A

PROJECT REPORT
ON
FM BUGGER
 ABSTRACT

FM Transmitter is a device which generates frequency

modulated signal. It is one element of a radio system
which, with the aid of an antenna, propagates an
electromagnetic signal. Standard FM broadcasts are
based in the 88 108 MHz range.

These types of networks have applications in dynamic

spectrum access, co-existence of different wireless
networks, interference management, etc.

The main objective of this project is to transmit the

information from one person to another person in remote
location. Normally bugger is used for finding out the
status of the person like where is he is going, what he is
talking etc.

This circuit is mostly used in spy agencies. This is small

circuit with which we can listen to another people
conversation from long distance using the normal FM
radio set.
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND

Frequency modulation (FM) is a technique for wireless

transmission of information where the frequency of a
high frequency carrier is changed in proportion to
message signal which contains the information according
to. FM was invented and developed by Edwin Armstrong
in the 1920s and 30s. Frequency modulation was
demonstrated to the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) for the first time in 1940, and the
first commercial FM radio station began broadcasting in
1945. FM is not a new concept.

However, the concept of FM is essential to a wide gamut

of radio frequency wireless devices and is therefore
worth studying. This seminar will explain the design
decisions that should be made in the process of design
and construction of an FM transmitter. The design has
also been simulated. For a long time radio was the largest
mass media but in recent years it has lost a number of
listeners. In contrast, total media consumption has
increased.
Young people are abandoning traditional media and want
to decide on where, when and how they receive media
content, for example via Internet and mobile telephones.
Listeners are most interested in easily being able to select
radio stations, to have better sound quality and audibility
and to increase accessibility for people with visual and
auditory impairments. Listeners also want a wider range
of radio channels over the whole country. Consumers
needs must be met hence the need for advancements in
the field of radio broadcast.

New technology creates the necessary conditions for

improvements. This seminar also evaluates the different
technologies on the basis of questions like:

How well does the technology satisfy consumers

needs?
What functionality does the technology offer?
How efficiently does the technology utilize the
available spectrum?
 What financial conditions are available for the
technology?
Standardization policy for the technology.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this project are:

To review present-day FM transmitters and their

limitations.
To provide an overview of the Radio
communication issues
To accusatively compare these technologies

SCOPE

This project covers the design of FM transmitters for

quality audio transmission and explains some of the
modern trends in FM signal generation, highlighting their
prospects. It also covers the advantages these
technologies offer over traditional radio broadcasting and
brings to light various distinguishing features possessed
by these technologies.
SIGNIFICANCE

The role that radio plays in the society is an important

issue to consider in discussions about which technology
can best distribute radio in the future. The fact that radio
has an important role in society can be clearly seen in the
number of listeners. Despite the rise in the total
consumption of media, radio has lost a number of
listeners according to a survey report. The medium of
radio has many positive characteristics for listeners. It is:

Free from subscription charges

Simple to use
Possible to listen to everywhere, including sparsely
populated areas and while in motion in cars and
trains
Possible to listen to while doing something else
Important as a channel of information, especially in
crises and catastrophes.
An important medium for traffic information,
shipping and mountain rescue.
Radio needs to be developed to satisfy the needs of
future consumers, hence the need for this study.
 CHAPTER-2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
AND
BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block Diagram of an Fm Transmitter

BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

The diagram above is the basic building block of every

FM transmitter. It consists of an AF (Audio Frequency)
Amplifier that amplifies the audio voltage from the
microphone and feeds this signal into an RF oscillator for
modulation. The oscillator produces the carrier frequency
in the 88-108 MHZ FM band. The low power of the FM
modulated carrier is feeds into. A low pass filter is also
present lo limit the RF signal to a range of choice while
the antenna radiates it.

The design of an FM transmitter must consider multiple

technical factors such as frequency of operation, the
stability and purity of the resulting signal, the efficiency
of power use, and the power level required to meet the
system design objectives. Some pre-design
considerations include.
 CHAPTER-3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
AND
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FM Transmitter Circuit

COMPONENTS LIST

NO VALU E DESCR IPTIO N

R1 4.7k

R2 330

C1 1nF ceramic capacitor

NO VALU E DESCR IPTIO N

C2 10pF ceramic capacitor

C3 15pF ceramic capacitor

L 212nH 8 turns of 22 awg wire

Q BC548 BC548 or equivalent lik

Ant Spring Extension spring i stret

Mic electret microphone

Bat 3V 3V battery with its hold

CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

This spybug works by modulating a carrier frequency

with a modulating wave. the carrier frequency is
determined by the resonant circuit the inductor L and the
capacitor C3. In order to modulate that carrier frequency
there is a capacitor C2 and a transistor (which is
controlled by the mic) in series with the resonant circuit.

To understand it imagine that the transistor is fully off

(cut off region) then frequency is determined by LC3C2,
but if the transistor is fully on (saturation region)
the frequency is determined only by LC3, so the
frequency can be modulated up to LC3 and down to
LC3C2.

In this circuit our transistor is biased by R1,R2 and the

mic so we have the half of the power supply in its base
which is 1.5V, that means if the mic does not pick
up any sounds the frequency of the transmitter is
determined by LC3 and C2/2 because the transistor is
halfway on (active region). If the mic picks up a sound
(modulating wave) it varies the transistors bias thus the
frequency of the transmitter. thats how we get modulated
frequency in this circuit
 CHAPTER-4
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION
Inductance of an Air Core Coil

Self-made inductor has a value determined by its radius

r, length x and number of wire turns n.

Calculation of inductor value

Frequency

The specific frequency, f generated is now determined by

the capacitance C and inductance L measured in Farads
and Henry respectively.
 Calculation of Frequency Value.
Resonant Frequency of a Parallel LC Circuit

The variable capacitor and self-made inductor constitute

a parallel LC circuit also called a tank circuit which
vibrates at a resonant frequency to be picked up by an
FM radio.

The underlying physics is that a capacitor stores energy

in the electric field between its plates, depending on the
voltage across it, and an inductor stores energy in its
magnetic field, depending on the current through it. The
oscillation frequency is determined by the capacitance
and inductance values.
RESISTORS

Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or

variable resistors. The formula for resistance is given by:
R = l / A where is resistivity, l is length and A is area
of crossection. Different value resistors can be
manufactured by changing the length and area of
crossection or the material itself which changes the
resistivity. Materials generally used for fabrication of
resistors are nichrome (80 % Ni and 20 % Cr),
constatntan (55% cu and 45 % Ni ) and Manmganin (85
% Cu and 10 % Mn and < 5 % Ni). Metals are not used
as they have a very high temperature coefficient of
resistance.

Three main methods of fabrication are (i) a slab or a rod

of suitable resistivity, (ii) Material using thinner
crossection and longer length. The length is doubled and
then wound in such a way that inductance effects are
cancelled out. (iii) Thin films of material on insulating
substrate. Each resistor has a current carrying capacity.
Current more than the prescribed wattage may damage
the resistor.
Colour Code for Resistors

Band colour & its Band colour & its tolerance

value

Black = 0 Gold = + - 5%

Brown = 1 Silver = + - 10 %

Red = 2 No colour means 20 %

Orange = 3

Yellow = 4

Green = 5

Blue = 6

Violet = 7

Grey = 8

White = 9
The first two bands near an end indicate first 2 digits,
digit corresponding to 3rd band is the power of 10 to be
multiplied and fourth band indicates tolerance as
mentioned in the table. Refer fig 1, where brown = 1,
black = 0, red = 2 and silver = 10 % tolerance. Hence its
value is

10 x 10 2 = 1 k .

Special purpose resistors

Light dependent resistors (LDR) and thermistors are

examples of special purpose resistors. Thermistor is a
resistor whose value depends on its temperature. It is
also called a heat sensor.
CAPACITORS

Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used

for coupling ac signals from one circuit to another and
for frequency selection etc. A capacitor consists of 2
metallic plates separated by a dielectric. The
capacitance is defined as : C = o r A / d, where A is the
area of plates, d is plates separation, o is permittivity
of free space and r is relative permittivity. An
important parameter for capacitors is its voltage
handling capacity beyond which the capacitor dielectric
breaks down.

The value of a capacitor depends upon the dielectric

constant (K = o r.) of the material. There are three
main classes of capacitors:

(i) Non electrolytic or normal capacitors and

(ii) electrolytic capacitors and
(iii) Variable capacitors.
Normal capacitors are mostly of parallel plate type and
can have mica, paper, ceramic or polymer as dielectric.
In the paper capacitors two rectangular metal foils are
interleaved between thin sheets of waxed paper and the
whole system is rolled to form a compact structure.
Each metal foil is connected to an electrode. In mica
capacitors alternate layers of mica and metal are
clamped tightly together. Refer fig 3.

In electrolytic capacitor mostly a then metal-oxide film

is deposited by means of electrolysis on axial electrode.
Thats how it derives its name. During electrolysis the
electrode acts as anode whose cathode is a concentric
can. Since the dielectric layer is very thin hence these
require special precaution for their use: i.e. they have to
connected in the right polarity failing which the
dielectric breaks down. Besides these fixed value
capacitors we also have variable capacitors whose value
depends upon the area of crossection. They have a fixed
set of plates and a movable set of plates which can be
moved through a shaft. This movement changes the
area of overlap of the two sets of plates which changes
its capacity. Refer fig 3.

Colour and Number code of capacitors.

Different marking schemes are used for electrolytic and

non-electrolytic capacitors. Temperature coefficient is of
minor importance in an electrolytic filter capacitor, but
it is very important in ceramic trimmers for attenuator
use. One never finds temperature coefficient on an
electrolytic label, but it is always present on ceramic
trimmers.

Electrolytic Capacitors:

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors: (i) Axial

where the leads are attached to each end (220F in
picture) and (ii) Radial where both leads are at the same
end (10F in picture) Refer fig 4.
Non-polarised capacitors ( < 1F):

Small value capacitors have their values printed but

without a multiplier. For example 0.1 means 0.1F =
100nF. Sometimes the unit is placed in between 2 digits
indicating a decimal point. For example: 4n7 means
4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code:

A number code is often used on small capacitors where

printing is difficult: the 1st number is the 1st digit, the
2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the power
of ten to be multiplied., to give the capacitance in pF.
Any letters just indicate tolerance and voltage rating. For
example: 102 means 10 X 10 2 pF = 1nF and 472J
means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code:

Sometimes capacitors just show bands like resistors

when printing is tough on them. The colours should be
read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands
giving the value in pF. The 4th band and 5th band are
for tolerance and voltage rating respectively. For
example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF =
10nF = 0.01F.
Available Values of Capacitors:

Like resistors capacitors are also available for only

particular values. Following are 2 series defined for
capacitors The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of
ten) 10, 22, 47, then it continues 1to100, 220, 470, 1000,
2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 15,
22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330,
470, 680, 1000 etc.
INDUCTORS

Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire

which is wound on a core. It is used to vary the
impedance of a circuit or for frequency tuning. The value
of an inductor depends upon the total number of turns
(N), area of crossection of the core (A) and length of the
core (l).The formula is L = o r N2 A / l. Its unit is in
Henry.

An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive

two-terminal electrical component which resists changes
in electric current passing through it. It consists of a
conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil.
Energy is stored in a magnetic field in the coil as long as
current flows. When the current flowing through an
inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor, according to
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. According
to Lenz's law the direction of induced electromotive
force (or "e.m.f.") is always such that it opposes the
change in current that created it. As a result, inductors
always oppose a change in current, in the same way that
a flywheel opposes a change in rotational velocity. Care
should be taken not to confuse this with the resistance
provided by a resistor.

An inductor is characterized by its inductance, the ratio

of the voltage to the rate of change of current, which has
units of henries (H). Inductors have values that typically
range from 1 H (106H) to 1 H. Many inductors have a
magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil,
which serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the
inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors,
inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit
elements that make up electric circuits. Inductors are
widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic
equipment, particularly in radio equipment. They are
used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors
designed for this purpose are called chokes. They are
also used in electronic filters to separate signals of
different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors
to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV
receivers.
Inductance (L) results from the magnetic field around a
current-carrying conductor; the electric current through
the conductor creates a magnetic flux. Mathematically
speaking, inductance is determined by how much
magnetic flux through the circuit is created by a given
current i

Inductors that have ferromagnetic cores are nonlinear;

the inductance changes with the current, in this more
general case inductance is defined as

Any wire or other conductor will generate a magnetic

field when current flows through it, so every conductor
has some inductance. The inductance of a circuit depends
on the geometry of the current path as well as the
magnetic permeability of nearby materials. An inductor
is a component consisting of a wire or other conductor
shaped to increase the magnetic flux through the circuit,
usually in the shape of a coil or helix. Winding the wire
into a coil increases the number of times the magnetic
flux lines link the circuit, increasing the field and thus
the inductance. The more turns, the higher the
inductance. The inductance also depends on the shape of
the coil, separation of the turns, and many other factors.
By adding a "magnetic core" made of a ferromagnetic
material like iron inside the coil, the magnetizing field
from the coil will induce magnetization in the material,
increasing the magnetic flux. The high permeability of a
ferromagnetic core can increase the inductance of a coil
by a factor of several thousand over what it would be
without it.
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATION

Any change in the current through an inductor creates a

changing flux, inducing a voltage across the inductor. By
Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced by any
change in magnetic flux through the circuit is

So inductance is also a measure of the amount of

electromotive force (voltage) generated for a given rate
of change of current. For example, an inductor with an
inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when
the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1
ampere per second. This is usually taken to be the
constitutive relation (defining equation) of the inductor.
The dual of the inductor is the capacitor, which stores
energy in an electric field rather than a magnetic field. Its
current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging
current and voltage in the inductor equations and
replacing L with the capacitance C.

Lenz's law

The polarity (direction) of the induced voltage is given

by Lenz's law, which states that it will be such as to
oppose the change in current. For example, if the current
through an inductor is increasing, the induced voltage
will be positive at the terminal through which the current
enters and negative at the terminal through which it
leaves, tending to oppose the additional current. The
energy from the external circuit necessary to overcome
this potential "hill" is being stored in the magnetic field
of the inductor; the inductor is said to be "charging" or
"energizing". If the current is decreasing, the induced
voltage will be negative at the terminal through which
the current enters and positive at the terminal through
which it leaves, tending to maintain the current. Energy
from the magnetic field is being returned to the circuit;
the inductor is said to be "discharging".

IDEAL AND REAL INDUCTORS

In circuit theory, inductors are idealized as obeying the

mathematical relation (2) above precisely. An "ideal
inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or
capacitance, and does not dissipate or radiate energy.
However real inductors have side effects which cause
their behavior to depart from this simple model. They
have resistance (due to the resistance of the wire and
energy losses in core material), and parasitic capacitance
(due to the electric field between the turns of wire which
are at slightly different potentials). At high frequencies
the capacitance begins to affect the inductor's behavior;
at some frequency, real inductors behave as resonant
circuits, becoming self-resonant. Above the resonant
frequency the capacitive reactance becomes the dominant
part of the impedance. At higher frequencies, resistive
losses in the windings increase due to skin effect and
proximity effect.
Inductors with ferromagnetic cores have additional
energy losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents in the
core, which increase with frequency. At high currents,
iron core inductors also show gradual departure from
ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused by magnetic
saturation of the core. An inductor may radiate
electromagnetic energy into surrounding space and
circuits, and may absorb electromagnetic emissions from
other circuits, causing electromagnetic interference
(EMI). Real-world inductor applications may consider
these parasitic parameters as important as the inductance.
Types of inductor

Air core inductor

Resonant oscillation transformer from a spark gap

transmitter. Coupling can be adjusted by moving the top
coil on the support rod. Shows high Q construction with
spaced turns of large diameter tubing.

The term air core coil describes an inductor that does not
use a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic material.
The term refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or
other nonmagnetic forms, as well as those that have only
air inside the windings. Air core coils have lower
inductance than ferromagnetic core coils, but are often
used at high frequencies because they are free from
energy losses called core losses that occur in
ferromagnetic cores, which increase with frequency. A
side effect that can occur in air core coils in which the
winding is not rigidly supported on a form is
'microphony': mechanical vibration of the windings can
cause variations in the inductance.

Radio frequency inductor

Collection of RF inductors, showing techniques to

reduce losses. The three top left and the ferrite loop
stick or rod antenna, bottom, have basket windings.
At high frequencies, particularly radio frequencies (RF),
inductors have higher resistance and other losses. In
addition to causing power loss, in resonant circuits this
can reduce the of the circuit, broadening the bandwidth.
In RF inductors, which are mostly air core types,
specialized construction techniques are used to minimize
these losses. The losses are due to these effects:

Skin effect: The resistance of a wire to high

frequency current is higher than its resistance to direct
current because of skin effect. Radio frequency
alternating current does not penetrate far into the body of
a conductor but travels along its surface. Therefore, in a
solid wire, most of the cross sectional area of the wire is
not used to conduct the current, which is in a narrow
annulus on the surface. This effect increases the
resistance of the wire in the coil, which may already have
a relatively high resistance due to its length and small
diameter.
 Proximity effect: Another similar effect that also
increases the resistance of the wire at high frequencies
is proximity effect, which occurs in parallel wires that lie
close to each other. The individual magnetic field of
adjacent turns induces eddy currents in the wire of the
coil, which causes the current in the conductor to be
concentrated in a thin strip on the side near the
adjacent wire. Like skin effect, this reduces the effective
cross-sectional area of the wire conducting current,
increasing its resistance.

 High Q tank coil in a shortwave transmitter

(left) Spiderweb coil (right) Adjustable ferrite slug-tuned

RF coil with basketweave winding and litz wire
 Dielectric losses: The high frequency electric field near
the conductors in a tank coil can cause the motion of
polar molecules in nearby insulating materials,
dissipating energy as heat. So coils used for tuned
circuits are often not wound on coil forms but are
suspended in air, supported by narrow plastic or
ceramic strips.

Parasitic capacitance: The capacitance between

individual wire turns of the coil, called parasitic
capacitance, does not cause energy losses but can
change the behavior of the coil. Each turn of the coil is
at a slightly different potential, so the electric
field between neighboring turns stores charge on the
wire, so the coil acts as if it has a capacitor in parallel
with it. At a high enough frequency this capacitance can
resonate with the inductance of the coil forming a tuned
circuit, causing the coil to become self-resonant.
 To reduce parasitic capacitance and proximity
effect, high Q RF coils are constructed to avoid having
many turns lying close together, parallel to one another.
The windings of RF coils are often limited to a single
layer, and the turns are spaced apart. To reduce resistance
due to skin effect, in high-power inductors such as those
used in transmitters the windings are sometimes made of
a metal strip or tubing which has a larger surface area,
and the surface is silver-plated.

Basket-weave coils: To reduce proximity effect and

parasitic capacitance, multilayer RF coils are wound in
patterns in which successive turns are not parallel but
crisscrossed at an angle; these are often
called honeycomb or basket-weave coils. These are
occasionally wound on a vertical insulating supports
with dowels or slots, with the wire weaving in and out
through the slots.

Spiderweb coils: Another construction technique with

similar advantages is flat spiral coils.These are often
 wound on a flat insulating support with radial spokes or
slots, with the wire weaving in and out through the
slots; these are calledspiderweb coils. The form has an
odd number of slots, so successive turns of the spiral lie
on opposite sides of the form, increasing separation.
Litz wire: To reduce skin effect losses, some coils are
wound with a special type of radio frequency wire
called litz wire. Instead of a single solid conductor, litz
wire consists of a number of smaller wire strands that
carry the current. Unlike ordinary stranded wire, the
strands are insulated from each other, to prevent skin
effect from forcing the current to the surface, and are
twisted or braided together. The twist pattern ensures
that each wire strand spends the same amount of its
length on the outside of the wire bundle, so skin effect
distributes the current equally between the strands,
resulting in a larger cross-sectional conduction area than
an equivalent single wire.

Ferromagnetic core inductor

 A variety of types of ferrite core inductors and
transformers

Ferromagnetic-core or iron-core inductors use a magnetic

core made of aferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material
such as iron or ferrite to increase the inductance. A
magnetic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a
factor of several thousand, by increasing the magnetic
field due to its higher magnetic permeability. However
the magnetic properties of the core material cause several
side effects which alter the behavior of the inductor and
require special construction:

Core losses: A time-varying current in a ferromagnetic

inductor, which causes a time-varying magnetic field in
 its core, causes energy losses in the core material that
are dissipated as heat, due to two processes:
Eddy currents: From Faraday's law of induction, the
changing magnetic field can induce circulating loops of
electric current in the conductive metal core. The energy
in these currents is dissipated as heat in the resistance of
the core material. The amount of energy lost increases
with the area inside the loop of current.
Hysteresis: Changing or reversing the magnetic field in
the core also causes losses due to the motion of the
tinymagnetic domains it is composed of. The energy loss
is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop in the
BH graph of the core material. Materials with
low coercivity have narrow hysteresis loops and so low
hysteresis losses.
For both of these processes, the energy loss per cycle of
alternating current is constant, so core losses increase
linearly with frequency. Online core loss
calculators[10] are available to calculate the energy loss.
Using inputs such as input voltage, output voltage,
output current, frequency, ambient temperature, and
inductance these calculators can predict the losses of the
 inductors core and AC/DC based on the operating
condition of the circuit being used.[11]

Nonlinearity: If the current through a ferromagnetic core

coil is high enough that the magnetic core saturates, the
inductance will not remain constant but will change with
the current through the device. This is called
nonlinearity and results in distortion of the signal. For
example, audio signals can suffer intermodulation
distortion in saturated inductors. To prevent this,
in linear circuits the current through iron core inductors
must be limited below the saturation level. Some
laminated cores have a narrow air gap in them for this
purpose, and powdered iron cores have a distributed air
gap. This allows higher levels of magnetic flux and thus
higher currents through the inductor before it
saturates.[12]
Laminated core inductor

Laminated iron core ballast inductor for a metal halide

lamp

Low-frequency inductors are often made

with laminated cores to prevent eddy currents, using
construction similar to transformers. The core is made
of stacks of thin steel sheets or laminationsoriented
parallel to the field, with an insulating coating on the
surface. The insulation prevents eddy currents
between the sheets, so any remaining currents must be
within the cross sectional area of the individual
laminations, reducing the area of the loop and thus
reducing the energy losses greatly. The laminations
are made of low-coercivity silicon steel, to reduce
hysteresis losses.

Ferrite-core inductor[edit]

For higher frequencies, inductors are made with cores

of ferrite. Ferrite is a ceramic ferrimagneticmaterial
that is nonconductive, so eddy currents cannot flow
within it. The formulation of ferrite is xxFe2O4 where
xx represents various metals. For inductor cores soft
ferrites are used, which have low coercivity and thus
low hysteresis losses. Another similar material is
powdered iron cemented with a binder.
Toroidal core inductor

Toroidal inductor in the power supply of a wireless

router

In an inductor wound on a straight rod-shaped core,

the magnetic field lines emerging from one end of the
core must pass through the air to re-enter the core at
the other end. This reduces the field, because much
of the magnetic field path is in air rather than the
higherpermeability core material. A higher magnetic
field and inductance can be achieved by forming the
core in a closed magnetic circuit. The magnetic field
lines form closed loops within the core without
leaving the core material. The shape often used is
a toroidal or doughnut-shaped ferrite core. Because
of their symmetry, toroidal cores allow a minimum of
the magnetic flux to escape outside the core
(called leakage flux), so they radiate
lesselectromagnetic interference than other shapes.
Toroidal core coils are manufactured of various
materials, primarily ferrite, powdered iron and
laminated cores.

Choke
Main article: Choke (electronics)
An MF or HF radio choke for tenths of an ampere, and
a ferrite bead VHF choke for several amperes.

A choke is designed specifically for blocking higher-

frequency alternating current (AC) in an electrical
circuit, while allowing lower frequency or DC current
to pass. It usually consists of a coil of insulated wire
often wound on a magnetic core, although some
consist of a donut-shaped "bead" of ferrite material
strung on a wire. Like other inductors, chokes resist
changes to the current passing through them, and so
alternating currents of higher frequency, which reverse
direction rapidly, are resisted more than currents of
lower frequency; the choke's impedance increases with
frequency. Its low electrical resistance allows both AC
and DC to pass with little power loss, but it can limit
the amount of AC passing through it due to
its reactance.
Variable inductor

(left) Inductor with a threaded ferrite slug (visible at

top) that can be turned to move it into or out of the
coil. 4.2 cm high. (right) A variometer used in radio
receivers in the 1920s

A "roller coil", an adjustable air-core RF inductor used

in the tuned circuits of radio transmitters. One of the
contacts to the coil is made by the small grooved
wheel, which rides on the wire. Turning the shaft
rotates the coil, moving the contact wheel up or
down the coil, allowing more or fewer turns of the
coil into the circuit, to change the inductance.
Probably the most common type of variable inductor
today is one with a moveable ferrite magnetic core,
which can be slid or screwed in or out of the coil.
Moving the core farther into the coil increases
the permeability, increasing the magnetic field and the
inductance. Many inductors used in radio applications
(usually less than 100 MHz) use adjustable cores in
order to tune such inductors to their desired value,
since manufacturing processes have certain tolerances
(inaccuracy). Sometimes such cores for frequencies
above 100 MHz are made from highly conductive
non-magnetic material such as aluminum.[14] They
decrease the inductance because the magnetic field
must bypass them.

Air core inductors can use sliding contacts or multiple

taps to increase or decrease the number of turns
included in the circuit, to change the inductance. A
type much used in the past but mostly obsolete today
has a spring contact that can slide along the bare
surface of the windings. The disadvantage of this type
is that the contact usually short-circuits one or more
turns. These turns act like a single-turn short-circuited
transformer secondary; the large currents induced in
them cause power losses.

A type of continuously variable air core inductor is

the variometer. This consists of two coils with the
same number of turns connected in series, one inside
the other. The inner coil is mounted on a shaft so its
axis can be turned with respect to the outer coil. When
the two coils' axes are collinear, with the magnetic
fields pointing in the same direction, the fields add and
the inductance is maximum. When the inner coil is
turned so its axis is at an angle with the outer, the
mutual inductance between them is smaller so the total
inductance is less. When the inner coil is turned 180
so the coils are collinear with their magnetic fields
opposing, the two fields cancel each other and the
inductance is very small. This type has the advantage
that it is continuously variable over a wide range. It is
used in antenna tuners and matching circuits to match
low frequency transmitters to their antennas.
TRANSISTORS

Transistors are semiconductor devices used for

applications like amplification of voltages, current and
are also used in oscillator circuits and switches. Its a
two junction and 3 terminal device made of three layers
of n and p type materials. The three regions are emitter,
base and collector. They are of 2 types (i) pnp and (ii)
npn. Their most important specifications are Ic, Vce, hfe
and Power rating. They come in different casings like
TO18, TO92C, and TO39 etc Given below is a table of
most commonly used transistors with their
specifications (approximate) and casings. Datasheets
from the companies can be referred to to know the
exact specifications.
 VCE hFE
Struct Case IC Ptot Category Possible
Code ma mi
ure style max. max. (typical use) substitutes
x. n.

BC10 100 11 300 Audio, low BC182

NPN TO18 45V
7 mA 0 mW power BC547

General BC108C
BC10 100 11 300
NPN TO18 20V purpose, low BC183
8 mA 0 mW
power BC548

General
BC10 100 42 600
NPN TO18 20V purpose, low
8C mA 0 mW
power

Audio (low
BC10 200 20 300 BC184
NPN TO18 20V noise), low
9 mA 0 mW BC549
power

General
BC18 TO92 100 10 350 BC107
NPN 50V purpose, low
2 C mA 0 mW BC182L
power
 General
BC18 TO92 100 10 350 BC107
NPN 50V purpose, low
2L A mA 0 mW BC182
power

BC54 TO92 100 20 500 Audio, low

NPN 45V BC107B
7B C mA 0 mW power

General
Bel TO92 100 22 500
NPN 30V purpose, low BC108B
548 C mA 0 mW
power

Audio (low
BC54 TO92 100 24 625
NPN 30V noise), low BC109
9B C mA 0 mW
power

General
2N30 700 500
NPN TO39 40V 50 purpose, low BFY51
53 mA mW
power

General
800 purpose,
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 BC639
mW medium
power
 General
BC63 TO92 800 purpose,
NPN 1A 80V 40 BFY51
9 A mW medium
power

General
TIP29 TO22
NPN 1A 60V 40 30W purpose,
A 0
high power

General
TIP31 TO22 TIP31C
NPN 3A 60V 10 40W purpose,
A 0 TIP41A
high power

General
TIP31 TO22 100 TIP31A
NPN 3A 10 40W purpose,
C 0 V TIP41A
high power

General
TIP41 TO22
NPN 6A 60V 15 65W purpose,
A 0
high power

General
2N30 117
NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 purpose,
55 W
high power
BC17 100 12 300 Audio, low
PNP TO18 45V BC477
7 mA 5 mW power

General
BC17 200 12 600
PNP TO18 25V purpose, low BC478
8 mA 0 mW
power

Audio (low
BC17 200 18 600
PNP TO18 20V noise), low
9 mA 0 mW
power

BC47 150 12 360 Audio, low

PNP TO18 80V BC177
7 mA 5 mW power

General
BC47 150 12 360
PNP TO18 40V purpose, low BC178
8 mA 5 mW
power

General
TIP32 TO22
PNP 3A 60V 25 40W purpose, TIP32C
A 0
high power
 General
TIP32 TO22 100
PNP 3A 10 40W purpose, TIP32A
C 0 V
high power

Fig 9 gives some of the transistors with the symbols. for

npn and pnp. and fig 10 illustrates some of the casings.
with the configurations for emitter , base and collector
leads
MICROPHONES (MIC)

The Basics

Microphones are a type of transducer - a device which

converts energy from one form to another. Microphones
convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical
energy (the audio signal).

Different types of microphone have different ways of

converting energy but they all share one thing in
common: The diaphragm. This is a thin piece of material
(such as paper, plastic or aluminium) which vibrates
when it is struck by sound waves. In a typical hand-held
mic like the one below, the diaphragm is located in the
head of the microphone.
Location of Microphone Diaphragm
When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other
components in the microphone to vibrate. These
vibrations are converted into an electrical current which
becomes the audio signal.

Note: At the other end of the audio chain, the

loudspeaker is also a transducer - it converts the
electrical energy back into acoustical energy.

Types of Microphone

There are a number of different types of microphone in

common use. The differences can be divided into two
areas:

(1) The type of conversion technology they use

This refers to the technical method the mic uses to
convert sound into electricity. The most common
technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbon and crystal.
Each has advantages and disadvantages, and each is
generally more suited to certain types of application. The
following pages will provide details.

(2) The type of application they are designed for

Some mics are designed for general use and can be used
effectively in many different situations. Others are very
specialised and are only really useful for their intended
purpose. Characteristics to look for include directional
properties, frequency response and impedance (more on
these later).

Mic Level & Line Level

The electrical current generated by a microphone is very

small. Referred to as mic level, this signal is typically
measured in millivolts. Before it can be used for anything
serious the signal needs to be amplified, usually to line
level (typically 0.5 -2V). Being a stronger and more
robust signal, line level is the standard signal strength
used by audio processing equipment and common
domestic equipment such as CD players, tape machines,
VCRs, etc.
This amplification is achieved in one or more of the
following ways:

Some microphones have tiny built-in amplifiers which

boost the signal to a high mic level or line level.
The mic can be fed through a small boosting amplifier,
often called a line amp.
Sound mixers have small amplifiers in each channel.
Attenuators can accommodate mics of varying levels
and adjust them all to an even line level.
The audio signal is fed to a power amplifier - a
specialised amp which boosts the signal enough to be
fed to loudspeakers.
CHAPTER-5
 Advantages of FM bugger circuit
Resilient to signal strength noise: One of the advantages
of frequency modulation is that it does not suffer audio
amplitude variations as the signal level varies.
Does not require linear amplifier in the transmitter: As
only frequency changes are required to be carried, any
amplifiers in the transmitter do not need to be linear.
Enables greater efficiency than many other modes: FM
gives higher efficiency when compared to other modes.

DISADVANTAGES OF FM BUGGER CIRCUIT

The demodulator is a little more complicated, it is

slightly more expensive than the very simple diode
detectors used for AM. Also requiring a tuned circuit
adds cost.
Some other mode has higher data spectral efficiency:
Some phase modulation and QAM formats have a higher
spectral efficiency.
 APPLICATION:

FM bugger circuit is used in spy agencies: In order to

listen the conversation of one person in the remote
location this circuit.
For security purpose: As it is designed for security
purpose, this cannot be used by all the persons.
CONCLUSION
FM bugger circuit cannot be used by all persons as it is
illegal, so the application based on this circuit is very
less. It is a very simple as it carries simple components.
To listen the conversation of one person where the
normal FM radio set is used in this project.
REFERENCES

[1] Russell Mohn, A Three Transistor Discrete FM

Transmitter, ELEN 4314
Communications Circuits - Design Project, pp. 1, April
2007.
[2] FM broadcasting in the United States
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting_in_the_U
SA
[3] The Future of Radio. The Swedish Radio and TV
Authority, 2008.
[4] T.U.M Swarna kumara et al., A Mini Project on
Simple FM-Transmitter.
[5] E. F. Louis, Principles of Electronic Communication
Systems. McGraw-Hill, 2008
[6] Phase-Locked Loop Tutorial, PLL
http://www.sentex.ca/~mec1995/gadgets/pll/pll.html
[7] C. Renee, An Industrial White Paper: HD Radio
[8] C. W. Kelly, Digital HD Radio AM/FM
Implementation Issues, USA.
[9] C. W. Kelly, HD-Radio: Real World Results in
Asia, USA.
[10] B. Groome, HD Radio (I.B.O.C).
[11] D. Ferrara, Advantages and Disadvantages of HD
Radio
[12] D. Correy, HD Radio: What it is and What it is
not,
http://abot.com/od/hdradio/a/aa092706a.htm
[13] L. Durant, HD Radio: A Viable Alternative to
Satellite? October, 2006
[14] Software Defined Radio: Presentation of ELG 6163
Digital Signal Processing
Microprocessors, Software and application.
[15] V. Singh, A Seminar on HD Radio, EC
Department.
[16] J. Ackermann, TARR: Tomorrows Ham Radio
Technology Today.
[17] Software-defined radio,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software-defined_radio
[18] Software Defined Radio,
http://www.altera.com/endmarkets/
wireless/advanced-dsp/sdr/wir-sdr.html
30
[19] P.E. Chadwick, Possibilities and Limitations in
Software Defined Radio Design.
[20] J. H. Reed et al, Understanding the Issues in
Software Defined Cognitive Radio,
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
[21] M. Barousse and T. Oliver, Applications of a
Software Defined Radio in Space.
[22] What is Cognitive Radio,
http://www.wifinotes.com/mobile-
communicationtechnologies/
cognitive-radio.html
[23] iBiquity Digital Corp; White Paper Archive,
http://www.ibiquity.com/technologypapers.htm