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Flux

The image of water: lines, networks and graphs in the hydraulic


cartography of Madrid
Carmen Gavira

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

Gavira Carmen. The image of water: lines, networks and graphs in the hydraulic cartography of Madrid. In: Flux, n19, 1995.
pp. 4-16;

doi : 10.3406/flux.1995.1014

http://www.persee.fr/doc/flux_1154-2721_1995_num_11_19_1014

Document gnr le 15/06/2016


Abstract
Cartography, as a technique for selecting, organizing and stocking data in order to transmit them
through time and space, has undergone many changes in the past decade. These changes have been
mainly brought about by the introduction of telecommunications, computer technology and digital
supports. Water is undoubtedly one of the most complicated elements with which the cartographer is
confronted in the act of representing, as much the multiplicity of its forms as its changing relationship
with the elements surrounding it, and even morese when, as in modern cartography, water must be
represented as infrastructure. Using the cartography of Madrid as an example, the author follows the
evolution of the representation of water in this city since the earliest images of the Manzanares River in
the 16th century, until the publication of the GIS for the Isabel II Channel in 1993. She analyzes not
only what has changed, but also what has been preserved in the representation of urban hydrography.

Rsum
La cartographie, en tant que technique pour slectionner, ordonner et stocker les donnes afin de les
transmettre travers temps et espace, a beaucoup chang en dix ans. Changements spcialement
dus l'apparition de la tlcommunication, de l'informatique et des supports digitaux. L'eau est sans
aucun doute un des lments les plus compliqus avec lesquels le cartographe se confronte au
moment de reprsenter tant la multiplicit de ses formes comme sa relation changeante avec les
lments de son environnement, et encore plus lorsque dans la cartographie urbaine elle doit tre
reprsente comme une infrastructure. En prenant comme exemple la cartographie de Madrid, l'auteur
retrace l'volution de la reprsentation de l'eau dans cette ville depuis les premires images de la
rivire Manzanares au xvie sicle, jusqu' la publication du SIG du "Canal de Isabel " en 1993. Elle
analyse autant ce qui a chang comme ce qui est conserv dans la reprsentation de l'hydrographie
urbaine.
FLUX n19 January -March 1995

Figure 1 : Spinning and hatching of waters in the representation of the Retiro lake
a. Pedro Texeira, 1656
b. Antonio Espinosa de los Monteros, 1769
c. Ministry of Public Education and Fine Arts, 1906
d. Madrid City Council, 1929
The image of water:
FLUX
lines, networks and graphs
January - March
1995 in the hydraulic cartography

of Madrid

CARMEN GAVIRA

All graphic representations of a space are a way of possessing or


. controlling a particular territory. A map, as an analogical and
miniaturised model of a territorial reality, expresses the image of what that
territory means for the cartographer who has represented it. Its features
reflect not only the geographical culture of a particular society, but also
their manner of organising the world and reality. The objects which are to
be found on the surface of the territory, or their forms, are selected,
simplified, accentuated or hidden according to the interests of "who" has
represented the space or "for whom" it has been represented.
Originally from Galicia, Carmen
GAVIRAobtained doctoral degrees in The technique of selecting, analysing, organising and storing
Urban Geography and Latin American information to transmit it across time and space has evolved considerably in the
Studies, and a Diplome en Etudes past ten years, especially with the generalised use of tldtection,
Suprieures in Political Science at the computers and the introduction of new digital support systems. But even in the
University of Paris (I), as well as the
doctorate in Politics and Economics at case of the most sophisticated cartography existing today, maps are no
the Universit Complutense in Madrid. more than a means of storing information, an instrument of
She is also a qualified Urban communication which, like all media, require a specific transmission language:
Technician, holding the diploma from graphic semiology.
the Instutute of Local Administration
Studies. She is currently professor of
Urban Studies in the School of As opposed to the phonic perception of spoken and written language,
Engineering at the Madrid Polytechnic which relies on the variables of time and sound, perception of a graphic
University. She has published the system makes use of three dimensions, based on the psychological
following books: Guia de fuentes
documenttes para la historia urbana de properties of man's visual perception. The six visual variables which we have
Madrid 1940-1980 (CSIS 1984); available to form a graphic representation are: form, orientation, colour,
Crnica del espacio perdido. La texture, range, and size; and on the basis of these we establish the
destruction de la ciudad en Espafia, co- orthographic, syntactic and stylistic rules which enable us to read a map.
authored with the architect Antiono
FERNANDEZ ALBA (MOPU 1986);
Formation y evolution de la red viaria But cartography today is faced with the challenge of capturing,
madrilea (MOPU 1986); Madrid interpreting and conveying an ever more complex reality. The extension
fronteras y territorio (Mairie de Madrid of the representable world (temperature, sounds, prices, radiations...) and
1991). Her other activities include
advisory, editorial, or scientific the diversity of features until now denied to man's perception (due, for
functions in various scholarly reviews, example, to observation satellites which pick up the multi-spectral band)
such as Alfoz, DEUMT, Cidade e urge upon graphics the need to solve the problem of the multiplication of
Sociedade, Ciudad y Territorio, Citt, correspondences between phenomena and symbols. A key element in this
Metrpilis, and she has also published
a hundred or so articles on information process is the use of a new medium, Geographical Information Systems
technology and territorial and urban (GIS), which make possible the prolongation of graphic memory and
planning. instantaneous interrelationship between phenomena and attributes.
FLUX n19 January -March 1995

The world which we know as human individuals, the analogical and symbolic ones which enable a graph
according to P. Hagget1, is neither entirely rational nor of the network to be drawn?
entirely chaotic, but a probabilistic amalgam of choice,
calculation and fate. Order and chaos, therefore, do not The iconic representation of the "West of the City
form part of nature, but of the human mind. It is man of Madrid," drawn up in 1566 by Anton van der
who, faced with nature, searches for a mentally Wyngarde for Philip II,3 takes the river as the central
premeditated order. It is the cartographer who, when axis of the landscape (Figure 2a). The confines of the
constructing his model, gives form to his idealised Manzanares, with its abrupt change of physiognomy
vision of reality by laying stress on certain of its after the Cantarranas stream, draw closer together and
properties or elements. form harsh features defining a boxed-in valley. The
relief of the left bank is highly pronounced, with a
One of the most complex elements with which the series of promontories such as the Alcazar or the
cartographer must deal in his representation is, without Vistillas on which the city stands and for which the
doubt, water - the most living element of geography, river serves as a moat, more because of its form than
the one that changes most on the surface of the its flow. After passing the Abrofiigal stream, the banks
ter itory, due both to the multiplicity of its forms and states, open out again and the river flows clear over the plain.
and to its relationship with other elements and, among It is the water channel which is conveyed most strongly
these, most especially with the city. by this image, the trough created by the river over the
territory, providing the city with an almost empty fosse
"Nothing unites so much as water," said Hegel, serving as a shield, boundary and frontier.
"civilised countries are nothing other than river
basins."2 The territorial identity which links spaces A century later, in the time of Philip III, a map
with the water that crosses and irrigates them is one of attributed to Witt attempts to represent the whole of the
the strongest factors of cohesion and territorial identity. urban nucleus of Madrid, showing the buildings in
For this reason, the first maps were limited to the areas isometric perspective, and with a complete front view of
of river basins, defined by the transparent line of their the south-facing facades. The same objective was to
waters. But the greatest accomplishments of hydraulic inspire the drawing of the most important map of Madrid
graphics are to be found in the city. In urban in the 17th century, that of Pedro Texeira, a Portuguese
cartography, water displays the full range of its forms and cosmographer in the service of Philip IV (Figure 2b).
functions: as a raw material emerging from springs and In both maps, the river, distant and at a much lower
fountains, as a means of transport, as a hygienic height than the built-up nucleus, continues to play the
element in wash houses and sewers, as a source of energy role of boundary and identification of the site on which
in water wheels or mills, as a decorative or recreational the city stands. But inside the urban area, the water
element in pools and boating lakes, as a frontier and makes its presence felt powerfully through the image
line of defence, as a means of refrigeration in of fountains and lakes or the indications of springs and
underground stores of snow for keeping provisions cool, as underground snow stores for refrigeration. In Texeira' s
an element of landscape personalisation, and so on. profuse legend, marked as no. 117 among the royal
belongings in the Casa de Campo, we find an
indication of the God of Water,4 undoubtedly a reference to
underground water, captured by means of natural
watercourses, with their vertical wells, galleries and
ceramic pipes, and carried towards the centre of the
Majra, "spring or flow of water," Matrice, "mother city from the highest areas several kilometres away.
or torrent of water," Majerit, Matrit, and finally Only the mouths of wells permitting access for
Madrid was to be the name of this city established on maintenance work enable us to detect the existence of the
the current of underground waters which descend three main water channels or the numerous hardwater
towards the river Manzanares beneath banks of granitic springs which fed the city from the inside.
sand and on a bed of impervious clay. How does
cartography represent this city of hidden water? How do This is the image of Madrid that we are to see
graphics represent an understanding of the hydrological repeated with greater geometric accuracy and graphic
network of water, and its technical control and quality in the maps of the 18th century. M. Chal-
administration once it has been transformed into an mandier's map, drawn up in Paris in 1761 (Figure 2c);
infrastructure? How and when do iconic images give way to or that drawn up by Antonio Espinosa de los Monteros
Gavira - The image of water

a. Anton van der Wyngarde, 1566

b. Pedro Texeira, 1656

Nicolas Chalmandier, 1761

Figure 2: Representation of the River Manzanares passing through the city of Madrid
FLUX n19 January -March 1995

in 1769 (Figure 3a), in which the network of he was accomplishing a great cartographical feat for
watercourses is depicted for the first time. This latter his time (see Figure 3b). The drawing of the "waters"
document is much more accurate than earlier ones, since it of the Jarama and the Manzanares, which appears with
is based on the information provided by the meticulous a black arrow to indicate the direction of the current, is
measuring of dwellings carried out at the king's orders. so delicate and precise, says Vazquez Moure,6 that it
At this time it was common, as indicated by F. de cannot be compared with any later ones. The same is
Dainville,5 to entrust the drawing of any type of water true of the lakes in the Retiro and the Casa de Campo
to a specialised engraver, and so we find references to parks. All of the intermittent watercourses are also
"payments for the waves of the sea and rivers" as part reflected, and there is an exhaustive classification of
of cartography costs. This representational form was channels with a profusion of conventional symbols:
achieved by means of the "hatching" or "spinning" irrigation ditches in the Casa de Campo and in la
techniques. In the former, the engraver drew straight Mufioza; the channel of the Manzanares with the sign
lines on the copper parallel to the midline; the lines that reminds us that it was originally a navigable canal;
always started out from the banks and became fainter irrigation channels, and so on; and the appearance, in
after a certain distance. This was called "cutting the spite of the fact that the scale is 1/100,000, of the first
water," in the same way as placing a thinner line symbol of an "elevated tank" built for the Isabel II
between the primary ones was called "surfacing." The Channel (the system for bringing water to the city from
second representational form consisted of "tracing with the far-off mountains) in Bravo Murillo street, which
a chisel" a certain number of slightly wavy, parallel shows the importance already attached to the Channel
lines which followed the exact profiles of sea coasts, at that time.
lakes or watercourses: this was called "spinning the
waters" (Figure 1, frontispiece to article). It was the magnificent work of the engineers J.
Rafo and J. Rivera (see Figure 3c) which would reveal
The new requirements demanded of cartography what Ildefonso Cerd called "the naked skin of
during the 19th century were to transform the map into Madrid." Their "Relief map of the land of Madrid,"
the technical instrument par excellence for the control (1848) showed the capacity of the territory as a channel
of urban planning and administration. Maps now did and obstacle for the installations of the Lozoya
away with shadows and useless adornments and sought Channel as reflected in the "Draft plan for the
above all accuracy in their lines, either as property distribution of water to Madrid with three types of piping."
limits reflecting the official land register or in the This map was to signal the definitive introduction of
painstakingly precise delineation of the piping for the thematic network cartography, which had its precedent
laying of the new urban infrastructures. Cartographers in the 1 8th-century map of the sewers of the city drawn
were above all technicians, no longer in the service of up by Jos Alonso del Arce in 1735 for Philip IV, in
the King, but of the new urban bourgeoisie, which which the 1,870 metres of projected sewers and the 14
needed maps of "their property," and of the service main sewers are represented. The maps of the railway,
Companies which needed to locate, plan and administer telegraph, electricity and gas grids show how these
the new networks they were weaving over the city networks were later gradually superimposed on the
(water, gas, electricity, trams, and so on). territory, imitating its irregularities, avoiding its obstacles
and making the best use of its potential to give shape to
In a map drawn by S. Tardieu, dated 1788, we see the city's new technical space, which was to be visible
Madrid's entire hydraulic network represented for the on the surface through the switches, lids, manholes and
first time, where the river Manzanares appears as just drains that dotted the roads, which had also been turned
one more line. This understanding of the network as into a network forming the basic channel and support
incorporated in the complex topography of Madrid for all of them.
enables us to gain an insight into the dialogue which its
beds, valleys and slopes were to establish with the new Once the problem of the water supply of Madrid
technical networks from the 19th century onwards. had been solved, thanks to the construction of the
Channel to carry the flow of the river Lozoya to the
In 1872, "Sheet Number 1" of the first National city, new problems would arise in the graphic
Topographical Map was published: the sheet representation of its hydraulic infrastructure: the cartography of
corresponding to Madrid, prepared with great care to serve as what was hidden under the asphalt, the need to provide
a guide and model for the ones to follow. Its author, an image for a materially non-existent form (the virtual
General Ibez de Ibero, was conscious of the fact that networks, projects or potential flows) (see Figure 6.1).
Gavira - The image of water

a. Antonio Espinosa de los Monteras, 1769

b.J. Ibez de Ibero, 1872

. J. Rafo and J. Rivera, 1848

Figure 3: Representation of the River Manzanares passing through the city of Madrid
FLUX n19 January -March 1995

Little by little, representation of the characteristics of non-existent as long as it cannot be seen on a map. The
the network as a whole is given up, and the totality is "map of the network" is what permits its legal
abandoned in favour of only that part which is required existence for the Authorities of the territory of the
for the execution of a particular task. Symbolic images "concession," and what enables the technical understanding of
are superimposed on analogical ones, representation its layout for administration, providing the user with an
becomes abstract, generalization becomes the norm, image through which it can be identified and
and information is entirely eliminated so as to appropriated. The system of signs, which enables the
concentrate on a certain specific dimension. It is no longer a transcription of the relationships between the points, arcs
case of reflecting the topographical base in which the and junctions of the network, is the only means
network in the map is inserted, but of mapping out the available to the user for solving the logical problem of its
network as such, reflecting the topographical logic understanding. Without legibility, the network does not
which underpins it. exist. Without material inscription, the network, ever
more subtle and hidden, is not perceived by the user
In the network, each element or each section lacks (see Figure 5).
meaning by itself, even the Channel itself does not take
on meaning if is not understood (and represented) as an In the "Map of Madrid by Districts" of 1906,
element of articulation of the territorial system in drawn up by the Ministry of Public Education and Fine
which it is included: as an infrastructure which enables Arts (Figure 4a), the number of hydraulic symbols in
the circulation of the flow of water. The network is the legend is increased and, alongside the classical

a. Ministry of Public Education and Fine Arts, 1906

b. Madrid City Council, 1929


Figure 4: Representation of the River Manzanares passing through the city of Madrid
10
Gavira - The image of water

SIGNOS CONVENCIONALES Signes conrencioiiale*.


Limite Je muiu,y<ul.

M*nuununm*viJa* Malmatlf\
I/J. iJ.rnii wMftliitm Jrjulhta <' |
I inlrnvr. lrj-
i> . M /Um U xw M
M.1J.1J <lrl ,:rlrurr<uli,
j j

y r*4tf *U Itive/tia -Hi.- . Mw/rbi/

/twV Irilomtrm
tu..
rtrrra *ir .
;

SIMBOLOS

nrssvm

1 1
)
vmtvuu
vwA turn

^-WMACEI
(JI VMiVUU DUCTO
l-i-CCMPUOir _
UMUCTO a SOUK*
A\ BTJCO) 0<0 CCMNUO

CAIUCTtmSTICAS DC LAS CONOUCOONCS

f -
mNT -. af . >
U -- HORMOON
UUUTA "SnWVOO pt . usne

Figure 5: Object-symbol relationships


1. P. Nftez Grans, 1910 2. Ministry of Public Education and Fine Arts, 1906 3. Army Geographical Service, 1933
4. Isabel II Channel, 1994

images of stream, river, well, waterwheel, sewer or cohesion. But it is in the maps of "Urban information
lake, the new symbols of hydrants, water manholes and of Madrid," prepared by the City Council for the
even urinals appear. The network of the Channel, participants in the international competition of 1929 (Figure
represented in all its minuteness, twists and turns 4b), in which the greatest technological prowess in the
among the plots of land, emerging and disappearing in cartography of urban networks is displayed in all its
the web of the city, endowing the whole of it with brilliance. The hypsometric map, the sewer network,
11
FLUX n19 January - March 1995

the map of the Isabel II Channel, or the division of the cessive discharges of another four purifying plants: La
city into plots combine the most advanced techniques China, Butarque, Sur and Sur Oriental. The river, thus
of that time (the first photomap of the city was used as converted into a linear lake of treated sewage, assumes
the basis) with a careful and imaginative design which the function of a special recreational area, a protected
continues to astonish us even today. ecological space in the city where aquatic birds (gulls,
spoonbill ducks, etc.) may spend the winter, and an
aquarium for piscicultural wildlife. The city has
II recovered its river, and with it the image of the sheet of
water in which the cornice of the old alcazar (fortress)
In the 70s, the huge consumption of water required was reflected, the blue line crossed by bridges in the
by the great concentration of population in the image painted by Goya of the Pradera de San Isidro
metropolitan area caused an imbalance in the natural hydro- (San Isidro Meadow).
logical cycle of the rivers closest to Madrid. In the
hydraulic cartography of those years, six areas can In order to make this "miracle" possible, the most
clearly be distinguished: one stretch producing clean advanced purifying techniques were used: fine bubble
water, made up of the headwaters of the tributaries and diffusors, pressure gas agitation in the digesters, rapid
sub-tributaries of the Tagus. A second, "reserve" area extraction mechanics in the secondary decanters and in
to the west, which is pressed into production when the the flotation thickener, automatic computer control,
Lozoya and Jarama reservoirs are low. An area of mid- turbo-compressed air supply, installation of all pipes in
waters, whose circulatory flow is reduced by sleepers or galleries which can be visited, and so on.
extractions upriver and which receive some waste from urban Thanks to computerisation and tldtection, the
nuclei (in these areas capacity for self-purification is metabolism of the town has become transparent and
extremely low and in the summertime there are serious quantifiable, making it possible to administer the city in a
problems in circulation). A consumption centre of over new way. We are now beginning to speak of intelligent
four million persons in the central municipality and the networks, to express the change from static
metropolitan band, where the resource is massively administration of objects to dynamic administration of events
used and returned to the system totally spoiled. A fifth (overflows, breakages, droughts or storms, in the case
area, for receiving, situated downstream from the of flows).
consumption centre, where the leisure potential or use
of the river banks is completely ruled out by the The hydraulic network has ceased to be a simple
massive amounts of dirty water and waste poured into it. infrastructure to become part of a much broader notion
And a last area, to the west and east of the province, which determines a precise form of production and
located outside the metropolitan system, with no distribution. In this new concept of network,
problems of consumption or waste. communication will displace circulation. The logic of
transport, in which the minimum cost for the maximum
In 1977, the hydrological situation in Madrid was distance is sought, will be replaced by the logic of
unbearable, according to the data of the water services communication, in which priority will be given to
of the City Council.7 Each second, 12,000 litres of distribution and switching. On this basis it is difficult to
sewage poured into the Manzanares and the Jarama, while refer to the formalisation of networks as "maps," since
over 400 tons of solid waste were also discharged into what is represented is something else. The "General
them every day. The now-lifeless river served as an outline of supply installations" of the Isabel II Channel
open-air drain crossing the city with its flow of of 1993, designed by R. Turgano (see Figure 6),
sewage. In the Integral Purification Plan for Madrid includes telecontrol with 36 remote stations, a system
(PSIM), begun that same year, it is recognised that the of mobile telephony capable of transmitting voice and
self-purifying capacity of the rivers had been totally data to any vehicle, fixed telephony via a switching
surpassed and the basic objective proposed was to network of 40 digital exchanges, a data transmission
return them to their original state. Thanks to the most system between controlling computers, etc. These new
advanced technology, "the new River Manzanares," images of hydraulic networks cannot be understood
made up of the urban stretch of the river, was opened with the logic of maps, plans or traditional graphics; to
in 1984. The only water it carries are the 1,500 litres understand them, it is necessary to make use of the
per second discharged from the Viveros purifying theory of graphs, with its properties of connection, a
plant, which flow in a sheet of water 0.8 to 2.8 metres topological concept which quantifies the existence of
thick, and are supplemented on their course by the relationships between the branch points of a network;

12
Gavira - The image of water

mi. nt nr us 1 dl cu*t immi. -

f I

Figure 6: The earliest and the most recent


2.1. Isabel
imageII ofCanal,
the distribution
1948
1993 network of the Isabel II Channel

13
FLUX n19 January -March 1995

connectivity, which expresses the bonds between The God of the waters of Madrid, represented by
direct and alternative points; homogeneity and Pedro Texeira in his map of 1656 (cf. Figure 7), has
isotopy, which complement topological properties with now been replaced by orfeo (Orpheus), son of the
spatial-temporal features; and nodality, which enables river-god oiagros and by sigryd, companion of the
the branch points of a network to be hierarchized from genie of the waters mimir (he who thinks) as a symbol
the point of view of their capacities of reciprocal of the transformation of "the city of the hidden water"
relationship. Through these new into the city of "intelligent
images it becomes clear that waters."
graphics can represent a
visual form of solving and In his conclusion to the
understanding logical study on space, Raffestin8
problems, by means of a system asks if the old oriental
of personal signs designed by despotism of hydraulic societies
each creator to show might not be comparable,
relationships between entities with the logical differences
defined beforehand. of space and time, to the
western despotism of
The introduction of computerised societies. It is clear
Geographical Information that the two despotisms are
Systems to networks, as a new based on networks of a
medium enabling the different kind, but they present
extension of human memory, congruent problems. Daniel
makes possible a new formal Parrochie, in his
approach to networks by Philosophie des Rseaux,9
storing, recording, processing expresses the same sentiment,
and managing different types observing how "channelled
of objects and entities using flows" imitate geography by
their geographical following water courses and
referencing as an integral part of the relief ... but in this new
information, which entails a technological ocean, the
new formal constitution of new networks have created
networks and space, a new their own web which
Figure 7: The image of fountains in the cartography of
spatial conception of the city envelops the universe.
and of territory. In 1988 a P.Texeira(1656)
study was begun of the feasibility of a GIS for The different specialised and heterogeneous
administering the networks of the Isabel II Channel. In networks now in existence allow the circulation of people,
1992, the SIGRYD system became operative with its materials and information, but the invisible revolution
first four work stations. The same year saw the of codes, known as digitizing, involves a capacity of
development of the GIS which will make possible the concentration and projection through ever lighter
Integral Purification Plan for the City of Madrid, based support systems in such a way that "communication
on ORFEO software (see Figure 8). With these networks are now in a position to offer a common support
systems, hydraulic cartography has undergone a total to activities, whether financial, administrative,
transformation, since it is now possible to formalize the commercial, industrial or cultural, which are imbricated
technical, functional or territorial dimension of each rather than simply interconnected through this
network, enabling the spatial representation of network of networks." Is there any sense, therefore, in
problems relating to capacity, prices, the age of continuing to speak of hydraulic cartography?
installations, pressure, or any other technical characteristic.

14
Gavira - The image of water

BASE DE PATOS
CARTOGRAFIA.

PATRIMONIO

AYUDA CONTRATACICN
mn muoiuoi
onu MLiaiven imi m i
CONTROL CALIDAD MODEUZACION

M IM HMW

MODULOS BASICOS DE SIGRYD

Figure 8. GIS 's in the hydraulic network of Madrid


1. SIGRYD
2. ORFEO: Continuous map of the network of sewers - wells, pipes and main sewers

15
FLUX n19 January - March 1995

Notes
1. See "Madrid," in r. l. Kagan (d.), Ciudades del Siglo 5. Franois de Dainville, Le langage des Gographes (Paris:
de Oro. Las vistas de Anton Van den Wyngaerde espaolas A. et J. Picard, 1964).
(Madrid: El Viso, 1979), pp. 110-119. 6. Francisco Vazquez Maure, "La primera hoja del mapa
2. Peter Hagget, Anlisis locacional en geografia humana topogrfico nacionl," Boletn de la Real Sociedad Geogrfica
(Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 1969). no. 34, Jun-Aug. 1988, pp. 80-89.
3. F. Hegel, La raison dans l'histoire. (Paris: 10/18, 1965, 7. Madrid City Council, "El Agua de Madrid," PSIM
p. 222), quoted by Daniel Parrochie, Philosophie des rseaux (Madrid: LUMWERG Editores, 1985).
(Paris: PUF, 1993) p. 81. 8. C. Raffestin, Pour une gographie du pouvoir (Paris:
4. See Miguel Molina Campuzano, Pianos de Madrid de los LITEC, 1981).
siglos XVII y XVIII (Madrid: IEAL, 1960). 9. Daniel Parrochie, op. cit.
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