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Shadan College of Engineering & Technology

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Mini Project Report

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Digital Stopwatch
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Submitted by: Submitted to:

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Zahid S. Hamid Mr. Adam Shafi Shaik.

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Associate Professor
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ECE IV Yr and
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Mr. Abdul Hafeez

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Roll No: 07081A0477 Sajid

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H.O.D (ECE Deptt)

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Batch: 2007-2011
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ABSTRACT

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A digital stop watch built around timer IC LM555 and 4-digit counter IC with

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multiplexed 7-segment output drivers (MM74C926). IC M74C926 consists of a 4-digit

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counter, an internal output latch, n-p-n output sourcing drivers for common cathode, 7-
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segment display and an internal multiplexing circuitry with four multiplexing outputs.
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The multiplexing circuit has its own free running oscillator, and requires no external
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clock. The counter advances on negative edge of the clock. The clock is generated by
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timer IC LM555 (IC1) and applied to pin 12 of IC2. A high signal on reset pin 13 of IC2
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resets the counter to zero. Reset pin 13 is connected to +5V through reset push-on-switch
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S3. When S2 is momentarily pressed, the count value becomes 0, transistor T1 conducts
and it resets IC1. Counting starts when S2 is in µoff¶ condition.

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A low signal on the latch-enable input pin 5 (LE) of IC2 latches the number in the

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counter into the internal output latches. When switch S2 is pressed, pin 5 goes low and

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hence the count value gets stored in the latch. Display-select pin 6 (DS) decides whether
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the number on the counter or the number stored in the latch is to be displayed. If pin 6 is
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low the number in the output latch is displayed, and if pin 6 is high the number in the
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counter is displayed. When switch S2 is pressed, the base of p-n-p transistor T2 is

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connected to ground and it starts conducting. The emitter of T2 is connected to DS pin of

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IC2. Thus, when switch S3 is pressed, reset pin 13 of IC2 is connected to ground via
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transistor T1 and the oscillator does not generate clock pulses. This is done to achieve
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synchronization between IC1 and IC2.

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First, reset the circuit so that the display shows µ0000.¶ Now open switch S2 for
the stop watch to start counting the time. In order to stop the count, close switch S2.
Rotary switch S1 is used to select the different time periods at the output of the Astable
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Multivibrator (IC1). The circuit works off a 5V power supply. It can be easily assembled
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on a general-purpose PCB. Enclose the circuit in a metal box with provisions for four 7-
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segment displays, rotary switch S1, start/stop switch S2 and reset switch S3 in the front
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panel of the box.

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Acknowledgement:

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Words often fail to pay one¶s gratitude oneself, still I would like to convey my

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sincere thanks to Mr. Adam Shafi Shaik at every stage of completion of my Minor
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Project for the fulfillment of the degree of B.Tech in ELECTRONICS &
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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING and providing me with valuable material
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and guidance whenever I felt the need. Also I would like to thank everybody who
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directly or indirectly helped me in successfully completion of my Mini Project. Again, I
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would also like to thank professor for providing his valuable guidance whenever I
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needed.

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Zahid S. Hamid

ECE IV Yr
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Roll No: 07081A0477

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Batch: 2007-2011
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CANDIDATE¶S DECLARATION:

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I hereby declare that the work presented in this project titled "Digital

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Stopwatch" submitted towards completion of Mini-project of B.Tech (ECE) at the

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Shadan College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad. It is an authentic record of

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my original work pursued under the guidance of Mr. Adam Shafi Shaik, Associate
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Professor, SCET, Hyderabad. I have not submitted the matter embodied in this project for
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the award of any other degree.
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(Zahid S. Hamid)

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Place: Hyderabad

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Date: 19-July-2010

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CERTIFICATE:
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This is to certify that the above declaration made by the candidate is correct to the
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best of my knowledge and belief.

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(Mr. Adam Shafi Shaik)

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Associate Professor
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Place: Hyderabad, SCET

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Date: 19-July-2010
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TABLE OF CONTENT:

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1: INTRODUCTION

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2: BREADBOARD
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3: SOLDERING
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4: LIST OF COMPONENTS
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5: COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION
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6: WORKING CIRCUIT

7: CONSTRUCTION

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8: PRECAUTION

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9: TESTING

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10: REVIEW OF THE CIRCUIT
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11: APPLICATION
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12: CONCLUSION
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13: REFERENCE
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DIGITAL STOPWATCH:

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INTRODUCTION:

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The time plays a vital role in every one¶s life. The stopwatch is not new for us but
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commonly used mechanical stopwatches does not guarantee accuracy , recision and
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other so many drawbacks are there i.e. size.. Now a days there is revolution in digital
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field hence we have a digital aid entitled ³digital stopwatch´ to measure time duration
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among several events. Many circuits of stopwatches have been published in so many
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electronics related magazines, but the circuit shown here is the cheapest, simple and easy
to assemble. This can be used to count from 1 sec to 9999999999 seconds. (depends on
display panel, generally 10 digit calculator is commonly used.)

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The digital timer device somehow queues with the global competitiveness in the

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field of high technology. The primary reason of its existence is for convenience of people
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to life. Basically, it is not designed and created to encourage people to become lazy, but
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to help them do multitasking and lessen efforts in dealing things especially today where
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there is an increasing demand of human attention towards many varied things caused by
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the improving technological trends.

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A busy person tends to forget the other things he is doing, thus, this project is also
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designed to address to this particular problem of any person: forgetting about other
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tasks because of being very busy. With the aid of the Digital timer device, one just easily
sets up an appliance to turn on or off, as desired, in a chosen span of time,
therefore, minimizing his efforts in manually turning on or off the appliance.
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WHAT IS A STOPWATCH ?
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A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece designed to measure the amount of time elapsed

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from a particular time when activated to when the piece is deactivated. A large digital
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version of a stopwatch designed for viewing at a distance, as in a sports stadium, is called

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a stopclock.
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A typical mechanical analog stopwatch.

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The timing functions are traditionally controlled by two buttons on the case.

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Pressing the top button starts the timer running, and pressing the button a second time

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stops it, leaving the elapsed time displayed. A press of the second button then resets the

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stopwatch to zero. The second button is also used to record split times or lap times. When
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the split time button is pressed while the watch is eating, the display freezes, allowing the
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elapsed time to that point to be read, but the watch mechanism continues running to
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record total elapsed time. Pressing the split button a second time allows the watch to
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resume display of total time.

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Mechanical stopwatches are powered by a mainspring, which must be

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periodically wound up by turning the knurled knob at the top of the watch.
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Digital electronic stopwatches consists of a microchip, they often include date and
time-of-day functions as well.
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A typical Digital stopwatch.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE :

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The main heart of the digital stopwatch is the timer IC 555 used as a pulse

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generator in astable mode to produce the pulses of 1 second duration or 1Hz frequency.
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The pulse duration can be varied by changing the value of variable resistor VR2. The
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output of pulse generator unit is to control the operation of the switching unit. The pulse
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duration depends on the resistors and capacitors value 69(R1+2R2) C.
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A digital stop watch built around timer IC LM555 and 4-digit counter IC with
multiplexed 7-segment output drivers (MM74C926). IC MM74C926 consists of a 4-digit
counter, an internal output latch, npn output sourcing drivers for common cathode, 7-

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segment display and an internal multiplexing circuitry with four multiplexing outputs.

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The multiplexing circuit has its own free running oscillator, and requires no external

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clock. The counter advances on negative edge of the clock. The clock is generated by
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timer IC LM555 (IC1) and applied to pin 12 of IC2. A high signal on reset pin 13 of IC2
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resets the counter to zero. Reset pin 13 is connected to +5V through reset
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push-on-switch S3. When S2 is momentarily pressed, the count value becomes 0,

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transistor T1 conducts and it resets IC1. Counting starts when S2 is in µoff¶ condition.
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A low signal on the latch-enable input pin 5 (LE) of IC2 latches the number in the
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counter into the internal output latches.When switch S2 is pressed, pin 5 goes low and
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hence the count value gets stored in the latch. Display-select pin 6 (DS) decides whether
the number on the counter or the number stored in the latch is to be displayed. If pin 6 is
low the number in the output latch is displayed, and if pin 6 is high the number in the
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counter is displayed.
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When switch S2 is pressed, the base of pnp transistor T2 is connected to ground

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and it starts conducting. The emitter of T2 is connected to DS pin of IC2. Thus, when
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switch S3 is pressed, reset pin 13 of IC2 is connected to ground via transistor T1 and the
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oscillator does not generate clock pulses. This is done to achieve synchronisation
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between IC1 and IC2.

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BREADBOARD:

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A breadboard (proto board) is a construction base for a one-of-a-kind electronic

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circuit, a prototype. In modern times the term is commonly used to refer to a particular

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type of breadboard, the solder less breadboard (plug board). Because the solder less

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prototypes and experimenting with circuit design more easily. Other, often historic,
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A modern solder less breadboard consists of a perforated block of plastic with
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perforations. The spacing between the clips (lead pitch) is typically 0.1" (2.54 mm).

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Integrated circuits (ICs) in dual in-line packages (DIPs) can be inserted to straddle the

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centerline of the block. Interconnecting wires and the leads of discrete components (such
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as capacitors, resistors, inductors, etc.) can be inserted into the remaining free holes to
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complete the circuit. Where ICs are not used, discrete components and connecting wires
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may use any of the holes. Typically the spring clips are rated for 1
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Ampere at 5 Volts and 0.333 Amperes at 15 Volts (5 Watts).

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SOLDERING:

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Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by

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melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low

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melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal,

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which is below 400 ƒC (752 ƒF). The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
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Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower melting temperature filler
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metal; it is distinguished from welding by the base metals not being melted during the
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joining process. In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing
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the solder to melt and be drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the
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materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not
as strong as the base metal, but have adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-
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Soldering is an ancient technique mentioned in the Bible and there is evidence

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that it was employed up to 5000 years ago in Mesopotamia. Soldering filler materials are

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available in many different alloys for differing applications. In electronics assembly, the
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eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost identical in
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performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for
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plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications. In high-temperature metal

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joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), the primary purpose of flux is to
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prevent oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead solder, for example, attaches
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very well to copper, but poorly to the various oxides of copper, which form quickly at
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soldering temperatures. Flux is a substance which is nearly inert at room temperature, but
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which becomes strongly reducing at elevated temperatures, preventing the formation of

metal oxides. Secondarily, flux acts as a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing
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the surface tension of the molten solder and causing it to better wet out the parts to be
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joined.
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LIST OF COMPONENTS :

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DISPLAY
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330Ÿ
IC MM74C926

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VARIABLE RESISTOR 22k

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RESISTORS 10k, 4.7k, 1k, 3.9k, 200k,

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COMMON CATHODE 7-SEGMENT

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TRANSISTORS BC547, BC557

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CAPACITORS 3.3µF 10V, 0.01µF

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tP SWITCHES (START, STOP, SINGLE tP
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COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION:

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IC MM74C926:

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GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
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These CMOS counters consist of a 4-digit counter, an internal output latch, NPN
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output sourcing drivers for a 7-segment display, and an internal multiplexing circuitry
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with four multiplexing outputs. The multiplexing circuit has its own free-running
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oscillator, and requires no external clock. The counters advance on negative edge of
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clock. A high signal on the Reset input will reset the counter to zero, and reset the carry-
out low. A low signal on the Latch Enable input will latch the number in the counters into
the internal output latches. A high signal on Display Select input will select the number in

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the counter to be displayed; a low level signal on the Display Select will select the

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number in the output latch to be displayed.

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The MM74C925 is a 4-decade counter and has Latch Enable, Clock and Reset
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inputs. The MM74C926 is like the MM74C925 except that it has a display select and a
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carry-out used for cascading counters. The carry-out signal goes high at 6000, goes back
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low at 0000.
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The MM74C927 is like the MM74C926 except the second most significant digit
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divides by 6 rather than 10. Thus, if the clock input frequency is 10 Hz, the display would
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read tenths of seconds and minutes (i.e., 9:59.9). The MM74C928 is like the MM74C926
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except the most significant digit divides by 2 rather than 10 and the carry-out is
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an overflow indicator which is high at 2000, and it goes back low only when the counter
is reset. Thus, this is a 31/2-digit counter.
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FEATURES:
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• Wide supply voltage range 3V to 6V

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• Guaranteed noise margin 1V

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• High noise immunity 0.45 VCC (typ.)

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• High segment sourcing current 40 ma @ VCC b 1.6V, VCC e 5V

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• Internal multiplexing circuitry

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DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

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Segment resistors are desirable to minimize power dissipation and chip heating.

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The DS75492 serves as a good digit driver when it is desired to drive bright displays.

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When using this driver with a 5V supply at room temperature, the display can be driven

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without segment resistors to full illumination. The user must use caution in this mode

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however, to prevent overheating of the device by using too high a supply voltage or by
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operating at high ambient temperatures.
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The input protection circuitry consists of a series resistor, and a diode to ground.
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Thus input signals exceeding VCC will not be clamped. This input signal should not be
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allowed to exceed 15V
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Connection Diagram:

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LOGIC AND BLOCK DIAGRAM:

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SWITCHING TIME WAVEFORMS:
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PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS:

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IC LM555

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The LM555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or

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oscillation. Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the

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time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and
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capacitor. For astable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and duty
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cycle are accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit
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may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output circuit can source or sink
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up to 200mA or drive TTL circuits.
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The 555 has three operating modes:
Monostable mode in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications

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include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency

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divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc

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Astable - free running mode the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include
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LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms,
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pulse position modulation, etc.

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Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS
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pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched switches,
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etc.
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PIN DIAGRAM:
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The connection of the pins is as follows:

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Pin Name Purpose

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1 GND Ground, low level (0 V)

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2 TRIG OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC.

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3 OUT This output is driven to +VCC or GND.
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4 RESET A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND.
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5 CTRL "Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
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6 THR The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL.
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7 DIS Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals.
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8 V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.
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Function of LM555 in the Circuit is Astable mode:

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Standard 555 Astable Circuit

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In astable mode, the '555 timer ' puts out a continuous stream of rectangular
pulses having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the
discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin
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(pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node.
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Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2,
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since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle,
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therefore discharging the capacitor.In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream
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depends on the values of R1, R2 and C:

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The high time from each pulse is given by

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and the low time from each pulse is given by
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where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the
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capacitor in farads.
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To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2
towards the capacitor. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the high
interval depends only on R1 and C1.

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Specifications:

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These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have better

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specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc).
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Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V
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Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA
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Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA
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Output current (maximum) 200 mA
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Maximum Power dissipation 600 mW
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Power Consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V
Operating temperature 0 to 70 ƒC

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COMMON CATHODE 7-SEGMENT DISPLAY

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A seven-segment display, or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic

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display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex

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dot-matrix displays. Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic
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meters, and other electronic devices for displaying numerical information.
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Concept and visual structure:
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Fig: Seven-Segment Display.
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A seven segment display, as its name indicates, is composed of seven elements.

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Individually on or off, they can be combined to produce simplified representations of the

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arabic numerals. Often the seven segments are arranged in an oblique (slanted)
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arrangement, which aids readability. In most applications, the seven segments are of
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nearly uniform shape and size (usually elongated hexagons, though trapezoids and
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rectangles can also be used), though in the case of adding machines, the vertical segments
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are longer and more oddly shaped at the ends in an effort to further enhance readability.
Each of the numbers 0, 6, 7 and 9 may be represented by two or more different glyphs on
seven-segment displays.
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LED-based 7-segment display
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The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of two vertical segments on each
side with one horizontal segment on the top, middle, and bottom. Additionally, the

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seventh segment bisects the rectangle horizontally. There are also fourteen-segment

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displays and sixteen-segment displays (for full alphanumerics); however, these have

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mostly been replaced by dot-matrix displays.
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The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to by the letters A to G, as
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shown to the right, where the optional DP decimal point (an "eighth segment") is used for
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the display of non-integer numbers.

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The animation to the left cycles through the common glyphs of the ten decimal
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numerals and the six hexadecimal "letter digits" (A±F). It is an image sequence of a
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"LED" display, which is described technology-wise in the following section. Notice the
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variation between uppercase and lowercase letters for A±F; this is done to obtain a
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unique, unambiguous shape for each letter (otherwise, a capital D would look identical to
an 0 (or less likely O) and a capital B would look identical to an 8).
Seven segments are, effectively, the fewest required to represent each of the ten Hindu-
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Arabic numerals with a distinct and recognizable glyph. Bloggers have experimented
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with six-segment and even five-segment displays with such novel shapes as curves,
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angular blocks and serifs for segments; however, these often require complicated and/or
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non-uniform shapes and sometimes create unrecognizable glyphs.

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An incandescent light type early seven-segment display.

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A mechanical seven-segment display for displaying automotive fuel prices.

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Seven-segment displays may use a liquid crystal display (LCD), arrays of light-

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emitting diodes (LEDs), or other light-generating or controlling techniques such as cold

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cathode gas discharge, vacuum fluorescent, incandescent filaments, and others. For

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gasoline price totems and other large signs, vane displays made up of electromagnetically

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flipped light-reflecting segments (or "vanes") are still commonly used. An alternative to

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the 7-segment display in the 1950s through the 1970s was the cold-cathode, neon-lamp-
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like nixie tube. Starting in 1970, RCA sold a display device known as the Numitron that
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used incandescent filaments arranged into a seven-segment display.
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In a simple LED package, typically all of the cathodes (negative terminals) or all
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of the anodes (positive terminals) of the segment LEDs are connected together and
brought out to a common pin; this is referred to as a "common cathode" or "common
anode" device. Hence a 7 segment plus decimal point package will only require nine pins.

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Integrated displays also exist, with single or multiple digits. Some of these integrated

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displays incorporate their own internal decoder, though most do not ± each individual

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LED is brought out to a connecting pin as described. Multiple-digit LED displays as used
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in pocket calculators and similar devices used multiplexed displays to reduce the number
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of IC pins required to control the display. For example, all the anodes of the A segments
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of each digit position would be connected together and to a driver pin, while the cathodes
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of all segments for each digit would be connected. To operate any particular segment of
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any digit, the controlling integrated circuit would turn on the cathode driver for the
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selected digit, and the anode drivers for the desired segments; then after a short blanking
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interval the next digit would be selected and new segments lit, in a sequential fashion. In
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this manner an eight digit display with seven segments and a decimal point would require
only 8 cathode drivers and 8 anode drivers, instead of sixty-four drivers and IC pins.
Often in pocket calculators the digit drive lines would be used to scan the keyboard as
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well, providing further savings; however, pressing multiple keys at once would produce
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odd results on the multiplexed display.

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Seven segment displays can be found in patents as early as 1908 (in U.S. Patent
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974,943, F W Wood invented an 8-segment display, which displayed the number 4 using
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a diagonal bar), but did not achieve widespread use until the advent of LEDs in the
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1970s. They are sometimes even used in unsophisticated displays like cardboard "For
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sale" signs, where the user either applies color to pre-printed segments, or (spray)paints
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color through a seven-segment digit template, to compose figures such as product prices

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or telephone numbers.

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For many applications, dot-matrix LCDs have largely superseded LED displays,

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though even in LCDs 7-segment displays are very common. Unlike LEDs, the shapes of
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elements in an LCD panel are arbitrary since they are formed on the display by a kind of
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printing process. In contrast, the shapes of LED segments tend to be simple rectangles,
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reflecting the fact that they have to be physically moulded to shape, which makes it
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difficult to form more complex shapes than the segments of 7-segment displays.
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However, the high common recognition factor of 7-segment displays, and the
comparatively high visual contrast obtained by such displays relative to dot-matrix digits,
makes seven-segment multiple-digit LCD screens very common on basic calculators.

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ALPHABETIC DISPLAY:

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In addition to the ten numerals, seven segment displays can be used to show
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letters of the latin, cyrillic and greek alphabets including punctuation, but only few
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representations are unambiguous and intuitive at the same time. It is possible to represent
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hexadecimal unambiguously by using a mixture of letter cases (AbCdEF is typical) and

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using a representation of 6 that has the top segment illuminated. This is frequently used to
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output hexadecimal codes for troubleshooting purposes. Short messages giving status
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information (e.g. "no disc" on a CD player) are also commonly represented on 7-segment
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displays. In the case of such messages it is not necessary for every letter to be
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unambiguous, merely for the words as a whole to be readable.

Similar displays with fourteen or sixteen segments are available allowing decent
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representations of the alphabet. Using a restricted range of letters that look like (upside-
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down) digits, seven-segment displays are commonly used by school children to form
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words and phrases using a technique known as "calculator spelling".

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NUMBERS TO 7-SEGMENT-CODE:

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A single byte can encode the full state of a 7-segment-display. The most popular

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bit encodings are gfedcba and abcdefg - both usually assume 0 is off and 1 is on.
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This table gives the hexadecimal encodings for displaying the digits 0 to 9:
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Digit gfedcba abcdefg a b c d e f g
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0 0x3F 0x7E on on on on on on off
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1 0x06 0x30 off on on off off off off
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2 0x5B 0x6D on on off on on off on
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3 0x4F 0x79 on on on on off off on
4 0x66 0x33 off on on off off on on
5 0x6D 0x5B on off on on off on on

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6 0x7D 0x5F on off on on on on on

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7 0x07 0x70 on on on off off off off

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8 0x7F 0x7F on on on on on on on
9 0x6F 0x7B on on on on off on on ve
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VARIABLE RESISTOR:

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A potentiometer ( known as a "pot") is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding

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contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side

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and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly

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used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment.
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Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for
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example, in a joystick.
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Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a
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watt). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on
audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light
dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly

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control the brightness of lamps.

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POTENTIOMETER CONSTRUCTION: ve
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Construction of a wire-wound circular potentiometer. The resistive element (1) of
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the shown device is trapezoidal, giving a non-linear relationship between resistance and
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turn angle. The wiper (3) rotates with the axis (4), providing the changeable resistance
on

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between the wiper contact (6) and the fixed contacts (5) and (9). The vertical position of
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the axis is fixed in the body (2) with the ring (7) (below) and the bolt (8) (above).
D

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A potentiometer is constructed with a resistive element formed into an arc of a circle, and
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a sliding contact (wiper) travelling over that arc. The resistive element, with a terminal at
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one or both ends, is flat or angled, and is commonly made of graphite, although other
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materials may be used. The wiper is connected through another sliding contact to another

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terminal. On panel pots, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn

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pots, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact. "Multiturn"

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potentiometers also exist, where the resistor element may be helical and the wiper may

on

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move 10, 20, or more complete revolutions, though multiturn pots are usually constructed

D
of a conventional resistive element wiped via a worm gear.
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Besides graphite, materials used to make the resistive element include resistance
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wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet.
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One form of rotary potentiometer is called a String potentiometer. It is a multi-
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turn potentiometer operated by an attached reel of wire turning against a spring. It is used
as a position transducer.

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In a linear slider pot, a sliding control is provided instead of a dial control. The

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resistive element is a rectangular strip, not semi-circular as in a rotary potentiometer. Due

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to the large opening slot or the wiper, this type of pot has a greater potential for getting
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contaminated.
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Potentiometers can be obtained with either linear or logarithmic relations between

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the slider position and the resistance (potentiometer laws or "tapers"). A letter code ("A"
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taper, "B" taper, etc.) may be used to identify which taper is intended, but the letter code
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definitions are variable over time and between manufacturers.

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Manufacturers of conductive track potentiometers use conductive polymer resistor

pastes that contain hard wearing resins and polymers, solvents, lubricant and carbon ± the
constituent that provides the conductive/resistive properties. The tracks are made by
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screen printing the paste onto a paper based phenolic substrate and then curing it in an
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oven. The curing process removes all solvents and allows the conductive polymer to
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polymerize and cross link. This produces a durable track with stable electrical resistance
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throughout its working life.

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POTENTIOMETER APPLICATIONS:
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Potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide
variety of equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in consumer

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electronics has declined in the 1990s, with digital controls now more common. However

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they remain in many applications, such as volume controls and as position sensors.

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on
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LINEAR POTENTIOMETERS (³FADERS´):

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One of the most common uses for modern low-power potentiometers is as audio
control devices. Both linear pots (also known as "faders") and rotary potentiometers
(commonly called knobs) are regularly used to adjust loudness, frequency attenuation and
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other characteristics of audio signals.
.c

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The 'log pot' is used as the volume control in audio amplifiers, where it is also
on

on

called an "audio taper pot", because the amplitude response of the human ear is also
FC

FC
D

logarithmic. It ensures that, on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for example, a setting of
tP

tP
ar

ar
m

5 sounds half as loud as a setting of 10. There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio
.S

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w

taper which is simply the reverse of a log pot. It is almost always used in a ganged
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34
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 om

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configuration with a log pot, for instance, in an audio balance control.Potentiometers

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used in combination with filter networks act as tone controls or equalizers.

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TELEVISION:

on

on
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Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and

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color response. A potentiometer was often used to adjust "vertical hold", which affected
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the synchronization between the receiver's internal sweep circuit (sometimes a
m

m
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multivibrator) and the received picture signal.
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TRANSDUCERS:
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Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers
because of the simplicity of construction and because they can give a large output signal.

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COMPUTATION:

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In analog computers, high precision potentiometers are used to scale intermediate
ve
results by desired constant factors, or to set initial conditions for a calculation. A motor-
on
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driven potentiometer may be used as a function generator, using a non-linear resistance

D

card to supply approximations to trigonometric functions. For example, the shaft rotation
tP
ar

might represent an angle, and the voltage division ratio can be made proportional to the
m
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cosine of the angle.

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ve

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on

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FC

FC
D

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tP

tP
ar

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35
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er

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THEORY OF OPERATION:

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FC
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tP

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A potentiometer with a resistive load, showing equivalent fixed resistors for

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clarity. The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually

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adjustable output voltage at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage applied across

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rt
the two ends of the pot. This is the most common use of pots.
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on
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The voltage across RL can be calculated by:

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If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an operational

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amplifier), the output voltage can be approximated by the simpler equation:

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As an example, assume
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, , , and
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Since the load resistance is large compared to the other resistances, the output voltage VL
D

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will be approximately:
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Due to the load resistance, however, it will actually be slightly lower: § 6.623 V.

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One of the advantages of the potential divider compared to a variable resistor in series

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with the source is that, while variable resistors have a maximum resistance where some

on

on
FC

FC
current will always flow, dividers are able to vary the output voltage from maximum

D
(VS) to ground (zero volts) as the wiper moves from one end of the pot to the other.
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There is, however, always a small amount of contact resistance.
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In addition, the load resistance is often not known and therefore simply placing a
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variable resistor in series with the load could have a negligible effect or an excessive
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effect, depending on the load.

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on

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D

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RESISTORS:

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A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across

on

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its terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance

FC

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with Ohm's law:

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V = IR
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Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
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ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
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compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
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such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance,

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maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include

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temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the

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value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and
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above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design,
FC
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materials and dimensions of the resistor.

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Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
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circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers;
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resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.
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on

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FC

FC
D

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Fig of Typical Resistor

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 om

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rt

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THEORY OF OPERATION:

ve

ve
on

on
FC

FC
OHM¶S LAW:
D

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tP

tP
ar

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m

m
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's
.S

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law:
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Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the

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current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

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Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

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on
FC
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This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained
.S
w

across a resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance.
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This formulation is often used in practice. For example, if V is 12 volts and R is 400
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ohms, a current of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R.
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SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTORS:

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Resistors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference
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(voltage). To find their total equivalent resistance (Req):

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on

on
FC

FC
D

D
tP

tP
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39
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 om

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rt

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ve

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on

on
FC

FC
D

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tP

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The parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in
ht

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geometry) to simplify equations. For two resistors,

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The current through resistors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each resistor
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can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total
on
FC

voltage. To find their total resistance:

D
tP
ar
m
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A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can be broken up into
smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,
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FC

FC
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40
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rt

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on

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FC

FC
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However, many resistor networks cannot be split up in this way. Consider a cube,

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each edge of which has been replaced by a resistor. For example, determining the

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resistance between two opposite vertices requires additional transforms, such as the Y-ǻ

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ve
transform, or else matrix methods must be used for the general case. However, if all
on
FC

twelve resistors are equal, the corner-to-corner resistance is 5»6 of any one of them.
D

The practical application to resistors is that a resistance of any non-standard value can be
tP
ar

obtained by connecting standard values in series or in parallel.

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POWER DISSIPATION:
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The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor

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network) is calculated using the following:

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All three equations are equivalent. The first is derived from Joule's first law. Ohm¶s Law
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derives the other two from that.

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on

on

The total amount of heat energy released is the integral of the power over time:
FC

FC
D

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tP

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If the average power dissipated is more than the resistor can safely dissipate, the

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rt
resistor may depart from its nominal resistance and may become damaged by

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overheating. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a

on

on
FC

FC
point where it burns out, which could cause a fire in adjacent components and materials.

D
There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.
tP

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Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can
m

m
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safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient
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temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated
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power dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25 ƒC in free air. Inside an
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equipment case at 60 ƒC, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating
a bit less than the maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be outside the
safe operating area and may prematurely fail.

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on
FC
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ve

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on

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FC

FC
D

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42
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 om

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TRANSISTORS BC547, BC557:

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BC547

on

on
FC

FC
FEATURES:

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‡ Low current (max. 100 mA)
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‡ Low voltage (max. 65 V).
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APPLICATIONS:
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‡ General purpose switching and amplification.

DESCRIPTION:

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NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.

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PNP complements: BC556 and BC557.
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on

PIN DESCRIPTION:
FC
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1: Emitter
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2: Base
m
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3: Collector
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FC

FC
D

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43
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 om

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BC557

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ve

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FEATURES:

on

on
FC

FC
· Low current (max. 100 mA)

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· Low voltage (max. 65 V).
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APPLICATIONS:
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· General purpose switching and amplification.
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DESCRIPTION:

PNP transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.

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NPN complements: BC546 and BC547.

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PIN DESCRIPTION:

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on
1: Emitter
FC

2: Base
D

3: Collector
tP
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FC

FC
D

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SWITCHES (START, STOP, SINGLE POLE

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DOUBLE THROW)

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on

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In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical

FC

FC
circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.[1][2] The

D
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most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or
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m

m
more sets of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either
.S

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'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or
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'open', meaning the contacts are separated and nonconducting.
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ht

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A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system,
such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light
switch. Automatically-operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines,

om
for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a

.c
er
machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece. Switches may be operated by

rt
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process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting
on

as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a

FC

thermostat is an automatically-operated switch used to control a heating process. A

D
tP

switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may
ar
m

be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate
.S
w

electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be pad-locked
w
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if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to

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prevent electric shock.

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Switches are classified according to the arrangement of their contacts in

electronics. Electricians installing building wiring use different nomenclature, such as
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"one-way", "two-way", "three-way" and "four-way" switches, which have different

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meanings in North American and British cultural regions as described in the table below.
rt

rt
ve

ve

In a push-button type switch, in which the contacts remain in one state unless actuated,
on

on
FC

FC

the contacts can either be normally open (abbreviated "n.o." or "no") until closed by
D

operation of the switch, or normally closed ("n.c. or "nc") and opened by the switch
tP

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ar

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action. A switch with both types of contact is called a changeover switch. These may be
m

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45
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"make-before-break" which momentarily connect both circuits, or may be "break-before-

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make" which interrupts one circuit before closing the other.

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on

on
FC

FC
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Fig: Push-Buttons
ht

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The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations. The
number of "poles" is the number of separate circuits which are switched by a switch. The
number of "throws" is the number of separate positions that the switch can adopt. A

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single-throw switch has one pair of contacts that can either be closed or open. A double-

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throw switch has a contact that can be connected to either of two other contacts, a triple-

rt
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throw has a contact which can be connected to one of three other contacts, etc.
on
FC
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Fig: Single pole, Double throw (SPDT)

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These terms give rise to abbreviations for the types of switch which are used in
on

on
FC

FC

the electronics industry such as "single-pole, single-throw" (SPST) (the simplest type,
D

"on or off") or "single-pole, double-throw" (SPDT), connecting either of two terminals to

tP

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the common terminal. In electrical power wiring (i.e. House and building wiring by
m

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electricians) names generally involving the suffixed word "-way" are used; however,
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46
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these terms differ between British and American English and the terms two way and three

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way are used in both with different meanings.

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Electronics Expansion British American

on

on
specification of mains electrical
Description Symbol

FC

FC
and abbreviation wiring wiring

D
abbreviation name name
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A simple on-off
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m
switch: The two
.S

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terminals are either
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Single pole, connected together
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SPST One-way Two-way
single throw or disconnected
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://

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from each other. An
tp

tp
example is a light
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switch.
A simple
Single pole, changeover switch:
Three-
SPDT double Two-way C (COM, Common)

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way
throw is connected to L1 or

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to L2.

er
Similar to SPDT.

rt
Single pole
changeover ve
Some suppliers use
on
SPCO/SPTT for
or
FC

switches with a
SPCO Single pole,
stable off position in
D

SPTT, c.o. centre off or

tP

the centre and SPDT

Single Pole,
ar

for those
Triple
m

without.[citation
.S

Throw
needed]
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Equivalent to two
w

Double
Double SPST switches
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DPST pole, single Double pole

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pole controlled by a
throw
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single mechanism
Equivalent to two
SPDT switches
controlled by a
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Double
single mechanism: A
DPDT pole, double
.c

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is connected to B
throw
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and D to E, or A is
rt

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connected to C and
ve

ve

D to F.
on

on

Equivalent to
FC

FC

Double pole
DPDT. Some
D

changeover
tP

tP

suppliers use DPCO

DPCO or Double
ar

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for switches with a

pole, centre
m

stable off position in

off
.S

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the centre and

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47
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 om

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DPDT for those
without.

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DPDT switch

rt

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internally wired for

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polarity-reversal

on

on
applications: only

FC

FC
four rather than six

D
wires are brought
tP

tP
outside the switch
ar

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Intermediate Four-way
housing; with the
m

m
switch switch
.S

.S
above, B is
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connected to F and
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C to E; hence A is
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connected to B and
tp

tp
D to C, or A is
ht

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connected to C and
D to B.

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FC
D
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on

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FC

FC
D

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tP

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48
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WORKING CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

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CONSTRUCTION:

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1. The entire circuit can be fabricated on general purpose PCB.

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2. Place the Component in their appropriate location before soldering.

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3. For easy replacement of ICs, IC sockets may be used.
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4. The heat sinks may be used for both the regulator ICs.
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5. Connect the Power Supply and Ground wires to the transformer supply.
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PRECAUTIONS:
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1. Make sure that the components are not interconnected to one another before
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2. Check for dry joints, solder splashes between tracks.

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3. Connect the Power supply to positive (Red wire) and Ground to negative

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4. The Circuit works on a 5V power supply only.
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5. 7-Segment Display should be placed in order before Soldering.

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TESTING:

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Before testing the Circuit, make sure that the circuit is connected to a 5V power

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supply. Now turn it ³ON´, reset the circuit so that the display shows µ0000¶ by pressing

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the S3 switch. Release it so that the circuit starts counting which can be seen on the 7-
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segment display.
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To select different time period at the output of the Astable Multivibrator, a Rotary
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Switch is used which is a Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT) which selects different
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resistor as an input.
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At 200k, the time period is less in which the stop watch counts fast.

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At 3.9k, the time period is more in which the stop watch counts slow.
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In order to stop the timer or halt the time, S2 switch has to be pressed and then
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release it.
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REVIEW OF THE CIRCUIT:

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First, reset the circuit so that the display shows µ0000.¶ Now press switch S2 for

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the stop watch to start counting the time. If you want to stop the time, press switch S2.

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Rotary switch S1 is used to select the different time periods at the output of the astable

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multivibrator (IC1). The circuit works off a 5V power supply. It can be easily assembled
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on a general-purpose PCB.
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APPLICATIONS:
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1. For Experimental purpose in Educational institute.
2. Industries.

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3. Cultural Events like JUST A MINUTE (JAM)

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4. Sports like Soccer, Cycling etc.

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5. Other similar activities
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CONCLUSION:
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Digital electronic stopwatches, are much more accurate than mechanical

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timepieces due to their crystal oscillator timing element because they contain a
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microchip, they often include date and time-of-day functions as well. Some may have a
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connector for external sensors, allowing the stopwatch to be triggered by external events,
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thus measuring elapsed time far more accurately than is possible by pressing the buttons
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The Digital Stopwatch components are soldered on the PCB and is in working
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condition according to the Abstract.
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Reference:

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www.wikipedia.org

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www.electronicsforu.com

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www.alphadictionary.com/directory/Specialty_Dictionaries/Electronics

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