C H A P T E R
19
PCBs, Dioxins and Furans: Human
Exposure and Health Effects
Bommanna G. Loganathan and Shigeki Masunaga
INTRODUCTION
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzo
furans (PCDFs), polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins
(PBDDs), and polybrominated dibenzofurans (PBDFs)
are members of the group of halogenated aromatic hydro-
carbons. This group of chemicals has been identified by
the national and international agencies as priority envi-
ronmental pollutants posing significant effects on aquatic
and terrestrial animals, including humans (Loganathan
and Kannan, 1994; Jacobson, 1994; International
Programme on Chemical Safety, 1998; Van den Berg et
al., 1998; Kodavanti et al., 2008). PCBs do not occur in
nature except for forest fires and were synthesized by
humans. PCBs were produced in large quantities (mil-
lions of pounds) for a variety of industrial uses during
1940 to the late 1970s, especially by developed nations.
However, PCDDs and PBDDs (dioxins) and PCDFs and
PBDFs (furans) were never produced commercially but
are formed in small quantities as by-products of combus-
tion of various industrial as well as natural processes.
Because of their persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic
properties, residues of these compounds are found in
every component of the global ecosystem (Lipnick etal.,
2001; Kodavanti etal., 2008). Some PCBs (coplanar PCBs),
dioxins, and furans are three structurally and toxicologi-
cally related families of compounds that are classified as
the most toxic synthetic chemical substances to a variety
of animal species, including humans (Tucker etal., 1983;
Loganathan et al., 1995; ATSDR, 1998). Production of
PCBs was banned during the 1970s; however, already
produced PCBs are still causing environmental and
health problems (Loganathan etal., 2008; Sajwan etal.,
2008; Loganathan, 2012). Fortunately, these compounds
Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800159-2.00019-1
were never used as chemical warfare agents, weap-
ons of mass destruction, or agents of threat or terror
by contamination of air, water, or food/feed. However,
inadvertent poisonings by these chemicals have caused
significant environmental and health problems (Yusho
Support Center, 2007; Loganathan, 2012; Kodavanti
and Loganathan, 2012). In this chapter, historical back-
ground, chemical characteristics, analysis, pathways of
human exposure to these compounds, and toxic effects
associated with the exposures are presented.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
PCBs were first synthesized in the early 1880s
(Schmidt and Schultz, 1881) and commercial production
began in 1929. Biphenyls were reacted with Cl2 in the
presence of ferric chloride catalyst, where some of the
hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine atoms. PCBs
were produced as complex mixtures potentially con-
taining 209 congeners formed by chlorinating biphenyl
with from 1 to 10 chlorines (Figure 19.1). The amount
of chlorination of biphenyls corresponded to the dura-
tion of chlorination process. For example, Aroclor 1221,
1242, 1248, 1254, 1260, and 1268 are commercial prepa-
rations that were formerly produced by the Monsanto
Chemical Company in the United States (St. Louis, MO)
that contain 21%, 42%, 48%, 54%, 60%, and 68% chlo-
rine by weight, respectively, as indicated by the last two
digits in the numerical designation (Giesy and Kannan,
1998). The PCB mixture formulations were different
depending on the country of origin and were produced
in Germany (Clofen), France (Phenoclor and Pyralene),
Japan (Kanechlor), Italy (Fenclor), Russia (Sovol), and
Czechoslavakia (Delor). PCB mixtures were produced
239 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2012
240 19. PCBs, Dioxins and Furans: Human Exposure and Health Effects

Compound Molecular Wt Chemical structure

3 2 2 3
m o o m

PCBs 188498 4 p p
4
m o o m
5 6 6 5
Cl1 5 Cl1 5
9 10 1
O
8 2
PCDDs 218460
7 3
O
6 5 4
Cl1 4 Cl1 4
Dioxins
9 1
8 2
PCDFs 202444
7 3
O
6 5 4
Cl1 4 Cl1 4
Dibenzofurans

9 10 1
O
8 2
PBDDs 263816
7 3
O
6 5 4
Br1 4 Br1 4
Brominated dioxins
9 1
8 2
PBDFs 247800
7 3
O
6 5 4
Br1 4 Br1 4
Brominated dibenzofurans

FIGURE 19.1 Generalized structures of PCBs, dioxins, and furans.

for a variety of uses such as fluids in electrical trans-
formers, capacitors, heat transfer fluids, hydraulic fluids,
lubricating and cutting oils, and as additives in plastics,
paints, copying paper, printing inks, adhesives, and seal-
ants (Loganathan etal., 1989; Safe, 1990).
Dioxins and furans are not produced deliberately but
are produced unintentionally as by-products of combus-
tions of organic matter in the presence of chlorine. Dioxins
and furans consist of 135 possible chlorinated (or bromi-
nated) dibenzofuran and 75 chlorinated (or brominated)
dibenzo-p-dioxins with from one to eight chlorine (bro-
mine) substituents (Figure 19.2). PCDDs/DFs are found
as by-products during the manufacture of some indus-
trial chemicals such as PCBs, polychlorinated naphtha-
lenes, chlorinated phenols, chlorinated phenoxyacids,
polychlorinated diphenyl ethers, polyvinyl chlorides,
and chlorinated phenoxy-2-phenols (Hutzinger et al.,
1985; Hryhorczuk et al., 1986; ATSDR, 2001; Masunaga
et al., 2001a). Similarly, PBDDs/DFs are found as by-
products in brominated organic chemicals, such as bromi-
nated flame retardants (polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDEs), decabromobiphenyl, 1,2-bis(tribromophenoxy)
ethane, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)) (International
Programme on Chemical Safety, 1998). These compounds
are also formed during incineration of industrial and
municipal waste, forest fires, fireplaces, and combustion
engines (Loganathan etal., 1997; Feil and Larsen, 2001).
Because of anthropogenic as well as natural processes,
PCBs, dioxins, and furans are widely dispersed in the
global environment and their presence was reported in
air, water, soil, sediment, aquatic organisms, and ter-
restrial organisms, including human tissues (Safe, 1990;

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 Human Exposure to PCBs, PCDDs, and PCDFs 241

PCBs Dioxins (PCDDs) Furans

Cl Cl

Cl O Cl Cl Cl

Cl Cl

Cl O Cl Cl O Cl

3,3,4,4-tetrachlorobiphenyl 2,3,7,8- tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran

Cl Cl
Cl Cl

Cl O Cl Cl Cl

Cl Cl

Cl O Cl Cl O Cl

Cl

3,3,4,4,5-pentachlorobiphenyl 1,2,3,7,8-pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 1,2,3,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran

Cl Cl
Cl Cl

Cl O Cl Cl Cl

Cl Cl

Cl O Cl Cl O Cl

Cl Cl
Cl Cl

3,3,4,4,5,5-hexachlorobiphenyl 1,2,3,4,7,8-hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 1,2,3,4,7,8-hexachlorodibenzofuran

FIGURE 19.2 Structures of highly toxic PCBs, dioxins, and furans.

Loganathan and Kannan, 1994; Giesy and Kannan, 1998;
Masunaga etal., 2001b; Ogura etal., 2001).
HUMAN EXPOSURE TO PCBS, PCDDS,
AND PCDFS
Direct human exposure to PCBs/PCDF occurred
because of inadvertent poisoning due to consumption of
PCB contaminated food, resulting in Yusho and Yucheng
poisoning (oil disease) in Japan and Taiwan during
1968 and 1979, respectively. The Yusho Support Center
Report (2007) states that 39 years have passed since
the outbreak of YUSHO, the PCB/dioxin tragedythe
most unprecedented incident in the history of mankind
whereby people ingested toxic chemicals unknowingly,
directly through food. The outbreak of a strange disease
Yusho (Kanemi Oil Poisoning) occurred in the western
part of Japan in 1968. The major symptoms and signs of
the disease consisted of acne-like eruptions, pigmenta-
tion of the skin, nails, and conjunctivas, increased dis-
charge from eyes, and numbness in the limbs (Yao etal.,
2002; Yusho Support Center Report, 2007). The epidemic
was identified later (1969) to be an unprecedented mass
food poisoning caused by the ingestion of commercial
brand rice oil that had been contaminated by PCB and
their related compounds. The number of people who
reported to have ingested the rice oil was approximately
14,000 and 1,867 persons were designated as Yusho vic-
tims. A similar outbreak of oil disease occurred in
Taiwan in 1979. Toxicological studies revealed that
PCDF congeners, including 2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodiben-
zofuran, played an important role in the manifestation of
these diseases. Research conducted with Yusho victims
revealed harmful effects of the exposure continued two
generations (Yusho Support Center Report, 2007).
Direct human exposure to dioxin occurred in south-
ern Vietnam and also in Seveso, Italy. It was estimated
that southern Vietnam has been contaminated by
160600kg of dioxin as a result of 80 million liters of
defoliant herbicides (Agent Orange, a 50:50 mixture of
2,4,5-T and 2,4-D) being sprayed by the US military over
a large area of forests and crops of southern Vietnam
from 1962 to 1971 (Westing, 1984; Schecter et al., 2006;

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242 19. PCBs, Dioxins and Furans: Human Exposure and Health Effects

TABLE 19.1Toxicity Level of Various Chemical Compounds

(Prepared from Manahan, 1992)

LD50 Estimated
from Laboratory
Toxicity Level Compounds Animalsa (mg/kg)

Slightly toxic Ethyl alcohol 10,000

FIGURE 19.3 Dioxin poisoning. Ukrainian former Prime Minister
and presidential candidate Viktor Yushchenko, with his face disfigured
by illness due to dioxin poisoning. Source: Photo: www.mindfully.org;
November 19, 2004 (accessed on July 13, 2008).
Le Hong Thorn etal., 2007). The defoliant was contami-
nated with a very toxic form of dioxin (TCDD) known
to have caused adverse effects on human health. Dioxin
may cause harmful effects on the whole body and can
affect separately the functioning of the systems such as
the nervous system, immune responses, carcinogenic-
ity, hepatotoxicity, and metabolic and enzyme toxicity
(Le Hong Thorn etal., 2007). Another example of direct
human poisoning of dioxin was food poisoning of Viktor
Yushchenko (Figure 19.3), Ukrainian Presidential candi-
date, in 2004. The dioxin poisoning caused a mysterious
illness that resulted in his face becoming pockmarked
and ashen (www.mindfully.org). Manahan (1992) classi-
fied dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) as super toxic in comparison
with other known toxic substances (Table 19.1).
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND
GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION
The unusual industrial versatility of PCBs was directly
related to physical and chemical properties that include
resistance to acids and bases, compatibility with organic
materials, resistance to oxidation and reduction, excel-
lent insulating properties, nonflammability, and thermal
stability (Hutzinger etal., 1985). Physical and chemical
stability of PCBs are vital to the industrial applications
and the same properties have been responsible for global
environment contamination. In addition, multi-media
releases and volatility lead to long-range environmen-
tal transport, both via water and atmosphere, resulting
in widespread environmental contamination of humans
and wildlife at sites distant from their use (Lipnick and
Sodium chloride 5,000
Moderately Malathion 1,000
toxic (organophosphorus pesticide)
Chlordane (termite 500
exterminator)
Very toxic Heptachlor (pesticide) 100
Extremely toxic Parathion (pesticide) 10
Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) 5 (hamster)
Tetraethyl pyrophosphate 1
(pesticide, raticide)
Super toxic Tetrodotoxin 0.1
(toxin of blowfish)
Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) 0.0006 (guinea
pig)
Botulin (toxin of botulinum) 0.00001
a
LD50 are rough values estimated from oral-dose experiment on laboratory animals
(usually rats). Unit: mg/kg body weight.
Muir, 2001; Loganathan et al., 2008). In PCBs, dioxins,
and furans, the properties vary widely and depend
on the number and position of chlorine (or bromine)
atoms attached to the molecule. In general, vapor pres-
sure, water solubility, and biodegradability decrease
with increasing number of chlorine atoms. Lipophilicity
adsorption capacity shows a reverse trend (Loganathan
and Kannan, 1994). Because of these unique proper-
ties, PCBs, dioxins, and furans have been detected in
air and water (rivers, lake ecosystems) (Pearson et al.,
1997; Loganathan etal., 1998a,b, 2001). Apart from this,
these compounds were recorded in fish, birds, and
marine mammals of several other ecosystems such as
the Atlantic, Baltic, and Pacific Oceans and Swedish
environments (Kawano et al., 1988; Loganathan et al.,
1999). They have been identified in processed fish and
other food products (Kannan etal., 1997; Patandin etal.,
1999). Further, the residues of these contaminants were
found in human adipose tissue, blood, and milk, and
also in numerous other matrices (Loganathan etal., 1993,
1998a,b, 1999; Petreas etal., 2001; Czaja etal., 2001). The
comparison of PCDD/DFs and PBDD/DFs in terms of
toxic equivalents (TEQs) calculated based on WHO-TEF
(World Health Organizations toxic equivalent factors)
in pooled human milk samples of 17 countries showed
that PBDD/DF levels are significantly lower than the
PCDD/DF (mean PBDD/DF:PCDD/DF-TEQ ratio was
0.13 and its range was 0.060.25), indicating that exposure

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 Mechanism of Action and Toxicity
of PCDDs/DFs is much greater than PBDD/DFs and
more important to human health (Kotz et al., 2005).
Because of the large production and indiscriminate use
of PCBs in industries, these contaminants extended their
boundaries of distribution over the global environment,
and this was evidenced by their detection even in pris-
tine environmental media and biota such as the Arctic
and Antarctic atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere
(Muir et al., 1988; Corsolini et al., 2002; Kumar et al.,
2002). The discovery of the widespread environmental
occurrences, the increased general environmental con-
cern, and the apparent link to carcinogenesis and other
health disorders prompted public outcry that resulted in
prohibition of PCBs as well as chlorinated pesticides in
several developed nations during the early 1970s. The
following section deals with the chemical analysis of
PCBs, dioxins, and furans in environmental and biologi-
cal samples.
ANALYTICAL METHODS
PCBs and PCDDs/DFs consist of a total of 419 indi-
vidual congeners and PBDDs/DFs have 210 congeners.
In addition, dioxins and furans with mixed chlorine
and bromine substitution can occur. These congeners
have quite a variety of toxicity and some of these con-
geners, especially planar dioxins, furans, and dioxin-like
PCBs (non-ortho chlorine substituted coplanar PCBs), are
extremely toxic even at very low concentrations (Table
19.1). Therefore, determination of some toxic conge-
ners to a very low concentration (parts per trillion) has
become important.
Congener-specific determination was required for
those congeners that have toxic equivalency factors
(TEFs), namely 2,3,7,8-chlorine substituted dioxins and
dioxin-like PCBs (Table 19.2). Thus, they are analyzed
using high-resolution gas chromatographyhigh-reso-
lution mass spectrometry (HRGC-HRMS). A schematic
flow chart of a representative analysis procedure for
environmental and biological samples is shown in
Figure 19.3 based on standard analytical methods such
as US EPA Methods 1613, 1668, 1668a, and JIS K0312 (US
EPA, 1994, 1997, 1999; JISC, 2008).
Biological samples are either freeze-dried or dewa-
tered (homogenized) with anhydrous sodium sulfate
salt and spiked with internal standards (clean-up spike)
and then extracted using Soxhlet apparatus. Obtained
extracts are concentrated and their solvents are changed
to an appropriate solvent such as hexane, followed by a
series of clean-up procedures to remove lipids and other
interfering chemicals. Then, the eluates are concentrated
again and spiked with internal standards. The prepared
samples were injected into HRGC-HRMS and monitored
by multiple ion monitoring mode. Concentrations are
II. AGENTS THAT CAN BE USED AS WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION
243
calculated by isotope dilution method. Stable isotope-
labeled target compounds are used as internal stan-
dards and spiked into samples. Calibration with internal
standards and determination by isotope dilution are
necessary to obtain reliable data under very low con-
centrations and after repeated pretreatment and clean-
up procedures.
Solid samples such as soil and sediment are air-dried
and extracted using the Soxhlet/Dean-Stark apparatus.
Aqueous samples are separated into solids and filtrates
by filters. Solids are Soxhlet extracted similar to bio-
logical samples and filtrates are liquidliquid extracted.
Then, these extracts are cleaned and injected into HRGC-
HRMS, similar to biological samples.
In cases when congener-specific information is not nec-
essary, other simpler methods can be used. EPA Methods
608 and 8082a use GC/ECD to determine concentrations
of PCBs in terms of Aroclor (Federal Register, 1984; US
EPA, 2007). EPA Method 680 (US EPA, 1985) uses GC/
MS (low-resolution mass spectrometry) to determine the
homolog concentration of PCBs (Figure 19.4).
MECHANISM OF ACTION AND
TOXICITY
The toxicity of PCBs, PCDDs/DFs, and PBDDs/
DFs is complicated by the presence of a large number
of congeners, each with its own toxicity. Commercial
PCB mixtures elicit a broad spectrum of toxic responses
that are dependent on several factors, including chlo-
rine content, purity, dose, species, age, sex, and dura-
tion of exposure. Immunotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and
developmental toxicity as well as biochemical effects of
commercial PCB mixtures have been studied extensively
in various laboratory animals, fish, and wildlife (Giesy
and Kannan, 1998). Several studies have confirmed the
common receptor-mediated mechanism of action of
toxic halogenated aromatics and have resulted in the
development of a structureactivity relationship for this
class of chemicals (Safe, 1990). The most toxic haloge-
nated aromatics is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD), which is assigned the maximum toxicity fac-
tor of 1; the relative toxicities of individual halogenated
aromatics have been determined relative to TCDD (i.e.,
toxic equivalents). The 17 congeners of PCDD/DFs and
the 12 congeners of dioxin-like PCBs are assigned TEFs
lower than TCDD (Table 19.2). In June 1997, the World
Health Organization established the levels of toxicity
factors (WHO-TEFs) to be applied to evaluating the risks
for humans and animals (Van den Berg etal., 2006). The
WHO consultation set the tolerable daily intake (TDI)
between 1 and 4pg TEQ/kg body weight, emphasizing
that the aim was to lower the TDI to a level less than 1pg
TEQ/kg body weight (Guerzoni and Raccanelli, 2004).
244 19. PCBs, Dioxins and Furans: Human Exposure and Health Effects

TABLE 19.2Toxic Equivalency Factors (TEFs) for Dioxins, Furans and Dioxin-like PCBs.

TEF

I-TEF Van den Berg etal. (1998) Van den Berg etal. (2006)

Human and
Congener Human Mammals Fish Bird Human and Mammals

PCDDs

2,3,7,8-TCDD 1 1 1 1 1
1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD 0.5 1 1 1 1
1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDD 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.05 0.1
1,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDD 0.1 0.1 0.01 0.01 0.1
1,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDD 0.1 0.1 0.01 0.1 0.1
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD 0.1 0.01 0.001 <0.001 0.01
OctaCDD 0.001 0.0001 0.0003

PCDFs

2,3,7,8-TCDF 0.1 0.1 0.05 1 0.1

1,2,3,7,8-PeCDF 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.03
2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.3
1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDF 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
1,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDF 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
1,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDF 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
2,3,4,6,7,8-HxCDF 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
1,2,3,4,7,8,9-HpCDF 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
OctaCDF 0.001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0003

NON-ORTHO-PCBs

3,4,4,5-TeCB (#81) 0.0001 0.0005 0.1 0.0003

3,3,4,4-TeCB (#77) 0.0001 0.0001 0.05 0.0001
3,3,4,4,5-PeCB (#126) 0.1 0.005 0.1 0.1
3,3,4,4,5,5-HxCB (#169) 0.01 0.00005 0.001 0.03

MONO-ORTHO-PCBs

2,3,3,4,4-PeCB (#105) 0.0001 <0.000005 0.0001 0.00003

2,3,4,4,5-PeCB (#114) 0.0005 <0.000005 0.0001 0.00003
2,3,4,4,5-PeCB (#118) 0.0001 <0.000005 0.00001 0.00003
2,3,4,4,5-PeCB (#123) 0.0001 <0.000005 0.00001 0.00003
2,3,3,4,4,5-HxCB (#156) 0.0005 <0.000005 0.0001 0.00003
2,3,3,4,4,5-HxCB (#157) 0.0005 <0.000005 0.0001 0.00003
2,3,4,4,5,5-HxCB (#167) 0.00001 <0.000005 0.00001 0.00003
2,3,3,4,4,5,5-HpCB (#189) 0.0001 <0.000005 0.00001 0.00003

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 Mechanism of Action and Toxicity 245

Biological sample Solid sample Air sample Aqueous sample

Freeze-dry or Freeze-dry or High-volume Filtration through

Homogenized with Air-dry air sampling glass-fiber filter
Na2SO4

Urethane Solids Solids Filtrate

foam on filter on filter

Clean-up spike

Soxhlet extraction Soxhlet/Dean-stark extraction Separatory

funnel extraction

Lipid removal

Concentration and solvent change

(Rotary evaporator or Kuderna-Danish apparatus or nitrogen gas)

Cleanup
Multilayered silica gel column chromatography or
H2SO4 treatment-silica gel column chromatography

Alumina activated carbon column chromatography

Activated carbon column chromatography

Gel permeation chromatography

Eluate for PCDD/DFs and PBDD/DF determination Eluate for dioxin-like PCB determination

Concentration Concentration

I-Standard spike

Determination by HRGC-HRMS

FIGURE 19.4 Analytical procedure of dioxins, furans, and dioxin-like PCBs.

The most toxic PCB congeners are those that have chlo-
rine substitution in most of the non-ortho positions, such
as 3, 4, and 5 in each ring. These coplanar PCB con-
geners (Figure 19.2) are structurally similar to highly
toxic 2,3,7,8-TCDD and exhibit similar toxic responses
(Ah receptormediated toxicity) (Figure 19.5). There are
no TEFs for 2,3,7,8-substituted PBDDs/DFs that have
international agreement; however, use of the same TEF
values for the corresponding PBDD/DF congeners as
described for the chlorinated analogues appears to be
justified (International Programme on Chemical Safety,
1998). 2,3,7,8-TCDD and structurally related halogenated
aromatic compounds induce a variety of microsomal
enzymes primarily in the liver. 2,3,7,8-TCDD evokes
dose-related induction of cytochrome-P-450associated
aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) activity. The most
widely studied of these responses are induction of AHH
and EROD (markers of CYP1A activity) in mammalian
cell cultures and in laboratory rodents (Goldstein and
Safe, 1989).
Ah receptormediated toxicity resulted in a wide
range of biological responses, including alterations in
metabolic pathways, body weight loss, thymic atrophy,
impaired immune responses, hepatotoxicity, chloracne
and related skin lesions, developmental and reproduc-
tive effects, and neoplasia.

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246 19. PCBs, Dioxins and Furans: Human Exposure and Health Effects
FIGURE 19.5 Possible mechanism of toxic action of 2,3,7,8-TCDD.
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
PCBs, dioxins, and furans are persistent organic pol-
lutants that have negative effects on the environment
and health of humans, including skin toxicity, immuno-
toxicity, neurotoxicity, negative effects on reproduction,
teratogenicity, endocrine disruption, and a predisposi-
tion to cancer. A major pathway of exposure to these
chemicals is through consumption of food contaminated
by PCBs and dioxins. The Committee of Experts on Food
of the European Commission proposed a dose called
tolerable weekly intake given by the total of dioxins
and PCBs of 14pg TEQ/kg of body weight, which is an
average of 2pg TEQ/day/kg of body weight (Guerzoni
and Raccanelli, 2004). By reducing the environmental
contamination, we can diminish the food chain accumu-
lation and, ultimately, we can reduce the intake levels of
PCBs and dioxins and their toxic effects.
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