For both
Household Travel Survey,downloaded from 2001 and 2009, the total number of miles
nhts.ornl.gov/det, 21 November 2011. traveled on alternative transportation was
calculated by adding the miles traveled by
10 Federal Highway Administration, bike, transit and walking for 16 to 34-year-
Highway Statistics 2010Table DL-20, olds per NTHS. The total number of miles
September 2011. traveled on alternative transportation for
each year was then divided by the number
11 Michael Sivak and Brandon Schoettle, of 16 to 34-year-olds for each year, which
University of Michigan Transportation gives the alternative transportation miles
Research Institute, Recent Changes in the per person.
Age Composition of Drivers in 15 Countries,
October 2011. 15 24 percent more bike trips was derived
by dividing the number of bike trips taken
12 Todd Litman, Victoria Transport in 2009 by the number of bike trips taken
Policy Institute, The Future Isnt What in 2001 for 16 to 34-year-olds, per the
It Used To Be: Changing Trends and their Federal Highway Administration, National
Implications For Transport Planning, 6 Household Travel Survey, downloaded from
November 2011. nhts.ornl.gov/det, 21 November 2011.
22 Ibid. 37 Ibid.
Notes 31
deduced from Google Maps, downloaded 52 National Transportation Safety Board,
from maps.google.com, 15 January 2012. No call, no text, no update behind the wheel:
NTSB calls for nationwide ban on PEDs while
40 Metra, Union Pacific/Northwest Line driving (press release), 15 February 2012.
(schedule), downloaded from metrarail.
com/metra/en/home/maps_schedules/ 53 Barry Sweedler, History and Effects of
metra_system_map/up-nw/schedule.full. Graduated Licensing and Zero Tolerance,
html, March 6 2012. in Transportation Research Board of
National Academies, Transportation Research
41 Beldon Russonello & Stewart LLC, Circular: Young Impaired Drivers: The Nature
The 2011 Community Preference Survey; of the Problem and Possible Solutions, Number
What Americans are looking for when deciding E-C132, June 2009.
where to live, prepared for the National
Association of Realtors, March 2011. 54 Allan Williams, The Fall and Rise of
Graduated Licensing in North America
42 M. Leanne Lachman and Deborah L. in the Transportation Research Board of
Brett, Urban Land Institute, Generation Y: National Academies, Transportation Research
Americas New Housing Wave, 2011. Circular: Implementing Impaired Driving
Countermeasures: Putting Research into Action:
43 See note 41. Number E-C072, January 2005.
Notes 33
jobs for each year, per Federal Highway 79 Robert Puentes and Adie Tomer,
Administration, National Household Travel Brookings Institution, The Road . . . Less
Survey, downloaded from nhts.ornl.gov/det, Traveled: An Analysis of Vehicle Miles Traveled
21 November 2011. Trends in the U.S., December 2008.