Fatigue How and Why

Fatigue and Fracture
Fatigue, How and Why

Physics of Fatigue
Professor Darrell F. Socie

Mechanical Science and Engineering
University of Illinois
2004-2013 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
Fatigue, How and Why 2004-2013 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 1 of 141
Size Scale for Studying Fatigue
Atoms Dislocations Crystals Specimens Structures
10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 100 102
Understand the physics on this scale
Model the physics on this scale
Use the models on this scale
The Fatigue Process
Crack nucleation
Small crack growth in an elastic-plastic
stress field
Macroscopic crack growth in a nominally
elastic stress field
Final fracture
Mechanisms Crack Nucleation
Nucleation in Slip Bands inside Grain

Nucleation at Grain Boundaries
Nucleation at Inclusions
1903 - Ewing and Humfrey
Cyclic deformation leads

to the development of slip
bands and fatigue cracks
N = 1,000 N = 2,000
N = 10,000 N = 40,000 Nf = 170,000

Ewing, J.A. and Humfrey, J.C. The fracture of metals under repeated alterations of stress,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. A200, 1903, 241-250
Crack Nucleation
Slip Band in Copper
Polak, J. Cyclic Plasticity and Low Cycle Fatigue Life of Metals, Elsevier, 1991
Slip Band Formation
Extrusion
Undeformed
material
Intrusion
Loading Unloading
Slip Bands
Ma, B-T and Laird C. Overview of fatigue behavior in copper sinle crystals II Population, size, distribution and growth
Kinetics of stage I cracks for tests at constant strain amplitude, Acta Metallurgica, Vol 37, 1989, 337-348
2124-T4 Cracking in Slip Bands
N = 60 N = 240 N = 300
N = 1200 N = 2000
Crack at Particle
Material: BS L65 Aluminum

Loading: 63 ksi, R=0 for
500,000+ cycles, followed by 68
ksi, R=0 to failure. Cracks found
during 68 ksi loading.
S. Pearson, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation
of Very Short Cracks, RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
2219-T851 Cracked Particle
10
m
James & Morris, ASTM STP 811 Fatigue Mechanisms: Advances in Quantitative Measurement of Physical
Damage, pp. 46-70, 1983.
Crack at Bonded Particle
Material: BS L65 Aluminum

Loading: 63 ksi, R=0 for
500,000+ cycles, followed by 68
ksi, R=0 to failure. Cracks found
during 68 ksi loading.
S. Pearson, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation
of Very Short Cracks, RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
7075-T6 Cracking at Inclusion
Crack Initiation at Inclusions
Langford and Kusenberger, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in 4340 Steel, Metallurgical Transactions, Vol 4, 1977, 553-559
Subsurface Crack Initiation
Y. Murakami, Metal Fatigue: Effects of Small Defects and Nonmetallic Inclusions, 2002
Fatigue Limit and Strength Correlation
1250 0.6
Fatigue Strength, MPa
1000 0.5
750 0.35
500
250
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Tensile Strength, MPa
From Forrest, Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon Press, London, 1962
Crack Nucleation Summary
Highly localized plastic deformation

Surface phenomena
Stochastic process
Surface Damage
surface surface bulk
10 m 100 m
20-25 austenitic steel in symmetrical push-pull fatigue

(20C, p/2= 0.4%) : short cracks on the surface and in the bulk
From Jacques Stolarz, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines

Presented at LCF 5 in Berlin, 2003
Stage I and Stage II
loading direction
free
surface
Stage I Stage II
Stage I Crack Growth
S
Single primary slip system
S
Stage I crack is strongly affected by slip
individual grain
characteristics, microstructure
near - tip plastic zone
dimensions, stress level, extent of near
tip plasticity
Small Cracks at Notches
notch plastic zone
notch stress field
crack tip plastic zone

D a
Crack growth controlled by the notch plastic strains
Small Crack Growth
Inconel 718
= 0.02
Nf = 936
1.0 mm
N = 900
Crack Length Observations
2.5
F-495 H-491
J-603 I-471 C-399

2
Crack Length, mm
G-304
1.5
0.5
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Cycles
Crack - Microstructure Interactions
da/dN, mm/cycle F
10-6
E 10-7
D A B C
0.03 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Crack Length, mm
Akiniwa, Y., Tanaka, K., and Matsui, E.,Statistical Characteristics of Propagation of Small Fatigue Cracks in Smooth
Specimens of Aluminum Alloy 2024-T3, Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. A104, 1988, 105-115
Strain-Life Data
10m 1mm
1 100 m fracture Crack size
Strain Amplitude
2
0.1
0.01
10-3
10-4
10-5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
Most of the life is spent in microcrack growth in the
plastic strain dominated region
Stage II Crack Growth
Locally, the crack grows in shear

Macroscopically it grows in tension
Long Crack Growth
Plastic zone size is much larger than the material

microstructure so that the microstructure does not
play such an important role.
Crack Growth Rates of Metals
Material strength does not play a major role in fatigue crack growth
Stresses Around a Crack
Maximum Load
monotonic plastic zone
Stresses Around a Crack (continued)
Minimum Load

cyclic plastic zone
Crack Closure
a b c
S=0 S = 175 S = 250

Crack Opening Load
Damaging portion of loading history
Opening load
Nondamaging portion of loading history
Mode I, Mode II, and Mode III
Mode I Mode II Mode III
opening in-plane shear out-of-plane shear
Mode I Growth
crack growth direction

5 m
Mode II Growth
shear stress
slip bands
10 m
crack growth direction
1045 Steel - Tension
1.0
Damage Fraction N/Nf
0.8
0.6 Tension
0.4
Shear
0.2 Nucleation
100 m crack
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
1045 Steel - Torsion
1.0
Tension
Damage Fraction N/Nf
0.8
f
0.6
0.4
0.2 Shear
Nucleation
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
Things Worth Remembering
Fatigue is a localized process involving the

nucleation and growth of cracks to failure.
Fatigue is caused by localized plastic
deformation.
Most of the fatigue life is consumed growing
microcracks in the finite life region
Crack nucleation is dominate at long lives.
Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
Characterization
Stress Life Curve

Fatigue Limit
Strain Life Curve
Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
Crack Growth Curve
Threshold Stress Intensity
Bending Fatigue
stress amplitude
stress
time
F
stress range
Bending stress:
Mc
=
I
SN Curve
500
Monel Alloy
400
Stress Amplitude, MPa
300
200
0 1x108 2x108 3x108 4x108 5x108
500 Cycles to Failure
400
300
200
105 106 107 108 109
Cycles to Failure
Testing time
@ 30 Hz 1 hour 1 day 1 month 1 year
Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Life
Alloy 105 106 107 108 109
2014-T4 290 235 186 152 138
2024-T4 297 214 166 145 138
6061-T6 186 152 117 104 90
7075-T6 276 200 166 152 145
6061-T6 Aluminum Test Data
Sharpe et. al. Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures , 1996
SN Curve for Steel
104
S
= S'f (Nf )
b
2
1000
fatigue limit
100
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Cycles
The fatigue limit is usually only found in steel laboratory specimens
Very High Cycle Fatigue of Steel
104
surface failures conventional internal

large inclusions fatigue limit inclusions
1000
100
103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
Cycles
Fatigue Damage
10000
S
Stress Amplitude, MPa = S'f (Nf )
b
2
1000 1
10
100
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Cycles
1
S b
Nf = '
2 Sf
Damage S10
Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation
1250 0.6
Fatigue Strength, MPa
1000 0.5
750 0.35
500
250
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Tensile Strength, MPa
From Forrest, Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon Press, London, 1962
Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation
SN Materials Data
10000 93 steels
17 aluminums
1000
100
10
1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
Fatigue Life, Reversals
Strain Controlled Testing
Cyclic Hardening / Softening
Stable Hysteresis Loop
Hysteresis loop

p e

Strain-Life Data
600
2
500
Stress Amplitude
400

1/ n'
300 = +
2 2E 2 K'
200
100
0
0 0.004 0.008 0.012

Strain Amplitude
2
During cyclic deformation, the material deforms on a path
described by the cyclic stress strain curve
Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
Strain-Life Data - 2Nf
1

2
0.1
Strain Amplitude
0.01
0.001
10-4
10-5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
2 Reversals, 2Nf = 1 Cycle, Nf
Elastic and Plastic Strain-Life Data
1

2
Plastic
0.1
Strain Amplitude
0.01
0.001 Elastic
10-4
10-5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
Strain-Life Curve
'f
1 'f
= (2Nf )b + 'f (2Nf )c

2
2 E
0.1 c
Strain Amplitude
0.01
b
0.001
'f
10-4
E
2Nt
10-5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
Transition Fatigue Life
From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

N Materials Data
10
93 steels
1 17 aluminums
Strain Amplitude
0.1
10-2
10-3
10-4
1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
Fatigue Life, Reversals

Crack Growth Testing
Stress Concentration of a Crack

a
K T = 1+ 2
2a
KT ~ 2000
for a crack
local = 2000 applied
a ~ 10-3
~ 10-9
Traditional material properties like tensile strength

are not very useful for cracked structures
Stress Intensity Factor
K = a
K characterizes the magnitude of the

stresses, strains, and displacements in the
neighborhood of a crack tip
Two cracks with the same K will have

2a the same behavior
Crack Growth Measurements

2 1
Crack size
a2 da
dN
2a a1

Cycles
Crack Growth Data
10-6
Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle 10-7

Kc
10-8
da
10-9 = C K m
dN
10-10 m~3
10-11
10-12
1 10 100
KTH K,MPa m
Threshold Region
a
K TH > a f
w
threshold stress intensity
flaw shape
flaw size
operating stresses
Threshold Stress Intensity
From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

Non-propagating Crack Sizes
Small cracks are frequently semielliptical surface cracks
2
K TH > 1.12 a

2
K TH
ac = 0.63

u
Smooth specimen fatigue limit
2
2
K TH
ac = 2.52
u
Non-propagating Crack Sizes
1
K TH = 5 MPa m
Crack Size, mm
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Ultimate Strength, MPa
Stable Crack Growth
10-6
Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle 10-7

Kc
10-8
da
10-9 = C K m
dN
10-10
Stable growth region

10-11
10-12
1 10 100
KTH K,MPa m
Crack Growth Data
yield
252
Ferritic-Pearlitic Steel:
10-6
( )
273
392 da 3 .0
415
= 6.9 10 12 K MPa m
Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle
dN
Martensitic Steel:
10-7 da
dN
= 1.4 10 10 K MPa m ( ) 2.25
Austenitic Stainless Steel:
10-8
da
dN
= 5.6 10 12 K MPa m ( ) 3.25
5 10 100
K, MPam
Barsom, Fatigue Crack Propagation in Steels of Various Yield Strengths

Journal of Engineering for Industry, Trans. ASME, Series B, Vol. 93, No. 4, 1971, 1190-1196
Aluminum Crack Growth Rate Data
Sharp, Nordmark and Menzemer, Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures, 1996
Crack Growth Data
50
Crack Length, mm
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Cycles x103
Virkler, Hillberry and Goel, The Statistical Nature of Fatigue Crack Propagation, Journal of Engineering Materials
and Technology, Vol. 101, 1979, 148-153
Method Physics Size

Stress-Life Crack Nucleation 0.01 mm
Strain-Life Microcrack Growth 0.1 - 1 mm
Crack Growth Macrocrack Growth > 1mm
Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
Fatigue Analysis
Material
Data
Component Fatigue
Analysis
Geometry Life Estimate
?
Service
Loading
The Similitude Concept
Why Fatigue Modeling Works !
What is the Similitude Concept
The Similitude Concept allows engineers to

relate the behavior of small-scale cyclic
material test specimens, defined under
carefully controlled conditions, to the likely
performance of real structures subjected to
variable amplitude fatigue loads under either
simulated or actual service conditions.
Fatigue Analysis Techniques
Stress - Life
BS 7608, Eurocode 3
Strain - Life
Crack Growth
Life Estimation
Method Physics Size

Stress-Life Crack Nucleation 0.01 mm
BS 7608 Crack Growth 1 - 10 mm
Strain-Life Microcrack Growth 0.1 - 1 mm
Crack Growth Macrocrack Growth > 1mm
Stress-Life Fatigue Modeling
Fixed
End
P
10000
1000 The Similitude Concept states that if the

instantaneous loads applied to the test
structure (wing spar, say) and the test
100 specimen are the same, then the response
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Cycles in each case will also be the same and can
be described by the materials S-N curve.
Fatigue Analysis: Stress-Life
Material SN curve
Data Ka, Ks,
Component Fatigue
Kf Analysis
Service
S , Sm
Loading
Stress-Life
Major Assumptions:
Most of the life is consumed nucleating cracks
Elastic deformation
Nominal stresses and material strength control
fatigue life
Accurate determination of Kf for each geometry
and material
Stress-Life
Advantages:
Changes in material and geometry can easily be
evaluated
Large empirical database for steel with standard
notch shapes
Stress-Life
Limitations:
Does not account for notch root plasticity
Mean stress effects are often in error
Requires empirical Kf for good results
BS 7608 Fatigue Modeling
The Similitude Concept states that if the

1000 instantaneous loads applied to the test
Stress Range, MPa
structure (welded beam on a bulldozer, say)

100
and the test specimen (standard fillet weld)
are the same, then the response in each
case will also be the same and can be
10 described by one of the standard BS 7608
105 106 107 108
Cycles Weld Classification S-N curves.
Weld Classifications
D E
F2 G
Fatigue Analysis: BS 7608
Material Weld SN curve

Data
Component Fatigue
Class Analysis
Service
S
Loading
BS 7608
Major Assumptions:
Crack growth dominates fatigue life
Complex weld geometries can be described by a
standard classification
Results independent of material and mean stress
for structural steels
BS 7608
Advantages:
Manufacturing effects are directly included
Large empirical database exists
BS 7608
Limitations:
Difficult to determine weld class for complex
shapes
No benefit for improving manufacturing process
Strain-Life Fatigue Modeling
1
The Similitude Concept states that if the
instantaneous strains applied to the test
0.1
structure (vehicle suspension, say) and the
Strain Amplitude
0.01 test specimen are the same, then the

0.001 response in each case will also be the same
10-4 and can be described by the materials e-N
10-5
curve. Due account can also be made for
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 stress concentrations, variable amplitude
Reversals, 2Nf
loading etc.
Fatigue Analysis: Strain-Life
Material N curve
Data curve
Component Fatigue
Kf Analysis
Service
S , Sm
Loading
Strain-Life
Major Assumptions:
Local stresses and strains control fatigue
behavior
Plasticity around stress concentrations
Accurate determination of Kf
Strain-Life
Advantages:
Plasticity effects
Mean stress effects
Strain-Life
Limitations:
Requires empirical Kf
Long life situations where surface finish and
processing variables are important
Crack Growth Fatigue Modeling
The Similitude Concept

states that if the stress
intensity (K) at the tip of a
crack in the test structure
(welded connection on an oil
platform leg, say) and the
test specimen are the same,
10-6 then the crack growth
response in each case will
Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle
10-7
also be the same and can be
10-8
described by the Paris
10-9 relationship. Account can
10-10 also be made for local
chemical environment, if
10-11
necessary.
10-12
1 10 100
K,MPa m
Fatigue Analysis: Crack Growth
Material da/dN curve

Data
Component Fatigue
K Analysis
Service
S , Sm
Loading
Crack Growth
Major Assumptions:
Nominal stress and crack size control fatigue life
Accurate determination of initial crack size
Crack Growth
Advantage:
Only method to directly deal with cracks
Crack Growth
Limitations:
Complex sequence effects
Accurate determination of initial crack size
Choose the Right Model
Similitude
Failure mechanism
Size scale
Design Philosophy
Safe Life
Damage Tolerant
Safe Life
500

400
300
200
99 90 50 10 1
Percent Survival
100
0
104 105 106 107 108 109
Fatigue Life
Choose an appropriate risk and replace critical parts

after some specified interval
Damage Tolerant
Inspection
Crack size
a2
a1
Safe Operating Life
Cycles
Inspect for cracks larger than a1 and repair
Inspection
A Boeing 777 costs $250,000,000
A new car costs $25,000
For every $1 spent inspecting and maintaining a

B 777 you can spend only 0.01 on a car
Questions to ask
Will a crack nucleate ?
Will a crack grow ?
How fast will it grow ?
Similitude
Failure mechanism
Size Scale
Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
eFatigue
Some Observations
Most fatigue failures are not the result of an

expert using the wrong analysis etc.
Most fatigue failures are a result of a non-
expert not considering fatigue because it is
too complicated, not enough data etc.
Fatigue will no longer be taught in the major
research universities as they focus on new
science.
Prof Yukitaka Murakami
Science in the Sunlight

Science in the Shade
Science in the Sunlight
Science in the Shade
A Common Viewpoint (controversial)
Fatigue is reasonably well understood, major

problems are solved and current research is
applications driven towards investigating special
cases and improving the accuracy of our
evaluations.
Fatigue is assessment is just like finite element

analysis, buy some software and make a color plot.
Fatigue Calculators
There is a need for some fatigue analysis

tools that take only a few minutes to learn
so non-experts can reliably conduct a
fatigue assessment.
www.eFatigue.com
Summary
eFatigue Bring fatigue assessment out of

the shade into the sunlight where many
people can have access fatigue
technology on demand.
Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue How and Why

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Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue, How and Why

Professor Darrell F. Socie

2004-2013 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 100 102

Understand the physics on this scale

Model the physics on this scale

Use the models on this scale

Nucleation in Slip Bands inside Grain

Cyclic deformation leads

N = 10,000 N = 40,000 Nf = 170,000

Material: BS L65 Aluminum

Material: BS L65 Aluminum

0 500 1000 1500 2000

Highly localized plastic deformation

surface surface bulk

20-25 austenitic steel in symmetrical push-pull fatigue

From Jacques Stolarz, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines

Single primary slip system

notch plastic zone

notch stress field

crack tip plastic zone

Crack growth controlled by the notch plastic strains

J-603 I-471 C-399

Locally, the crack grows in shear

Plastic zone size is much larger than the material

monotonic plastic zone

S=0 S = 175 S = 250

Nondamaging portion of loading history

crack growth direction

crack growth direction

Fatigue is a localized process involving the

Stress Life Curve

surface failures conventional internal

large inclusions fatigue limit inclusions

0 500 1000 1500 2000

From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

Fatigue Life, Reversals

Traditional material properties like tensile strength

K characterizes the magnitude of the

Two cracks with the same K will have

Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle 10-7

From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle 10-7

Stable growth region

Austenitic Stainless Steel:

Barsom, Fatigue Crack Propagation in Steels of Various Yield Strengths

Method Physics Size

Why Fatigue Modeling Works !

The Similitude Concept allows engineers to

Method Physics Size

1000 The Similitude Concept states that if the

The Similitude Concept states that if the

structure (welded beam on a bulldozer, say)

Material Weld SN curve

0.01 test specimen are the same, then the

The Similitude Concept

Material da/dN curve

Stress Amplitude, MPa

Choose an appropriate risk and replace critical parts

Inspect for cracks larger than a1 and repair

A Boeing 777 costs $250,000,000

A new car costs $25,000

For every $1 spent inspecting and maintaining a