5.water Pollution

Faculty
of Civil Engineering
Universi5 Teknologi MARA Pulau Pinang
WATER POLLUTION
Introduc:on
Water Pollutants & Their Sources
Physical, Chemical & Biological Water Quality Parameters

Eect of Water Pollu:on
Water Quality Requirements
EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

CEW543 ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING
carolinemarajan@ppinang.uitm.edu.my
Able to explain the types, source of water supply
and wastewater.
Able to discuss the water quality parameter and
standards.
Able to discuss the impacts on human health and
the environment.
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA PULAU PINANG CEW543 ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING
Faculty of Civil Engineering

Lakes Fishing
Rivers Quality of Water Swimming
Ponds Requirement Boating
Streams Potable Water Shipping

Supplies
High Quality

Human Activities
Pollutants
Degraded Water Quality
Water Pollution
Control Measures
Protect water sources water is not degraded to the

pint that is no longer suitable for intended uses
Water Pollution
How much can be tolerated by
the water body
Types of Pollutant
Sources
Factors affecting the water quality

natural factors, geometry of terrain,
climate of region, etc

APPLICATION
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Provides a basis for developing Evaluating the strength of

management strategies to waste
control pollution before it
enters water body Estimating the max amount of
pollutant that a water body can
receive and still meet water
quality standards


POINT SOURCES
Point source pollutant reaches water from
pipe, channel, or any other confined and
localised source.
Domestic Industrial
Wastewater Wastewater
Wastes from home, Treatment plant effluents
schoold, office buildings, from factories.
stores.
Treatment plant effluents.

NON-POINT SOURCES
Non point pollutants broad , unconfined

area from which pollutants enter a body of
water
Agricultural runoff Urban Runoff

Carries silt, fertilizers, Storm water drainage
pesticides and animal system in towns and
wastes into streams. cities.

Non point source pollutants are more difficult to control than point source
pollutants, which can be collected and removed from the water.

OXYGEN DEMANDING MATERIAL
Oxidised in the receiving water with the
consumption of dissolved molecular oxygen.
Material Biodegradable organic matter.
DO Dissolved Oxygen not enough
oxygen may pose a threat to aquatic life
Food processing & paper industries
produce oxygen-demanding wastes
Organic matter (animal droppings, crop
residues) contribute to the depletion of DO.
NUTRIENTS
Nitrogen & Phosphorus
Nutrient becomes excessive and food web is grossly
disturbed.
Excessive nutrients lead to large growths of algae -
becomes oxygen demanding material die and settle
to the bottom
From phosphorus based detergent, fertilizers & food
processing wastes
HEAT
Electric power industry disposing waste heat.
Higher temperatures increase rate of oxygen
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA PULAU PINANG depletion, can effect aquatic
CEW543 life.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING
PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS
Bacteria, viruses, protozoa.
When discharge into surface waters - unfit for
drinking (nonpotable). High concentration water
maybe unsafe for swimming and fishing.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Organic and inorganic particles carried by
wastewater into receiving water suspended solids
Turbidity (due to colloidal particles), organic
suspended solids exert oxyegen demand, inorganic
suspended solids soil erosion

SALTS
Total dissolved solids (TDS)
Salt concentration increases in fresh waters natural
population of plants and animals is threatened/ water
no longer useful for public water supplies or irrigation.
PESTICIDES
Herbicides kills weeds. eg. atrazine, metolachlor,
alachlor.
Insecticides kills insect. eg. chloropyrifos, diazinon,
malathion.
Fungicides sulfur, chlorothalonil, mancozeb
PHARMACEUTICALS & PERSONAL CARE
PRODUCTS (PPCPs)
Disposal/Expired/Unwanted/Excess
medication to the sewage system by
individuals/pharmacies/physicians.
Presence of pharmaceuticals in raw and
treated wastewater less than 10 g/L in
effluent and 100 g/L in raw wastewater
may contain carcinogenic compounds
(hydroquinone, ethylene dioxide,
formaldehyde, nitrosamine, acrylamides and
PAHs).

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL
SUSPENDED SOLIDS ALKALINITY PATHOGEN
TURBIDITY HARDNESS PATHOGEN

FLUORIDE INDICATORS
COLOUR
METALS
TASTE & ODOUR
ORGANICS
TEMPERATURE
NUTRIENTS

1 SUSPENDED SOLIDS
SOURCES IMPACTS
Consist of inorganic or organic particles Aesthetically displeasing.
or of immiscible liquids. Provides adsorption sites for chemical
Inorganic solids clay, silt and biological agents.
Organic solids plant fibers, biological Suspended organic solids can be
solids (algal cell, bacteria) degraded biologically results in
Domestic wastewater organics objectionable by-products.
Industrial wastewater - organic/inorganic Biologically active (live) suspended solids
Immiscible liquids oils & greases disease causing organisms.
USE
To measure the quality of wastewater influent, to monitor several treatment
processes, and to measure the quality of the effluent.
EPA 30 mg/L limit for most wastewater discharges.

1 SUSPENDED SOLIDS
MEASUREMENT
Total solid test quantifies all solids in Suspended solids, mg/L
water, suspended & dissolved, organic Wdf Wd
& inorganic. Residue on evaporation at SS = x106
103C. V
Wdf = weight of dish plus dry filtered solids, mg
Unit: milligrams per liter (mg/L) Wd = weight of the clean crucible, mg
V = volume of sample
Total solids, mg/L
Fixed Solids, mg/L
Wds Wd
TS = W Wd
V FS = du x106
V
Wds = weight of dish plus the dry solids after evaporation, mg Wdf = weight of dish plus unburned solids, mg
Wd = weight of the clean crucible, mg
Wd = weight of the clean dish, mg
V = volume of sample
Volatile solids, mg/L
VS = TS FS

1 SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Example 1
Given following data: The weight of a dish = 48.6212 g. A 100-ml
sample is placed in the dish and the water is evaporated. The weight of
the dish and dry solids = 48.6432 g. The dish is placed in a 600 C
furnace for 24 hours and then cooled in a desiccator. The weight of the
cooled dish and residue, or unburned solids 48.6300 g. Find the total,
volatile and fixed solids.
Answers:
Total solids = 220 mg/L

Fixed solids = 88 mg/L
Volatile solids = 132 mg/L

2 TURBIDITY
SOURCES IMPACTS
Erosion of colloidal material clay, silt, Brown colour.
rock fragments and metal oxides from the Accumulation of turbidity-causing
soil. particles in streambeds sedimentation
Vegetable fibres and microorganisms.
Household & industrial wastewater
soaps, detergents and emulsifying agents USE
produce stable colloids. Indicator of clean water.
Natural waters few FTUs to several
MEASUREMENT
hundred.
Turbidimeter EPA drinking water standards 1 FTU
Turbidity meter JTU AWWA 0.1 FTU

3 COLOUR
SOURCES IMPACTS
Organic debris such as leaves, conifer Not aesthetically acceptable to general
needles, weeds or wood. public.
Iron oxides reddish water Consumers clear, non-coloured water.
Manganese oxides brown/blackish Highly coloured water unsuitable for
water laundering, dyeing, papermaking,
Industrial wastes from textile, pulp and beverage manufacturing, dairy
slaughterhouse operations. production.
MEASUREMENT USE
Colour-comparison tubes Potable water analysis to measure true
Unit: True Colour Unit (TCU) colour produced by organic acid from
decaying vegetation in water.
Resulting value - as an indirect
measurement of humic substances.
4 TASTE & ODOUR
SOURCES IMPACTS
Minerals, metals and salts from soil. Taste and odour associates with
1. Inorganic substances - produce taste contamination.
w/o odour Consumer prefer tasteless and
Alkaline material bitter taste. odourless water.
Metallic salts salty & bitter taste.
2.Organic substances - produce taste &
odour
MEASUREMENT USE
Taste and odour-causing organics Potable water taste and dour
Gas or liquid chromatography EPA no max standard
Quantitative tests Public Health Service max of 3
Human senses of taste and smell
Threshold odour number (TON)
5 TEMPERATURE
SOURCES IMPACTS
Ambient temperature: Shallow bodies of Cooler waters wider diversity of
water affected by ambient temperature biological species.
than deeper bodies. Warner waters accelerated algae
Use of water for dissipation of waste heat growth cause algae mats 9 dead algae
in industry and subsequent discharge of results in taste and odour problems).
the heated water may result in dramatic High order species fish affected by
temperature changes. temperature & DO.
ViscosityTemperature
USE
Max density of water 4C.
Important parameter in natural surface-
water systems. MEASUREMENT
Temperature governs biological species Thermometer
& rates of activity. Unit: Celsius
Effect on chemical reactions and
solubilities of gases in water.
1 ALKALINITY
SOURCES IMPACTS
CO32-, HCO3-, OH-, HSiO3-, H2BO3-, Bitter taste to water.
HPO42-, H2PO4-, HS- & NH30 dissolution Reactions that can occur between
of mineral substances in the soil & alkalinity and certain cations in water
atmosphere. precipitate can foul pipes and other water
Phosphates detergent appurtenances.
Hydrogen sulfide & ammonia products
of microbial decomposition of organic USE
material. Analysis of natural waters to determine
their buffering capacity.
MEASUREMENT Process control variable in water and
Measurements titrating the water with wastewater.
an acid and determining the hydrogen No max level set by EPA
equivalent.
Unit: milligrams per liter of CaCO3.
2 HARDNESS
SOURCES IMPACTS
Multivalent metallic ions abundant in Sodium soaps react with multivalent
natural waters: calcium & magnesium. metallic cation to form precipitate.
Precipitate formed by hardness and soap
adheres to surfaces of tubs, sinks,
MEASUREMENT dishwashers.
Spectrophotometric techniques or May stain clothing, dishes.
chemical titration to determine the Boiler scale result of the carbonate
quantity of calcium & magnesium. hardness precipitate fouling water
Unit: mg/L heaters & hot-water pipes.
Magnesium hardness laxative effect
USE
Soft <50 mg/L as CaCO3
For natural waters & potable drinking Moderately hard
Hard
50 - 150 mg/L as CaCO3
150 - 300 mg/L as CaCO3
water. Very hard >300mg/L as CaCO3

3 FLUORIDE 4 METALS
Types of sedimentary or igneous rocks. NONTOXIC METALS
Normally in groundwater. Sodium, iron, manganese, aluminium,
Toxic to human & animal in large copper and zinc.
quantities. Sodium very soluble in water.
Small concentration can be beneficial. Excessive concentration bitter taste
Excessive intakes discolouration of Corrosive to metal surfaces.
teeth, bone fluorosis. Iron & Manganese
Help prevent dental cavities. Colour problems.
TOXIC METALS
Arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead, mercury
& silver.
Hazardous to human carcinogenic.

5A BIODEGRADABLE ORGANICS
Organics utilized for food by microorganism within a reasonable length of
time.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - amount of oxygen consumed during
microbial utilization of organics.
300 mL BOD bottle incubated at 20C for 5 days.
Because the saturation concentration for oxygen in water at 20C is
approximately 9 mg/l, dilution of sample with BOD free, oxygen-saturated
water is necessary to measure BOD values greater than just a few milligrams
per liter.
BOD od diluted sample:
DOI DOF DOI initial dissolved oxygen, mg/L

BOD = DOF final dissolved oxygen, mg/L
P P decimal fraction of the sample in the 300-mL bottle

5A BIODEGRADABLE ORGANICS EXAMPLE 1
The BOD of wastewater is suspected to range from 50 to 200 mg/L. Three

dilutions are prepared to cover this range. The procedure is the same each
case. First the sample is placed in the standard BOD bottle and is then
diluted to 300-mL with organic-free, oxygen-saturated water. The initial
dissolved oxygen is determined and the bottles tightly stoppered and placed
in the incubator at 20C for 5 days, after which the dissolved oxygen is
again determined:
Wastewater DOI DOF O2 used P BOD

(mL) mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
5 9.2 6.9 2.3 0.0167 138
10 9.1 4.4 4.7 0.033 142
20 8.9 1.5 7.4 0.067 110

BOD5
Represents the oxygen demand consumed in 5 days - amount of oxygen
used in consumption of organics
Total BOD/BOD at any time period can be determined provided additional
information is known.
Ultimate BOD maximum oxygen concentration
BOD rate equation,
(
BODt = Lo 1 e kt )
Lo Ultimate BOD (mg/L)
BODt Amount of oxygen used in the
consumption of the organics (mg/L)
k Reaction rate constant (d-1)
t Time (days)
BOD rate constant
T 20
k t = k20 ( )
Typical values for the BOD rate constant
T = temperature of interest, C Sample k (20C) (day-1)
kT = BOD rate constant at the temperature of interest,
d-1 Raw sewage 0.35 0.70
k20 = BOD rate constant determined at 20C, d-1
Well-treated sewage 0.12 0.23
= temperature coefficient. Value of 1.135 for
temperature between 4 and 20C and 1.056 for Polluted river water 0.12 0.23
temperatures between 20 and 30C.

ULTIMATE BOD EXAMPLE 2
If the BOD3 of waste is 75 mg/L and k = 0.345 d-1, what is the ultimate BOD?
(
BOD t = L o 1 e kt )
(
75 = L o 1 e (0.345)*(3) )
L o = 116 mg/L
BOD RATE EXAMPLE 3
A waste is being discharged into a river that has a temperature of 10C. What fraction
of the maximum oxygen consumption has occurred in four days if the BOD rate
constant determined in the laboratory under standard conditions is 0.115 d-1?
10 20
k10C = 0.115(1.135 ) = 0.032d 1
Fraction of maximum oxygen consumption in 4 days,
BOD t
Lo
(
= 1 e kt = 0.12 )
5A DISSOLVED OXYGEN SAG CURVE
Concentration of DO in a river indicator of the quality of water.
Major tools of water quality management in river ability to access the
capability of stream to absorb waste load.
DO SAG CURVE: Profile of DO concentration downstream from waste
discharge.
- DO concentration dips as oxygen-demanding materials oxidized and then rises
again further downstream as the oxygen is replenished from the atmosphere.

5A DISSOLVED OXYGEN SAG CURVE
Biota of the stream are often a reflection of the dissolved oxygen

conditions in the stream.
Oxygen sag downstream of an biodegradable organic chemical source.

5A DO SAG CURVE MASS BALANCE APPROACH
Mass of DO in wastewater 1 The product of the water flow and DO
concentration yields a mass of oxygen per unit
time:
Mass of DO in river
Conservative mass
balance diagram for Mass of DO in wastewater = QwDOw
DO mixing.
2 Mass of DO in river = QrDOr
The mass of DO in the river after mixing Qw = volumetric flow rate of wastewater, m3/s
Qr = volumetric flow rate of river, m3/s
equals sum of the mass flows:
DOw = DO concentration in the wastewater, g/m3
DOr = DO concentration in the river, g/m3
Mass of DO after mixing = QwDOw + QrDOr
3 Concentration of DO and BOD after mixing are
In similar fashion for ultimate BOD: the respective masses per unit time divided by
the total flowrate:
Mass of BOD after mixing = QwLw + QrLr
Q wDO w + QrDOr Q w L w + Qr L r
DO = La =
Lw = ultimate BOD of the wastewater, mg/L Q w + Qr Q w + Qr
Lr = ultimate BOD of the river, mg/L
La = initial ultimate BOD after mixing
5B NONBIODEGRADABLE ORGANICS
Some organics materials are resistant to biological degradation.

Tannic, lignic acids, cellulose and phenols found in natural water
systems.
Some organics are non-biodegradable toxic to organism.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
Measurement of non biodegradable organics.
Measured using spectrophotometer.
Identified and quantified using gas chromatography.

6A NUTRIENTS - NITROGEN
SOURCES IMPACTS
Animal waste, chemical particularly Poisoning in infant animals, including
chemical fertilizers) and wastewater humans can cause death.
discharges.
MEASUREMENT USE
Analysis for ammonia (both ammonia and Ammonium & organic nitrogen
ammonium), nitrate and organic nitrogen. wastewater or polluted waters
Unit: mg/L Nitrate clean water samples & treated
Spectrophotometer wastewaters.

6B NUTRIENTS - PHOSPHORUS
SOURCES IMPACTS
Phosphate orthophosphate, condensed Indirect health threat to water quality.
phosphates & organically bound Phosphate can interfere with water
phosphates. treatment processes - chemical
Fertilizers, animal waste, runoff from coagulation of turbidity.
agricultural areas, municipal wastewater.
MEASUREMENT
Phosphates: Colorimetrically
Orthophosphates: can be measured directly
Unit: mg/L of phosphates

6C NUTRIENTS Water Pollution: Lake Productivity
Measure of its ability to support food web.
Algae base of this food web supplying food for higher organisms.
More productive lake have higher fish population.
Lake classification based on productivity

Oligotrophic Lakes
Low level productivity due to several limited supply nutrients to support algal
growth.
Water is clear enough that bottom can be seen.

Eutrophic Lakes
High productivity because of an abundant supply of algal nutrients.
Algae cause water to be turbid, when algae die settle to the lake bottom
decomposed by benthic organism.
Have large mats of floating algae - unpleasant taste and odors to the water.

Mesotrophic Lakes
Intermediate between oligotrophic and eutrophic.

Natural process lakes become
shallower and more productive.
Some lakes eutrophication is so
slow that thousands of years may
pass with little change in water
quality.
Cultural eutrophication caused by
human activity speed the processes
naturally occurring by increasing the
rate at which sediments and
nutrients are added to the lake.
However, eutrophic lakes are not
nescessarily polluted but pollution
contributes to eutrophication.

1A PATHOGEN
BIOLOGICAL ORGANISM PATHOGENS: Capable of infecting/transmitting diseases

to humans.
BACTERIA VIRUSES
Waterborne bacterial diseases Waterborne viral infections
Cholera Vibrio comma Poliomyelitis
Typhoid Salmonella typhosa Hepatitis
PROTOZOA HELMINTHS
Protozoa infections Parasitic worms from human or animal
Drinking water contaminated with wastes.
Entamoeba histolytica.
Giardia lamblia carried by wild animals
living in or near natural water systems.

1B PATHOGEN INDICATORS
Analysis of water of all known pathogens very time consuming and expensive.
Test for specific pathogens are usually made when there is a reason to suspect that
organisms are present.
INDICATOR ORGANISM IDEAL PATHOGEN INDICATOR

The presence presumes that 1. Applicable to all types of water.
contamination has occurred ad suggest 2. Always be present when pathogens
the nature and extent of contaminants. are present.
3. Always be absent when pathogens
ESCHERICHIA COLI (E-coli) are absent.
Presence of coliform organism - Most 4. Lend itself to routine quantitative
Proabable Number (MPN) of coliforms testing procedures.
using Standard multiple-tube 5. For the safety of laboratory personnel,
fermentation test : Quanti-Tray not to be a pathogen itself.
-ve +ve wells

Parameter Recommended Raw Water Drinking Water Quality
Quality Standards
(mg/L) (mg/L)
Total Coliform 5000 MPN / 100 ml 0 in 100 ml
E.coli 5000 MPN / 100 m 0 in 100 m
Turbidity 1000 NTU 5 NTU
Colour 300 TCU 15 TCU
pH 5.5 9.0 6.5 9.0
Total Dissolved 1500 1000
Solids
Chloride 250 250
Hardness 500 500
COD 10 -
BOD 6 -
Parameter Recommended Raw Water Drinking Water Quality
Quality Standards
(mg/L) (mg/L)
Fluoride 1.5 0.4 0.6
Mercury 0.001 0.001
Cadmium 0.003 0.003
Plumbum 0.05 0.05
Chromium 0.05 0.05
Zinc 3 3
Natrium 200 200
Cuprum 1 1
Ammonia 1.5 1.5
Nitrate 10 10


SEWAGE TREATMENT
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
AGRICULTURAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
CONTROL OF URBAN RUNOFF
EROSION & SEDIMENTATION CONTROL


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Faculty

Physical, Chemical & Biological Water Quality Parameters

Water Quality Requirements

EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

Rivers Quality of Water Swimming

Ponds Requirement Boating

Streams Potable Water Shipping

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

Degraded Water Quality

Protect water sources water is not degraded to the

Factors affecting the water quality

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

Provides a basis for developing Evaluating the strength of

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

Non point pollutants broad , unconfined

Agricultural runoff Urban Runoff

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

SUSPENDED SOLIDS ALKALINITY PATHOGEN

TURBIDITY HARDNESS PATHOGEN

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

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FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

Total solids = 220 mg/L

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

DOI DOF DOI initial dissolved oxygen, mg/L

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

The BOD of wastewater is suspected to range from 50 to 200 mg/L. Three

Wastewater DOI DOF O2 used P BOD

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

Biota of the stream are often a reflection of the dissolved oxygen

Oxygen sag downstream of an biodegradable organic chemical source.

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

Some organics materials are resistant to biological degradation.

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

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BIOLOGICAL ORGANISM PATHOGENS: Capable of infecting/transmitting diseases

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

INDICATOR ORGANISM IDEAL PATHOGEN INDICATOR

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FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

EC221 BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) CIVIL (INFRASTRUCTURE)

INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

AGRICULTURAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

CONTROL OF URBAN RUNOFF

EROSION & SEDIMENTATION CONTROL