Cities 68 (2017) 6381

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City prole

City prole: Jaipur MARK

M.F. Jawaid, Manish Sharma, Satish Pipralia, Ashwani Kumar
Department of Architecture and Planning, Malviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur 302020, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Jaipur is the tenth largest metropolitan region in India, grown to be a popular tourist destination and a centre of
Jaipur business, commerce, and education. It has been the central focus of the state governments' visioning strategies by
Medieval planned city virtue of it being an urban heritage and the capital of state of Rajasthan, hence the eorts have been made to
Vastu-shastra develop it into the world-class city. After the inclusion of Jaipur City in the Smart City Program, the city is
Architectural character
expected to undergo massive urban restructuring. This paper presents an outline of the history and planning of
Jaipur, followed by an exploration of emerging urban and infrastructural challenges with a focus on
management and governance.

1. Introduction the problems of uncontrolled and unplanned urbanization and deterior-

Jaipur is the tenth largest metropolitan city in India and capital of
the largest Indian state of Rajasthan. It is one of the notable examples of
medieval Indian Town-planning and architecture. It is a multi-func-
tional city, acting as a major centre for administration, commercial,
educational, tourism, healthcare, and politics. It was planned as a
walled city founded by Raja Swai Jai Singh II in 1727 as the new capital
of Dhoondhar Kingdom. The walled city continues to serve as the city's
central business district, hosts a dense concentration of tourism
attractions and trade, and originates 60% of the city's commercial
activity (MacDonald, 2015).
The city attracts tourists, both foreign and domestic, in large
numbers being a part of Golden Triangle with Delhi and Agra. The
city of Jaipur on an average served host to about 4900 tourists per day
in 2015, with an average stay of 3 to 4 days in the city, with foreign
tourist growth rate at 11.70% in comparison to 20.27% of the domestic
tourist growth rate (Table 1 and Table 2). The State of Rajasthan stands
6th in terms of foreign tourist footfall (Ministry of Tourism, G. o, I.,
2014) and about 30% of the foreign tourists visiting the state visit
Jaipur as well.
The paper is divided into three parts. The rst part of the paper
describes the planning history and socio-economic prole, followed by
nature and condition of housing and urban amenities, which is then
followed by analysis of Land use and environment of the city. The
penultimate section accentuates the problems and issues associated
with planning, land use, urban services, and delivery mechanism which
also aects the environment of the city. The paper is then summarized
by the nal concluding section highlighting the opportunities to tackle
ating environmental quality.
2. Planning and socio-economic prole
2.1. Location, geography & climate
Jaipur is located between 2623N to 2751N latitudes and 7455E
to 7650 E longitudes (Fig. 1) at an average elevation of 431 m
occupying an area of 11,151 sq. km (Master plan 2025). The distances
from major urban centres of the region and the country are listed in
Fig. 2. The Jaipur City has semi-arid plain anked by hills of Aravali
range on Northern and Eastern parts with isolated peaks with a relative
height of over 200 m. These hills house the Fort of Jaigarh, the Amber
Palace, Moti Dungri palace, and a sacred spot of Galtaji, etc. Its because
of these topographical constraints that the city is experiencing a growth
towards the south (approaching Tonk) and west (towards Ajmer) and
the city is expanding in a distorted linear geometry. The Southern and
Western part of Jaipur also has isolated and discontinuous hillocks. The
topography is primarily at beyond the hills in the city area with a
gentle slope from North to South and then to South-East. The
Amanishah Nala (also called as Dravyawati River) cuts through the
city from north to south and turns eastward to join Dhund River owing
along the eastern edge of the city, to form a single stream. A small
drainage system in the north foothills culminates in Mansagar lake.
The Jaipur has hot and dry climate (Bansal & Minke, 1988) char-
acterized by very hot summers with highest mean monthly maximum
temperature of 40.3 C is in May and mild winters with mean monthly
temperature of 7.8 C in January and low humidity round the year and

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ashwani.patiyal@gmail.com (A. Kumar).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.05.006
Received 5 October 2016; Received in revised form 2 May 2017; Accepted 10 May 2017
Available online 27 May 2017
0264-2751/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

Table 1 grew to 960 ha by 193031 with limits of the municipal area extended
Tourists arrival in Jaipur. beyond the wall of the city with the introduction of railways, etc. The city
further expanded to 4000 ha by 1951 during this phase the population
Tourists arrival in Jaipur
also increased rapidly due to the immigration of people during the
Year Domestic tourists Foreign tourists Total independence of India in 1947 and accession of the Princely state of
Jaipur into the Union of India in 1948. The area of the city also increased
1989 385,000 155,000 540,000
to accommodate the growth of population along with economic growth in
2012 998,703 534,256 1,532,959
2013 1,104,905 566,429 1,671,334 the industrial area especially after 1970 when the master plans start to be
2014 1,170,152 568,234 1,738,386 implemented, and the areas of the city reached 17,234.5 ha by 2005
2015 1,201,152 596,756 1,797,908 (Fig. 4). The process of the master planning of the city started with the rst
Master Plan was prepared in 1965 by the Urban Improvement Trust (UIT)
Source: Department of Tourism, Rajasthan.
for the horizon year 1991 extended up to 1998, within this period the
Jaipur Development Authority (JDA) was constituted under Jaipur
Development Act 1982. The planning and development activities were
Table 2 then transferred to the JDA which also included the development of
Tourist growth rate. housing, lands for housing, infrastructures, etc. The 2nd Master Plan
prepared by JDA in 1995 for the horizon year 2011 but both the plan
Annual % growth rate Indian Foreign Total
witnessed many shortcomings due to unprecedented population growth
19912001 9.45 0.12 6.79 on account of in-migration. The 3rd or the current Master Development
20122015 20.27 11.70 17.28 Plan for 2025 has been prepared by the JDA incorporating the measures to
curb the illegal developments and taking the growth rate of development
Source: Department of Tourism, Rajasthan.
into account.
The master plans were prepared to regulate and monitor the
development and its intensity, land use and its changes over the period
the average annual rainfall of 633 mm (Meteorological Centre, 2011). leading to illegal and unwarranted growth in the city. The Master plans
The North-West and West are predominant wind direction with an have been found to be ineective on the part of implementation as it
average monthly wind speed of 3.0 to 10.0 kmph during the year, but in lacks clear-cut guidelines for the development intensity of the urban
summer, there are dust storms, dust - raising winds (Meteorological area with time, the nature and quantum of transformations in the city
Centre, 2011). fabric and the adjoining areas as well as built form and structure within
the developed urban area as a whole. This is despite of the fact that the
2.2. History of city of Jaipur city has a long planned history as well as in the urban planning in
modern period especially post independence. The third Annual Survey
The history of Jaipur Kingdom can be traced back to 1150 CE, but of India's City-Systems-2015 (ASICS) conducted by Janaagraha Centre
the present walled city was only planned as the new capital in 1727 CE for Citizenship and Democracy to evaluate the quality of governance in
(Fig. 3). The old city design has careful planning with intricate detailing 21 cities in 18 states on 83 parameters (Centre, 2015) also highlighted
and clarity of thought with amalgamation of contemporary Mughal substantial shortcomings in terms of urban planning, transparency,
architectural vocabulary with local architectural style into form and accountability and public participation in local governance placing
character of the dierent elements and components individual build- Jaipur at the penultimate position.
ings at the micro level to components and constituents of the city at
macro level thereby preserving a high quality of architecture and 2.3.1. Smart City Mission
environment (Jawaid, Pipralia, & Kumar, 2016). Rapid urbanization-induced population and economic growth, mostly
The nature and character of the city was further detailed out and in Indian Tier I and Tier II cities has exploded many critical issues, and a
preserved by Mirza Ismail, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom from huge gap is evident between the demand and supply of urban infra-
1941 to 1946, and it was during this period, that some of the major structure and services (Ahluwalia, 2011). The Ministry of Urban Devel-
development started outside the walled city. The city is popularly opment & Urban local bodies have proposed many programs focusing on
known as the Pink City because of predominantly pink/rose colour and providing basic infrastructure, city utility services for such cities and
complimentary colour schemes along with the use of red sandstone in towns, but it earlier lacked sustainable aspects of the development as the
building facades (Jain, 2011). There are two theories associated with core approach. The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India,
the colour of the city being Pink. One theory justies it as the city of has announced the Smart City Mission for the improvement of the quality
Jaipur being painted Pink to welcome Prince of Wales and Queen of life of the residents using urban informatics and technological support
Victoria, during their 1876 visit to India. Another theory suggests that to improve the eciency of services, and Jaipur City has been selected to
the city of Jaipur had been painted Pink to replicate red sandstone be a part of the phase 1 pool of cities which will be covered during
which was extensively used in the Mughal Buildings of that era Financial Year 201516 to Financial Year 201920. The focus of the
(Sachdev & Tillotson, 2002). It is one of the few planned medieval city mission is on sustainable development and inclusion of technology to
which is still catering to present day pressures of vehicular trac on carve out smart solutions for the city. With the ultimate goal of achieving
roads, though the quality of the environment has deteriorated very urban transformation to promote sustainable development and better
much in present times with the rise in population and density, and lack living conditions, convergence of other Central and State Government
of signicant conservation measures (Jawaid et al., 2016). Programs/Schemes like AMRUT, Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), National
Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY), Digital
2.3. Urban planning of city of Jaipur India, Skill development can be aligned with the Smart Cities Mission
(MacDonald, 2015).
The planned area of the walled city was 481 ha in 1728 CE which The core work areas identied as the main pillars of comprehensive

64
M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

Fig. 1. Location map of Jaipur.

development are physical, social, economical and institutional (MoUD,
2015). There are 67 indicators for Smart City Mission identied by
Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India under various
themes of urban planning. These themes are distributed under the
sustainability dimensions like Economy and Equity, Environment. A
parallel dimension of Implementation tools species indicators to
enforce the principles and strategies of Smart City and sustainable
development.
2.3.2. Jaipur as a Smart City
Evidently, the walled city lies in the focus of Smart City project in
Jaipur City, concurrent with the area of intervention of the currently

65
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 2. Distance matrix.
proposed schemes. It has been identied for the area based develop-
ment under the mission, which will focus on developing the area as a
smart heritage and tourism precinct with support from smart mobility
and sustainable civic infrastructure. Faade retrotting and restoration
Fig. 3. Layout plan of walled city of Jaipur.
66
Cities 68 (2017) 6381
work has been proposed, to provide uniform character to the street
facades, in the walled city area. Under this, an attempt is made to
eliminate the variable prole of the built mass. Another proposed
project is concerning the adaptive reuse of the redundant buildings in
the walled city area, like the dilapidated structures of old crafts school,
old town hall, etc. With the sustainable aspect in concern, solar panels
are proposed to be installed on government buildings beginning with
the institutional built-stock on a pan city level. Another walled city
based proposed project is concerned with promoting bicycle and
pedestrian mode, and embedding technology to make existing infra-
structure smart, for e.g. sensor based lighting, etc., which will
eventually be taken up on a pan city level. As a part to improve
transportation system of the city, a command centre is to be set up, with
multiple objectives of providing live tracking feed for the city buses, to
also coordinate the operations of all modes of public transport in the
city, manage the trac signals and to facilitate the digital payment
system. Bicycle tracks are proposed along the main streets of the city,
along with rent-a-bicycle enabling users to pick and drop bicycles at
key spots in the city. Under another pan city project, to improve the
quality and eciency of key infrastructural facility, door to door
collection of domestic solid waste and decentralized segregation centres
are also proposed under the Smart City Mission for the city. Though the
proposals under the mission have the potential to improve the lives of
the city inhabitants, simultaneously initiatives at regional planning
level are needed, otherwise it may prove another cause for population
explosion under the inuence of in-migration and urbanization.
2.4. Architecture of city of Jaipur
Touted as one of the earliest planned cities in India, the city of
Jaipur is rich in terms of architectural built heritage. With the main
streets of the city planned 108 ft wide, in sharp contrast to other cities
which were established or ourished during 18th and 19th century
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 4. Map showing phase-wise growth of Jaipur City.
Source: (GoR, Master Development Plan 2025 Jaipur Region, Vol.1, 2011
under similar climatic conditions with narrow streets. This can be
accredited to the vision of the city planners who had the vision to
foresee the changing needs of the coming time. These main streets were
planned as intense activity zones, with main temples, schools, art
houses, major landmarks, residences of the prominent city inhabitants
were lined up. These all buildings had a similar architectural character
in terms of building elements, style, planning and with a uniform
building code pertaining to heights and setbacks (Figs. 5 and 15).
Architectural elements like arches, jharokhas, brackets, cornice, ar-
cades, columns, gates and continuous shading projections were evident
along the faade lengths and shaded corridors (Fig. 6). The elevation of
the buildings were decorated with painted relief work created with
lime, which is also evident on the skin of city gates (Figs. 7 and
8).Initially the main streets facades along the East-West orientation
were generally single storey high, with the Jaali work embedded in
arches forming the parapets of the building blocks along the main
streets (Fig. 9), A three meter thick crenelated masonry wall towering
six meters surrounds the city, which is still present in original but due to
encroachment from commercial establishments on either side, the
visual connectivity often gets broken.
The population explosion, attributed to rapid urbanization, migra-
tion from rural areas to urban areas, has compelled the city to expand
beyond its original city boundaries (Jawaid & Khan, 2015). In the
absence of proper guidelines and bylaws to fabricate the new areas
with similar character, the new areas developed beyond the walled city
do not complement the original city fabric (Fig. 18). Under the
inuence of western architectural styles, the newly developed areas
showcase buildings with contrasting materials, for e.g. glass, steel etc.
(Fig. 10). Also, the incessantly increasing land prices has evolved the
city skyline to a great extent (Fig. 11). Though the local authorities are
trying to promote the ingrained heritage character beyond the walled
city by regulating the street faade in some of the prominent commer-
cial areas primarily by painting them pink, but the architectural
67
Cities 68 (2017) 6381
elements remain overlooked (Fig. 12). Since the fenestration details,
building materials and other visual architectural components remain
varied amongst dierent properties, the eorts by the authorities to
have the uniform character prove futile.
2.5. Constituents and governance structure of Jaipur City
The Jaipur District has been administratively divided into 16 Tehsils
which are further subdivided into 2378 villages forming 15 Panchayat
Samitis and 532 Gram Panchayats along with 10 Nagar Palika & 1
Nagar Nigam. The Panchayat Samitis & Gram Panchayat are part of
rural administrative setup while Nagar Nigam and Nagar Palika are part
of urban governance. The area of Jaipur district envisaged under master
planning process has been termed as Jaipur region (also referred to as
JDA area) comprising of two distinct constituents: the Jaipur Nagar
Nigam (JNN) Area (also referred to as the Jaipur Municipal Corporation
Area); and the rest of area comprising neighboring 15 satellite towns
and 4 growth centres. Jaipur region covers a total area of 2940 sq. km,
consisting of 725 villages, one Municipal Corporation and 2 Municipal
Councils out of which, the municipal area covers 484 sq. km (GoR,
2011). The JNN area is further divided into the walled city and the rest
of JNN area.
Jaipur being a state capital, has Legislative Assembly, Secretariat,
State level oces of maximum Government departments with divi-
sional, district and city level oces. Jaipur Development Authority was
created with a vision to combat and manoeuvre the growing require-
ments of a large city in the wake of the increasing population and to
help give Jaipur a planned look compatible and comparable to any
metropolitan city of repute. JDA was authorized powers to speed up the
development and progressive growth of the entire city to rapidly
change the face of Jaipur. According to the requisites, JDA has been
working towards time-bound construction, creation and development
of the western part of Jaipur based on major scientic and hi-tech
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 5. Comparison between main Street facade from 19th century and 21st century.
Source: The British library archives and author.
strategies. Thus, Jaipur has been beautied intensively to augment the
tourist attraction in the city and to raise the living standards to suit the
convenience of its citizens. Various institutions work according to the
roles and responsibilities entrusted to them to carry out various
functions for the city, which have been listed in Table 3.
2.6. Demography
Jaipur is the 10th most populous city in India with a population of
3.05 million. The populations grew rapidly over last few decades due to
the migration of people from rural areas as well as from other parts of
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Cities 68 (2017) 6381
the state and country (Fig. 13). The population of the city in various
census years since 1901 is presented in Table 4. The year 1951 marks
the beginning of a period of rapid population growth. The large
population growth during 194151 is attributed to the inux of
displaced persons due to the partition of India and partially due to
the declaration of Jaipur as the capital of Rajasthan State. During the
last few decades, ever since 1971, more than 50% population is added
every ten years to the population of this city until 2001, which came
down to 31.06% for last decade 20012011, which is still above the
national decadal growth rate (DGR) of urban population. The growth
rate for the urban area has been two-fold in comparison to the rural
M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

Fig. 6. The Sanganeri Gate, Court of the City Place, Temple and school building in the walled city, showing the arches, jaali, jharokha, cornice, brackets, columns and other architectural
elements.

areas as presented in Table 5.

The population density in JNN jurisdiction shows an increasing
trend and is presented in Table 6. The table clearly shows that the
population density was 3416 persons per sq. km. in 1971 and gradually
increased to 6285 persons per sq. km. in 2011. The highest decadal
change in percentage terms is observed in the period 19711981,
whereas in absolute terms the highest decadal change of 2095 persons
per sq. km. is observed in the period 19912001. The decrease in the
population density during the decade 20012011 is attributed to the
increase in municipal area from 111.8 so km to 484 sq. km which also
has some comparatively low-density areas. While, it was also noted that
the city is expanding at a faster than expected pace, and the envisaged
area under the master plans fell short considerably to accommodate the
rising demand of the growing city. Hence, the master plan 2025 for the
city of Jaipur envisaged an area of 2940 sq. km to accommodate the
developmental trend. Also, it must be noted that despite negative
decadal growth rate for the period 20012011, the population during
the same period rose by 31.06%.

2.7. Economy

Jaipur is economically a vibrant city. Tourism, trade and commerce

and local handicraft industries are the key strengths of the city. The
occupational structure of the city during the last three census period is
presented in Table 7. The primary sector employs only 4.65% of the
work force. Industrial workers are majorly employed in Machine Tools
and Metal Products industries. More than half of commercial activity of
city is conned in its walled city area which is a traditional market for
the city. It is famous for traditional handicrafts, gems and jewellery,
textile, wooden furniture, leather bags, etc.

Fig. 7. Lime art on the outer walls of buildings.

69
M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

Fig. 8. Decorative patterns in lime on the Sanganeri Gate.

3. Housing and urban infrastructure
3.1. Housing scenario
The city is unable to cope up with the ever-increasing housing
demand and suers from a housing shortage. The housing stock
condition in the city presented in Table 8 illustrates that the population
grew by 59.37% during 19912001, but the supply of houses grew by
only 39.05% leading to a huge gap between the housing demand and
the supply. The housing supply in the city is catered through ve
sources: traditional housing in the walled city, Rajasthan Housing
Board (RHB), Jaipur development authority (JDA), Private developers
and cooperative societies, and slums. 15% of housing in the city
comprises of slums and the market mechanism housing supply is
predominantly governed by Developers and Co-operative Housing
Societies. The government agencies (JDA & RHB) jointly provide one-
third of housing stock (Table 9). There is a shift from the conventional
plotted and row house development to high rise owing to rising land
prices in the city core (Fig. 14).

Fig. 9. Single storey structures on the main street of the walled city.

70
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 10. New development outside the walled city of Jaipur has buildings in contrast to the original architectural style of old city.
3.1.1. Slums
The unprecedented rate of urbanization due to large migration of
people to the city from rural areas and other parts of state and country
for better prospects of employment and better quality of life has
resulted in formation and proliferation of slums in the absence of
aordable housing provisions. There are 190 listed slums under JNN
and 47 listed slums under the JDA, out of which 56.13% are without
drinking water access, and 19.0% are without access to sanitation
facilities (Census of India, 2011). One of the signicant characteristic of
the slums and squatter settlement in the city is that they are largely
concentrated along the foothills of eastern hills falling under several
71
Cities 68 (2017) 6381
wards and in some pockets of the city. Some wards do not have any
slums, while some wards have over 75% population residing in the
slums.
3.2. Urban infrastructure
The existing water supply for the city is managed through the
Bisalpur Dam and reservoir (more than 80%), which is located on the
Banas River about 120 km south-west of Jaipur City. At present more
than 360 MLD water is supplied from Bisalpur water supply project to
Jaipur City. The existing sewerage network covers only 60% of the total
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 11. High rise residential and commercial towers are a common sight in new development outside the walled city.
population of Jaipur City. The existing sewerage system has the total
network length of 1800 Km and approximately 70,000 manholes.
Topographically, city is divided into two sewerage zones, the north
zone and the south zone. The existing capacity of sewerage treatment
plants in the city is only 89.5 MLD against the requirement of 272 MLD.
The drainage system of the city can be viewed as a combination of
roadside drains, intercepting drains, secondary drains and main drai-
nage channels. There are 19 drainage zones in the city.
The Public Health, Public Works and Mechanical (Garage) sections
of Jaipur Nagar Nigam are jointly responsible for municipal solid waste
management in the city. The city generates approximately 1831 metric
ton/day of solid waste with an average of 0.460 kg of solid waste, per
capita, per day, where per capita solid waste is expected to grow at the
rate of 1.5% annually. Only 50,000 households conned in eight wards
have house-to-house collection facility. The waste collection data from
JNN suggests collection eciency of 48% only. Also, the majority of the
collection sites are open collection sites.
Jaipur City is fast gaining popularity as medical tourism destination
due to less cost of treatment, better accommodation and presence of
super speciality medical facilities. The city is the most important centre
of education in Rajasthan State. It attracts people from the entire state.
As a result, a large number of universities and engineering colleges have
come up in the city. Jaipur has a fair distribution of recreational and
socio-cultural facilities to serve the needs of the people, both at the
urban scale and at the regional scale. Various national level sports
competitions, conferences, exhibitions and cultural festivals are routi-
nely hosted in the city.
3.3. Transportation
The transport system of Jaipur City is mainly road based till date.
However, the share of public transport users is expected to rise in future
riding on the modal share of MRTS, but it is still at a nascent stage with
72
Cities 68 (2017) 6381
less than 10 km operational route of the total 35 km proposed in two
phases (JMRC, 2016). The city trac is prominently served by major
arterial spines. All the major roads have alternative parallel roads,
which distributes the trac and are connected across at an interval of
800 m to 2.0 km. Slow moving vehicles like Cycle Rickshaw, Hand
carts, and bicycle dominate in walled city area while fast moving
vehicles form the major part of heterogenic trac on outer roads
(Fig. 19). The travel needs in the city are catered by a variety of modes
of transport in the form of buses operated by JCTSL, Mini Buses
managed by private operators, Auto-Rickshaw, Tempos, Cycle Rick-
shaw and private vehicles. There has been more than ten-fold increase
in number of two-wheelers and a six-fold increase in the number of cars
between 1980 and 81 and 20002001. The public transportation in the
city comprises of city buses operated by JCTSL, which carry a minor
share of the commuters preferring public transport, while the majority
are catered by mini buses managed by private operators. Metro still has
a comparatively low ridership numbers. Auto-rickshaws, Taxi cars,
Tempos and Cycle rickshaws form intermediate public transport.
4. Environment and land use analysis
4.1. Environment
The inadequate handling capacity of the institutions coupled with
demographic pressures has resulted in the deterioration of environ-
mental quality in Indian cities. The environmental quality is largely
aected by the nature and quality of air, water, soil, besides some other
factors like noise, etc. The foremost is the air pollution, which in Jaipur
is largely localized and limited to roads, industrial areas, major
junctions, and the walled city. The National Ambient Air quality
standard for SO2, NOx and SPM is 80 g/cu. m, 80 g/cu. m, and
100 g/cu. m, respectively (Board, 2010). The air quality in the city in
industrial, commercial and residential areas is within the permissible
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 12. Newly developed areas outside the walled city are being painted pink to retain a uniform city fabric on pan city level. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
limit except for the SPM level, which is attributed to frequent dust
storms. The magnitude of water pollution in the city can be deduced
from the fact that natural drainage channels are open sewers. Various
localities have nitrate levels beyond the permissible limit of 100 mg/l.
Understanding the trend of ground water contamination is of utmost
importance since ground water is the only potable water source for the
city. A common form of noise pollution is accrued from transportation,
principally from the motor vehicles. Noise levels in all land use far
exceed the permissible limit both during the day as well as in the night
in Jaipur City.
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Cities 68 (2017) 6381
The main causes of land pollution in Jaipur are poor sewerage
system and solid waste management system. A very large number of
unlined septic tanks, indiscriminate dumping of garbage and absence of
a sanitary landll site are some of the reasons for land pollution in the
city. The Municipal Corporation and development authority develop
and maintain parks and playgrounds while there is a State Government
Department of Forest. The city has 74.44 sq.km of the area under
forests. The city is anked by reserved forests (RF) on the North and
East.
M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

Table 3
Institutional responsibility matrix.

Sector Planning Implementation Operation and maintenance

Urban planning and development JDA JDA, JNN JDA, JNN

Water supply & sewerage JDA, PHED, JNN, RUIDP, RHB JDA, PHED, JNN, RUIDP, RHB JDA, PHED, JNN, RHB
Transportation infrastructure (roads, bridges, yovers, etc) JDA, JNN, RHB, PWD, RUIDP, JDA, JNN,RHB, PWD, RUIDP, NHAI JDA, JNN, RHB, PWD, NHAI
NHAI
Trac control and management systems JDA (JTB), JP, RTO JDA (JTB), JP, RTO JDA (JTB), JP, RTO
City public transportation JCTSL, JMRC JCTSL, JMRC JCTSL, JMRC
Street lighting JDA, JNN, RHB, PWD, RUIDP JDA, JNN,RHB, PWD,RUIDP JDA, JNN, RHB, PWD
Storm water drainage JDA, JNN, RHB, ID, RUIDP JDA, JNN, RHB, ID, RUIDP JDA, JNN, RHB, ID
Solid waste management JNN, RHB JNN, RHB JNN, RHB
Parks/playground/golf course/beautication of road intersections/ JDA, JNN, ID, FD JDA, JNN, ID, FD JDA, JNN, ID, FD
urban forest
Air, water and noise pollution control and monitoring JNN, PCB, PHED JNN, PCB, PHED JNN, PCB, PHED
Slum development JNN, JDA JNN, JDA JNN, JDA
Urban poverty program JNN JNN JNN
Housing for EWS JNN, JDA, RHB JNN, JDA, RHB JNN, JDA, RHB
Public convenience JDA, JNN JDA, JNN JDA, JNN
Industries and infrastructure JDA, RIICO RIICO, PCB JNN, PCB, DIC, RIICO
Heritage building conservation JDA, JNN, RUIDP, AD, PHED JDA, JNN, RUIDP, AD, PHED JDA, JNN, AD, PHED

JDA: Jaipur Development Authority; JNN: Jaipur Nagar Nigam; RHB: Rajasthan Housing Board, PHED: Public Health Engineering Department, PWD: Public Works Department, RUIDP:
Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Development Project, ID: Irrigation Department, FD: Forest Department, PCB: Pollution Control Board; RIICO: Rajasthan State Industrial Development and
Investment Corporation; JMRC: Jaipur Metro Rail Corporation; JCTSL: Jaipur City Transport Services Limited (A joint venture of JDA, JNN & RSRTC).
Source: Prepared by authors based on Jaipur City Development Plan-2005, Rajasthan Government, Master Development Plan 2025 (GoR, 2008).

7000000 TOTAL POPULATION Table 5

RURAL POPULATION Urban and rural population growth trend of Jaipur District.
6000000
URBAN POPULATION
Year Total Rural DGR (rural) Urban DGR (urban)
5000000 population population population

1961 1,522,591 1,033,914 488,677

4000000
1971 1,993,463 1,279,664 + 23.77 713,799 + 46.07
1981 2,786,816 1,606,778 + 25.77 1,180,038 + 65.32
3000000 1991 3,887,895 2,113,412 + 31.53 1,774,483 + 50.38
2001 5,251,071 2,659,004 + 25.82 2,592,067 + 46.07
2000000 2011 6,626,178 3,154,331 + 18.63 3,471,847 + 33.94

1000000

0
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Table 6
Fig. 13. Population growth trend for Jaipur District. Population Density in Jaipur Nagar Nigam jurisdiction.

Year Population density (persons/sq. km.) Decadal change Growth rate (%)

1971 3416
Table 4 1981 5066 1650 48.30
Population growth trend in Jaipur City. 1991 5958 892 17.60
2001 8053 2095 35.16
Year Population Growth of population (nos.) Growth of population (%) 2011 6285 1768 21.95

1901 160,167 Source: Master Development Plan 2025 and District Census Handbook 2011.
1911 137,098 (23,069) ( 14.40)
1921 120,207 (16,891) ( 12.32)
1931 144,179 23,972 19.94
1941 175,810 31,631 21.94
1951 291,130 115,320 65.59 4.2. Land use analysis
1961 403,444 112,314 38.58
1971 615,258 211,814 52.50 The city grew in southern and western direction to accommodate
1981 977,165 361,907 58.82
the rapidly growing population due to the physical and geographical
1991 1,518,235 541,108 55.37
2001 2,324,319 865,901 59.37 constraints and availability of considerably cheaper land in those areas;
2011 3,046,173 721,854 31.06 good transport communicational network, availability of better infra-
structural and institutional amenities, nearness to the main city, etc. are
some other causes behind such expansion. This has also encouraged the
development of commercial areas, oce spaces, business centres and

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M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

Table 7
Occupational structure in Jaipur City.

S.N Categories/workers 1981 1991 2001 2011 2025 (estimated)

Workers % Workers % Workers % Workers % Workers %

1 Cultivator 5395 1.94 6511 1.52 17,224 2.62 26,023 3.75 34,125 1.5
2 Agricultural labourer 1473 0.53 201 0.47 3188 0.48 6266 0.90 11,375 0.5
3 Livestock, forestry shing, hunting & plantations orchards & allied 4313 1.01 11,375 0.5
activities
4 Mining and quarrying 2498 0.58 11,375 0.5
Primary sector 2.47 3.58 3.1 4.65
5 Manufacturing, processing servicing and repairs
House hold industry 13,330 4.79 1670 3.91 33,475 5.09 36,671 5.29 113,750 5
Other than house hold industry 94,970 22.20 500,500 22
6 Construction 27,350 6.39 113,750 5
Secondary sector 4.79 32.5 5.09
7 Trade & commerce 102,521 23.97 546,000 24.0
8 Transport, storage, and communications 34,803 8.14 182,000 8
9 Other services 258,027 92.74 136,053 31.81 604,263 91.81 624,048 90.04 750,750 33
Tertiary sector 92.74 63.92 91.81
Total 278,225 100.00 427,722 100.00 658,150 100.00 693,008 100.00 2,275,000 100
Marginal workers 2404 3839 51,825 54,610
Participation ratio % 27.64 28.43 30.57 34.79 35

Source: Master Development Plan 2025 and District Census Handbook 2011.

other recreational facilities along with other civil facilities, which were Table 9
earlier concentrated in the city cores, to ascertain changes. This Housing supply in Jaipur City, 2001.
outward growth of facilities is further acting as a pull factor for in
S. no. Housing Nos. Percentage
migration attracting more people and ultimately expanding the city
(Sunil Sankhla, 2014). Some areas transformed into high-density areas 1 Traditional housing (walled city) 64,800 17.5
and major transformations in land use were observed from agricultural 2 RHB housing 61,384 16.5
3 JDA/UIT/Govt. housing 76,090 20.5
land to residential land. Under such developmental characteristics,
4 Private and co-operative societies 1,13,240 30.5
Jaipur City is experiencing leapfrog sprawl pattern. The availability of 5 Slums 55,680 15.0
land at considerable cheaper rates than the main city areas, develop- Total 3,71,194 100.0
ment of proper infrastructural and institutional amenities along these
major tracts, have helped in transferring some density loads to city Source: Master Development Plan-2025, Jaipur Development Authority, 2009.
fringes.
A considerably large part of the land under transformation has been
utilized for the residential purpose (2500.76 ha) and industrial purpose Master Development Plan 2025 envisaged as satellite towns and growth
(74.30 ha) by 1991 (Gupta, 2011). The major expansion beyond 1991 centres (Figs. 16 and 17) (GoR, 2011). The new settlement agglomera-
has been observed in the western, southern and south-eastern parts and tions in Jaipur during the decade 20002010 have developed within a
along NH 8, NH 11 and NH 12. Towards south, it has stretched to more buer area of two kilometres from the main transport lines. One of the
than 20 km from Ajmeri gate engulng Sanganer town and even along reasons behind such growth may be settlements settling on considera-
the Tonk road. Towards western direction, it has almost reached to tion of good transport network. Also, many multi storey housing
Bagru town, which is about 35 km away from the city and is envisaged projects and Special Economic Zone have been developed along the
under the Jaipur Master Plan 2025 as a satellite town for Jaipur City. major transportation routes which have further attracted the popula-
The urban area has engulfed the surroundings towns during the second tion to settle in these newly developed areas. The dierent road projects
master planning period especially beyond the year 2000, which the undertaken by Govt. of India and Rajasthan Govt., has improved the

Table 8
Housing stock in Jaipur City.

Year Total population No. of house holds Housing stock Housing shortage Housing shortage Decadal increase in houses Decadal increase in households
(no.) (%) (%) (%)

1961 410,376 80,420 76,352 4068 5.05

1971 639,768 111,256 103,256 8000 7.19 35.24 38.34
1981 1,015,160 184,425 183,741 684 0.37 77.95 65.77
1991 1,518,325 271,916 269,705 2211 0.81 46.68 47.44
2001 2,322,575 408,888 371,194 37,694 9.21 37.62 50.37

Source: Master Development Plan-2025, Jaipur Development Authority, 2009.

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M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

ance has been summarized into dierent section as follows:

5.1. Urban planning & governance

The expansion of city especially post-independence has led to the

rapidly deteriorated environment and colossal deciencies in housing,
public utilities, municipal services and community facilities especially
for low-income groups and urban poor resulting in a proliferation of
slums and squatter settlements. This poses serious problems to the
environment because of loss of surface water channels, receding ground
water, depreciation in environmental quality, etc. The indiscriminate
dumping of municipal solid waste, untreated waste water and sewage
into drainage channels and into the ground not only pollutes surface
water but through leaching of pesticides and toxic metals contaminates
the subsurface water as well. The condition further deteriorated due to
the multiplicity of agencies, lack of coordination amongst these
agencies and poor maintenance of the existing infrastructure. The
inappropriate building regulations, and weak and ineective imple-
mentation and regulatory framework and mechanism has resulted into
increase in unplanned transition of land uses mainly through conver-
sion of agricultural and barren land surrounding the city into urban
areas and development of slums, squatters and illegal encroachments
and constructions throughout the city, which may also have an impact
on existing planning policies for the development of the city
(Dadhich & Hanaoka, 2011).

5.2. Heritage and environment deterioration

The regulatory and planning interventions viz. master plans, sub-

division regulations, building bylaws, building codes, housing policy,
etc. as applicable to the Jaipur City indicates a lack of coherence,
comprehensive vision and eective mechanism as they have been
formulated with dierent goals. They also lack any performance-based
indicators, criteria, and incentives that incorporate locational attributes
and socio-economic characteristics associated with time, hence are
rendered insucient and ineective in regulating and managing the
built and unbuilt environments. The building regulatory measures for
the conservation of the environment in Jaipur are limited to the
rainwater harvesting at large with some provisions for solar energy in
the buildings that too for large projects.

5.3. Infrastructure planning and management

Ground water depletion, deteriorating water quality, drying of the

Fig 14. Housing typologies in Jaipur City.
connectivity between rural areas to urban centres to a great extent. The
city has also begun its expansion along the Agra Highway in East, after
the inauguration of the tunnel.
5. Major issues
The major issues related to the planning, management and govern-
surface water source, inadequate distribution network, low water
pressure at the consumer end and uncovered newly developed areas
are some of the problems pertaining to domestic water supply system of
the Jaipur City. Subsequently, various agencies like Public Health
Engineering Department (PHED), Jaipur Development Authority
(JDA), Rajasthan Housing Board (RHB) and Jaipur Nagar Nigam
developed sewerage network, according to the responsibilities vested
in them. However, all the eorts put together could not keep pace with
the rising population. The existing capacities of the present drainage
system are inadequate at many places due to fast expansion of the city.
Even the short duration rainfall cause ooding into dierent localities
of the city. Rapid and unplanned urban growth, inadequate size, silting
and encroachment of drains, poor solid waste management and
blockage of inlets in drains, construction of roads parallel to contours,
improper camber in road sections and non-existence of road side drains
are some of the reasons for ineective drainage system of the city.
The solid waste management in Jaipur is poor. The system of
primary waste collection is improper, and source segregation of
organic, inorganic and recyclable solid waste at the household level is

76
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 15. Facade Characteristics of walled city of Jaipur.
almost absent. It is a common site to see heaps of solid waste on roads
and streets in the absence of an adequate number of dust bins. People
invariably dispose-o their solid waste on streets, open space, and in
drains, which has resulted in unhygienic conditions in the city. A
sizeable fraction of the total waste generated is not collected and
transported to disposal sites but is dumped in the nearest low-lying
area. Most of the waste collection sites are open collection sites, about
90% while only 10% of locations are served by containers. Likewise,
infrastructure provisions in Jaipur lag behind population growth and
thus causing a lot of stress in the system. High establishment costs
coupled with low revenue generating capacity of the service delivery
institutions make them dependent on grants and allow limited scope for
expenditure on infrastructure provisions.
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Cities 68 (2017) 6381
5.4. Trac and transportation
The intermixing of the fast and slow moving heterogeneous trac
and lack of lane discipline has been observed on the roads of Jaipur,
which leads to congestion and other trac problems (Fig. 19). Slow
moving vehicles like Cycle Rickshaw, Handcarts, and bicycle dominate
in walled city area; fast moving vehicles form the major part of trac
on outer roads. Improvement in the socio-economic status of the
people, increase in population, easy availability of vehicles and lack
of good public transportation has resulted in the steep growth of private
vehicle ownership in the city. The rapid growth in private vehicle
ownership and an increase in all spheres of activity have resulted in
various trac and transportation related problems in the city such as
trac congestion, delays, pathetically low travel speeds, accidents and
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 16. Existing land use map of Jaipur.
Source: (GoR, Master Development Plan 2025 Jaipur Region, Vol.1, 2011).
deterioration of the environment. Similarly, urban transport services in
Jaipur are overcrowded, unreliable, and involve long waiting periods.
Overcrowding is very evident on important routes during the peak
hours. As a result, there is a massive shift to personalized modes of
transport especially two-wheelers increasing the vehicular congestion
78
Cities 68 (2017) 6381
on the road. Road widening, road circles reduction to increase the right
of way have been taken up as an ad hoc measure to cater to the
increasing demand. However, footpath, an important provision for
movement of pedestrians, is neglected, and even if it is provided, it is
encroached by the hawkers and the shopkeepers.
M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

Fig. 17. Proposed land use map 2025 for area under Jaipur development authority jurisdiction.
Source: (GoR, Master Development Plan 2025 Jaipur Region, Vol.1, 2011).

79
M.F. Jawaid et al.
Fig. 18. Contrasting facade characterstic of walled city and the residential areas outside.
6. Conclusion
The developments and extensions of the city both spatial and
volumetric especially post-independence has not given much considera-
tions and weightage to the conservation of ingrained character and
architectural identity of the walled city, thus aecting the overall built
form and urban fabric. The current planning process and its imple-
mentation have been observed to be a major obstacle in the inclusive
and sustainable development of the city largely due to the fragmented
and overlapping jurisdictions of dierent authorities, etc. Furthermore,
the objective and approach of the dierent organizations and agencies
have also found to be varying thereby creating a greater mismatch in
the proposals and the existing conditions of the infrastructure and land
use. In addition to this the nature and intensity of the development also
need to be regulated through a phased development plan for the city
and its peripheral areas in an integrated and sustainable manner, so
that, in due course, as the city grows, the periphery can compatibly
merge into the city. The scientically devised and environmentally
responsive regulatory mechanism and development process also need to
80
Cities 68 (2017) 6381
supplement development plans so as to address the problem of retrieval
of the excessive pressure on peripheral and rural lands and restore the
environmental quality.
The planning authorities should prepare the future development in
advance to avoid unplanned expansion of the city. Identication of
suitable lands for establishment of new colonies, industrial and institu-
tional areas without harming ecology and productive areas is indis-
pensable at this level of development. Technologies like Remote
Sensing and other tools can assist in route planning, circuitry route
(Bypass routes), the requirement of yovers, treatment plants and
various facilities. It can also be used for identication of unplanned and
slum areas so that they can be taken up on the priority of plan. The
authorities responsible for the supply of various facilities & amenities
should prepare the comprehensive database for the entire of the city, so
that they may know the status of the facilities available in dierent
parts/colonies of the city. It would help in identifying the area where
the facilities are lacking or need immediate measures.
Source: (GoR, Master Development Plan 2025 Jaipur Region, Vol.1,
2011)
M.F. Jawaid et al. Cities 68 (2017) 6381

Fig. 19. City roads are characterized by mixed trac conditions.

Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version, at doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.05.006.
These data include the Google map of the most important areas
described in this article.
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