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2 Maintaining a Balance
Contextual Outline
Multicellular organisms have specialised organ systems that are adapted for the uptake and transport
of essential nutrients from the environment, the utilisation or production of energy and the removal
of waste products arising from cellular activities.
The basis of healthy body-functioning in all organisms is the health of their cells. The physical and
chemical factors of the environment surrounding these cells must remain within narrow limits for
cells to survive. These narrow limits need to be maintained and any deviation from these limits must
be quickly corrected. A breakdown in the maintenance of this balance causes problems for the
organism.
The nervous and endocrine systems in animals and the hormone system in plants bring about the
coordinated functioning of these organ systems. They are able to monitor and provide the feedback
necessary to maintain a constant internal environment. Enzyme action is a prime example of the need
for this balance. Enzymes control all of the chemical reactions that constitute the bodys metabolism.
As enzymes normally function only within a narrow temperature range, even small rises in body
temperature can result in failure of many of the reactions of metabolism that are essential to life.
This module increases students understanding of the applications and uses of biology, implications
for society and the environment and current issues, research and developments in biology.
9.2 Maintaining a Balance:
1. Most organisms are active within a limited temperature range:
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical
composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity in
substrates:
Metabolism is the sum total of all chemical reactions occurring within a living organism. The only reason you
grow, heal etc is because of this. It is divided into two parts:
Anabolic: are reactions that involve the building up of larger organic compounds from simple molecules, eg
large polysaccharide molecule such as starch being made from monosaccharide units such as glucose (product
of photosynthesis).
Catabolic: are reactions that involve the breaking down of complex organic compounds to simple ones, eg
digestion of food, large food molecules such as proteins are broken down into small amino acids, which can be
used for other uses.
All the above, ie every metabolic reaction in your body is carried out by enzymes, they are organic protein
catalysts (chemical substance that speed reactions without taking part in it).
An example of a feedback system would be the control of carbon dioxide levels (an increase in it):
Equipment:
Light microscope
Prepared slides of human blood
1mm sized Mini-grid plastic paper
Pencil and drawing paper
Safety:
Slides can have sharp or unseen flint pieces of glass, gloves and glasses should be worn.
Use commercially prepared microscope slides of blood and not fresh blood, to eliminate the risk of contracting
blood-borne disease.
Method:
The microscope on normal view ie 1X, has a limited field of view of 16mm.
Hence set your microscope with the millimetre-squared graph paper first. Then 'click' the 1X objective lense,
this will show you what the 'normal' eye of 16mm can see.
Then click the 10X objective, this will magnify the 10mm by a factor of 10. Hence now youll see a maximum
field of view of 1.6mm, and its sub-ten components. (also note 1mm= 1000m)
Now using the 40X objective, this now makes the initial 16mm diameter four times less then the 10X, so the
diameter is approximately 0.4mm. Hence this diameter is 0.4mm, or 400m
Now, putting a slide of a prepared blood, at 40X objective, estimate how many blood cells there exists in that
'field of view', approximately 50 red blood cells exist, hence the size of 1 RBC is 400 m divided by 50
(400/50), which is 8 m.
Now for white blood cells since there are so few of them, it is NOT possible to count the number of white cells
across the diameter, and even much more difficult to estimate how many would fit across the diameter. Hence
there size is estimated by proportion in comparison to that of RBC.
Result:
Carbon dioxide:
It is produced as a waste product of respiration in body cells. As its concentration is higher in the cell than in the
blood its diffuses in the blood:
70% of the carbon dioxide is converted into carbonic acid then changed into hydrogen carbonate ions. This
change from carbon dioxide to carbonate ions happens on the red blood cells. The ions are transported in the
plasma, NOT dissolved in it.
Bind to haemoglobin in erythrocytes forming carbaminohaemoglobin (only 23% of the carbon dioxide).
Be dissolved directly in the plasma (only 7% of the carbon dioxide).
Oxygen:
Oxygen is needed in the body for respiration. It is brought in across the respiratory surfaces of the lungs.
It binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells, forming oxyhaemoglobin.
Water:
Water is the solvent of plasma; it makes up the bulk of blood volume.
It makes up 60% of the volume of blood.
Salts:
These are transported directly dissolved in the plasma as ions (ie NaCl as Na + and Cl-), these are known as
electrolytes.
Lipids and other products of digestion:
The aim of digestion is to break large molecules down to a size small enough for absorption through the
intestine wall and into the bloodstream, so that they can be transported to cells in the body where they are
required.
Lipids are any of a group of organic compounds (ie containing carbon), including the fats, oils, waxes, sterols,
and triglycerides that are insoluble in water, are oily to the touch, and together with carbohydrates and proteins
constitute the principal structural material of living cells.
Digested lipids are changed into triglycerides (this happens in the lining of the small intestine).
Lipids are then transported as chylomicrons (these are clusters of triglycerides, phospholipids and
cholesterol), wrapped in a coat of protein.
These are released into the lymph and eventually pass into the veins
Other products:
Nitrogenous wastes:
Wastes such as ammonia are changed in urea
Urea is transported dissolved in the plasma
Minute minerals:
Includes amino acids, sugars and vitamins
They are mainly water soluble and transported in the plasma.
Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin:
Haemoglobin is a protein made up of four polypeptide chains (called globins) and each is bonded to a haem
(iron-containing) group which can attach to an O molecule, forming oxyhaemoglobin.
For every haemoglobin, 4 oxygen molecules can attach. There about 250 million molecules of haemoglobin in
each red blood cell, hence the very high oxygen carrying capacity.
If blood carried oxygen without haemoglobin, the oxygen would have to be dissolved directly into the plasma
(into water). But oxygen is not very soluble in water therefore, if oxygen was carried only by being dissolved in
blood plasma, 100 ml of water would only be able to carry 0.2 ml of oxygen.
The presence of haemoglobin increases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood by 100 times
Dissolved only 0.2 ml O2/ 100 ml blood
Haemoglobin 20 ml O2/ 100 ml blood
The adaptive advantage:
It increases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood (proven above). Mammalian cells need a lot of energy and
therefore must have a continual supply of OXYGEN for RESPIRATION; this ability of blood to carry large
quantities of oxygen gives mammals a considerable survival advantage. The extra energy allows mammals to be
active, as well as grow large.
It has the ability to bind oxygen at an increasing rate once the first oxygen molecule binds to it. The bonding of
each oxygen molecule causes the haemoglobin to change slightly in shape, making it easier for every subsequent
oxygen molecule to bind to it. This increases the rate and efficiency of oxygen uptake. As a result, a very small
increase in the oxygen concentration in the lungs can result in a large increase in the oxygen saturation in the
blood.
It has the capacity to release oxygen at an increasing rate when carbon dioxide is present. Metabolising cells
release carbon dioxide, which combines to form acidic carbonic acid, and this lower pH, thus increases chances
to affect enzymes, and toxicoses cells (acid is corrosive).
It can undergo the Bohr effect, which at lower pH (due to increasing CO2) levels can release oxygen to tissue
areas that in need of it.
Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why the removal of
carbon dioxide from cells is essential:
Cells require oxygen in the process of respiration:
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy (in the form of ATP).
Carbon dioxide is a waste product and must be removed to maintain the normal pH balance of the blood. By
removing excess carbon dioxide, it prevents a build up of carbonic acid, which causes the lowering of the pH, and
therefore increasing breathing rate and depth. Carbonic acid forms when carbon dioxide dissolves in water. At
normal levels, the carbon dioxide; bicarbonate ion (HCO 3-) equilibrium is an important mechanism for buffering
the blood to maintain a constant pH, if greater amounts of carbon dioxide are produced the body cells (blood and
lymph) will become acidic, enzymes can only function within a specific pH range, therefore an increase in carbon
dioxide will result in lowering the pH which will affect the overall metabolism of the body.
Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved
carbon dioxide on the pH of water:
Aim: To model the effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
Equipment:
25ml of Distilled water in 100mL beaker
Universal indictor (its an indicator that changes colour depending on the pH of a solution)
In a beaker, pour water till the 25mL grade mark, then put 3 drops of universal indicator, this should now change
into greenish colour.
Then put the pH probe, and check the pH is about 7.
Exhale air into the straw that is dipped into the solution, for about 3 minutes.
Result:
After about 30 seconds, the colour of the solution began to change into pale yellow, and the pH on the data
logger started decreasing.
This is because carbon dioxide forms a weak acid; carbonic acid (H 2CO3) so the water becomes more acidic.
Carbonic acid in water dissociates to form hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3-), and some carbonate ions (CO32-).
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies
that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide
concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these
technologies are used:
Technology How it Works The Conditions It Is Used
Pulse Measures O2 levels ONLY. Used in many conditions; this is because it is
oximeter Device like a peg sits on the finger and painless, easy to apply and quick to give results,
measures the transmission of light through example:
tissues ie measures the amount of oxygen in During surgeries, to monitor patients under
arterial blood. anaesthesia.
There is a large difference between red light Monitor premature babies that are in neo-natal
absorbed by haemoglobin compared to wards.
oxyhaemoglobin, hence this can be analysed Can be used as a general check-up procedure to
to give a reading. analyse O2 levels
Arterial blood Measures O2 and CO2 levels. Used when there are signs of dangerously low
gas (ABG) Measures pressure (or the oxygen or high carbon dioxide levels.
analysis concentration) of O2 and CO2 in the Helpful for monitoring patients under
blood anaesthesia, in intensive care, in accident or
Measures saturation of oxygen (which is emergency facilities and for premature babies.
the amount of oxygen combined to Helps for diagnosing as well as monitoring
haemoglobin compared to the patients eg a patient in a coma can have their
maximum) blood gases regularly monitored.
Measures levels of bicarbonate and pH
(to show CO2 levels)
This analysis evaluates how effectively the
lungs are delivering oxygen and removing
carbon dioxide.
Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function:
Arteries Veins
Diagram
Structure Thick walled, elastic, muscular Thinner walls then arteries, elastic, less
muscle , wider diameter (larger lumen)
Direction of blood: Carry blood away from heart, pressure Carry blood to heart, as there is no stress on
flow / pressure created by hearts pumping puts stress on veins the blood pressure is low
arteries, blood pressure is high
Blood movement and Contain muscle fibres which contract and Contain no muscle, rely on valves and when
rate relax, rate is maintained as blood travels in large muscle contract they help push the blood
spurts towards body tissues flow through the veins
Carries Oxygenated blood taken away from heart Deoxygenated blood taken to the heart
Capillaries:
Capillaries are an extension of the inner layers of the arteries and veins (Artery arterioles capillary
venules veins).
Capillaries are only one cell thick, and are so narrow, that only one red blood cell can pass at a time.
Capillaries surround all tissue cells, thus they provide a very large surface area over which exchange of
materials between blood and body cells can occur.
Describe the main changes in the composition of the blood as it moves around
the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur:
In Phloem:
The pressure flow theory (ie source-path-sink theory) states that in the plants, there are sources of nutrients,
e.g. leaf cells are the sources of sucrose. As the sucrose, amino acids and other minerals build up, the cells
actively transport the glucose sugars by active transport into the phloem tubes, this is known as loading, it
can be done by 2 ways:
Symplastic Loading: Sugars and nutrients move in the phloem from the mesophyll cells to the sieve
elements through the plasmodesmata that join adjacent cells (note: Plasmodesmata have not been found in
all plants).
Apoplastic Loading: sugar and nutrients move along the cell walls to the sieve plate. Then they cross the
cell membrane by active transport to enter the phloem tube.
As sugars enter the phloem the concentration of phloem sap increases, this causes the entry of water by
osmosis from the surrounding cells (osmotic pressure gradient is low). This resulting pressure causes water
and dissolved solutes to flow towards a SINK.
A sink is a region of the plant where sugars and other nutrients are actively begin removed from the phloem.
As sugars move out of the phloem, water flows out with them. This reduces the pressure in the sieve cells at
the sink region.
Materials are transported both up and down the stem and are distributed especially to the growing points and
reproductive structures, including developing fruits and seeds, it is driven by a gradient generated osmotically.
3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and waste
products of metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid:
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a
narrow range for optimal function:
Water makes up around 70-90% of living things; it is essential for life, it is the solvent of all metabolic reactions in
living cells (universal solvent), and sometimes directly takes part in it (eg. respiration). Therefore a deviation can
cause:
Isotonic: Concentration of solutes outside the cell is the same as inside the cell. No overall movement of water.
Hypertonic: Concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside. Water tends to move out of the cell.
Hypotonic: Concentration of solutes is greater inside the cell than out. Water tends to move inside the cell.
Living cells work best in an isotonic environment where the levels of water in cells need to be kept relatively
constant, any change in the concentration of solutes will result in a change in the levels of water in cells which
usually results in death (either dehydration or cell bursting)
Enzymes also require specific conditions of functioning, some of which could relate to the levels of water and
solutes in cells, as an increase in water changes the concentration of acid (either dilutes it or makes it
concentrated).
Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic
activity:
As a result of metabolism, many waste products are formed, for example:
In the process of deamination (process by which amino acids and proteins are broken down into ammonia),
ammonia is highly toxic and must be removed or changed to a less toxic form. It can greatly increase the pH and
make it more alkaline.
It carbon dioxide acculmates, it can form carbonic acid, which lowers the pH.
If these toxins are allowed to accumulate, they would slow down metabolism and kill the cells (e.g. excess toxins
is acidic thus increases pH, affection enzyme function which can lead to denaturation), this is why they need to
quickly be removed, or converted into a less toxic form.
Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals:
The maintenance of a constant concentration of nutrients, water and waste products in the internal environment of
organism, is crucial to its wellbeing. The concentration of these substances directly affects metabolism in cells,
and hence needs to be balanced.
Many wastes are excreted (process by which waste products, which have been produced as a result of metabolism,
are removed from the body). The excretory system is made up of systems and organs that carry out the removal of
metabolic wastes.
Carbon dioxide is excreted via the lungs (ie respiratory system).
Nitrogenous wastes are removed along with excess salts and water via the kidneys (ie urinary system).
The kidney is an organ of the excretory system of both fish and mammals. It plays a central role in homeostasis,
forming excreting urine while maintaining osmoregulatory. 2
Osmoregulation: means the physiological processes that an organism uses to maintain water balance; that is, to
compensate for water loss, avoid excess water gain, and maintain the proper osmotic concentration (osmolarity) of
the body fluids.
Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes
occurring in the mammalian kidney:
Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian
nephron regulate body fluid composition:
Active transport: is the process of using energy to transport substances across highly concentrated membrane
from an area of low concentration, it would normally not be able to cross due to a concentration gradient (the
amount of substance in a particular area).
Passive transport: is the process of movement substances across a membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration without energy expenditure (this is diffusion and osmosis).
The excretory system is a group of organs that function together remove metabolic wastes from the tissues of an
organism and expel them to the outside, a kidney is the main excretory organ responsible for removing
nitrogenous wastes from the bodies of vertebrate animals (including fish and humans).
The function of the kidney in excretion is to filter the blood that enters it, removing the waste in the blood
solution, for this waste to be excreted. This filtration is carried out by millions of small filtering units that are in
kidneys which are known as nephrons.
The nephron is a regulatory unit; it absorbs or secretes substances in order to maintain homeostasis, this
regulation maintains the constant composition of body fluids which is done by adjusting salts and water levels to
maintain fluid concentration, different ions also adjusted to maintain pH.
Urine is the final solution produced by these microscopic tubules, and passes out the kidney via ducts (ureters) and
then goes to the urine storage organ (bladder), which after a certain limit fills and the human passes this urine
through the urethra to the outside. (In vertebrates this goes to the a chamber (cloaca) instead of the urethra, which
empties to the outside)
Detailed structure of a nephron:
It consists of 4 parts (in order of movement) THAT are heavily surrounded by capillaries: Bowmans capsule
Proximal (ie first) convoluted tubule the loop of Henle Distal (ie second) convoluted tubule
secretion.
Filtration:
When highly oxygenated, unfiltered blood enters the kidney through the renal artery it goes to the nephrons,
upon reaching it splits into a spherical network of blood capillaries called glomerulus that are in a Bowman's
capsule, the blood pressure here is so high that fluid and substance from the blood are forced into the
Bowmans capsule, and forms a fluid called the glomerular filtrate.
Blood cells and proteins are retained in the blood, while large volumes of water pass through contained
dissolved substances such as: water, amino acids, glucose, salts (ions), nitrogenous wastes and other toxic
molecules.
This process is known as filtration, it separates based on SIZE of molecules, since proteins and RBC are
larger then other molecules they cannot pass the Bowmans capsule. Therefore:
Substances that the body needs will require reabsorption, so they are not lost with urine.
Additional wastes that were in the bloodstream, and managed to escape the higher pressure of the Bowmans
capsule need to be added to this 'urine' mixture.
Hence this is not the final fluid excretion.
Reabsorption:
Depending on the feedback of the body, varying amounts of solutes are reabsorbed from the solution, for
example water, amino acids, glucose, salts (Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3-).
This occurs in the proximal, loop of Henle and distal tubules.
In the proximal tube:
All organic nutrients (amino acids and glucose) are reabsorbed, aswell as some ions such as (Na +, K+, Cl-,
Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3-).
In the loop of Henle:
After the initial reabsorption from the distil tube, you'll have a liquid that is primarily urine, whether its
concentrated or not, is dependent in the loop of Henle.
The loop of Henle has 2 limbs, a descending then ascending, where the descending is permeable to water
ONLY, and the descending is permeable to salt ONLY.
Secretion:
This is the last process and leads to the formation of urine. It occurs in the distil and collecting tubule.
The liquid present in the tubule, are then added with metabolic wastes (such as urea, ammonia, hydrogen ions,
durgs: pencillin, morphine) etc that are brought by active transport to the distil tubule.
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing
dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some organisms:
Diffusion and osmosis are both examples of passive transport (ie they do not require energy), this is too slow for
the normal functioning, because the movement of molecules relies on differences in the concentration gradient
between two solutions (it moves from high conc. to low conc.)
Also this process greatly slows down once the difference in concentration gradient becomes smaller, and stops
once the concentrations are at equilibrium.
Further problems with:
Diffusion:
Toxins such as drugs can accumulate in the body, and can only be removed if they are in water, hence they
would ONLY move if there was a higher concentration of toxins in the blood then the urine itself. And this
would stop if the concentrations equalise.
Osmosis:
Too much water is lost in urine: If there is a high concentration of urine, water will continually be drawn from
the body to even out the conc. gradient. However, excretion of dilute urine means the loss of large amount of
water from body, a loss to great for terrestrial animals.
Osmosis only deals with the movement of water and thus would only allow water to move out of the body, not
the nitrogenous wastes.
Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by
dissection, use a model or visual resource and identify the regions of the
mammalian kidney involved in the excretion of waste products:
Aim: To identify the regions of the mammalian kidney, notably the ones involved in the excretion of waste
products.
Equipment:
One commercially packed cow (mammalian) kidney
One sharp medical cutting scalpel
Dissecting tray
Clean 'laying' paper
Latex gloves
Tissue forceps (they are things that help pull skin)
Disinfecting agent
Safety:
Gloves and protective face masks are crucial, incase of a diseased kidney, or the possible contracting of a
disease between touching.
Gloves are also crucial in handling of sharp object, incase of accidental damage.
Disinfecting agent was used on the tray, and the paper, incase of airborne particles that may be ingested and
cause allergies or disease.
Material was carefully disposed, to inhibit the build up of bacteria and other organisms.
Method:
Carefully layer brush the tray with agent, and paper, and place them together.
Place the kidney facing sideways, and carefully cut sideways to obtain a 'longitudinal' cut (ie sideway cut), using
forceps to open the skin.
Result:
The kidney is made up of 3 sections, the pelvis, the medulla and the cortex, the obvious observable sections
where located, and an imaginary "large" nephron was placed, to observe where the 3 mains process (ie
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the
process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney:
People with disfunctional kidneys are not able to remove wastes such as urea, they have to undergo renal dialysis
to regulate their blood.
Renal dialysis is an artificial process in which waste in the blood are removed by diffusion across a partially
permeable membrane of solution known as dialysis fluid. It is a solution of salts, glucose, dissolved gases and
other substances (it has an equivalent composition to interstitial fluid), wastes (particular urea and excess salts),
diffuse out of the blood into the dialysis fluid. The clean blood is then returned.
The process:
The blood is extracted from the body from a artery (as it has come from the heart with oxygen, and going to
body to pass its waste and regulate levels etc, but it cant as kidney has failed hence blood from artery is used)
and passed into a dialyser, which is is a medical unit which is a bundle of hollow fibres made of partially
permeable membrane to help units suffering from artery failure.
The dialyser is in a solution of dialysing fluid, which has similar concentrations of substances as blood.
The dialyser only allows wastes to pass through, and not blood cells and proteins (in this way it is similar to the
filtrations stage of the nephron).
The wastes diffuse into the solution, and it is constantly replaced
The anti-clotting agent, heparin, is also added to prevent clotting.
The blood is then returned to the body via a vein.
Comparison of dialysis and normal kidney function:
Kidneys Renal Dialysis
- Continuous process; very efficient - Slow process; occurs a few times a week for
patients
- Active and passive transport is used throughout - Only passive transport is used
the nephron
- Useful substances are reabsorbed actively by - Useful substances are not reabsorbed as they
the kidney diffuse into blood from dialysing fluid
- Uses a series of membranes (nephrons) which - Also uses membranes (but artificial) which are
are selectively permeable. selectively permeable.
Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
in the regulation of water and salt levels in blood:
Recall:
Dehydration is defined as an excessive loss of body fluid.
Blood volume is the volume of blood (both red blood cells and plasma) in a person's circulatory system. Blood
volume is determined by the amount of water and sodium ingested, excreted by the kidneys into the urine.
A hormone is a chemical released by one or more cells that affects cells in other parts of the organism. It is
essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another, only a small amount of hormone
is required to alter cell metabolism. All multicellular organisms produce hormones however animals usually
produce hormones which are often transported in the blood.
The kidneys maintain constant conditions within the body by excreting wastes such as urea and by regulating the
amounts of water and salts that are reabsorbed. This aspect of homeostasis is mainly due to the actions of two
hormones: aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH):
Aldosterone:
Is a hormone that increases the reabsorption of sodium and the release (secretion) of potassium in the kidneys.
Hence a release of it (ie increase levels), causes more salts to be sucked out of the tubules.
Aldosterone is produced by the outer-section of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland, (which sits above the
kidney) and acts on the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the kidney.
When there is a lack of absorption of salts (ex. NaCl, NH 3, K+ etc) , a signal goes to the hypothalamus which
triggers the secretion of aldosterone.
High Salt Concentration: Aldosterone levels decreased, less salt reabsorbed, hence less water diffusing into
body cells.
Low Salt Concentration: Aldosterone levels increased, more salt reabsorbed, more water diffusing into body
cells.
Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy
in people who cannot secrete aldosterone:
This is a second developed technology, where the first was renal dialysis to aid people with affected kidneys.
Addisons disease is a rare endocrine disorder occurring when the adrenal glands, seated above the kidney, fail to
produce enough aldosterone. Without aldosterone, the body would not be able to reabsorb salt (specifically sodium
ions) this would cause severe dehydration and excessive potassium loss which may cause brain damage and death.
The artificial replacement hormone is called Fludrocortisone, a drug that decreases the amount of salt the body
excretes. It is taken either orally or intravenously, patients are also advised by their doctors to increase their salt
intake.
Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological
functions in response to variations in the environment and discuss its
importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt
concentrations:
Homeostasis is the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable (constant) or almost constant, internal
environment.
Enantiostasis is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the
environment.
The difference between the two, is the fact that homeostasis requires only a SPECIFIC internal condition for an
organism to function properly, example 37o is the required temperature for humans to function, enantiostasis is for
a VARIETY of internal condition which the function can function properly at, for example diving birds rely on
enantiostasis to function properly at extremely high and low pressure sky levels.
In homeostasis heat is 'acted against' by sweating etc, the pressure for birds isn't 'acted against'; it is 'adapted' to.
An estuary is where a freshwater river meets and mixes with saltwater sea, and as such the salinity levels are
always changing dramatically. This is determined by the tide of the sea:
At high tide: sea water flows into the river mouth, creating an environment with higher salt concentration, hence
this salt water has the tendency to draw water out cells by osmosis (as the organism will be in freshwater)
At low tide: sea water flows out of the river mouth, and freshwater from the estuary is abundant, hence by
diffusion organism face the challenge of water moving into their tissue.
Organisms living in such an environment need to have mechanisms to cope with such changes in order to survive,
this is collectively called enantiostasis.
Enantiostasis is carried out by 2 process (these are present in normal homestasis conditions too, but they carry out
different roles):
Osmoconformation: process by which organisms tolerate the changes in the environment, and conform, or alter
the concentration of their internal solutes to match the external environment. Their metabolism can handle it.
Osmoregulation: is the control of the levels of water and mineral salts in the blood.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation
in saline environments:
Salt, even in small concentrations, has a damaging effect on cell metabolism.
Halophytes are plants that adapted and can tolerate high salt levelled environments, they are commonly found in
areas such as estuaries.
Grey Mangroves (Avicennia marina):
Salt Prevention: In its roots, it has a layer of cells that actively restrict the movement of salt into xylem vessels.
Salt Exclusion: Special glands in the mangroves can actively exclude the salt from the water, so that the water
absorbed has a lower salt concentration than the water in the environment.
Salt Accumulation: Salt is accumulated in old leaves that drop off, so that the salt is out of the plants system
Salt Excretion: Salt can be excreted from the underside of the leaves of the mangrove plants; salt crystals form
under the leaves.
Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist
in minimising water loss:
Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in
plants that assist in the conservation of water:
Aim: To gather information from plant specimens about structures that assist in the conservation of water.
Equipment:
Different type of leafs that exist around the school (typical environment)
Hand lens
Safety:
Sun has strong UV light outside, sunscreen and hats should be worn.
Leaf can be diseased and can have splinters and can be sharp, gloves should be worn.
Method:
Carefully, leaves where looked at for different 'prominent' features that could inhibit water loss, these where
then cross-checked with reliable sources.
Result:
Banksia:
Leaves have sunken stomates: this reduces transpiration.
Hard, waxy cuticles: this reduces the amount of water loss through transpiration.
Eucalyptus trees:
Hard, waxy cuticles: this reduces the amount of water loss through transpiration.
Leaves hang vertically: reduce sun exposure.
Spinifex grass:
Have extensive root systems that can reach underground water.
Leaves are also long and thin: to reduce water loss by transpiration.
Can roll up to hide their stomata's: this reduces the amount of water loss through transpiration.
Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the
differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and
freshwater fish:
Freshwater Fish:
Osmotic Problem: Hypotonic to environment. Water diffuses INTO their bodies. Salts diffuses out.
Role of Kidney: Doesnt drink continually, Kidneys removes excess water, while reabsorbing salts.
Urine: Large, dilute amount.
Marine Fish:
Osmotic Problem: Hypertonic to environment. Water diffuses OUT of their bodies. Salt diffuses in.
Role of Kidney: Continually drinks water, Kidneys reabsorb water, while actively secreting salts.
(Salt is also excreted across gills)
Urine: Small, concentrated amount.
Terrestrial Mammals:
Osmotic Problem: Water needs to be conserved.
Role of Kidney: Regulates concentration of blood, while at the same time excretes urea and conserves water.
Urine: Concentration changes with the availability of water, as well as temperature and water loss through
sweat. Water levels in blood rise, urine amount rises, and concentration decreases and vice versa.
Explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production
and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian
insects and terrestrial animals:
Ammonia is the direct result of amino acid breakdown (deamination) and is a waste product of all organisms. It is
very water soluble, but VERY toxic, and must be removed quickly, or changed to a less toxic form.
The removal of ammonia would require large volumes of water, and this is not possible for animals or insects that
seek to conserve water.
Aquatic Animals and Fish: These organisms directly release AMMONIA into the environment. This uses a lot of
water, but they have no need to conserve it. Ammonia is very water soluble and is excreted through the gills.
Terrestrial Animals: Releasing ammonia would be impossible due to lack of water. Instead, land-dwellers
change ammonia into less toxic forms and release it periodically. Mammals change it into UREA and release it
as urine (ex; kangaroos, wallabies, hopping mice and koalas). Australian animals release very concentrated
urine, and are able to tolerate high levels of urea in their bodies.
Birds: Birds change ammonia into URIC ACID, a whitish paste which uses hardly any water. This is lighter than
using urea, and helps in flight.
Insects: Insects also change ammonia to URIC ACID.