Americas

The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World consisting of the
continents of North America and South America with their associated islands and
regions. The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total surface area (28.4% of its land
area) and contain about 14% of the human population.
In many parts of the world, America in the singular is commonly used as a name for the
United States of America; however, (the) Americas (plural with s and generally with the
definite article) is not and is invariably used to refer to the lands and regions of the
Western hemisphere. Usage of America to also refer to this collectivity remains fairly
common.

North America

Population Population
Country or Area
(1 July 2005 density Capital
territory with flag (km²)
est.) (per km²)

Anguilla (UK) 102 13,254 129.9 The Valley

Antigua and Barbuda 443 68,722 155.1 St. John's

Aruba (Netherlands) 193 71,566 370.8 Oranjestad
Bahamas 13,940 301,790 21.6 Nassau
Barbados 431 279,254 647.9 Bridgetown
Bermuda (UK) 53 65,365 1233.3 Hamilton
British Virgin Islands (UK) 153 22,643 148.0 Road Town
Canada 9,984,670 32,805,041 3.3 Ottawa
George
Cayman Islands (UK) 262 44,270 169.0
Town
Cuba 110,860 11,346,670 102.4 Havana
Dominica 754 69,029 91.6 Roseau
Santo
Dominican Republic 48,730 8,950,034 183.7
Domingo
Greenland (Denmark) 2,166,086 56,375 0.026 Nuuk
Grenada 344 89,502 260.2 St. George's
 Guadeloupe (France) 1,780 448,713 252.1 Basse-Terre
Port-au-
Haiti 27,750 8,121,622 292.7
Prince
Jamaica 10,991 2,731,832 248.6 Kingston
Fort-de-
Martinique (France) 1,100 432,900 393.5
France
Mexico 1,972,550 106,202,903 53.8 Mexico City
Plymouth;
Montserrat (UK) 102 9,341 91.6
Brades[5]
Navassa Island (USA) 5 — — —
Netherlands Antilles
960 219,958 229.1 Willemstad
(Netherlands)
Puerto Rico (USA) 9,104 3,916,632 430.2 San Juan
Saint Kitts and Nevis 261 38,958 149.3 Basseterre
Saint Lucia 616 166,312 270.0 Castries
Saint-Pierre and Miquelon
242 7,012 29.0 Saint-Pierre
(France)
Saint Vincent and the
389 117,534 302.1 Kingstown
Grenadines
Port of
Trinidad and Tobago 5,128 1,088,644 212.3
Spain
Cockburn
Turks and Caicos Islands(UK) 430 20,556 47.8
Town
Washington,
United States of America 9,629,091 300,165,500 30.7
D.C.
Charlotte
U.S. Virgin Islands (USA) 352 108,708 308.8
Amalie
Total 24,486,305 518,575,412 21.0

Central America

Population Population
Name of territory, Area
(1 July 2005 density Capital
with flag (km²)
est.) (per km²)
 Belize 22,966 270,000 12 Belmopan

Costa Rica 51,100 4,327,000 85 San José

El Salvador 21,040 6,881,000 327 San Salvador

Guatemala
Guatemala 108,890 12,599,000 116
City

Honduras 112,492 7,205,000 64 Tegucigalpa

Nicaragua 129,494 5,487,000 42 Managua

Panama 75,517 3,232,000 43 Panama City

Total 521,499 40,001,000 77

South America
 Population Population
Name of territory, Area
(1 July 2005 density Capital
with flag (km²)
est.) (per km²)

Argentina 2,766,890 39,537,943 14.3 Buenos Aires

La Paz, Sucre
Bolivia 1,098,580 8,857,870 8.1
Brazil 8,514,877 187,550,726 22.0 Brasília
Chile 756,950 15,980,912 21.1 Santiago
Colombia 1,138,910 42,954,279 37.7 Bogotá
Ecuador 283,560 13,363,593 47.1 Quito
Falkland Islands (UK) 12,173 2,967 0.24 Stanley
French Guiana (France) 91,000 195,506 2.1 Cayenne
Guyana 214,970 765,283 3.6 Georgetown
Paraguay 406,750 6,347,884 15.6 Asunción
Peru 1,285,220 27,925,628 21.7 Lima
South Georgia and
3,093 0 0 Grytviken
South Sandwich Islands (UK)
Suriname 163,270 438,144 2.7 Paramaribo
Uruguay 176,220 3,415,920 19.4 Montevideo
Venezuela 912,050 25,375,281 27.8 Caracas

Etymology
So-named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci (who styled himself Americus
Vespucius in Latin), who, following his four voyages to the Americas, first developed
the idea that the newly discovered western lands were in fact a continent. In recognition
thereof, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller named the new continent after
the Italian explorer's first name. Amerigo Vespucci was named after Saint Americus of
Hungary. (See also Naming of America.)

A few alternative theories regarding the continent's naming have been proposed, but
none of them have any widespread acceptance. One alternative first proposed by a
Bristol antiquary and naturalist, Alfred Hudd, was that America is derived from Richard
Amerike, a merchant from Bristol, England who is believed to have financed John
Cabot's voyage of discovery to Newfoundland in 1497. Waldseemüller's maps appear to
incorporate information from the early British journeys to North America. The theory
holds that a variant of Amerike's name appeared on an early British map (of which
however no copies survive) and that this was the true inspiration for Waldseemüller.

America is a continent in which coexist great diversities of all type: Ethnic,

cultural, linguistics, historical, colonials al economics. Therefore, is advisable to
treat all the continent as 3 subcontinent, whose common denominator allow a
better description of each one of them.

North America

Geography
North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as
the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America. North
America's only land connection is to South America at the narrow Isthmus of Panama.
(Geopolitically, all of Panama—including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the
isthmus—is often considered a part of North America alone.) According to some
authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec, Mexico with the intervening region called Central America (or Middle
America if the Caribbean is included) and resting on the Caribbean Plate. Before the
Central American isthmus was raised, the region had been underwater. The islands of
the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North
America and South America via Florida and Venezuela.
The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body
of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of
Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California.

There are numerous islands off the continent’s coasts: principally, the Arctic
Archipelago, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Alexander Archipelago, and the
Aleutian Islands. Greenland, a Danish self-governing island and the world's largest, is
on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America
geographically. Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but is an oceanic island which was
formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago. The nearest
landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and it is often thought of as part of
North America, especially given its historical political and cultural ties to Virginia and
other parts of the continent.

• Physical geography

The vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of California
and western Mexico form the partial edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates
meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southern portion of the continent and much of
the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, while the Juan de Fuca and Cocos Plates
border the North American Plate on its western frontier.
The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many sub-
regions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic;
the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great
Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian
Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian
Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula.
Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region,
although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf.

The western mountains are split in the middle, into the main range of the Rockies and
the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia with the
Great Basin – a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts – in
between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska.
The United States Geographical Survey states that the geographic center of North
America is “6 miles west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota” at approximately 48°
10′North, 100° 10′West, approximately 15 miles (25 km) from Rugby, North Dakota.
The USGS further states that “No marked or monumented point has been established by
any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 States, the
conterminous United States, or the North American continent.” Nonetheless, there is a
15 foot (4.5 m) field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center.

• Human geography
The prevalent languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. The term
Anglo-America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely the
United States and Canada (where English and French are co-official), but also
sometimes Belize and parts of the Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of
the Americas (generally south of the U.S.) where Romance languages derived from
Latin predominate: the other republics of Central America, Mexico, much of the
Caribbean, and most of South America.
The French language has historically played a significant role in North America and
remains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual; French is
the official language of the Canadian province of Quebec and is co-official with English
in the province of New Brunswick. Other French-speaking locales include the French
West Indies and Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, as well as the US state of Louisiana, where
French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on past
historical association but Haitians speak Creole and French. Although the former
language is derived from French, it is not French.
Socially and culturally, North America presents a well-defined entity. Canada and the
United States have a shared culture and similar traditions as a result of both countries
being former British colonies. A common cultural and economic market has developed
between the two nations because of the strong economic and historical ties. Spanish-
speaking North America shares a common past as former Spanish colonies. In Central
American countries and Mexico where civilizations like the Maya developed,
indigenous people preserve traditions across modern boundaries. Central American and
Spanish-speaking Caribbean nations have historically had more in common due to
geographical proximity and the fact that, after winning independence from Spain,
Mexico never took part in an effort to build a Central American Union.

Economically, Canada and the United States are the wealthiest and most developed
nations in the continent; the countries of Central America and the Caribbean are much
less developed, while Mexico – a newly industrialized country – lies between these two
extremes. The most important trade blocs are the Caribbean Community and Common
Market (CARICOM), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the
recently signed Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) – the last of these
being an example of the economic integration sought by the nations of this subregion as
a way to improve their financial status.
Demographically, North America is a racially and ethnically diverse continent. Its three
main ethnic groups are Whites, Mestizos and Blacks (chiefly African-Americans and
Afro-Caribbeans). There is a significant minority of Amerindians and Chinese among
other less numerous groups.

History
Scientists have several theories as to the origins of the early human population of the
North America. The indegenious peoples of North America themselves have many
creation stories, by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its
creation.
Before contact with Europeans the natives of North America were divided into many
different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in
several "culture areas", which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones
and give a good indication of the main lifeway or occupation of the people who lived
there (e.g. the Bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native
groups can also be classified by their langauge family (e.g. Athapascan or Uto-
Aztecan). It is important to note that peoples with similar languages did not always
share they same material culture, nor were they always allies.
Scientists believe that the Inuit people of the high Arctic came to North America much
later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture
artifacts from the archeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.
During the thousands of years of native inhabitation on the continent, cultures changed
and shifted. Archeologist often name different cultural groups they discover after the
site where they are first found. One of the oldest cultures yet found is the Clovis culture
of modern New Mexico. A more recent example is the group of related cultures called
the Mound builders (e.g. the Fort Walton Culture), found in the Mississippi river valley.
They flourished from 3000 BCE to the 1500s CE.

The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the
domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes
and squash. Perhaps most importantly they domesticated one of the world's major
staples, maize (corn).
As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many important cultural
advances were made there. For example, the Maya civilization developed a writing
system, built huge pyramids, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero
500 years before anyone in the Old World. The Mayan culture was still present when
the Spanish arrived in Central America, but political dominance in the area had shifted
to the Aztec Empire further north.

• Arrival of Europeans

There was limited contact between North American peoples and the outside world
before 1492. Several theoretical contacts have been proposed, but the earliest physical
evidence comes to us from the Norse or Vikings. Norse captain Leif Ericson is believed
to have reached the Island of Newfoundland circa 1000 CE. They named their new
discovery Vinland. The only Norse site yet discovered in North America is at L'Anse
aux Meadows, Newfoundland and Labrador. The Norse colonies were later abandoned.
The Viking voyages did not become common knowledge in the Old World, and
Europeans remained ignorant of the existence of the Americas, until 1492. As part of a
general age of discovery Italian sailor Christopher Columbus proposed a voyage west
from Europe to find a shorter route to Asia. He eventually received the backing of the
King and Queen of Spain. In 1492 Columbus reached land in the Bahamas. Unlike the
Norse, the Spanish were there to stay. They gained control of most of the largest islands
in the Caribbean and conquered the Aztecs, gaining control of Mexico and Central
America. This was the beginning of the power Spanish Empire in the New World, New
Spain.

After the Spanish, other powers began to take an interest in North America. Eventually,
even small powers like the Netherlands and Sweden received minor holdings on the
continent. However, eventually most of the land was divided between the Spanish,
French, and English crowns.
Almost 500 years after the Norse, John Cabot explored the east coast of what would
become Canada in 1497. Giovanni da Verrazzano explored the East Coast of America
from Florida to presumably Newfoundland in 1524. Jacques Cartier made a series of
voyages on behalf of the French crown in 1534 and penetrated the St. Lawrence River.

Politics
• Canada
Canada is a democracy, a constitutional monarchy. Our head of state is the Queen of
Canada, who is also Queen of Britain, Australia and New Zealand, and a host of other
countries scattered around the world from the Bahamas and Grenada to Papua New
Guinea and Tuvalu. Every act of government is done in the name of the Queen, but the
authority for every act flows from the Canadian people.
The Canadian political system as it is known today was first drafted by the "Fathers of
Confederation" at the Quebec conference of 1864. This then became law when the
constitution act was passed in 1867. This act gave the formal executive authority to
Queen Victoria (Queen of Great Britain) which made Canada a sovereign democracy.
The Canadian political system is therefore loosely based on the British system.

Now, Canada is an independent Federal state with the Queen still the head of state. Her
powers are extremely limited however, as the Parliament passes the laws which the
Queen gives the "Royal Assent" as the final step. The Governor General of Canada is
the Queens representative in Canada and carries out all the Royal obligations when the
Queen is not in Canada. The Governor is always a Canadian chosen by the Queen on
the advice of the Prime Minister. The length of office is normally five years for the
Governor General.

The Houses of Parliament (housing the Federal Government and the seat of the
Canadian Political System) are located in Canada's capital city, Ottawa. There are 3
main sections to the Canadian Parliament. The Queen as the Head of state, the Senate
(appointed on the Prime Minister's recommendations) and the elected House of
Commons.

The Federal Government has the power to "make laws for the peace, order and good
government of Canada" which includes International policies, Defence, Immigration,
Criminal Law, Customs and Border control.
The Provincial Goverment systems are based along the same principles as the Federal
system. The Provincial Government is called the Legislative Assembly and the Queens
representative in the Assembly is the Lieutenant Governor. Normally, every 4 - 5 years
an election is called by the current Premier. At the end of the election, the Lieutenant
Governor asks the leader of the party with the most "seats" to become the Premier of the
Province and form the Government.
The Premier then chooses the Executive Council to help run the Province. They develop
policies and have similar responsibilities in the Legislative Assembly as the Federal
Cabinet.
The Provincial Government is responsible for healthcare, education, driver licensing
and registrations and the Provincial budget amongst other things. As there are
differences between the Provinces, Territories and the main canadian political system,
use the Provincial Government sites we link to for detailed information.

• United States
Politics of the United States of America takes place in a framework of a presidential
republic, whereby the President of the United States is head of state, head of
government, and of a two-party legislative and electoral system. The national
government shares sovereignty with the state governments, with the Supreme Court
balancing the rights of each.
Executive power is exercised by the executive branch, which is headed by the President
and is independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of
Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Judicial power is exercised by
the judicial branch (or judiciary), comprised of the Supreme Court and lower federal
courts. The function of the judiciary is to interpret the United States Constitution as well
as the federal laws and regulations. This includes resolving disputes between the
executive and legislative branches. The federal government of the United States was
established by the Constitution. American politics has been dominated by two major
parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party, ever since the American Civil
War, though other minor parties of marginal political significance have also always
existed.
Major differences between the political system of the United States and that of most
other developed democracies are the power of the Senate as the upper house of the
legislature, the wide scope of power of the Supreme Court, the separation of powers
between the legislature and the executive government, and the dominance of the two
main parties - the United States being the only developed democracy without a major
third party.

Before their independence, colonies governed themselves separately under the authority
of the British Crown. In the early years of the republic, prior to the adoption of the
Constitution, each state was virtually an autonomous unit. The delegates to the
Constitutional Convention sought a stronger, more viable federal union, but they could
not ignore state traditions, nor the interests of state politicians.

In general(most of the time), matters that lie entirely within state borders are the exclusive
concern of state governments. These include internal communications; regulations
relating to property, industry, business, and public utilities; the state criminal code; and
working conditions within the state. Within this context, the federal government
requires that state governments must be republican in form and that they adopt no laws
that contradict or violate the federal Constitution or the laws and treaties of the United
States.
There are, of course, many areas of overlap between state and federal jurisdictions.
Particularly in recent years, the federal government has assumed ever broadening
responsibility in such matters as health, education, welfare, transportation, and housing
and urban development. But where the federal government exercises such responsibility
in the states, programs are usually adopted on the basis of cooperation between the two
levels of government, rather than as an imposition from above.

Like the national government, state governments have three branches: executive,
legislative, and judicial; these are roughly equivalent in function and scope to their
national counterparts. The chief executive of a state is the governor, elected by popular
vote, typically for a four-year term (although in a few states the term is two years).
Except for Nebraska, which has one legislative body(known as a unicameral
legislature), all states have a bicameral legislature, with the upper house usually called
the Senate and the lower house called the House of Representatives, the House of
Delegates, or the General Assembly. In addition to the previous usage, some states refer
to the entire state legislature as the "General Assembly", with two houses therein. In
most states, senators serve four-year terms, and members of the lower house serve two-
year terms.

The constitutions of the various states differ in some details but generally follow a
pattern similar to that of the federal Constitution, including a statement of the rights of
the people and a plan for organizing the government. On such matters as the operation
of businesses, banks, public utilities, and charitable institutions, state constitutions are
often more detailed and explicit than the federal one. Each state constitution, however,
provides that the final authority belongs to the people, and sets certain standards and
principles as the foundation of government.

Summary of the 2 November 2004 United States presidential election results

Candidates Party Votes % Electoral vote

George W. Bush Republican Party 62,040,610 50.73% 286

John Kerry Democratic Party 59,028,444 48.27% 251

John Edwards1 1

Ralph Nader Independent, Reform Party 465,650 0.38% -

Michael Badnarik Libertarian Party 397,265 0.32% -

Michael Peroutka Constitution Party 143,630 0.12% -

David Cobb Green Party 119,859 0.10% -

Other 99,887 0.08% -

Total 122,295,345 100.0% 538

Economy

The economy of North America comprises more than 514 million people in 23
soverign states and 15 dependent territories. It is marked by a sharp division between
the northern English and French speaking countries of Canada and the United States,
which are among the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world, and the
countries of Central America and the Caribbean that are less developed. Mexico lies in
between these two extremes as a newly industrialized country or NIC, and is a part of
NAFTA and the only Latin American member of the OECD.

• Canada

In Canada's huge land mass, the second largest in the world after Russia, a wide array of
natural resources are present. Different resources are centred in different parts of
Canada. In British Columbia, the forestry industry is of great importance, while the oil
industry is central to Alberta's prosperity. Northern Ontario is home to a wide array of
mines, while the fishing industry has long been central to the character of the Atlantic
provinces, though it has recently been in steep decline.
These industries are increasingly becoming less and less important to the overall
economy. Only some 4% of Canadians are employed in these fields, and they account
for less than 6% of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many,
if not most, towns in the northern part of the country, where agriculture is difficult, exist
because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the
production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, and lead. Several of
Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana,
Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The vast majority of these products are exported,
mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that
are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing
industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging industry.
The relatively large reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian
economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to
standardise, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing
economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's
strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported,
integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue
that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government
intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.
Such industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades
as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be
made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay. Moreover the far north remains
largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many
operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have
become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting
natural resources. High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion.
Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration and expansion
activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more accommodating.
Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America,
Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is the renewable resources that have raised some of the
greatest concerns. After decades of escalating overexploitation the cod fishery all but
collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The
logging industry, after many years of activism, have in recent years moved to a more
sustainable model.
Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, a member of the Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Group of Eight (G8). As with
other first world nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry,
which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada is unusual among developed
countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries
being two of Canada's most important. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector,
centred in Southern Ontario, with the automobile industry especially important.
International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its
natural resources. The United States is by far its greatest trade partner, with trade with
the United States accounting for about 85% of exports and 59% of imports as of 2004.
Canada is a free market economy, usually seen to have slightly more government
intervention than the United States, but less than most European nations. Canada has
traditionally had a lower per capita gross domestic product (GDP) than its southern
neighbour (whereas wealth has been more equally divided), but higher than the large
western European economies. However, Ontario and the West are comparable in GDP
per capita to the United States with Alberta having a higher regional income than any
state or province in North America. For the last decade, after a period of turbulence, the
Canadian economy has been growing rapidly with low unemployment and large
government surpluses on the federal level. As such, the Canadian dollar has risen in
value against most major currencies during the past five years.

• United States
The United States has the largest national economy in the world, with a GDP for 2006
of 13.22 trillion dollars. The United States has a quasi-socialized mixed economy where
corporations and other private firms make the majority of microeconomic decisions
regulated by government.
Since the end of World War II, the U.S. Economy has been characterized by relatively
steady growth and low unemployment. In recent years, the primary economic concerns
have centered around two areas: the national debt (caused by government deficit
spending) and the external debt (caused by a trade imbalance of more imports than
exports.)
As of 2006, the gross external debt was nearly USD $9 trillion or 64% of GDP, which is
comparable to other industrial nations (see List of countries by external debt). The
national debt, or the amount of the cumulative government deficits and interest, in 2005
was 64.7% of GDP, also similar to the amount in other large market driven economies.
(See List of countries by public debt.)
The economy of the United States is large and complicated, but there remain certain
features which are easily identifiable. A central feature of the US economy is freedom
in economic decision-making, for both the individual and corporation. This is enhanced
by relatively low levels of regulation, taxation and government involvement, as well as
a court system that generally protects property rights and enforces contracts. A large
population, a large land area, numerous natural resources, a stable government and a
highly developed system of secondary education are almost universally regarded as
substantial contributors to US economic performance.

The first ingredient of a nation's economic system is its natural resources. The United
States is rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, and it is fortunate to have a
moderate climate. It also has extensive coastlines on both the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, as well as on the Gulf of Mexico. Rivers flow from far within the continent,
and the Great Lakes—five large, inland lakes along the U.S. border with Canada—
provide additional shipping access. These extensive waterways have helped shape the
country's economic growth over the years and helped bind America's 50 individual
states together in a single economic unit.

The second ingredient is labor. The number of available workers and, more importantly,
their productivity help determine the health of an economy. Throughout its history, the
United States has experienced steady growth in the labor force, and that, in turn, has
helped fuel almost constant economic expansion. Until shortly after World War I, most
workers were immigrants from Europe, their immediate descendants, or African
Americans who were mostly slaves taken from Africa, or slave descendants. Beginning
in the early 20th century, many Latin Americans immigrated; followed by large
numbers of Asians following removal of nation-origin based immigration quotas. The
promise of high wages brings many highly skilled workers from around the world to the
United States.
Labor mobility has also been important to the capacity of the American economy to
adapt to changing conditions. When immigrants flooded labor markets on the East
Coast, many workers moved inland, often to farmland waiting to be tilled. Similarly,
economic opportunities in industrial, northern cities attracted black Americans from
southern farms in the first half of the 20th century.
Third, there is manufacturing and investment. In the United States, the corporation has
emerged as an association of owners, known as stockholders, who form a business
enterprise governed by a complex set of rules and customs. Brought on by the process
of mass production, corporations such as General Electric have been instrumental in
shaping the United States. Through the stock market, American banks and investors
have grown their economy by investing and withdrawing capital from profitable
corporations. Today in the era of globalization American investors and corporations
have influence all over the world. The American government has also been instrumental
in investing in the economy, in areas such as providing cheap electricity (such as the
Hoover Dam), and military contracts in times of war.
While consumers and producers make most decisions that mold the economy,
government activities have a powerful effect on the U.S. economy in at least four areas.
Strong government regulation in the U.S. economy started in the early 1900s with the
rise of the progressive movement; prior to this the government promoted economic
growth through protective tariffs and subsidies to industry, built infrastructure, and
established banking policies, including the gold standard, to encourage savings and
investment in productive enterprises.

Culture
• Canada
Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by British, French, and
Aboriginal cultures and traditions, and over time has been greatly influenced by
American culture. Many forms of American media and entertainment are popular, if not
dominant in Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are
successful in the US and worldwide.
Canada's federal government has influenced Canadian culture with programs, laws and
institutions. It has created crown corporation to promote Canadian culture, such as the
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB).
It has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian
content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and
Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).

Canadian culture is a product of Canada's history and geography. Most of Canada's

territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the
Americas, with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders
were important in the early development of Canadian culture. The British conquest of
Quebec in 1759 brought a large francophone population under British rule, creating a
need for compromise and accommodation, while the migration of United Empire
Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies brought in strong British and American influences,
combined with a sense of anti-Americanism that survives to this day.
Although not without conflict, Canada's early interactions with native populations were
relatively peaceful, compared to the experience of native peoples in the United States.
Combined with relatively late economic development in many regions, this peaceful
history has allowed Canadian native peoples to have a relatively strong influence on the
national culture while preserving their own identity.

There were, and are, many distinct Aboriginal peoples across Canada, each with its own
culture, beliefs, values, language, and history. Much of this legacy remains celebrated
artistically, and in other ways, in Canada to this day. Part of the emblem of the
Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics is an inukshuk, a stack of rocks in human form that
is a part of Inuit culture, although this is seen as inappropriate by many Vancouverites .
French Canada's early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th
centuries, and this was preserved by the Quebec Act of 1774, which allowed
francophone culture to survive and thrive within Canada. In 1867, the British North
America Act was designed to meet the growing calls for Canadian autonomy while
avoiding the overly-strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the
United States. The compromises made by Macdonald and Cartier set Canada on a path
to bilingualism, and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity that later led to
both multiculturalism and tolerance of First Nations culture and customs.
Multicultural heritage is enshrined in Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms. In parts of Canada, especially the major cities of Montreal, Vancouver, and
Toronto (for example, in Toronto's Kensington Market area), multiculturalism itself is
the cultural norm and diversity is the force that unites the community.
In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many Quebecois commentators speak of a
Quebec culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture, but some also see
Canada as a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures. John
Ralston Saul argues that Gabrielle Roy is better known in anglophone Canada than in
France, and more French-Canadians know of Margaret Laurence and Atom Egoyan than
Americans.
While French Canadian culture is the most obvious example, Celtic influences have
allowed survival of non-English dialects in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland; however,
the influence of Ulster immigrants to Toronto has had the effect of minimizing Irish
influences in Ontario's culture, and highlighting British influences instead, until the
1980s. Canada's Pacific trade has also brought a large Chinese influence into British
Columbia and other areas.
Canada's cultural diversity also creates an environment much more accepting of gay and
lesbian people than one finds in the United States or most other countries. For example,
in 1995, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in Egan v. Canada that sexual orientation
should be "read in" to Section Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms,
a part of the Constitution of Canada guaranteeing equal rights to all Canadians.
Following a series of decisions by provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada,
on July 20, 2005, Bill C-38 received Royal Assent, legalizing same-sex marriage in
Canada. Canada thus became the fourth country to officially sanction gay marriage
nationwide, after The Netherlands, Belgium, and Spain. Furthermore, by 2005, sexual
orientation was included as a protected status in the human rights laws of the federal
government and of all provinces and territories.

• United States
The culture of the United States is a Western culture, and has been developing since
long before the United States became a country. Today the United States is a diverse
and multi-cultural nation. Its chief early influence was British culture, due to colonial
ties with the British that spread the English language, legal system and other cultural
inheritances. Other important influences came from other parts of Europe, especially
countries from which large numbers immigrated such as Ireland, Germany, Poland, and
Italy; the Native American peoples; Africa, especially the western part, from which
came the ancestors of most African Americans; and young groups of immigrants.
American culture also has shared influence on the cultures of its neighbors in the New
World.
The United States has traditionally been known as a melting pot, but recent academic
opinion is tending towards cultural diversity, pluralism and the image of a salad bowl
rather than a melting pot. Due to the extent of American culture there are many
integrated but unique subcultures within the United States. The cultural affiliations an
individual in the United States may have commonly depend on social class, political
orientation and a multitude of demographic characteristics such as race, ethnicity, sex
and sexual orientation. The strongest influences on American culture came from
northern European cultures, most prominently from Germany, Ireland and England.
There are great regional and subcultural differences, making American culture mostly
heterogeneous.
The American state of California (especially the Hollywood region) is home to a
thriving motion picture industry, with prominent film studios such as Warner Brothers,
Paramount, and MGM creating dozens of multi-million dollar films every year that are
enjoyed around the world. American actors are often among the world's most popular
and easily identified celebrities. It's worth noting that Hollywood also tends to attract
many immigrant actors and directors from around the world, many of whom, such as
actor Russell Crowe or director Ang Lee become just as famous and successful as
American-born stars.
The United States was a leading pioneer of television (T.V.) as an entertainment
medium, and the tradition remains strong to this day. Many American television
sitcoms, dramas, game shows and reality shows remain very popular both in the US and
abroad. Animation is a popular US entertainment medium as well, both on the large and
small screen. The characters created by Walt Disney and Warner Brothers animation
studios remain very popular. In music, the United States has pioneered many distinct
genres, such as country and western, jazz, rock music, hip hop, and gospel. African-
American cultural influences play a particularly prominent role in many of these
traditions.

Languages

• Canada

There are a multitude of languages spoken in Canada, but only English, French and
certain aboriginal languages have official status. The Constitution of Canada itself
recognizes two official languages, English and French, and all constitutional acts since
1982 have themselves been enacted in these two official languages. The English version
of earlier Constutional Acts is the only official version. Inuktitut notably has official
status in the Northwest Territories, in Nunavut and in Nunavik, Quebec.
The first major step towards official recognition of languages other than English took
place on July 7, 1969, when the federal Canadian Parliament adopted the Official
Languages Act, making French commensurate to English throughout federal
institutions. Since then, Inuktitut, Dene Suline, Cree, Dogrib, Gwich’in and Slavey have
also gained limited official status, although only English and French are used for
administrative matters by the federal, provincial and territorial administrations.
According to the 2001 census, Anglophones and Francophone represent roughly 59.3%
and 22.9% of the population respectively. The rest of the population represent persons
whose mother tongues are Chinese, Italian, German, Aboriginal languages, or other.

• United States

Although the United States currently has no official language, English has long been the
de facto national language. English is spoken by about 82% of the population as a
native language and nearly everyone in the United States uses it daily. On May 18,
2006, the Senate voted on an amendment to an immigration reform bill that would
declare English the national language of the United States. The immigration reform bill
itself, S. 2611, was passed in the Senate on May 25, 2006, and now has to go back to
the House of Representatives in conference to make sure amendments are agreed upon.

Approximately 337 languages are spoken or signed by the population, of which 176 are
indigenous to the area. 52 languages formerly spoken in the country's territory are now
extinct (Grimes 2000).
Spanish is taught in various regions as a second language, especially in areas with large
Hispanic populations such as the Southwestern United States along the border with
Mexico, as well as Florida, the District of Columbia, Illinois, New Jersey, and New
York. In Hispanic communities across the country, bilingual signs in both Spanish and
English may be quite common. Furthermore, numerous neighborhoods exist (such as
Washington Heights in New York City or Little Havana in Miami) in which entire city
blocks will have only Spanish language signs and speaking people.

In addition to Spanish-speaking Hispanic populations, younger generations of non-

Hispanics in the United States seem to be learning Spanish in larger numbers due to the
growing Hispanic population and increasing popularity of Latin American movies and
music performed in the Spanish language. Over 30 million Americans, roughly 12% of
the population, speak Spanish as a first or second language, making Spanish easily the
country's second-most spoken language; the United States thus has fifth-largest Spanish
speaking population in the world, after Mexico, Spain, Colombia, and Argentina.

Chinese, mostly of the Cantonese variety, is the third most-spoken language spoken in
the United States, almost completely spoken within Chinese American populations and
by immigrants or the descendants of immigrants, especially in California. Many young
Americans not of Chinese descent have become interested in learning the language,
though it is Standard Mandarin, the official spoken language in the People's Republic of
China and the Republic of China on Taiwan, that is mostly taught. Over 2 million
Americans speak some variety of Chinese, with the Mandarin variety becoming
increasingly more prevalent due to the opening up of the PRC.
French, the fourth most-common language, is spoken mainly by the native French,
Haitian or French-Canadian populations. It is widely spoken in Maine, New Hampshire
and in Louisiana, a former colony of France, where it is still used with English as the
state's de facto official language. People of German ancestry make up the largest single
ethnic group in the United States and the German language ranks fifth. Italian, Polish,
and Greek are still widely spoken among populations descending from immigrants from
those countries in the early 20th century, but the use of these languages is dwindling as
older generations die out. Starting in the 1970s and continuing until the mid 1990s,
many people from the Soviet Union and later its constituent republics such as Russia,
Ukraine, Belarus, and Uzbekistan have immigrated to the United States, causing
Russian to become one of the minority languages in the United States.
Tagalog and Vietnamese have over one million speakers in the United States, almost
entirely within recent immigrant populations.
There are also a small population of Native Americans who still speak their native
languages, but these populations are dropping and the languages are almost never
widely used outside of reservations. Hawaiian, although having few native speakers, is
still used at the state level in Hawaii along with English. All other languages besides the
English language are usually learned from immigrant ancestors or learned through some
form of education.
Religions
• Canada
Canada has a wide mix of religions, but it has no official religion, and support for
religious pluralism is an important part of Canada's political culture. However, most
people report they are Christians, and this is reflected in several aspects of life there.
In the Canada 2001 Census, 72% of the Canadian population list Roman Catholicism or
Protestantism as their religion. The Roman Catholic Church in Canada is by far the
country's largest single denomination. Those who listed no religion account for 16% of
total respondents. In British Columbia, however, 35% of respondents reported no
religion - more than any single denomination and more than all Protestants combined..

• United States
Religion is a significant part of the culture of the United States. The U.S. is considered
one of the most religiously diverse countries in the world, with over one-hundred
different religions or denominations. The United States is also one of the most religious
of those countries considered to be "developed nations." According to a 2002 survey by
the Pew Global Attitudes Project, the U.S. was the only developed nation in the survey
where a majority of citizens reported that religion plays a "very important" role in their
lives..
Most Americans adhere to Christianity. According to the 2001 American Religious
Identification Survey (discussed below), 80% of the U.S. is Christian and 15% adhere to
no religion or are Atheist/Agnostic. Other religions comprise 5% of the U.S. population.
According to the CIA World Factbook, the U.S. is 78% Christian and 10% no religion,
while other religions comprise 12% of the U.S. population. In descending order, the
largest identified religious groups are Protestant (52%); Roman Catholic (24%);
Mormon (2%); Jewish (1%); and Muslim (1%).
The United States was one of the first countries in Western civilization to not have an
official religion. Reflecting back on the history of religious wars in Europe, and the lack
of freedom people had in choosing their own religion, the designers of the United States
Constitution specifically rejected any religious test for office, and the First amendment
specifically denied to the central government any power to establish religion.

Central America
Geography
Physiographically, Central America is a narrow isthmus of southern North America
extending from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico southeastward to the Isthmus of
Panama where it connects to the Colombian Pacific Lowlands in northwestern South
America. Alternatively, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt delimits the region on the
north. Central America has an area of some 592,000 square kilometres. The Pacific
Ocean lies to the southwest, the Caribbean Sea lies to the northeast, and the Gulf of
Mexico lies to the north.

Most of Central America rests atop the Caribbean Plate. The region is geologically
active, with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. Managua,
the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, and in 2001
two earthquakes devastated El Salvador. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas
have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive
highland areas.
Many modern definitions of Central America include Belize and Panama, neither of
which existed upon the formation of the Federal Republic of Central America, a short-
lived union created after most of the region gained independence from Spain in the 19th
century. The territory now occupied by Belize was originally contested by the United
Kingdom and the Spanish Empire and, later, Guatemala (which has considered it,
wholly or partially, an eastern department); it became a British colony (British
Honduras) in 1871 and gained independence in 1981.
Panama, situated on the Isthmus of Panama, is a transcontinental territory: the Panama
Canal (a bypass connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans) transects the isthmus,
which connects North and South America. Regardless, all of the country—including the
segment east of the Panama Canal—is often considered a part of North America alone.
Historically, however, Panama was a possession of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, a
Spanish jurisdiction largely situated in northwestern South America from 1717 to 1819.
When Panama declared independence from Spain on 28 November 1821, it immediately
declared a union with la Gran Colombia (Greater Colombia) and later became a
department/state of Colombia until its independence on 3 November 1903.

History
In pre-Columbian times, most of modern Central America was part of the
Mesoamerican civilization. The Native American societies of Mesoamerica occupied
the land ranging from central Mexico in the north to Costa Rica in the south. Most
notable among these were the Maya, who had built numerous cities throughout the
region. The pre-Columbian cultures of Panama traded with both Mesoamerica and
South America, and can be considered transitional between those two cultural areas.
Following Christopher Columbus's discovery of the Americas for Spain, the Spanish
sent numerous expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya lands in
the 1520s. In 1540, Spain established the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which
extended from southern Mexico to Costa Rica, and thus encompassed most of what is
currently known as Central America, with the exception of British Honduras (present-
day Belize). This lasted nearly three centuries, until a rebellion (which followed closely
on the heels of the Mexican War of Independence) in 1821.

After the dissolution of Spanish authority, the former Captaincy General remained
intact as the Federal Republic of Central America, which was a representative
democracy with its capital at Guatemala City. This union consisted of the present day
nations of Guatemala (which included the former state of Los Altos), Honduras, El
Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica (which included a region which is nowadays part of
Panama), and a portion of the modern Mexican state of Chiapas. The Republic lasted
from 1823 to 1838, when it began to disintegrate due to civil wars.

• Foreign relations

All Central American countries (including Panama) maintain diplomatic relations with
the Republic of China (Taiwan) instead of the People's Republic of China. In practice,
this allows the countries to receive funding for various projects, such as the Puente de la
Amistad de Taiwan in Costa Rica.

Politics
• The Conquest

The Spanish conquest of Central America began around 1520. By the middle of the 16th
century, Spain established the Kingdom of Guatemala, which was part of the
Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Kingdom of Guatemala included the future countries of
Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican
state of Chiapas. Panama, however, became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada.

• Independence
The colonial period lasted from the Spanish conquest until 1821, when the Kingdom of
Guatemala declared independence from Spain. For a brief period, these countries
became part of the Mexican Empire. In 1823, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica formed the United Provinces of Central America (Britain
had essentially controlled Belize since the 17th century, and Chiapas decided to stay
with Mexico). Since 1838, when, for various reasons, the United Provinces
disintegrated, these five countries have remained separate, but they have periodically
attempted to unify economically.

• Liberals vs. Conservatives

One of the primary reasons the United Provinces disintegrated was that in 1837, José
Rafael Carrera, a Conservative, led a successful revolt against the Liberals in Central
America. Since it had mainly been the Liberals who had supported the United
Provinces, the Conservatives brought an end to integration. It was the controversy
between Liberals and Conservatives that dominated the politics during most of the 19th
century. As their name suggests, Conservatives were generally resistant to change that
would threaten their favored position in society. Liberals, on the other hand were
influenced by the French Enlightenment.
One area of dispute between Liberals and Conservatives was the type of government
they favored. Conservatives favored a monarchy, while Liberals favored a republic with
greater democracy.
Another area of dispute was the role of the church, a very important institution in
Central America. The Liberals favored greatly reducing its wealth and political power
and supported greater freedom of religion. The Conservatives sought to maintain the
Church’s privileged position.
The third area of dispute between Conservatives and Liberals was the economy. The
Liberals favored breaking up monopolies and moving toward free trade, while the
Conservatives favored the status quo, in which trade was dominated by Spain. The
struggle for power between these two groups continued for the rest of the century.

• The 1990s
In El Salvador and Guatemala, peace agreements have been signed between the groups
at war, and human rights commissions have been established. The commissions have
attempted to shed light on the human rights violations during the wars in these countries
in order to begin the process of healing and reconciliation. One of the tough questions
these countries have had to sort out is, What should be done with individuals who
violated human rights during the wars by committing gruesome acts of torture or by
participating in "death squads"?
Since the militaries in these countries were responsible for a great amount of these
human rights violations and these militaries are still very powerful, it has been difficult
for the government to prosecute these criminals. On the other hand, if the human rights
violators are not prosecuted, it is difficult to argue that justice has been served. These
issues are not easy to resolve, but they must be for peace in the region. Nevertheless, the
1990s have been promising with respect to ending the raging conflicts in Central
America.

Economics
Central America is considered to be part of the developing world. In general, people that
live in the developing world tend to be poor, have shorter life spans, have higher rates
of illiteracy, and lack quality health care.
Within the six countries of Central America, there is significant economic diversity. For
instance, Nicaragua is considered to be the least developed of the six countries because
it has the worst indicators (see chart below) of the Central American countries for infant
mortality rate, adult literacy rate, and GDP.

In contrast to Nicaragua, Panama and Costa Rica are more developed. With respect to
GDP per capita, Panama has the highest ($3,080). However, Costa Rica is considered to
be the most "developed" of the Central American countries because it has a relatively
high GDP per capita and has the best indicators of the Central American countries for
life expectancy at birth, infant mortality rate, and adult literacy rate.
It is widely believed that Costa Rica’s economy has been relatively successful because
when the Spanish arrived, there was not a large indigenous population. Therefore, a
two-tier society, with the Spaniards on top and the indigenous population on the bottom,
did not evolve as it did in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Instead,
its population was primarily made up of Spaniards.
There are not only economic differences between countries, but also within countries.
For example, each of the Central American countries has a small group of very rich
individuals and a large group of very poor individuals.

• The Central American Common Market

In 1960 Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua created the Central
American Common Market (CACM) in an effort to promote economic development
(Costa Rica joined in 1963). The CACM, however, has suffered from political
disagreements between El Salvador and Honduras. In 1969 political tensions resulted in
a war between these two countries, which slowed economic cooperation in all of Central
America. In recent years, efforts have been made to increase economic integration
among the six countries. One of the obstacles, however, has been wealthy Costa Rica’s
reluctance to tie its economy to its poorer neighbors.

Culture
• Race

Most people throughout Central America are mestizo or ladino. Mestizos are
individuals with both indigenous and Spanish heritage. Dispersed throughout this region
are Indian minorities, ranging from nearly one-half of the population in Guatemala to
single digit percentages in some of the other countries. Small minorities of European,
African, and Asian heritage can also be found in many of these countries.

Language
The majority of Central Americans speak Spanish--the language of the Spanish
conquistadors. At the time of the conquest, many indigenous languages existed. Some
of these still exist today, like in Guatemala, where 23 different Mayan dialects are
spoken. In the other Central American countries, indigenous languages are now less
widespread, but still present.

Religion
The majority of people in this region are Roman Catholic. In most of these countries,
the Catholic population ranges from 80 to 90 percent. Forcing the indigenous population
to accept Catholicism was not an easy task for the Spaniards. One factor, however, that
made conversion possible was that Catholicism has many saints, and the indigenous
religions have many gods. Hence, for many indigenous peoples, Catholicism has been
mixed with indigenous religions to form a combination of the two religions. In recent
years, evangelical Protestant groups have created challenges to the Catholic Church in
Central America. Protestant groups have aggressively pursued converts in these
countries. In some instances, struggles over converts have resulted in violent conflicts
between Catholics and Protestants.

South America

Geography
South America comprises the major southern portion of the landmass generally referred
to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America
(which is sometimes considered a single continent); it is south and east of the Panama
Canal, which transects the Isthmus of Panama. Geologically, almost all of mainland
South America sits on the South American Plate. Geopolitically, all of Panama –
including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is often considered a
part of North America alone and among the countries of Central America.
Geologically, the continent became attached to North America only recently with the
formation of the Isthmus of Panama approximately 3 million years ago, which resulted
in the Great American Interchange.

The Andes, likewise a comparatively young and seismically restless mountain range,
run down the western edge of the continent; the land to the east of the Andes is largely
tropical rainforest, the vast Amazon River basin. The continent also contains drier
regions such as East Patagonia and the extremely arid Atacama Desert.
The South American continent also includes various islands, many of which belong to
countries on the continent. Many of the islands of the Caribbean (or West Indies) – e.g.,
the Leeward and Lesser Antilles – sit atop the Caribbean Plate, a tectonic plate with a
diffuse topography. The islands of Aruba, Barbados, Trinidad, and Tobago sit on the
northerly South American continental shelf. The Netherlands Antilles and the federal
dependencies of Venezuela lie along the northerly South American. Geopolitically, the
island states and overseas territories of the Caribbean are generally grouped as a part or
subregion of North America. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Sea
– including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana – are also
known as Caribbean South America. Other islands are the Galapagos, Easter Island (in
Oceania but belongs to Chile), Robinson Crusoe Island, Chiloé Island, Tierra del Fuego
and the Falklands Islands
South America is home to the world's highest waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela, the
largest river (by volume), the Amazon River, the longest mountain range, the Andes, the
driest desert, Atacama Desert, the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest, the highest
railroad, Ticlio Peru, the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia, the highest commercially
navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca, and the world's southernmost town, Puerto
Toro, Chile.
South America's major natural resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and oil.
The many resources of South America have brought high income to its countries
especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries
elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often
has hindered the development of diversified economies. The inevitable fluctuation in the
price of commodities in the international markets has led historically to major highs and
lows in the economies of South American states, often also causing extreme political
instability. This is leading to efforts to diversify their production to drive them away
from staying as economies dedicated to one major export.
South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the
llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuna, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess
high biodiversity, containing a major proportion of the Earth's species.

The largest country in South America by far, in both area and population, is Brazil,
followed by Argentina. Regions in South America include the Andean States, the
Guianas, the Southern Cone, and Brazil.

Among people in some English-speaking countries, there is a tendency to confuse the

linguistic and geographic divisions of the Americas: thus, Mexico, some Central
American and Caribbean territories, despite their location in North America, are
mistakenly included in South America. The term Latin America is correctly used when
referring to those territories whose official or national languages come from Latin
(namely Portuguese, Spanish, and French). Conversely, Anglo-America is used to refer
to areas whose major languages are Germanic (namely English) such as Guyana,
Suriname, Belize, Jamaica, and much of the West Indies. Similarly, areas where English
is prominent are considered part of the Anglosphere.

History
• The rise of agriculture and domestication of animals
South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the Bering
Land Bridge, which is now the Bering Strait. Some archaeological finds do not fit this
theory, and have led to an alternative theory Pre-Siberian American Aborigines. The
first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to
circa 6500 BCE, when potatoes, chillies and beans began to be cultivated for food in the
highlands of the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence further suggests that manioc, which
remains a staple foodstuff today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BCE.
By 2000 BCE many agrarian village communities had been settled throughout the
Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the
coast which helped to establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were
also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society.
South American cultures began domesticating llamas, vicuñas, guanacos, and alpacas in
the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BCE. Besides their use as sources of meat, and
wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods (maximum load for a llama is
typically 40 kg)..
 • Pre-Columbian civilizations
The rise of agriculture and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements
allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America.
The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what is now modern Colombia.
They established a confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos, that had a free trade
network among themselves. They were goldsmiths and farmers.
The earliest known South American civilization was at Norte Chico, in the littoral of
central Peru; though a preceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Norte Chico
is contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. The Chavín established a trade
network and developed agriculture by 900 BC, according to some estimates and
archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín de Huantar in modern
Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.
Other main cultures: Valdivia (Ecuador), Moche (100 BC - 700 AC, at the northern
coast of Peru), Tiuahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC - 1200 BC, Bolivia), Paracas - Nazca
(400 BC - 800 AC, Peru), Wari or Huari Empire (600 - 1200, Central and northern
Peru), Chimu Empire (1300 - 1470, Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas, Aymaran
kingdoms (1000 - 1450, Bolivia and southern Peru) and others
Holding their capital at the city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes
region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions," in
Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with
precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.
Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent
metalwork in Inca civilization. Nevertheless, the Inca never discovered the wheel, and
there is no evidence that they utilized written language as a form of communication.

• European colonization
In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of that time, on the
expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas,
by which they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly
between the two countries.
The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west
of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of
the line (which is now known to comprehend most of the South American soil), would
belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of
longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a
Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian.
Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were
repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal.
These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and
divided it into colonies.

European infectious diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) to which the
native populations had no immune resistance, and systems of forced labor, such as the
haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated the native population under Spanish
control. After this, African slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases,
were quickly brought in to replace them.
The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity, and
were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However, most
initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended
Catholicism with traditional idolatry and their polytheistic beliefs. Furthermore, the
Spaniards did impose their language to the degree they did their religion, although the
Roman Catholic Church's evangelization in Quechua, Aymara and Guaraní actually
contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form.
Eventually the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. Essentially
all of the mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Indian mothers and Spanish
fathers. Mestizos and the Indian natives were often forced to pay extraordinary taxes to
the Spanish government and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many
native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This
included the many gold and silver sculptures and artifacts found in South America,
which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal.

• Independence
The Spanish colonies won their independence between 1804 and 1824 in the South
American Wars of Independence. Simón Bolívar of Venezuela and José de San Martín
of Argentina led the independence struggle. Bolívar led a great army southward while
San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, meeting up with General Bernardo
O'Higgins in Chile, and marched northward. The two armies finally met in Guayaquil,
Ecuador, where they cornered the royal army of Spain and forced its surrender.
In Brazil, a Portuguese colony, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the
Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and
became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal.
Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent
politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several
further wars were fought, such as the War of the Triple Alliance and the War of the
Pacific.
A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:

Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966.

Suriname, from Dutch control, in 1975
French Guiana remains part of France as of 2007, and hosts the European Space
Agency's principal spaceport, the Centre Spatial Guyanais.

• Recent history
The continent, like many others, became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th
century. Some governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown
or displaced by U.S.-aligned military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail
opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of
whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, see Operation Condor).
Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their
own actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal
subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict
(see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Revolutionary
movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the
1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is
widespread now. Nonetheless, allegations of corruption remain common, and several
nations have developed crises which forced the resignation of their presidents, although
in general normal civilian succession has continued.
International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by
Argentina's default in the early 21st century.

In the first decade of the 21st century, South American governments have drifted to the
political left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela
and leftist presidents in Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, and Uruguay. Despite the tendency to
move to the left of the political spectrum, most of South America's governments are in
practical terms societies embracing free-market capitalism.

With the founding of the South American Community of Nations, South America would
intend to start down the road of economic integration, with plans for European Union-
style political integration in the non-distant future.

Economy

As of 2002, South America's unemployment rate was 10.8 %.

Due to histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest-rates
and thus investment remain high and low, respectively. Interest rates are usually twice
that of the United States. For example, interest-rates are about 22 % in Venezuela and
23 % in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which has been successfully implementing
free market economic policies since the 1980s and increased its social spending since
the return of democratic rule in the early 1990s. This has led to economic stability and
interest rates in the low single digits.
The South American Community of Nations is a planned continent-wide free trade zone
to unite two existing free-trade organizations—Mercosur and the Andean Community.
The economic gap between the rich and poor in most South American nations is
considered to be larger than in most other continents. In Venezuela, Paraguay, Bolivia
and many other South American countries, the richest 20 % may own over 60 % of the
nation's wealth, while the poorest 20 % may own less than 5 %. This wide gap can be
seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie next to
skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.

GDP per capita (PPP) 2006

 GDP
Rank in world Country
per capita

48 Argentina 14,838

54 Chile 12,254

63 Uruguay 10,103

69 Brazil 8,826

80 Colombia 7,630

93 Peru 6,173

95 Suriname 5,883

96 Venezuela 5,777

105 Paraguay 4,799

106 Guyana 4,799

110 Ecuador 4,475

122 Bolivia 2,945

Source:List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita

GDP (PPP) 2005

Rank in world Country GDP

9th Brazil 1.5 trillion dollars

22nd Argentina 533.7 billion dollars

29th Colombia 337.2 billion dollars

43rd Chile 193.2 billion dollars

50th Peru 167.2 billion dollars

51st Venezuela 163.5 billion dollars

70th Ecuador 57.0 billion dollars

90th Uruguay 34.3 billion dollars

96th Paraguay 28.3 billion dollars

101st Bolivia 25.6 billion dollars

157th Guyana 3.4 billion dollars

162nd Suriname 2.8 billion dollars

Source:List of countries by GDP (PPP)

Culture
: South America, a continent, has diverse cultural traditions. In Western South America,
this includes a combination of the cultures of the Incas and other civilizations descended
from Amerindians who migrated down from North America and the Spanish, who
conquered South America in the 1500s.
Ethnic groups and indigenous people of South America include:
Alacalufe
Atacameños
Aymara
Africans
Awá

Banawa
Caiapos
Chibcha
Cocama
Diaguitas
Chayahuita

Enxet
European descendants, especially from Spain, Portugal, Italy and Germany.
Guaraní
Asian descendants, especially from Japan, China and Korea.
Jivaroan
Juris
Mapuche

Matsés
Mestizo
Pehuenche
Quechuas
Shipibo
Xucuru

Urarina
Yagua
Zaparos
Descendents of Indigenous peoples, such as the Quechua and Aymara, make up the
majority of the population in Peru and Bolivia, and are a significant element in most
other former Spanish colonies. Exceptions to this include Argentina and Uruguay. At
least three of the Amerindian languages (Quechua in Peru and Bolivia, Aymara also in
Bolivia, and Guarani in Paraguay) are recognized along with Spanish as national
languages.

Languages
Portuguese and Spanish are the primary languages of the continent. The majority of
South Americans (51%) speak Portuguese. However, most South American countries
are Spanish-speaking, and nearly all of the continent's lusophones reside in Brazil.
Among other languages used by many South Americans are:

• Aymará in Bolivia and Peru.

• Quechua in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru.

• Urarina in Peruvian Amazonia

• Guaraní in Paraguay.

• English in Guyana.

• Hindi in Guyana and Suriname.

• Dutch and Indonesian in Suriname.

• French in French Guyana

• Italian and German in certain pockets across southern South America, such as
Uruguay & Argentina.

• Japanese in Brazil

Other languages used by many South Americans are:

• Aymará in Bolivia, Chile and Peru.

• Quechua in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador.

• Guaraní in Paraguay and Bolivia.

• Hindi in Suriname.

• Indonesian in Suriname.

• Italian in Argentina and Uruguay.

• German in certain pockets in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Paraguay.

Religion
Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion (97%). French Guiana also has a large
number of Protestants. Guyana and Suriname are exceptions, with three major religions:
Christianity in general, Hinduism, and Islam. In lowland South America, as well as the
Andes, animism and shamanism are common, as noted among the Urarina of Peruvian
Amazonia.
Sources:
http://ec.europa.eu/research/leaflets/biodiversity/page_27_es.html

http://www.janesoceania.com/oceania_language/index.htm

http://www.onestopimmigration-canada.com/canadian_political_system.html

http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/nam/geness.html

http://www.cet.edu/earthinfo/camerica/CApol.html

http://www.cet.edu/earthinfo/camerica/CAeco.html

http://www.wikipedia.org/