The Bonded Electrical Resistance Strain Gage An Introduction 019507209X

The Bonde d Electrica l Resistanc e
Strain Gag e
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The Bonde d
Electrical Resistanc e
Strain Gag e
An Introduction
WILLIAM M . MURRA Y
Professor Emeritus
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
WILLIAM R . MILLE R
Professor Emeritus
The University of Toledo
New Yor k Oxfor d

OXFORD UNIVERSIT Y PRES S
1992
Oxford Universit y Pres s
Oxford Ne w Yor k Toront o

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Murray, Willia m M .
The bonde d electrica l resistanc e strai n gag e :
an introductio n / b y Willia m M. Murra y an d Willia m R . Miller.
p. cm . Include s bibliographica l reference s an d index .
ISBN 0-19-507209- X
1. Strai n gages . 2 , Electri c resistanc e Measurement .
I. Miller . Willia m R . (Willia m Ralph) , 1917 - . II . Title .
TA413.5.M87 199 2 624.1'76'028 7 dc2 0 91-4136 9
2 4 6 8 9 7 5 31
Printed i n th e Unite d State s o f Americ a
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PREFACE
Experimental stres s analysi s i s a n importan t too l i n th e overal l desig n an d

development o f machinery an d structures . While analytica l technique s an d
computer solution s ar e available durin g th e design stage, the results are stil l
dependent o n many assumption s tha t mus t be made i n order t o adap t the m
to th e problem s a t hand . Onl y whe n th e desig n i s fixed, the prototype s ar e
constructed, an d testin g is underway, can th e proble m area s b e realistically
determined, and thi s must b e done throug h experimenta l means .
One metho d o f findin g th e weaknesses , an d a metho d whic h i s use d
extensively, i s through th e us e o f the electrica l resistanc e strai n gage . Strai n
gages ar e relativel y lo w i n cost , easil y applie d b y a reasonabl y skille d
technician, d o no t requir e extensiv e investment i n instrumentatio n (fo r th e
general user) , and ye t they yield a wealth o f information in a relatively short
time. The information and it s validity is, of course, dependent o n the trainin g
and knowledg e o f th e enginee r wh o plan s th e test s an d reduce s th e data .
The latter statemen t become s painfull y apparen t whe n one finds a user trying
to interpre t dat a fro m a singl e strai n gag e applie d i n a n unknow n biaxia l
stress field.
In 1988 , th e author s decide d t o edi t Dr . Murray' s notes , whic h wer e
developed ove r hi s extensiv e career , an d t o writ e a n introductor y tex t o n
electrical resistanc e strai n gages. Th e tex t is directed a t senio r an d first-yea r
graduate student s i n th e engineerin g disciplines , althoug h student s fro m
other field s (geology , engineerin g physics , etc.) wil l als o benefit .
The prerequisite s fo r a strai n gag e cours e ar e th e following : (1 ) Th e
basic courses in resistance o f materials. (2) An elementary course in electrical
circuits. (3) At least one course in mechanical or structural design is desirable.
It follow s tha t the more experienc e student s have in analysis and design , th e
more the y wil l benefi t fro m a n experimenta l course . I t i s i n th e laborator y
and i n experimental course s tha t student s reall y develop a sens e o f security
in, an d a bette r understandin g of , the theor y the y hav e bee n expose d t o i n
their analytica l studies.
The development o f stress an d strai n transformatio n equation s an d th e
corresponding Mohr' s circles , a s wel l a s th e stress-strai n relationships , ar e
covered in Chapter 2. Depending o n the student's preparation , th e instructo r
may us e this chapter fo r a rapid revie w or eliminate i t entirely. The authors ,
however, hav e foun d i t beneficia l t o spen d a t leas t severa l period s o n th e
material.
Basic electrica l circuit s ar e examine d i n Chapter s 3 throug h 5 . A n
elementary circuit consisting of a single strain gag e an d its response t o strai n
is first considered, followe d b y the potentiometric circui t and th e Wheatston e
vi PREFAC E
bridge. In the development of the expressions for output voltage, as the strain
gage's resistanc e change s wit h increasin g loading , i s th e effec t o f circui t
nonlinearity. Th e equation s ar e develope d s o tha t th e studen t ca n easil y
handle th e intervening algebra between steps and thereb y see the nonlinearity
terms unfold . I t i s importan t tha t student s recogniz e thi s an d understand ,
when recordin g larg e strains , how t o correc t th e indicate d strain s to obtai n
the actua l strains . Th e effec t o f resistanc e i n bot h th e powe r suppl y an d
indicating mete r i s also accounte d for .
Lead-line resistance is considered i n the Wheatstone bridg e circuits. The
circuits ar e th e ful l bridge , th e hal f bridg e wit h fou r wires , th e hal f bridg e
with thre e wires, the quarter bridg e wit h three wires , and th e quarte r bridg e
with tw o wires . The equation s ar e develope d s o tha t th e nonlinearit y effect s
are apparent .
Sensitivity variation in order to obtain a desired output is next discussed
in Chapter 6 . Equations ar e developed , including nonlinearity effects, fo r th e
desensitization o f single gages , half-bridg e circuits, and full-bridg e circuits.
Chapter 7 is devoted t o th e lateral , or transverse , effect o n strai n gages ,
along wit h a discussio n o f th e method s use d t o determin e th e gag e facto r
and th e transvers e sensitivit y factor o f strai n gages . Thi s i s followe d b y
Chapters 8 an d 9 o n strai n gag e rosette s an d dat a reduction . I t i s shown
how t o reduc e rosett e dat a b y bot h analytica l method s an d graphica l
methods. This is followed b y considering transverse effects, usin g information
from Chapte r 7 , in rosett e dat a reduction.
Chapter 1 0 discusses ho w strai n gage s ma y b e use d t o measur e bot h
normal stresse s an d shearin g stresse s directly , while Chapte r 1 1 consider s
the effec t o f temperatur e o n strai n gag e readings . Temperature-induce d
strains ar e discussed , followe d b y a n examinatio n o f self-temperature -
compensated gage s an d thei r therma l outpu t curve s whe n th e gage s ar e
bonded t o severa l differen t materials . On e ca n se e ho w t o correc t th e
indicated strai n not onl y for the temperature-induced strain , but als o fo r the
gage facto r variatio n resultin g from temperatur e change .
Several type s o f strain-gag e transducer s ar e covere d i n Chapte r 12 .
Among them ar e th e axial-forc e load cell , the torqu e meter, the shear meter ,
and th e pressur e transducer . Th e purpos e i s t o introduc e th e studen t t o
several type s o f transducer s tha t coul d b e mad e an d calibrate d fo r hi s us e
in th e laboratory .
At the time of Dr. Murray' s death o n August 14, 1990, the major portio n
of th e manuscrip t ha d bee n completed . I f there ar e error s o r discrepancies ,
the faul t i s not hi s bu t mine . I n completin g th e text , I gathered togethe r al l
of th e sourc e materia l i n orde r t o giv e proper credit ; I sincerel y hope non e
has bee n overlooked .
A textboo k i s not th e wor k o f one o r severa l people alone . Al l of us ar e
influenced no t onl y by our contemporarie s bu t b y those wh o hav e precede d
us (one has onl y to thin k of Professor Ott o Moh r t o realiz e this). Therefore,
I want to acknowledg e our deb t t o al l of these people, no t th e least o f whom
PREFACE vi i
were ou r students . I wan t especiall y t o than k Marth a Watso n Spaldin g of

Measurements Group, Inc. fo r her cooperation in furnishing a considerable
amount o f material . I als o wan t t o acknowledg e th e assistanc e o f th e
following companies: BLH Electronics, Inc.; Eaton Corporation, Transducer
Products; Electri x Industries , Inc. ; Hartru n Corporation ; Measurement s
Group, Inc. ; Stein Engineering Services, Inc.; and Texa s Measurements, Inc.
W. R . Miller
CONTENTS
1. Fundamenta l Concept s fo r Strai n Gages , 3

1.1 Introduction, 3
1.2 Characteristics Desired in a Strain Gage, 4
1.3 General Considerations, 5
1.4 Analysis of Strain Sensitivity in Metals, 14
1.5 Wire Strain Gages, 24
1.6 Foil Strain Gages, 29
1.7 Semiconductor Gages, 32
1.8 Some Other Types of Gages, 33
1.9 Brittle Lacquer Coatings, 36
2. Stress-Strai n Analysi s and Stress-Strai n Relations , 42

2.1 Introduction, 42
2.2 Basic Concepts of Stress, 43
2.3 Biaxial Stresses, 45
2.4 Mohr's Circle for Stress, 54
2.5 Basic Concepts of Strain, 61
2.6 Plane Strain, 62
2.7 Mohr's Circle for Strain, 68
2.8 Stress-Strain Relationships, 72
2.9 Application of Equations, 77
2.10 Stress and Strain Invariants, 81
3. Elementar y Circuits, 90
3.2 Constant- Voltage Circuit, 91
3.3 Constant-Current Circuit, 94
3.4 Advantages of the Constant-Current Circuit, 96
3.5 Fundamental Laws of Measurement, 97
x CONTENT S
4. Th e Potentiometri c Circuit, 100

4.2 Circuit Equations, 101
4.3 Analysis of the Circuit. 106
4.4 Linearity Considerations, 119
4.5 Temperature Effects, 129
4.6 Calibration, 141
5. Wheatston e Bridge , 146

5.2 Elementary Bridge Equations, 149
5.3 Derivation of Elementary Bridge Equations, 157
5.4 General Bridge Equations, 172
5.5 Effect o f Lead-Line Resistance, 18 0
5.6 Circuit Calibration, 193
5.7 Comments, 195
6. Sensitivit y Variation , 205

6.2 Analysis of Single Gage Desensitization, 207
6.3 Analysis of Half-Bridge Desensitization, 218
6.4 Analysis of Full-Bridge Sensitivity Variation, 227
1. Latera l Effect s i n Strai n Gages , 23 4

7.1 Significance of Strain Sensitivity and Gage Factor, 234
7.2 Basic Equations for Unit Change in Resistance, 236
7.3 Determination of Gage Factor and Transverse
Sensitivity Factor, 242
7.4 Use of Strain Gages Under Conditions Differing from those
Corresponding to Calibration, 246
7.5 Indication from a Pair of Like Strain Gages Crossed at
Right Angles, 248
8. Strai n Gag e Rosette s and Dat a Analysis , 253

8.1 Reason for Rosette Analysis, 253
8.2 Stress Fields, 253
8.3 Rosette Geometry, 256
8.4 Analytical Solution for the Rectangular Rosette, 258
CONTENTS xi
8.5 Analytical Solution for the Equiangular or Delta Rosette, 267

8.6 Rosettes with Four Strain Observations, 275
8.7 Graphical Solutions, 281
9. Strai n Gag e Rosette s an d Transvers e Sensitivit y Effect , 29 1

9.2 Two Identical Orthogonal Gages, 291
9.3 Two Different Orthogonal Gages, 294
9.4 Three-Element Rectangular Rosette, 296
9.5 The Equiangular or Delta Rosette, 301
10. Stres s Gages , 310

70.7 Introduction, 31 0
10.2 The Normal Stress Gage, 310
10.3 The SR-4 Stress-Strain Gage, 316
10.4 Electrical Circuit for Two Ordinary Gages to Indicate
Normal Stress, 320
10.5 The V-Type Stress Gage, 321
10.6 Application of a Single Strain Gage to Indicate
Principal Stress, 326
10.7 Determination of Plane Shearing Stress, 327
11. Temperatur e Effect s o n Strai n Gages , 337

11.2 Basic Considerations of Temperature-Induced Strain, 337
11.3 Self-Temperature-Compensated Strain Gages, 343
11.4 Strain Gage-Test Material Mismatch, 349
11.5 Compensating Gage, 353
12. Transducers , 36 0
72.7 Introduction, 36 0
12.2 Axial-Force Transducers, 363
12.3 Simple Cantilever Beam, 368
12.4 Bending Beam Load Cells, 372
12.5 Shear Beam Load Cell, 375
12.6 The Torque Meter, 378
12.7 The Strain Gage Torque Wrench, 380
12.8 Pressure Measurement, 382
xii CONTENT S
13. Strai n Gag e Selectio n and Application , 390

13.1 General Considerations, 390
13.2 Strain Gage Alloys. 391
13.3 Grid Backing Materials, 393
13.4 Gage Length, Geometry, and Resistance, 394
13.5 Adhesives , 39 6
13.6 Bonding a Strain Gage to a Specimen, 398
Answers t o Selecte d Problems, 402
Index, 405
The Bonde d Electrical Resistance
Strain Gag e
1
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS FOR STRAIN GAGES
1.1. Introduction
The constan t deman d fo r improvemen t i n th e desig n o f machin e an d
structural part s ha s le d t o th e developmen t o f various experimental techni-
ques fo r determinin g stres s distributions . Thes e experimenta l method s ar e
employed for both the checking of theoretical predictions, an d th e evaluation
of stresse s i n situation s wher e mathematica l approache s ar e unavailabl e o r
unsuited.
However, sinc e stres s canno t b e measure d directly , th e experimenta l
procedures, o f necessity, make thei r approac h throug h som e typ e o f strai n
measurement. The measured strain s are then converted int o their equivalent
values i n term s o f stress . I n orde r t o achiev e thi s ultimat e objective , som e
type o f strain-indicating device o r measurin g device i s required.
In additio n t o thei r use s fo r stres s analysis , strai n gage s als o fin d
wide applicatio n i n sensin g device s an d contro l devices . I n thes e applica -
tions, th e strai n i n som e mechanica l par t i s use d a s a n indicatio n o f force ,
bending, torque , pressure , acceleration , o r som e othe r quantit y relate d t o
strain.
Even th e mos t casua l surve y of the literatur e relatin g t o th e measure -
ment of mechanical strai n wil l yield information on a wide variety of devices
which hav e bee n developed fo r thi s purpose . I n addition t o photoelasticity ,
brittle lacquer (1 , 2, 3),1 and X-rays , one finds all sorts o f mechanical, optical ,
and electrica l strai n gage s an d extensometers , an d variou s combination s
thereof, whic h have bee n develope d fo r on e purpos e o r another , frequentl y
with regar d t o som e ver y specifi c application . I t i s ver y obviou s tha t th e
development o f a single instrument possessin g al l th e optimu m characteris -
tics, fo r al l applications , i s unlikely . However , a goo d approac h t o th e
ultimate i s stil l possible .
The brittl e lacque r markete d a s Tens-La c (1 , 2 ) i s n o longe r avail -
able, althoug h Stresscoa t (3 ) ca n b e obtained . Thes e references , however,
give a goo d descriptio n o f the us e o f brittle lacquer s i n experimenta l stres s
analysis.
1
Number s in parenthese s refe r t o Reference s a t th e en d o f a chapter.
4 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAIN GAG E
1.2. Characteristics desired in a strain gage

If w e se t ou t t o devis e a general-purpos e strai n gage , w e woul d probabl y
make a lis t o f all possible desire d characteristics . Some o f these include , no t
necessarily i n thei r orde r o f importance , th e following :
1. Abilit y t o measur e strain s precisel y unde r stati c an d dynami c
conditions.
2. Smal l siz e and weight . The smal l size permits mounting th e instrument
in confine d locations , o r t o obtai n reasonabl y precis e indication s
in region s o f hig h stres s gradient . Smal l weigh t i s require d s o tha t
the inerti a effect s i n th e gag e wil l b e negligibl e unde r dynami c
conditions.
3. Th e possibility of remote observation and recording . This is very much
a relativ e requirement, sinc e remote migh t mea n anythin g fro m a few
feet i n th e laborator y t o thousand s o f miles, as i n th e cas e of a rocke t
or missil e wit h radi o transmissio n (telemetering ) of th e signa l t o th e
location o f the observer .
4. Independenc e o f th e influenc e o f temperature . Thi s i s probabl y th e
most difficul t requiremen t o f all . Ver y satisfactor y result s ca n b e
achieved ove r smal l temperatur e excursions , bu t whe n th e tempera -
ture ma y fluctuat e u p o r dow n i n th e rang e fro m abou t — 400°F
to +1500° F (-24 0 t o 815°C) , th e proble m become s exceedingl y
difficult.
5. Eas y installation . In order to b e commercially attractive, a strai n gag e
should b e sufficientl y eas y t o instal l so that relatively unskilled people
can b e trained , i n a shor t spac e o f time , t o perfor m thi s operatio n
satisfactorily an d reliably .
6. Stabilit y o f calibration . I t i s extremel y desirable tha t th e calibratio n
should b e stabl e ove r th e entir e range o f operating conditions .
7. Linea r respons e t o strain . Althoug h no t absolutel y essential , thi s i s
very desirable . Smal l deviation s fro m linearit y ca n frequentl y b e
brought withi n tolerable limit s b y combinatio n (opposition ) wit h th e
inherent nonlinearit y of th e electrica l circui t of which the gag e forms
a part . Fo r large r departure s fro m linearity , the electrica l circui t can
be specially designed t o provid e automatic compensatio n (4 , 5). When
large-scale computer s ar e employe d t o conditio n an d proces s th e
strain gag e indications , provide d tha t th e relatio n betwee n strai n an d
gage indicatio n i s known, thi s functio n ca n b e directl y programme d
into th e machine .
8. Lo w cost . Thi s i s anothe r relativ e consideratio n tha t depend s upo n
the wor k a t hand. Generally speaking, the cost of modern strain gages
is relatively insignificant in comparison wit h the other cost s associate d
with a n importan t project .
9. Dependability . Unles s th e strai n gag e indication s ca n b e depende d
upon, it s us e become s ver y limited . Fortunately , th e strai n gage s
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT S FO R STRAI N GAGE S 5
available toda y ar e ver y dependabl e whe n used unde r th e conditions

for whic h they wer e intended.
10. Th e possibility of operation as an individual strain gage , or in multiple
arrangements, t o determin e quantitie s tha t ar e indicate d b y th e
simultaneous observatio n o f strains a t mor e tha n on e location . Thi s
means that , fo r certai n applications , w e should b e abl e t o us e strai n
gages i n multiple arrangements t o perfor m automatic computation of
some quantit y tha t i s related t o strain s a t severa l locations .
No on e ha s ye t developed a strai n gag e possessin g al l o f these desire d

characteristics. However , on e ca n generall y sa y tha t bonde d electrica l
resistance strain gages (wire, foil, o r semiconductor ) come muc h neare r tha n
any othe r devic e to satisfyin g al l these requirements.
1.3. General considerations

Basic principle
In commo n wit h photoelasticit y an d stresscoat , th e basi c principl e under -
lying th e operatio n o f electrica l resistanc e strai n gage s ha s bee n know n
for a long time. However, the application o f the principl e to strai n measure-
ment (o n a commercial scale ) is much more recent . I n 185 6 Lord Kelvi n (6)
reported hi s observation s tha t certai n electrica l conductor s h e ha d bee n
studying exhibite d a chang e i n electrica l resistanc e wit h chang e i n
strain.
The chang e o f electrica l resistanc e resultin g fro m mechanica l strai n
represents th e basi c principl e upo n whic h electrical resistanc e strai n gage s
operate. Fo r semiconducto r gages , th e detai l o f the mean s b y whic h strai n
changes th e resistanc e seem s t o b e wel l understood , bu t fo r metalli c
conductors (wir e or foil), we are still a long way from a complete understand -
ing o f what take s plac e withi n the material .
Definition of strain sensitivity

When a conducto r i s traine d i n th e axia l direction , it s lengt h wil l change ,
and, i f unrestraine d laterally , it s cross-sectiona l are a wil l als o chang e (th e
Poisson effect) . Th e increas e in length, shown in Fig . 1.1 , is accompanied b y
a decrease i n the cross-sectional area , an d vic e versa. In addition, the specifi c
resistivity o f the materia l ma y change . These thre e influences, the chang e i n
length, th e chang e i n cross-sectiona l area , an d th e chang e i n specifi c
resistivity, combin e t o produc e a chang e i n th e overal l electrica l resistanc e
of th e conductor . Th e amoun t o f th e resistanc e change , i n relatio n t o th e
change i n lengt h o f th e conductor , i s a n inde x o f wha t i s calle d th e strai n
sensitivity o f the materia l o f the conductor . Thi s relationshi p is expressed a s
a dimensionles s rati o calle d th e strain sensitivity factor. Fo r a straigh t
6 THE BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAIN GAG E
FIG. 1.1 . Schemati c diagra m o f straine d conducto r (tensil e effec t shown) .
conductor o f unifor m cros s section , thi s is expressed a s
unit change i n resistanc e

Strain sensitivity factor =
unit change i n length
unit change i n resistanc e
strain
In symbols , thi s can b e writte n a s
where S , = strai n sensitivit y (factor) of the conducto r an d i s

dimensionless; thi s is a physica l property o f the materia l
R = resistanc e i n ohm s
L = length i n inches
R, L = corresponding changes i n resistance and length, respectively,
in ohm s an d inche s
E = L/ L = strai n alon g th e conducto r (dimensionless )
Examination o f Eq . (1.1 ) an d th e definition s of the symbol s wil l rais e a

question regardin g th e value s that should b e use d fo r R an d L i n calculatin g
the strai n sensitivity . Do thes e symbol s represen t th e following?
1. Th e initial resistance, R0, an d the initial length, L0, whe n the conductor
is stress free? I n whic h case the denominator, E, corresponds to nomina l
strain base d o n L 0.
1. An y correspondin g value s o f resistance an d lengt h which may prevai l
after a certai n amoun t o f initial load ha s bee n applied?
3. Th e instantaneous value s of resistance and lengt h which prevail during
infinitely smal l change s o f lengt h an d resistance . I n whic h case , a s
L 0 , in th e limit,
In Eq . (1.2) the denominator, e = dL/L, i s what is sometimes called th e

true strain (a s contrasted wit h th e nomina l strain) , and th e valu e of S,
obtained i n thi s manne r i s sometime s calle d th e instantaneou s sen -
sitivity factor, since it refers t o th e resistance and lengt h in the stretched
condition fo r whic h both R an d L ar e variabl e (7).
Except fo r th e specia l cas e i n whic h R happen s t o b e directl y proportional
to L , theoretically , these thre e mode s o f interpretatio n wil l yiel d differen t
results for the value of S,, the strai n sensitivity factor. This means that we are
confronted wit h th e proble m o f havin g t o decid e upo n whic h particula r
procedure w e should follow . Fo r th e specia l cas e i n whic h the resistanc e is
directly proportiona l t o th e length , R = KL, wher e K i s a constant . Thus ,
R = K ( L) , an d henc e
Since R = pL/A, therefor e K = p/A, whic h means tha t t o fulfil l thi s condi-
tion, the specific resistivity , p, will have to b e proportional t o th e are a o f the
cross section .
Elastic strains in metals

For smal l strain s wit h correspondingl y smal l changes i n resistance , such as
might b e expected i n metal s whe n strained withi n the elasti c limit , ther e is
no problem. Here L 0 an d L wil l be nearly equal and, likewise , R0 an d R wil l
be s o nearl y alik e it wil l mak e n o noticeabl e differenc e i n th e valu e of S t,
whether i t i s computed o n th e basi s o f L 0 an d R 0, o r fro m th e value s of L
and R whic h correspond t o th e elasti c limit. This i s a grea t convenienc e for
the followin g reasons :
1. Th e initia l resistance , R 0, an d th e initia l length , L 0, provid e goo d
references fro m whic h the changes R and L ca n be readily determined.
2. Th e strai n sensitivity, S,, can b e determined fro m th e slop e o f the curve

which i s established by plottin g R/R 0 agains t L/L 0.
3. Th e analyse s o f the basi c electrica l circuits which are use d wit h strai n
gages, develope d i n followin g chapters , sho w tha t th e output , o r
indication, i s given in term s o f R/R 0 .
Plastic strains in metals

When a meta l conducto r i s strained beyon d th e elasti c limi t int o th e plasti c
range, th e change s i n resistanc e an d lengt h (fro m th e initia l values ) wil l
ultimately becom e s o larg e tha t ther e wil l b e a considerabl e differenc e
between R an d R (), an d als o betwee n L an d L 0.
When this happens, th e previous approximate metho d o f determining St
from th e value s o f R 0 an d L 0 wil l n o longe r b e satisfactory . It wil l b e
necessary t o comput e th e instantaneou s valu e of S , from th e instantaneou s
values o f R an d L , accordin g t o Eq . (1.2) .
At first glance, this might appear to be a formidable task, but fortunately
this i s not so . W e determin e a serie s o f corresponding value s of R an d L a s
the conductor i s being stretched (o r compressed), an d the n plot the logarithm
of the dimensionless ratio, R/R 0, agains t th e logarith m o f the dimensionless
ratio, L/L 0. Th e slop e o f th e lin e thu s draw n represent s th e instantaneou s
value of the strai n sensitivit y factor, St. Furthe r discussion wil l be found late r
in th e chapter .
Semiconductor materials
The relativel y hig h strai n sensitivit y o f silico n an d germaniu m ha s mad e
these semiconducto r material s attractiv e fo r strai n gag e sensin g elements .
For silicon , whic h is the preferre d material , th e theoretica l valu e of S t lies in
the rang e betwee n — 1 5 0 and abou t +175 . Furthermore , b y suitabl e
processing (doping) , silico n can b e produce d wit h an y arbitraril y specified
value of S, within this range. For commercia l strain gages, in order t o achieve
a suitabl e compromis e betwee n respons e t o strai n an d respons e t o tempera -
ture, it i s usual t o proces s th e materia l fo r strai n sensitivities in th e rang e of
about -10 0 t o abou t + 120.
The resistance-strai n relatio n fo r silico n i s somewha t mor e elaborat e
than tha t fo r metalli c conductors . I t i s nonlinear , an d ver y noticeabl y
influenced b y temperature . Dorse y (8 , 9) give s th e followin g expressio n fo r
unit chang e i n term s o f strain:
where R = chang e i n resistanc e fro m R O (T O > (ohms )

R0(To} = resistance (ohms) of the unstressed material (prior to being
mounted a s a strai n gage ) a t temperatur e T 0, in Kelvin
T0 = temperatur e a t whic h R O (T O ) wa s determine d (Kelvin)
T = temperatur e (Kelvin)
e = strai n (dimensionless )
GF', C' 2 = constant s fo r th e particula r piec e o f material
(dimensionless)
Equation (1.4 ) indicate s th e followin g characteristic s regardin g th e

relation betwee n uni t chang e i n resistanc e an d strai n fo r silicon:
1. Th e strain sensitivity factor , which corresponds to the slope of the curve

of R/R 0(:ro) vs . e, will be a variable whose value will depend upo n bot h
the strai n leve l and th e temperature.
2. Sinc e th e relationshi p expresse d i n Eq . (1.4 ) represent s a parabola ,
one ca n expec t th e degre e o f nonlinearit y t o var y wit h strai n an d
temperature.
3. A t constan t temperature , T 0, Eq. (1.4 ) reduce s t o
Hence, fo r this special condition show n i n Fig. 1.2 , GF' correspond s t o

the slop e o f th e curve , o r th e sensitivit y factor , fo r e = 0 , an d C' 2
represents th e nonlinearit y constan t whic h determine s th e degre e o f
departure o f the curv e fro m th e slop e a t th e poin t R = 0 , e = 0 , for
which th e resistanc e equal s Ro(r 0 i- Bake r (10 ) als o expresse s Eq . (1.5 )
in essentiall y th e sam e form .
Over a limite d rang e o f strain , fo r exampl e abou t 60 0 microstrai n ( 1

microstrain = 1 uin/in), an d particularl y at strai n level s wher e th e slop e of
the curv e change s mor e gradually , th e variabl e strai n sensitivit y ca n b e
approximated b y a constant tha t corresponds t o the average value, and goo d
results ma y b e expecte d fro m this . Fo r large r range s o f strain, o r fo r mor e
precise indications , mor e elaborat e method s mus t b e employed .
When th e temperatur e varies , the whol e problem o f relating resistanc e
changes t o strai n become s mor e complicated . Thi s i s du e t o th e fac t tha t
changes i n temperature , a s indicate d i n Eq . (1.4) , produc e change s i n th e
sensitivity. I n addition , th e valu e of R 0(To-> wil l als o chang e wit h variation s
in th e referenc e temperature, T 0.
10 THE BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAI N GAG E
FIG. 1.2. Schemati c diagra m fo r R/R n(Ta vs al constan t temperature , T 0. (Resistance =

R/R0(Tat whe n R = e = 0.)
Desired properties of strain-sensitive materials

1. Linea r relatio n betwee n unit chang e i n resistanc e an d chang e i n strain
(i.e., constant sensitivity) .
2. Negligibl e effec t fro m temperature .
3. Hig h strai n sensitivit y factor .
4. Moderatel y hig h resistance.
5. Abilit y t o b e connecte d t o lea d wire s easily.
6. Lo w cost .
7. Availability.
8. Absenc e of creep and hysteresis .
One canno t expec t t o fin d al l th e desirabl e characteristic s i n an y

particular materia l withou t som e advers e properties , too . I n general , th e
selection o f a materia l fo r th e sensin g element o f a strai n gag e wil l resul t in
a compromis e dependin g upo n th e intende d us e o f the gage .
Properties of some metals

In vie w o f th e previou s discussio n o f strai n sensitivity , and th e propertie s
desired i n strain sensing materials, let us look a t som e typica l characteristics
as represented b y a few metals. These are indicated i n Figs. 1. 3 and 1.4 , taken
from th e wor k o f Jones an d Masle n (11) . In eac h case , th e percen t chang e
in resistance , base d o n R 0, ha s bee n plotte d agains t percen t strain , o n th e
basis of L/L 0. Th e slope s of the line s represent S, . and th e differen t genera l
relationships ar e indicate d a s follows :
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT S FO R STRAI N GAGE S 1 1
1. Th e same linear relatio n betwee n R/R 0 and L/L 0 i n both th e elastic

and plasti c ranges . Thi s conditio n i s represente d b y anneale d copper ,
as well as annealed copper-nicke l alloys like Ferry. This means that the
strain sensitivit y factor wil l b e th e sam e i n th e plasti c range a s i t i s in
the elasti c range . Thi s characteristi c i s highl y desirabl e because i t
eliminates al l concer n abou t th e possibilit y o f a chang e i n gag e facto r
in th e even t th e sensin g elemen t o f a strai n gag e migh t b e straine d
beyond it s elasti c limit . I n consequence , thi s typ e o f materia l i s wel l
suited fo r gage s whic h will b e require d t o measur e high elastic strains ,
or bot h elasti c an d plasti c strains .
2. Nonlinea r relationshi p such a s exhibite d by nickel.
3. Relationshi p approximated b y two straigh t lines indicating a change of
strain sensitivit y with the transitio n from elasti c t o plasti c conditions .
Some materials , suc h a s minalpha , manganin , an d har d silver -
palladium, sho w a lowe r strai n sensitivit y at lo w strain s tha n a t hig h
strains.
4. Th e sam e genera l relationshi p a s indicate d i n Ite m (3) , bu t wit h th e
difference tha t th e highe r strai n sensitivit y corresponds t o th e lowe r
strains, a s show n by rhodium-platinum .
For th e relation s indicate d i n Item s (3 ) and (4) , the chang e i n slop e a s

yielding set s i n i s no t abrupt , a s suggeste d b y th e graphs , bu t follow s a
smooth transitio n fro m th e elasti c t o th e pasti c range .
Numerical values of the strain sensitivity factor

Table 1. 1 presents typica l strain sensitivit y values for a number o f metals a t
low strain , togethe r wit h correspondin g informatio n wit h respec t t o th e
effects o f temperatur e change s (12).
A mor e elaborat e tabulation , whic h include s som e o f th e pur e metal s
and a numbe r o f alloy s (wit h approximat e compositions) , i s give n i n th e
Appendix o f thi s chapter . Wher e possible , informatio n fo r sensitivitie s i n
both the elastic and plasti c strain ranges, and fo r material in the cold worked
and anneale d conditions , has bee n included .
Approximate composition s o f some o f the alloy s in Tabl e 1. 1 are given
in Tabl e 1.2 .
A stud y o f the literatur e an d o f the tabulate d dat a i n th e Appendi x a t
the en d o f the chapte r yield s the followin g observations regardin g materia l
properties:
1. Differen t value s o f strain sensitivit y for har d an d anneale d condition s

of the sam e materia l suggest s that th e degre e o f cold working , and th e
heat treatment , hav e a n influence . This i s o f particular importanc e i n
relation t o th e effect s o f temperature an d temperatur e compensation .
FIG. 1.3. Typica l example s o f resistanc e chang e vs . strai n (Fro m ref. 1 1 wit h permissio n o f
HMSO.)
2. Difference s i n sensitivit y fo r differen t lot s o f nominall y th e sam e

material sugges t tha t difference s i n impurities , and i n trac e elements ,
exert an influenc e o n th e physica l properties. This i s also o f importance
with respec t t o temperatur e effects .
3. Fo r nearl y al l th e metal s investigated , th e strai n sensitivit y facto r
appears t o approac h a valu e of 2.0 in th e plasti c range .
For larg e strain s (u p t o 3 0 percent), Weibul l (13 ) has reporte d som e ver y
interesting detaile d experimenta l results on th e relatio n betwee n changes i n
length an d resistanc e for 0.45-mm diamete r Cope l wire . This i s a 5 5 percen t
copper, 4 5 percent nicke l alloy.
From the data in Table 1.3 , the values of R/R0, L/L 0, R/R0 , an d L/L 0,
have been computed . Plot s of \n(R/R0) vs . ln(L/L0) an d R/R 0 \sAL/L 0 ar e
shown i n Fig . 1. 5 fo r comparativ e purposes . Fro m th e slop e o f th e
logarithmic plot , whic h i s represente d b y a straigh t line , th e valu e o f th e
FIG. 1.4 . Resistanc e chang e vs . strai n fo r anneale d Ferr y wir e (60/4 0 cupronickel) . (Fro m
ref. 12. )
Table 1.1. Typica l strai n sensitivit y factor s
Stress in Ib/in equivalent to influence

Strain sensitivity factor of temperature change of 1°C for
Material (for small strains) installation on steel material"
Manganin 0.47 -400

Nickel — 12.1 (nonlinear) -13500
Nichrome 2.1 2100
Phosphor bronz e 1.9 7800
5% Iridium-Platinu m 5.1 11600
Advance 2.1 (selecte d material ) ±30
Copel 2.4 -200
Monel 1.9 8000
Isoelastic 3.6 5000
Source: reference 12 .
" One shoul d not e tha t thes e figures can onl y be considered a s semiquantitative indications because they will
vary wit h hea t treatmen t an d col d workin g of the materia l an d als o wit h temperature level.
Table 1.2. Compositio n o f alloys
Material Composition
Advance an d Cope l 45% Ni; 55 % Cu

5% Indium-platinu m 5% Ir ; 95 % P t
Isoelastic 36% Ni; 8 % Cr; 52 % Fe ;
0.5% Mo ; + (Mn, Si, Cu, V) = 3.5%
Manganin 4% Ni ; 12 % Mn; 84 % Cu
Nichrome V 80% Ni; 20 % C r
14 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAI N GAG E
Table 1.3. Weibull' s observation s fro m stati c tes t

on Cope l wir e
Initial diameter = 0.45 mm; initial length = 125 mm

\L (mm) R (ohms)
0.00 0.376
6.25 0.414
12.50 0.455
18.75 0.497
25.00 0.542
31.25 0.588
37.50 0.635
Source: referenc e 13 . Reprinte d b y permission , r 194 8 Mac -

millan Magazine s Ltd .
strain sensitivit y facto r i s found t o b e
Weibull does not stat e the metallurgical condition o f the wire , but fro m
the magnitud e (6 0 percent ) o f th e elongatio n reporte d fo r on e o f hi s
specimens, i t is assumed tha t th e material wa s in the annealed condition . H e
also report s essentiall y comparabl e result s fo r a dynami c tes t o n 0.45-m m
diameter wir e wit h a lengt h o f 10 1 mm. Th e maximu m strai n reache d 3 4
percent wit h a velocity of 6.2 m/sec for the moving head of the testing device.
The 0.45m m (0.017 7 in) wir e diamete r whic h Weibul l investigate d i s
somewhat large r tha n th e 1-mi l (0.001-in) size normally employed fo r bonde d
strain gages . Wit h th e smalle r diameter , smalle r ultimat e elongatio n i s
expected becaus e mino r variation s i n diamete r wil l have , relatively , much
greater influence . Shou b (14 ) report s elongation s u p t o 2 2 percen t fo r
specially anneale d constanta n wir e of 0.001 i n diameter . His result s indicat e
a straight-lin e relationship , wit h a slop e o f 2.02 , fo r th e plo t o f lo g (R/R 0)
vs. lo g (L/L 0). Thi s confirm s Weibull's observations .
1.4. Analysis of strain sensitivity in metals

The general case
Figure 1. 6 shows a metal conductor o f uniform cross sectio n (no t necessaril y
rectangular, althoug h thi s i s shown ) referre d t o th e axe s X , Y , and Z . W e
want t o establis h a n expressio n fo r th e rati o o f unit chang e i n resistanc e i n
the X directio n t o th e uni t chang e i n length , in term s o f strains e x, e y, an d
e. (in th e direction s o f the X , Y , and Z axes , respectively ) and th e materia l
property o f the conductor .
FIG. 1.5. Weibull' s experimental result s from 0.45-m m diameter Copel wire. (From ref . 13. )
The expressio n fo r th e resistanc e in th e X directio n ca n b e writte n a s
where R = resistance i n length L (ohms )

p = specific resistivity of the materia l (ohms-in )
L = length (in)
A = are a o f the cross section (in2)
Fie. 1.6. Meta l conductor referre d t o X , Y , and Z axes .
By multiplying the numerato r an d denominato r o f the right-han d ter m

by th e lengt h L , Eq . (1.7 ) can b e rewritte n as
where V — LA = volum e (in 3 ). B y takin g th e logarith m o f bot h sides , Eq .

(1.8a) become s
Differentiation o f Eq . (1.8b ) results in
Equation (1.9 ) expresse s th e uni t chang e i n resistanc e i n term s o f th e uni t

changes i n resistivity , length, an d volume .
We no w postulat e tha t th e uni t chang e i n resistivit y ca n b e relate d t o
the uni t chang e i n volum e a s follows :
where m = a functio n o f th e materia l propertie s an d th e tw o ratio s o f th e

transverse t o the longitudinal strain. Fo r th e elastic strains , an d fixed values
of th e tw o strai n ratios , som e material s exhibi t a constan t valu e o f th e
function m . This relatio n i s state d b y Biermas z e t al . (15) , who give s credit
for i t t o Bridgeman . Meie r (16 ) uses th e sam e relatio n i n a slightl y differen t
form.
By substitutin g th e valu e of dp/p give n by Eq . (1.10 ) int o Eq . (1.9) , we

may writ e
or
Dividing al l terms o f Eq. (1.11 ) by dL/L, w e obtai n
Equation (1.12 ) indicates that , for plastic deformatio n (whic h takes place a t
constant volume , s o tha t d V = 0), th e valu e o f th e instantaneou s strai n
sensitivity ca n b e expected t o b e 2 for an y strai n condition .
Since dL/L = e x, an d because dV/V = (sx + sy + e z), Eq. (1.12 ) can be
expressed i n term s o f the strain s a s follows :
Special case of a uniform straight wire

For th e specia l cas e o f a straigh t wir e o f an y unifor m cross section , which
is free t o contrac t o r expan d laterall y du e t o th e Poisso n effect , th e ratio s of
lateral t o axia l strai n ar e give n by th e expressio n
where v = Poisson' s rati o o f the material .

When th e value s o f the strai n ratios , give n for thi s specia l cas e b y Eq .
(1.14), ar e substitute d into Eq . (1.13 ) for strai n sensitivity , we arrive a t
For smal l changes , suc h a s encountere d withi n th e elasti c range s o f

metals, Eq . (1.15 ) ca n b e modified to rea d
18 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANCE STRAIN GAG E
Equations (1.15 ) an d (1.16 ) indicat e tw o interestin g characteristic s i n

regard t o th e strai n sensitivit y of a wire .
1. I f the materia l propert y i s such that m = 1 , then, regardless o f the valu e
of Poisson' s ratio , th e strai n sensitivit y factor o f th e meta l wil l b e 2 .
This mean s th e strai n sensitivit y will b e th e sam e i n th e elasti c an d
plastic ranges , eve n thoug h ther e will be a chang e i n v as on e proceed s
from elasti c to plastic conditions. Conversely, this also tells us that onl y
those materials whose strain sensitivity is 2 can hav e the same sensitivit y
in bot h th e elasti c an d plasti c ranges .
2. Fo r perfectl y plasti c deformation, which takes place at constant volume,
dV - 0 an d v = 0.5 . Therefore , n o matte r wha t th e valu e o f m is, the
strain sensitivit y factor fo r plasti c deformation wil l b e 2 , as previousl y
indicated b y Eq . (1.12) . Thi s mean s that , fo r plasti c deformation , al l
metals shoul d exhibi t a strai n sensitivit y factor o f 2 . Thi s i s substan -
tiated b y th e result s o f tests, a s indicate d i n th e tabulatio n presente d
in the Appendi x of this chapter, for which, in almost al l cases, th e strai n
sensitivities i n th e hig h strai n range s approximat e a valu e o f 2.
The sligh t deviation o f some o f the value s from 2 i s probably du e
to th e effec t o f a certai n amoun t o f elastic strain whic h wil l b e presen t
during th e plasti c deformation . Th e fe w cases involvin g larger devia -
tions fro m 2 likel y correspon d t o rathe r incomplet e o r gradua l plasti c
deformation, and possibl y the influence o f some typ e of work hardening.
Equations (1.15 ) an d (1.16 ) can no w b e converted int o a mor e familia r
form customaril y foun d i n th e literature . Expansio n o f th e secon d ter m o n
the right-han d sid e o f these equation s result s i n th e expressio n
In order to writ e Eq . (1.17) in a different form , the change i n the volum e

of th e wir e a s i t i s straine d axiall y can b e considered . Th e unstraine d wir e
volume i s
Taking th e logarith m o f both side s an d the n differentiatin g yield s
As th e wir e i s strained , it s lengt h increase s b y dL , bu t du e t o th e Poisso n

effect it s diamete r decrease s b y ( — v dL/L)D, wher e D i s th e wir e diameter .
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT S FO R STRAI N GAGES 1 9
The fina l wir e diameter i s
The chang e i n are a ca n no w b e written as
If th e higher-orde r ter m i n Eq . (d ) i s neglected, the n w e can writ e
Substituting th e valu e o f dA/A give n b y Eq . (e ) into Eq. (b ) give s
Thus, Eq . (f ) can b e expresse d a s
From Eq . (1.10 ) we can writ e
If th e value s o f ( 1 — 2v) an d m fro m Eqs . (g ) an d (h) , respectively , ar e

substituted i n Eq . (1.17) , the n
or
20 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAI N GAGE
For smal l changes , a s encountere d wit h elasti c strains, we can write
Equation (1.18 ) is of particular interest, not just becaus e i t represent s a

more familia r form o f the expressio n for th e strai n sensitivit y factor , but fo r
two othe r reason s a s well .
1. Th e relationshi p give n i n Eq . (1.18 ) ca n b e derive d independentl y o f
the relatio n give n b y Eq . (1.10) .
2. Fo r an y particula r metal, Eq . (1.18) indicates the portion s o f the strai n
sensitivity facto r whic h ar e th e resul t o f geometrica l chang e an d
resistivity change , respectively . The valu e ( 1 + 2v ) corresponds t o th e
geometrical change , whil e (dp/p)/(dL/L) correspond s t o th e resistivity
change.
We se e that whe n plastic deformation takes place, since v = 0. 5 and d p = 0,
Eq. (1.18 ) als o indicate s a valu e of 2 fo r S t.
Small strain vs. large strain

Let u s no w loo k int o th e detai l o f the differenc e betwee n th e expression s fo r
the instantaneou s an d approximat e value s o f th e strai n sensitivit y factors .
The instantaneou s valu e o f S , is
while th e approximat e valu e of S , is
For smal l strains (less tha n 1 percent), a s developed i n the elasti c rang e
of metals , bot h expression s wil l yield , fo r al l practica l purposes , th e sam e
result. However , sinc e i t wil l b e mor e convenien t t o evaluat e th e strai n
sensitivity, an d subsequentl y t o comput e strains , o n th e basi s o f change s
from th e initia l condition , w e wis h t o kno w th e magnitud e o f th e larges t
strain tha t ca n b e handle d i n thi s manner withou t running int o intolerabl y
large errors .
Returning t o Fig . 1.5 , w e se e a comparison , base d o n Weibull' s
experimental observations , betwee n th e plo t o f AK/R 0 vs . L/L 0 an d th e
logarithmic plo t o f \n(R/R 0) vs . ln(L/L 0). Th e logarithmi c plo t show s a
straight lin e wit h a slope , S t, of 2.0, wherea s the plo t of R/R 0 vs. L/L 0
gives a long radiu s curv e whose initia l slope (fo r R = L= 0) is 2.0, but
for whic h the slop e increase s slightl y as the change s i n length an d resistanc e
build up .
Examination o f Fig. 1. 5 reveals that, for a graph o f this size and withi n
the limit s of error i n plotting th e points, th e curve of R/R0 vs . L/L0 ca n
be represente d b y a straigh t lin e u p t o value s o f about 1 0 to 1 5 percent o f
L/L0. Fo r large r strain s the departure fro m linearity , although not serious,
can be noticed. However, we observe that the slop e o f the line (the indicated
value of Sr) is slightly greater tha n that o f the logarithmic plot. This explains
why on e can use post-yield gages up to strain levels in the range of 10 percent
or more , on the basis of R/R0 an d L/L 0, withou t introducing noticeabl e
errors a s a resul t of making a linea r approximation .
As thes e comment s hav e bee n develope d fro m experimenta l observa -
tions, w e ca n no w examin e th e situatio n fro m a theoretica l poin t o f view .
We star t by developing the relatio n betwee n resistance an d lengt h fro m Eq .
(1.20) o n th e assumptio n tha t S t is a constant . W e can rewrit e Eq. (1.20 ) in
the followin g form :
Equation (1.22 ) ca n als o b e expressed a s
Integrating Eq . (1.23 ) results in
where C = constant o f integration.

Since th e initia l value s o f resistanc e an d length , R 0 an d L 0, wil l b e
known, the constan t o f integration ca n b e written as
Substituting th e valu e of C from Eq . (1.25 ) into Eq . (1.24 ) gives us
This expressio n ca n b e modified to rea d

Equation (1.26 ) tell s u s tha t th e plo t o f ln(R/R 0) vs . ln(L/L 0) wil l give

a straigh t lin e whos e slop e i s equa l t o S t. Thi s ha s bee n verifie d experi -
mentally b y bot h Weibul l (13 ) and Shou b (14) .
From Eq . (1.26 ) w e ca n expres s th e relatio n betwee n resistanc e an d
length o f a meta l conducto r tha t ha s bee n straine d i n th e plasti c rang e a s
Since th e valu e o f S t fo r plasti c strai n ha s bee n predicte d theoreticall y

as 2.0, as shown b y Eq. (1.12), and becaus e thi s value has bee n corroborate d
by th e experiment s o f Weibull (13) and Shou b (14) , thi s is the numbe r tha t
will b e use d fo r th e exponen t i n Eq . (1.27) . Thus , Eq . (1.27 ) ca n no w b e
written a s
Because R = R 0 + R an d L = L0 + L, Eq . (1.28) can be converted int o

terms o f R , L , R 0, and L0. Thus ,
or
Expanding th e right-han d sid e o f Eq . (1.29 ) result s in
Equation (1.30 ) presents the theoretical relationship between R/R 0 an d

L/L0 fo r a meta l conducto r subjecte d t o plasti c strain . I t provide s th e
following information :
1. R/R 0 i s a nonlinear functio n a t L/L 0.
2. Fo r positiv e value s of L (tension) , R/R0 wil l alway s be larger tha n
2( L/L0).
3. Th e slop e o f th e curv e a t th e origi n i s 2.
4. Th e deviatio n fro m th e tangen t (slop e = 2 ) through th e origi n i s given
by ( L/L0)2.
Item 4 indicate s bot h th e deviatio n fro m linearit y an d th e deviatio n fro m

the relatio n involvin g the instantaneou s value s of R an d L .
It i s noteworth y tha t whe n L/L 0 i s 1 0 percent, th e deviatio n fro m
linearity i s only 5 percent. Thi s i s illustrated i n Fig . 1.7 , which shows a plo t
of theoretica l value s of R/R 0 vs . L/L0, a s computed fro m Eq . (1.30).
If a n approximat e linea r relatio n i s set up b y using the secan t fro m th e
origin t o som e poin t o n th e curve , then th e erro r wil l b e zer o a t th e poin t
of intersectio n wit h th e curve , and a t al l othe r point s th e erro r wil l b e less
than that represente d b y the deviation o f the secan t fro m th e initial tangent .
This i s due t o the fac t tha t th e curve lies between the secant an d th e tangent
FIG. 1.7 . Theoretica l relation between R/R0 an d L/L 0 fo r large strains.

24 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
through the origin. For example , when L/L0 equal s 1 0 percent, th e expected
error, a t an y point , wil l neve r b e mor e tha n 5 percent , a s a maximum . In
general i t will probably no t excee d 2.5 percent, except for relatively low strain
values where the numerica l magnitude of the erro r wil l b e of less importance .
Examination o f Fig . 1. 7 will hel p t o clarif y thes e points .
From Eq . (1.30 ) an expressio n ca n b e written for th e valu e of the strai n
sensitivity factor :
The value of S, varies in accordance wit h the value of L/L0 an d correspond s

to th e slop e o f th e secan t fro m th e origi n t o th e poin t whos e coordinate s
are ( R/R0, L/L 0) o n th e curve.
1.5. Wire strain gages

The unbonded wire strain gage
One o f th e earl y wir e gage s wa s th e unbonde d type . I n thi s typ e o f
instrument, the strain-sensitiv e wire i s mounted, unde r tension , o n mechani -
cal support s (pins ) i n suc h a manne r tha t a sligh t relativ e motio n o f th e
supports wil l caus e a chang e i n strain . This, i n turn , produce s a chang e i n
electrical resistance . This resistanc e chang e i s then a measur e o f the relativ e
displacement o f th e support s and , i n turn , ma y represen t a strai n o r som e
other quantity.
With th e unbonde d typ e o f gage, th e fac t tha t th e strain-sensitiv e wires
must b e carrie d o n som e sor t o f mechanica l moun t give s ris e t o certai n
difficulties i n connection wit h attachment . Discrepancies , due t o inertia , may
be introduce d whe n dynami c observation s ar e made . Th e procedur e o f
making observation s a t a n appreciabl e distanc e fro m th e surfac e o n whic h
strain i s to b e determine d ma y sometime s b e ope n t o question .
The bonded wire strain gage

The firs t majo r improvemen t i n th e wir e resistanc e strai n gag e cam e wit h
the realizatio n tha t man y o f th e difficultie s wit h th e unbonde d wir e gag e
could b e eliminate d b y bondin g a ver y fine strain-sensitive wire directl y t o
the surfac e o n whic h strai n i s t o b e measured . Th e filamen t ha s t o b e
electrically insulated an d th e bondin g perfec t fo r the strain-sensitiv e element
to follo w th e strai n o n th e surfac e to whic h i t i s attached. Onl y conductor s
of smal l diameter ar e suitable , since the forc e necessary t o strai n th e sensin g
element mus t b e transmitte d throug h it s surfac e by shea r i n th e cement , o r
bonding agent . Unles s th e surfac e are a pe r uni t lengt h i s larg e relativ e t o
the cross-sectiona l area , th e shearin g stres s i n th e cemen t wil l b e to o hig h
to permi t faithfu l followin g o f th e strain s i n th e surfac e t o whic h th e

conductor i s attached .
Since th e surfac e are a (pe r uni t length ) o f small-diamete r wire s i s
enormously greater tha n th e cross-sectional area (for 0.001-in diameter wire,
the rati o is 4000 to 1) , the bonding agen t i s able to forc e th e filament t o tak e
up th e necessar y strai n withou t excessiv e stres s i n itself . Suitabl e cement s
can actually force the small conductor into the plastic range (and back again )
when necessary.
Chronologically, th e secon d majo r development , an d tha t whic h ha s
actually bee n responsibl e for makin g th e bonde d strai n gag e commercially
attractive, i s represente d b y th e concep t o f premountin g th e strain-sensin g
element o n som e suitabl e carrier tha t ca n be attached t o a surfac e relatively
easily. Originally , the strai n gag e wir e was cemente d directl y t o th e surface
on whic h strai n wa s t o b e measured , an d th e glu e o r cemen t acte d a s
insulation. A s fa r a s operatio n wa s concerned , thi s procedur e wa s satis -
factory, bu t fro m th e poin t o f view o f gage installation , it wa s inconvenient.
The attachmen t o f the gage require d an inordinat e amoun t o f skill and time
on th e par t o f th e installe r i f consisten t result s wer e t o b e obtained . Th e
introduction o f a paper , plastic , metal, o r othe r typ e o f carrier upo n whic h
the strain-sensin g wir e coul d b e premounted , unde r controlle d factor y
conditions, represente d a tremendou s improvement . Wit h thi s for m o f
premounted filamen t strai n gage , muc h les s skil l an d tim e ar e require d t o
achieve satisfactor y installations givin g good an d consisten t results .
Most bonde d wir e strai n gage s ar e mad e fro m wir e o f approximately
0.001 in diameter, o r less , and i n resistance s varyin g from abou t 5 0 ohms t o
several thousan d ohms . Th e filament s ar e mounte d o n carrier s mad e o f
materials selecte d fo r th e particula r application s fo r whic h the gage s ar e t o
be employed.
Since a length of several inches o f wire is usually neede d to produce the
necessary tota l resistance , an d becaus e th e desire d gag e lengt h i s almos t
always les s tha n th e require d lengt h o f wire , it i s necessar y t o arrang e th e
wire i n som e for m o f grid i n orde r t o economiz e o n space , an d thereb y t o
permit reductio n o f th e gag e lengt h t o a suitabl e size . Figur e 1. 8 shows
diagrams o f typical grid configuration s for wir e gages. There are , o f course,
variations of these typical designs, as manufacturers' literature shows (17,18).
The fla t gri d i s probably th e mos t usefu l form . When th e gag e i s on a
flat surface, the centre line of the entire sensing element lies in one plane that
is parallel t o th e surfac e of attachment. Du e t o th e en d loops , ther e is some
response t o strai n a t righ t angle s t o th e directio n o f the gri d axis . Usually
the filamen t consist s o f on e continuou s lengt h o f wire ; however, for som e
self-temperature-compensated gages , two elements , which possess opposing ,
or compensating , temperatur e characteristic s ar e joined together .
An alternat e typ e o f constructio n originate d a s a n expedien t fo r
manufacturing gage s o f shor t gag e lengt h (0.25 0 in o r less ) prio r t o th e
development o f th e technique s now use d t o mak e shor t fla t gri d gages . I n
FIG. 1.8 . Typica l wir e strai n gages , (a , b) Singl e elemen t gages , (c , d) Two-elemen t stacke d
rectangular rosettes , (e , f) Three-elemen t stacke d rectangula r rosettes , (g ) Two-element rectan -
gular rosette , (h ) Three-elemen t rectangula r rosette . (Fro m ref . 18.).
the wrap-around construction , the sensin g element is wound tightl y aroun d

a smal l flat carrier whic h i s then encased betwee n two cover sheet s providing
insulation an d protection . A n alternativ e procedure i s t o win d th e sensin g
element on a small tubular mandrel (like a soda straw ) that is then flattened
and encase d betwee n th e cove r sheets .
For th e variou s type s o f bonde d wir e strai n gages , th e strai n i s
determined fro m th e relatio n
where e = strain i n th e directio n o f the gag e axis

R/R = unit chang e i n resistance
GF = manufacturer's gage factor
Due t o th e geometrical difference s betwee n a straigh t wir e and a strain

gage grid, the value of the manufacturer's gage factor, GF, is generally slightly
lower tha n th e strai n sensitivit y factor , S, , o f th e wir e fro m whic h th e gri d
is constructed . Furthermore , th e magnitud e o f G F wil l var y slightl y with

variations i n grid design .
Gages containin g a singl e continuou s filamen t whic h i s woun d bac k
and fort h wil l respon d slightl y to th e effec t o f lateral strai n whic h is sensed
by th e en d loops. This means tha t Eq . (1.32), although generall y applicable ,
is subjec t t o som e erro r whe n th e strai n field in whic h the gag e i s actually
used differs fro m tha t of calibration. Usually the error caused by the response
to latera l strai n ca n b e neglected , bu t ther e ar e a fe w situations i n whic h it
becomes appreciable . Th e magnitud e o f th e erro r cause d b y latera l effect s
and, wher e necessary, the mean s o f correcting for thi s error , ar e discusse d
in detai l i n a late r chapter .
Some specifi c example s o f the relatio n betwee n strai n an d uni t change
in resistanc e for complete wire gages are show n in Fig . 1.9 . In eac h cas e th e
slope o f line relating the percen t chang e i n resistanc e to th e percen t strai n
represents th e gag e factor. One wil l not e tha t th e advanc e wir e (constanta n
type) gag e ha s th e sam e gag e facto r fo r bot h elasti c an d plasti c strains ,
whereas the isoelastic and nichrome gages both sho w a change in gage factor
as one proceeds from elasti c to plastic conditions. One should not be alarmed
about thi s chang e i n gag e facto r because w e ar e usuall y intereste d i n
measuring elasti c strain s i n metals , an d thes e occu r wel l below th e chang e
points show n i n th e diagrams . Thi s i s especially s o i n th e cas e o f isoelastic
wire (whos e chang e poin t occur s a t approximatel y 0.7 5 percen t strain) ,
because thi s material i s usuall y chosen t o tak e advantag e o f it s hig h gag e
factor fo r measurin g ver y smal l strains.
Wire gage s wer e use d unti l th e earl y 1950s , whe n foi l gage s wer e
introduced. Some wire gages are stil l used today and ca n be purchased fro m
several manufacturers.
Weldable wire gages

The first weldable wire gage was developed in the mid-1950s (19). Subsequent
development fo r a quarter-bridg e circui t use d a singl e filamen t o f nickel -
chromium wir e tha t wa s chemicall y etche d s o tha t it s cente r lengt h wa s
approximately 1 mil i n diameter . Th e wir e wa s the n folde d i n hal f an d
inserted int o a stainles s stee l tube . Th e tube wa s filled with a metalli c oxide
powder whic h wa s compacte d s o tha t i t no t onl y electricall y isolated th e
filament but mechanicall y coupled i t to th e tube i n order t o transmi t strain.
The constructio n i s shown i n Fig . 1.10 .
In orde r t o minimiz e the apparen t strai n du e t o temperatur e changes ,
the nickel-chromiu m filamen t i s hea t treated . Sinc e differen t level s o f hea t
treatment resul t in differen t value s of the therma l coefficien t o f resistivity, it
is possible t o mak e thi s change equa l in magnitude but o f opposite polarit y
to th e therma l coefficien t o f expansion .
To achiev e temperatur e compensation , a separat e compensating , o r
dummy, gage can b e mounted o n a stress-fre e piec e o f material identica l t o
FIG. 1.9. Typica l gag e characteristic s i n tension . (Fro m ref . 11 , with permission o f HMSO. )
FIG. 1.10. Singl e activ e gag e construction . (From ref . !9. )

FIG. 1.11. 'True ' dumm y gag e construction. (From ref . 19.)
FIG. 1.12. Ni-C r half-bridg e gag e construction. (Fro m ref . 19.)
the materia l o n whic h th e activ e gag e i s mounted. Th e tw o gage s ar e the n

arranged int o a half-bridg e circuit. This i s a satisfactor y metho d providin g
the materia l o n whic h the dumm y gage i s mounted i s completely stres s fre e
and tha t th e dumm y gage' s temperatur e i s identica l t o th e activ e gage .
Because thes e condition s d o no t alway s prevail , a 'true ' dumm y gag e wa s
developed. The dumm y gag e filament , identica l t o th e activ e gag e filament ,
is woun d i n a tigh t heli x of the prope r pitc h angle . Sinc e i t i s embedded i n
a strai n tub e wit h compacte d magnesiu m oxid e powder , th e sam e a s th e
active gage , i t ha s th e sam e heat-transfe r characteristics . Therefore , th e
dummy gag e ca n b e use d wit h a compensate d activ e gage t o minimiz e th e
apparent strain . Th e dumm y gage i s shown i n Fig . 1.11 .
The nex t ste p wa s to incorporat e th e singl e activ e gag e an d th e 'true'
dummy gage into one strain tube and mounting flange assembly. This results
in a half-bridge gage rathe r than a quarter-bridge gage. Th e half-bridge gage
is show n i n Fig . 1.12.
The earl y weldabl e wir e strai n gag e ha s resulte d i n a lin e o f bot h
quarter- and half-bridg e gages (20). Two wire types are used for the filament.
The firs t i s a nickel-chromiu m tha t i s temperatur e compensate d an d use d
for stati c measurements up to 600°F (315°C). Because of excessive drift abov e
600°F, th e gage s are use d onl y for dynamic test s between 600°F and 1500° F
(815°C). Th e secon d wir e typ e i s platinum-tungste n tha t ca n b e use d fo r
static measurement s u p t o 1200° F (650°C) . Sinc e thi s wir e canno t b e hea t
treated for temperature compensation, th e half-bridge gage is recommended .
1.6. Foil strain gages

General characteristics
The foi l gag e operate s i n essentiall y th e sam e manne r a s a wir e gage .
However, the sensing element consists o f very thin metal foil (abou t 0.000 2 i n
thick) instea d o f wire . I n contras t t o th e wir e gage , i n whic h th e sensin g

element possesse s a unifor m cross sectio n throughou t it s entir e length , th e
cross section of the sensing element of the foil gag e may b e somewhat variabl e
from on e en d t o th e other . On e o f the mos t importan t advantage s o f the foi l
gage i s that th e rati o o f contact surfac e area t o th e volum e o f the resistanc e
element i s relatively high, whereas in the wir e gage, du e t o th e circula r cros s
section, thi s rati o i s a minimum.
The earl y foi l gages , introduce d i n Englan d i n 1952 , were mad e fro m
foil cemente d t o a lacque r sheet . The desire d gri d desig n fo r th e strai n gag e
was printe d o n th e foi l wit h a n acid-resistin g in k an d th e shee t wa s the n
subjected t o a n aci d bat h whic h removed al l metal excep t wher e th e printe d
design protecte d it . Durin g th e intervenin g years, a tremendou s amoun t o f
very fruitfu l researc h ha s bee n carrie d o n wit h respec t t o foi l gages . Th e
well-established alloy s hav e bee n improve d an d ne w one s developed . I n
addition, ther e ha s been a vast improvement i n the photographi c technique s
currently use d i n th e photoetchin g proces s employe d t o manufactur e foi l
gages. Th e degre e o f precision wit h whic h gage s ca n no w b e produced , an d
the sharpnes s o f definitio n o f th e boundarie s o f line elements, hav e made it
possible t o mak e gage s possessin g a unifor m gage facto r fo r a larg e rang e
of gage length s (previously, gage facto r varied slightly with gag e length) . The
result o f thes e improvement s ha s bee n t o exten d th e advantage s o f th e foi l
gage t o a muc h wide r variet y of applications , includin g those a t ver y lo w
and ver y high temperatures , an d especiall y for ver y precis e transducers .
Foil gage s ar e availabl e i n variou s gag e length s fro m 1/6 4 in t o 6 in,
and i n a wid e variet y o f gri d configurations , includin g singl e gages , two- ,
three-, an d four-elemen t rosettes , hal f bridges , an d ful l bridges . Figur e 1.13
shows a fe w o f th e availabl e designs . Standar d alloy s suc h a s constantan ,
isoelastic, nichrome , karma , an d platinum - tungsten, a s wel l as a numbe r of
special proprietar y alloys , ar e use d i n th e sensin g elements .
In general , foi l gage s exhibi t a slightl y highe r gag e facto r an d lowe r
transverse response than their equivalent in wire. Since they are thinner, they
conform mor e easil y t o surface s with smal l radius of curvature, which means
they ar e easie r t o instal l i n fillets . A s a resul t of thei r greate r contac t area ,
they ca n dissipat e hea t mor e readil y and , i n consequence , i t i s possibl e t o
use higher operating current s (applied voltage) with foi l gages . The relatively
large contac t area , especially a t th e end s o f the grid , reduce s shearin g stres s
in th e bondin g agent , an d consequently , foil gage s sho w comparatively littl e
creep an d hysteresis . Dependin g upo n th e carrier , th e alloy , and it s metal -
lurgical condition , foi l gage s (generall y the large r sizes ) wil l measur e strain s
precisely into the rang e o f 1 0 to 1 5 percent. In term s of fatigue, suitabl e gage s
have exhibite d life i n exces s of ten millio n cycle s at strain s of + 150 0 uin/in.
Foil gage s ca n b e obtaine d o n carrier s o f paper , epoxy , phenolic , glas s
reinforced resins , an d othe r plastics .
By judicious choic e o f alloy an d b y carefu l contro l o f the metallurgica l
condition (col d workin g an d hea t treatment) , i t i s possibl e t o produc e foi l
FIG. 1.13. Foi l strai n gages, (a, b) Single-elemen t gages, (c) Stacked two-elemen t rectangular
rosette, (d ) Stacke d three-elemen t rectangula r rosette , (e ) Three-elemen t delt a rosette , (f )
Two-element rectangula r rosette torque gage. (Courtes y of Measurements Group, Inc .
with it s coefficien t o f linear expansio n an d resistance-temperatur e charac -

teristic ver y closel y matche d t o th e coefficien t o f linea r expansio n o f som e
arbitrarily selecte d material . B y this means, i t ha s bee n possibl e t o produc e
temperature-compensated foi l gages whose response (within certain limits) is,
for practica l purposes, independent of temperature, within a given tempera-
ture range .
Weldable foil strain gages

For situation s i n which the conventional installatio n technique s may not b e
applicable, weldabl e foil gages are available (18 , 20, 21). Single-element gage s
and T-rosette s (two-element ) are mad e b y premountin g gage s o n a carrie r
of stainless steel shim stock approximately 0.005 in thick. Surface preparation
of th e specime n require s solven t cleanin g an d abrasio n wit h silicon-carbide
paper o r a smal l han d grinder . Th e uni t i s then attache d t o th e specime n
with a smal l spo t welde r designe d specificall y for thi s purpose .
Sensing element s of constantan, nichrome , and high-temperatur e alloys
are available . Th e norma l operatin g temperatur e range s fro m — 320°F t o
570°F (-19 5 t o 300°C ) fo r stati c observations , althoug h unde r som e
conditions a single-loo p wir e (typically nichrom e V ) encased i n a stainles s
steel tub e may b e use d t o 925° F (495°C ) o r higher .
1.7. Semiconductor gage s (4 , 8, 9 , 22-25 )

Within certai n limitations , semiconductor gage s ca n b e use d i n th e sam e
manner a s metallic gages. However , the semiconductor gag e i s really a muc h
more elaborat e devic e whos e optimu m us e require s a knowledg e o f all th e
variables involved , and th e degre e t o whic h they influenc e th e performanc e
of th e instrument . Th e compariso n betwee n th e use s o f meta l an d semi -
conductor gage s i s somewha t paralle l t o th e differenc e betwee n playin g
checkers an d playin g chess. Bot h ar e goo d games , bu t ches s ha s a muc h
broader rang e o f opportunitie s fo r makin g move s and , correspondingly ,
many mor e possibilitie s of gettin g into troubl e unless one consider s al l th e
variables carefully .
The mai n attractio n o f th e semiconducto r is , of course, th e hig h strain
sensitivity o f silicon , which i s th e favore d materia l fo r th e sensin g element .
This mean s a relativel y larg e resistanc e chang e pe r uni t o f strain , which
characteristic i s helpfu l fo r bot h hig h an d lo w value s o f strain.
1. Fo r hig h strains , th e larg e respons e enable s on e t o driv e indicatin g
devices directl y withou t intermediat e amplification . Thi s provide s a
simplification whic h is accompanied b y reduce d weigh t and expense .
2. Fo r lo w strains , which produce exceedingl y small changes i n resistance
of metal gages, the semiconductor gages wil l develop unit changes abou t
50 time s greater , wit h th e resul t tha t th e indication s o f R/ R ca n b e
measured convenientl y an d precisely .
As contrasted wit h th e abov e advantages , on e mus t als o recognize , and
be abl e t o cop e with , certai n disadvantages .
1. Th e uni t chang e i n resistanc e (whic h i s based o n th e initia l resistance,
R0, o f the unstresse d senso r a t temperatur e T 0) is a nonlinea r functio n
of th e strain , althoug h fo r som e specia l condition s i t ca n b e take n a s
linear fo r smal l strai n excursions.
2. Th e larg e resistanc e chang e pe r uni t o f strain , whic h i s th e ver y thin g
that makes the semiconductor gage attractive, may also present a minor
problem du e t o the fact that , in the process o f installation, the resistanc e
of the gage may b e altered considerabl y from th e valu e which prevailed
in th e unstresse d conditio n o f th e sensin g element. O n thi s account, i t
is necessar y t o determin e th e gag e resistanc e followin g installation s o
that, i f necessary, an appropriat e correctio n ca n b e mad e fo r th e gag e
factor.
3. Th e resistanc e o f th e gag e wil l chang e wit h chang e i n temperature .
4. Th e strai n sensitivity , o r gag e factor , wil l chang e wit h chang e i n
temperature.
Investigation o f silico n reveal s tha t bot h th e strai n sensitivit y an d th e
temperature sensitivit y (chang e o f resistance with temperature) var y consider -
ably wit h th e quantit y of impurit y whic h i s present. I t i s also observe d tha t
high sensitivit y to strai n i s accompanie d b y hig h sensitivit y to change s i n

temperature. This suggests that som e compromis e betwee n strain sensitivity
and temperature response may be desirable, an d perhaps essential, dependin g
upon th e particular application .
Fortunately, b y suitabl e dopin g (introductio n o f controlled amount s of
impurities) durin g th e manufacturin g process , th e strai n an d temperatur e
sensitivities can be varied and adjuste d (although not independently) to meet
specified requirements . Therefore, by suitabl e procedures i n the manufactur-
ing process , i t i s possible t o achiev e a desire d compromis e whic h wil l result
in muc h improve d temperatur e characteristic s a t th e expens e o f a modes t
reduction i n strain sensitivity . Practical consideration s indicat e tha t a goo d
balance i s achieved when th e gag e facto r is about 120 .
Since semiconductor gages are available with both positive and negative
gage factors, another approach , althoug h perhap s a more difficul t one , i s to
take advantage of the characteristics of the electrical circuit of which the gage
forms a part , and t o emplo y two simila r gage s with gage factor s o f opposite
sign.
Due t o th e relativel y larg e numbe r o f variable s involved , an d con -
sequently th e somewha t mor e comple x procedur e require d fo r convertin g
resistance chang e int o term s o f strain , i t seem s unlikely , a t leas t fo r th e
present, tha t semiconducto r gage s wil l replac e metalli c gage s fo r purpose s
of stres s analysis, excep t perhaps, unde r specia l circumstances involving th e
determination o f very smal l strains.
However, for transducers, in which gages can be installed under carefull y
controlled factor y conditions , an d subsequentl y calibrate d i n complet e
bridges, th e hig h outpu t o f th e semiconductor s make s the m exceedingl y
attractive. I t seem s tha t semiconducto r strai n gage s wil l achiev e greates t
success an d optimu m utilit y i n thi s typ e o f application.
1.8. Some other types of gages

Temperature gages
Examination o f the characteristic s o f metal an d semiconducto r strai n gage s
reveals tha t change s i n resistanc e occu r no t onl y a s a resul t o f changes i n
strain, bu t als o fro m change s i n temperature . Althoug h th e respons e t o
temperature ma y complicat e th e determinatio n o f strain , i t nevertheles s
provides th e possibilit y o f making , an d using , temperatur e sensor s wit h
essentially th e sam e technique s as thos e whic h are employe d i n th e makin g
and usin g o f strain gages .
The choice of material for the sensing element, of course, will be differen t
for thes e tw o applications . Whe n i t i s desire d t o measur e strain , wit h a
minimum influenc e fro m temperatur e changes , a copper-nicke l allo y o f
the constanta n typ e i s frequentl y employe d fo r temperature s i n th e rang e
from abou t -250° F t o abou t SOO T (155-260°C) . Fo r lowe r o r highe r
temperatures, i t i s necessar y t o selec t anothe r typ e o f allo y (26) . However ,

for a temperature sensor , i t is preferable to choos e a material, such as nickel,
platinum, o r a n iridium-platinu m alloy , whic h possesse s a muc h greate r
response t o change s i n temperature . Fo r semiconducto r materials , th e
processing i s varied t o produc e th e preferre d characteristics for either strai n
or temperatur e sensing .
For a numbe r o f years , bonde d wir e temperatur e sensor s hav e bee n
commercially available , followe d mor e recentl y b y foi l temperatur e gage s
(27, 28) . Foi l temperatur e gage s hav e severa l advantage s ove r wire-wound
sensors i n tha t the y ar e les s expensive , no t a s fragile , an d thei r time -
temperature response i s similar to tha t o f a strain gage. Standar d strai n gage
instrumentation ma y als o b e use d wit h them .
For convenienc e i n makin g observations , sensor s an d thei r signal -
conditioning networks have been designed t o produce signal s correspondin g
to indication s o f 1 0 or 10 0 microstrain pe r degre e Fahrenheit . Therefore ,
when th e strai n indicato r i s referenced t o som e temperature , on e i s able t o
obtain a direc t readin g o f all othe r temperature s withi n th e workin g rang e
of the system . For example , if a temperatur e sensor an d networ k is used tha t
provides a n indicatio n o f 1 0 microstrain pe r degre e Fahrenheit , th e initia l
balance o f th e indicato r ma y b e adjuste d s o tha t th e readin g wil l b e 75 0
microstrain whe n th e senso r i s actuall y 75° F (24°C) . Then , fo r an y sub -
sequent observation , th e temperatur e i n Fahrenhei t wil l b e represente d b y
the indicato r readin g divided by 10 . If a subsequen t readin g turn s out t o b e
830, then th e temperatur e at th e senso r is 8 3 F (28 0C).
The obviou s advantag e o f this method o f determining temperature lies
in th e fac t tha t a standar d strai n indicatin g (an d recording ) syste m ca n b e
employed, withou t an y modificatio n at all , for the measuremen t o f tempera-
ture a t strai n gag e locations , o r elsewhere , b y th e simpl e procedur e o f
switching the temperatur e sensor (wit h it s conditioning network) in and ou t
of th e indicatin g circuit just a s i f it wer e another strai n gage .
Crack measuring gages

Another instrument incorporating certain features of the strain gage is known
commercially a s th e Kra k Gage . It s mai n purpos e i s t o monito r th e
progression o f cracks whic h usually develop a s a resul t o f fatigue cause d b y
repeated stressing . If the progres s o f a crack i s watched, a part ca n b e take n
out o f service before a disaster occurs , which is a very valuable consideratio n
in th e aircraf t an d man y othe r industrie s (29) .
A schemati c diagra m o f th e gage , show n i n Fig . 1.14 , i s produce d b y
Hartrun Corporatio n i n a variet y of different size s (30). I t possesse s certai n
characteristics whic h ar e lik e thos e o f th e strai n gage , bu t it s us e i s ver y
different. Basically , the Kra k Gag e consist s o f a constanta n foi l senso r 5 urn
thick mounte d o n a n epoxy-phenoli c o r cas t epox y carrier , dependin g o n
the operatin g temperature . Th e carrier an d th e gage ar e cemented t o the tes t
FIG. 1.14 . Schemati c diagram o f a crac k measurin g gage . (From ref . 30.)
piece, o r machin e part , b y th e usua l strai n gag e bondin g procedur e a t a

location wher e a crack i s expected t o start, o r may already have started. The
positioning o f the gag e i s such tha t i t wil l b e cracke d unde r it s centerline in
step wit h the materia l underneat h it . The gag e is energized wit h a constan t
current, usually in the range between 0 and 10 0 milliamperes, and th e chang e
in potentia l dro p betwee n it s tw o inne r lead s i s a measur e o f the distanc e
by whic h th e crac k ha s advanced . Sinc e thes e gage s hav e a resistanc e o f
about 1 ohm before the crack commences, they cannot be used with ordinary
strain gag e equipment.
Another crac k detectio n gag e i s th e CD-Serie s produce d b y Micro -
Measurements (31). This gage is used to indicate the presence of a crack, an d
crack growth rate may be monitored b y using several CD gages at a location.
The C D gag e overcome s tw o o f th e limitation s suffere d b y th e us e o f thin
copper wires . Thes e ar e th e possibilit y o f a crac k progressin g beyon d th e
wire withou t breakin g it , an d als o th e failur e o f th e wir e b y fatigu e whe n
located i n a regio n subjecte d t o cycli c strain o f large magnitude.
The gages consist of a single strand of high-endurance beryllium-coppe r
wire on a toug h polyimid e backing. A rigid high-modulu s adhesiv e i s used
to bon d th e senso r t o th e polyimid e backing . A crac k tha t i s growin g
underneath th e gag e indices local fractur e o f the sensin g wire and open s th e
electrical circuit . Bondin g o f the gage s t o a structur e o r a machin e ca n b e
accomplished wit h conventiona l strai n gag e adhesive s tha t ar e compatibl e
with polyimid e backing.
Friction gages
For stres s probing , especiall y fo r vibratin g stresses , whe n a numbe r o f
observations ar e t o b e made quickl y without taking tim e to instal l a large r
number o f strain gages , a ver y usefu l typ e o f gage ha s evolve d (18).
36 THE BONDED ELECTRICAL RESISTANC E STRAIN GAGE
This i s a conventiona l 120-oh m foi l gag e t o whic h strain i s transmitted

by friction . Th e gag e i s bonde d t o on e fac e o f a rubbe r sheet , the n emer y
powder i s cemented ove r the gage face t o provid e a frictiona l surface . T o th e
other sid e o f th e rubbe r i s cemente d a meta l backin g plate . Th e gag e i s
pressed agains t th e tes t membe r s o that the emergy powder contact s th e test
surface, wher e th e frictio n i s great enoug h t o transmi t th e surfac e strains t o
the sensin g elemen t o f th e strai n gage . Thi s devic e ca n b e move d quickl y
and easil y fro m plac e t o place , thu s enabling one t o mak e a rapi d surve y
with a minimu m amount o f equipment.
Embedment gages
Embedment gage s an d transducer s ar e designe d an d use d primaril y t o
measure curin g an d loadin g strain s i n concrete . The y ma y als o b e used ,
however, wit h resins , ice , asphalt , an d othe r materials . Ther e ar e severa l
variations o f these gage s an d transducers .
One i s a polyeste r mol d gag e tha t ca n b e supplie d a s a singl e gage , a
two-element rectangula r rosette , o r a three-elemen t rectangula r rosette .
Standard wir e gage s an d lea d wire s ar e hermeticall y sealed betwee n thi n
resin plates , thu s waterproofin g th e unit . Th e uni t i s the n coate d wit h a
coarse gri t t o enhanc e bondin g betwee n it an d concrete . Excellen t electrical
insulation i s exhibited even afte r severa l months o f embedment (18).
A transducer i s available in either half- o r full-bridg e arrangements , thus
giving temperatur e compensation . Th e gage s i n thi s transduce r ar e mad e o f
a specia l allo y foi l encase d i n a low-elastic-modulu s materia l i n orde r t o
prevent swellin g an d t o minimiz e loadin g effects . A quarte r bridg e i s als o
available fo r temperatur e measuremen t (18).
Another embedmen t gag e use s nickel-chrom e wir e in a quarte r bridg e
and come s i n gag e length s o f 2 , 4, an d 6 in (20) . The gag e wir e i s enclose d
in a 0.040-i n diamete r stainles s stee l tub e an d i s insulate d b y compacte d
magnesium oxid e powder . En d disk s wit h thre e equall y space d hole s ar e
attached a t eac h en d o f th e stainles s stee l tub e fo r anchorin g th e gage .
Anchoring i s accomplishe d b y tyin g wire s throug h th e hole s i n th e disks ,
then pullin g the m radiall y outwar d an d tyin g the m t o th e structur e o r t o
reinforcing bars . Th e wire s ar e pulle d tau t bu t shoul d no t loa d th e gag e
along it s axi s o r appl y a torque . Th e gag e lengt h shoul d b e fou r time s th e
size o f th e larges t aggregat e i n orde r t o provid e strai n averaging , an d i t i s
important tha t concret e shoul d contac t th e gag e alon g it s entire lengt h fo r
optimum bondin g an d strai n transfer . Figure 1.1 5 shows thi s gage.
1.9. Brittle lacquer coatings (3)

Brittle lacquer coatings hav e been mentioned earlie r as a tool i n experimental
stress analysis, and s o a few comments are i n order, since these coatings hav e
been use d quit e extensively. Thei r developmen t ha s evolve d ove r th e years ,
having it s beginning in the observatio n tha t brittl e oxide coats o n hot-rolled
FIG. 1.15. Typica l embedment gage . (Courtes y o f Eaton Corporation. )
steel cracke d whe n a membe r wa s loaded. Thi s led , in th e earl y par t o f the
1900s, t o th e us e o f varnish , lacquer , o r molte n resin s o n machin e o r
structural members . Whe n loade d i n th e elasti c region , th e coatin g cracke d
in a direction normal to the maximum principal strain direction. In the 1930s ,
Greer Elli s developed a brittl e lacquer whil e at th e Massachusett s Institut e
of Technology . I t wa s subsequentl y markete d i n 193 8 unde r th e nam e o f
Stresscoat b y Magnaflu x Corporation o f Chicago, Illinois .
Brittle lacquers are sensitive to both temperatur e and relativ e humidity.
For thi s reason , the y ar e mad e i n a numbe r o f formulation s fo r specifi c
temperature an d relativ e humidit y conditions. Whe n plannin g a test , on e
must anticipat e th e temperatur e an d relativ e humidity at th e tim e th e tes t
is t o b e conducted , an d the n choos e th e coa t accordingly . Whe n properl y
chosen, th e threshol d strai n o f the coatin g wil l b e approximately 500 uin/in.
If, however, the temperature o r the relative humidity increases, the threshold
strain wil l increase an d perhap s produc e n o cracks within the loading range .
Conversely, a decrease i n temperature o r relativ e humidity will decreas e th e
threshold strain , resulting, in the worst case, in the coating becomin g craze d
(cracking int o a rando m pattern) .
The applicatio n o f a brittl e lacque r consist s o f severa l steps . Th e tes t
member i s first thoroughly cleaned t o insur e that i t is free o f scale, dirt, an d
oils. The member is next sprayed with a coat of aluminum powder in a carrier
solvent an d allowe d t o dr y fo r a t leas t 3 0 minutes. This undercoa t form s a
reflective coatin g tha t enable s on e t o se e cracks i n th e lacque r mor e easily.
Next, the brittle lacquer is applied in a number of thin coats until its thickness
is approximatel y 0.00 3 t o 0.00 6 in thick . A t th e sam e tim e tha t th e tes t
member i s coated, a t leas t fou r calibratio n bar s shoul d b e prepare d i n th e
same manner an d kep t wit h the test member. Th e entire group, tes t member
and calibratio n bars , i s the n allowe d t o cur e fo r a t leas t 1 8 hours befor e
testing.
The tes t membe r i s loaded i n increments, an d a t eac h incrementa l load
the brittl e coa t i s examined fo r cracks . Th e tip s o f th e crack s i n eac h are a

where the y appea r ma y b e outline d wit h a felt-ti p pen . A s th e loa d i s
increased, th e crac k growt h a t eac h are a i s marked, a s wel l as notin g othe r
areas where new cracks appear . This proces s is continued unti l the maximum
load i s reached. Whe n th e yiel d poin t o f the materia l i s attained i n an y are a
of th e tes t member , th e brittl e coa t wil l flak e off .
Although th e brittl e coat crack s onl y unde r tensil e strains , i t ca n als o
be use d t o determin e compressiv e strains . To accomplis h this , th e ful l loa d
is applie d t o th e tes t membe r an d hel d fo r a t leas t 3 hour s afte r th e tensil e
strains ar e determined . Durin g th e hol d tim e th e brittl e coa t creep s an d
relaxes. Th e loa d i s then remove d a s quickl y a s possible , wit h th e coa t the n
reacting t o th e compressiv e strain s a s thoug h the y wer e tensil e strains .
At the start o f the test, a calibrator! ba r i s loaded int o a cantilever fixture
and on e end deflecte d a known amount. The ba r i s subjected t o strain s along
its length, and th e minimu m strain at whic h a crac k i s observed i s recorded ;
this i s the threshol d strain . A s the tes t progresses , particularl y over a perio d
of time in whic h the temperatur e o r relativ e humidity may chang e an d thu s
change th e threshol d strain , other calibration bar s ca n b e tested a t interval s
in orde r t o determin e whethe r o r no t th e threshol d strai n ha s changed .
The brittl e coa t ca n b e treate d t o enhanc e th e cracks . Th e crack s ca n
be recorded b y photographing , markin g a drawing , o r som e othe r means . If
further testin g i s t o b e don e wit h strai n gage s (a s i s usuall y th e case) , th e
coat ca n b e strippe d of f if the sam e membe r i s t o b e use d an d strai n gage s
applied. Sinc e th e principa l strain direction s ar e known , two strai n gage s ( a
two-element rectangula r rosette) ma y b e applie d i n thes e direction s and th e
principal stresse s computed . Th e advantage s o f the brittl e coat are :
1. Th e brittl e coat an d it s crac k patter n allo w on e t o se e th e strai n (an d
stress) distributio n over mos t o f the entir e tes t member .
2. Whe n strai n gage s ar e applie d i n th e direction s o f the principa l strain s
in th e variou s area s o n th e tes t member , onl y tw o gage s ar e require d
rather tha n th e thre e tha t woul d b e necessar y i f th e principa l strai n
directions wer e unknown . Thi s result s i n a savin g o f bot h tim e an d
money.
3. Th e metho d i s relativel y inexpensiv e and i s extremel y usefu l fo r a
preliminary investigatio n prio r t o a detaile d strai n gag e study .
Although brittle lacquers hav e bee n use d extensivel y in order t o observ e
the strai n distributio n o n th e surfac e o f a member , thei r mai n us e has bee n
as a n ai d i n th e placemen t o f strain gages . On e shoul d b e aware , however ,
of th e us e of photoelastic coating s tha t ca n b e applie d t o a structure . The y
give full-field dat a that accuratel y identif y area s o f high strain, and constitut e
a nondestructiv e test . The member , unlik e brittle lacquer tests , can b e teste d
a numbe r o f times , wit h th e result s bein g recorde d o n fil m o r vide o
tape. Fo r mor e information , on e shoul d consul t eithe r manufacturer s o f
photoelastic equipmen t o r an y o f several book s o n th e subject .
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT S FOR STRAI N GAGE S 3 9
Appendix 1
Approximate strai n sensitivitie s of some metal s (11 )
Hard drawn Annealed
Sensitivity Sensitivity Change Sensitivity Sensitivity Change

in in point in in point
low high (strain low high (strain
Metal range range percent) range range percent)
Silver 2.9 2.4 0.8 3.0 2.3 0.2

Platinum 6.1 2.4 0.4 5.9 2.3 0.3
Copper 2.6 2.2 0.5 2.2 2.2 -
Iron 3.9 2.4 0.8 3.7 2.1 0.5
Nickel Negative 2.7 - Negative 2.3 -
Ferry (60/4 0 Cu-Ni) 2.2 2.1 0.5 2.2 2.2 -
Minalpha (Manganin ) 0.8 2.0 0.6 0.6 1.9 -
10 percent iridium-platinu m 4.8 2.1 0.4 3.9 1.9 0.3
10 percent rhodium-platinum 5.5 2.4 0.5 5.1 2.0 0.4
40 percent silver-palladiu m 0.9 1.9 0.8 0.7 2.0 0.5
REFERENCES
1. "Brittl e Coatin g fo r Stres s Analysi s Testing, " Bulleti n S-109 , Measurement s

Group, Inc., P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1978 . (Now ou t o f print.)
2. "Genera l Instructions for the Selection and Us e of Tens-Lac Brittl e Lacque r an d
Undercoating," Instructio n Bulletin 215-C, Measurements Group , Inc. , P.O . Bo x
27777, Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1982 . (Now ou t o f print. )
3. "Usin g Stresscoat," Electri x Industries, Inc., P.O . Bo x J, Roundlake , I L 60073 .
4. Sanchez , J. C. and W . V. Wright, "Recent Development s in Flexible Silicon Strain
Gages," in Semiconductor and Conventional Strain Gages, edited by Mill s Dea n
III an d Richar d D . Douglas, Ne w York , Academi c Press , 1962 , pp. 307-345 .
5. Mack , Donal d R. , "Linearizing th e Outpu t o f Resistance Temperatur e Gages, "
SESA Proceedings, Vol. XVIII, No. 1 , April 1961 , pp. 122-127 .
6. Thomson , W . (Lor d Kelvin) , "O n th e Electrodynami c Qualitie s o f Metals, "
Philosophical Transactions o f th e Royal Society o f London, Vol . 146 , 1856 , pp .
649-751.
7. Sette , W . J., L. D. Anderson, and J . G. McGinley , "Resistance-Strain Character -
istics o f Stretche d Fin e Wires, " Davi d Taylo r Mode l Basin , Repor t No . R-212 ,
Sept. 1945 .
8. Dorsey , James , "Semiconducto r Strai n Gages, " Th e Journal o f Environmental
Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 1 , Feb. 1964 , pp. 18-19 .
9. Dorsey , James , Semiconductor Strain Gage Handbook, Par t 1 . BLH Electronics ,
75 Shawmut Road , Canton , M A 02021. (No w ou t o f print. )
10. Baker , M . A. , "Semiconducto r Strai n Gauges, " i n Strain Gauge Technology,
edited b y A . L. Windo w an d G . S . Holister, Londo n an d Ne w Jersey , Applie d
Science Publisher s Inc., 1982 , p. 274. Copyright Elsevie r Science Publishers Ltd .
Reprinted wit h permission.
11. Jones , E . an d K . R . Maslen , "Th e Physica l Characteristics o f Wir e Resistanc e

Strain Gauges, " R . an d M . No . 266 1 (12,357) , A.R.C . Technica l Report , He r
Majesty's Stationer y Office , London , 1952 , Reproduced wit h th e permissio n o f
the Controlle r o f He r Britanni c Majesty's Stationer y Office .
12. d e Forest , A . V. , "Characteristics an d Aircraf t Application s of Wir e Resistanc e
Strain Gages, " Instruments, Vol . 15 , No. 4 , Apri l 1942 , pp. 112-114 , 136-137.
13. Weibull , W., "Electrica l Resistanc e o f Wire s wit h Larg e Strains. " Nature. Vol .
162, pp . 966-967 . Copyrigh t (r ; 194 8 Macmilla n Magazine s Limited.
14. Shoub , H. , "Wire-Resistanc e Gage s fo r th e Measuremen t o f Larg e Strains, "
David Taylo r Mode l Basin , Report No . 570 , Marc h 1950 .
15. Biermasz . A . J. , R . G . Boiten , J . J . Koch , an d G . P . Roszbach , "Strai n
Gauges—Theory an d Application, " Philips Technical Library, Philips Industries,
Eindhoven, Netherlands , 1952.
16. Meier . J. H. , "O n th e Transverse-strai n Sensitivity o f Foi l Gages, " Experimental
Mechanics, Vol . 1 , No. 7 , July 1961 , pp. 39-40 .
17. "Strai n Gages , SR-4, " BL H Electronics , Inc. , 7 5 Shawmu t Road , Canton , M A
02021, 198 5 Edition .
18. "TM L Strai n Gauges, " E-10 I V and E-10 1 Y, Tokyo Sokk i Kenkyujo Co., Ltd. ,
Tokyo, Japan , 1988 . Distribute d by Texa s Measurements , Inc. , P.O . Bo x 2618 ,
College Station , T X 77841 .
19. Gibbs , Josep h P. . "Tw o Type s o f High-temperatur e Weldabl e Strai n Gages :
Ni-Cr Half-bridg e Filament s an d Pt- W Half-bridg e Filaments, " Proceedings o f
the Second SESA International Congress o n Experimenal Mechanics, Washington ,
DC, Sept . 2 8 t o Oct . 1 , 1965, pp. 1-8 .
20. "Weldabl e an d Embeddabl e Integra l Lea d Strai n Gages, " Application s an d
Installation Manual , Eato n Corp. , Ailtec h Strai n Gag e Products , 172 8 Maple -
lawn Rd. , Troy, M I 48084 , 1985 .
21. "Catalo g 500 : Par t A—Strai n Gag e Listings ; Par t B—Strai n Gag e Technica l
Data," Measurement s Group , Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh , N C 27611 ,
1988.
22. Sanchez , J . C., "The Semiconducto r Strain Gage—A Ne w Too l fo r Experimental
Stress Analysis, " i n Experimental Mechanics, edite d b y B . E . Rossi , Ne w York ,
The Macmilla n Company , 1963 , pp. 255-274.
23. Vaughn , John, Application o f B & K Equipment t o Strain Measurements, Brue l &
Kjaer, Naerum , Denmark , 1975 , Ch. 10 .
24. "Semiconducto r Strai n Gages, " SR-4 Application Instructions, BLH Electronics,
Inc., 7 5 Shawmut Road , Canton . M A 02021 , 1986.
25. Dorsey , James , "Data-reductio n Method s fo r Semiconducto r Strai n Gages, "
Experimental Mechanics, Vol . 4, No . 6 , June 1964 , pp . 19 A -26A.
26. Weymouth , L . J. , "Strai n Measuremen t i n Hostil e Environment, " Applied
Mechanics Reviews, Vol . 18 , No. 1 . Jan. 1965 , pp. 1-4 .
27. "Cryogeni c Linea r Temperature Sensor, " Produc t Bulleti n PB-104-3 , Mesasure -
ments Group , Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1983.
28. "Temperatur e Sensor s an d LS T Matchin g Networks," Produc t Bulleti n PB-105-
7, Measurement s Group , Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1984 .
29. Liaw , Peter K. , W. A. Logsdon , L . D. Roth , and H . R . Hartmann , "Krak-Gage s
for Automate d Fatigu e Crac k Growt h Rat e Testing : A Review, " ASTM Special
Technical Publication No . 877. 1989 . pp. 177-196 . Copyrigh t ASTM . Reprinte d
with permission .
30. Hartmann , H. R. and R . W. Churchill, "Krak-Gage, a New Transducer for Crack

Growth Measurement, " presente d a t SES A Fal l Meeting , Keystone , CO , Oct .
1981.
31. "CD-Serie s Crac k Detectio n Gages, " Produc t Bulleti n PB-118 , Measurement s
Group, Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777, Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1984.
2
STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSIS AND
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS
2.1. Introduction
The materia l i n Chapte r 2 shoul d b e familia r fro m course s i n mechanic s of
materials an d design , an d s o serve s a s a review . Th e notatio n an d sig n
convention fo r both stress and strai n follow tha t generally given in the theory
of elasticity.
Strain gage s ar e applie d t o a surfac e tha t i s usuall y stres s fre e i n a
direction normal t o th e strain gag e surface . Fo r thi s reason, th e transforma-
tion equations for plane stress are developed instead o f the more complicated
triaxial stres s state . Th e necessar y equation s ar e derive d tha t enabl e u s t o
transform fro m on e coordinat e syste m t o another . Furthermore , w e ca n
compute th e principa l stresses an d determin e thei r orientation relativ e to a
chosen coordinat e system .
Since we cannot determin e stres s experimentally by direct measurement,
we resor t t o measurin g strai n o n a surfac e throug h th e us e o f a strain -
measuring device . I n orde r t o mak e us e o f th e experimentall y determined
strains, transformatio n equation s fo r plan e strai n ar e generate d tha t ar e
similar i n form to th e transformatio n equation s for plane stress. Her e w e see
that th e orientation s o f the principa l strains are identica l to th e orientation s
of th e principa l stresse s fo r th e chose n coordinat e system .
Although al l o f th e necessar y value s wante d ma y b e handle d throug h
calculation, i t i s ofte n desirabl e t o determin e th e value s graphically . T o
accomplish this , Mohr's circl e for stres s an d fo r strai n are generated . Thes e
diagrams allo w u s t o visualiz e th e transformatio n fro m on e coordinat e
system t o another , and , i f they ar e accuratel y drawn , wil l giv e satisfactory
answers. Wit h th e availabilit y of hand-hel d calculators , though , i t i s muc h
easier to draw th e diagrams freehand, observe the required orientations, and
then calculat e th e answers . I n drawin g th e circles , not e th e definitio n for
positive shearin g stres s an d shearin g strain.
You wil l observ e tha t materia l propertie s d o no t ente r int o th e
development of the transformation equations. The transformatio n equations
for stres s ar e base d o n th e stati c equilibriu m o f a n element , whil e th e
transformation equation s fo r strai n ar e base d o n th e geometr y o f smal l
deformations o f the element . In orde r t o relat e th e two , material propertie s
STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSI S AN D STRESS-STRAI N RELATIONS 4 3
now enter . Th e stress-strai n relationship s ar e give n fo r th e differen t state s

of stres s an d strain .
2.2. Basic concepts of stress

When a solid bod y i s acted upo n b y a system of forces, which may b e either
external o r internal , o r bot h externa l an d internal , it i s said t o b e subjected
to stress . I n general , thi s mean s tha t force s ar e transmitte d fro m on e
elemental particle t o another withi n all or part o f the body. How thes e forces
are distribute d o n th e externa l surfaces , or throughou t the interio r body , is
of vita l importance , sinc e th e abilit y of the bod y materia l t o withstan d th e
action o f the forces depends upo n th e force intensity prevailing at eac h poin t
within th e material .
Usually w e thin k o f stres s a s th e effec t o f force s o n part , o r all , o f th e
surface o f a body , o r internall y a s th e influenc e which th e force s actin g o n
one sid e o f a sectio n (usuall y a plan e section ) through th e bod y exer t upo n
the materia l o n th e othe r sid e o f the section .
Since, from practica l considerations, the forces which act on solid bodie s
must, of necessity, be distributed over area s (o r throughou t the volume) , we
must b e rathe r specifi c regardin g ou r meanin g o f th e ter m stress . I t i s
sometimes use d t o indicat e tota l force , an d unde r othe r condition s implie s
force pe r uni t area . Bot h usage s ar e correct , bu t ever y no w an d the n th e
exact meanin g i s somewhat loosel y implied.
To b e technicall y correct, on e shoul d sa y "total stress " whe n referrin g
to force , and "intensit y o f stress" o r "uni t stress " whe n forc e per uni t are a
is meant . However , whe n onl y on e o f th e tw o meaning s i s require d i n a
particular discussion , i t i s quite commo n t o us e th e wor d "stress " b y itself
with th e word s total , intensit y of , o r unit , bein g understood . Fo r ou r
purposes, th e ter m stres s wil l b e use d t o indicat e forc e pe r uni t area .
Figure 2.1 a show s such a bod y acte d upo n b y forces P 1, P2, P 3, and F 4.
An imaginar y cuttin g plan e A B i s passed throug h th e bod y an d th e uppe r
portion o f the bod y i s removed. In orde r fo r the lowe r portion t o remai n i n
equilibrium, a syste m o f forces , representing th e effec t o f th e uppe r par t o f
the body , act s upo n th e cu t surfac e a s show n i n Fig . 2.1b . On e o f th e
elemental force s i s represented b y the force P actin g o n th e incremental
area A I f all suc h force s ar e summe d ove r th e entir e area , th e resultan t
will b e a forc e (no t normal , i n general , t o plan e AB ) havin g th e prope r
magnitude an d directio n t o maintai n equilibrium.
We now turn our attention t o the force P an d define stress at a point as
Since the loadin g o n th e bod y i n Fig . 2. 1 is complex, w e expect the stres s t o

vary in intensity from poin t t o point o n th e cut surface . Thus, when we speak
FIG. 2.1. Bod y i n equilibriu m acte d upo n b y externa l forces .
of stress , w e mus t defin e th e poin t o n th e cu t surfac e o n whic h i t i s acting .

Furthermore, P wil l generall y no t b e norma l t o th e surfac e bu t wil l b e
inclined a t som e angl e 9 as show n i n Fig . 2.1c . The lin e N i s normal t o th e
surface an d th e lin e S lie s o n th e surface , and s o P ca n b e resolve d int o
two component s alon g line s N an d S , namel y P n an d P S. Usin g th e
definition o f stress give n b y Eq . (2.1) , w e no w hav e th e tota l stres s resolve d
into tw o components ; w e call th e stres s directe d alon g N th e norma l stress ,
a, and th e stres s directe d alon g S th e shearin g stress , T. The norma l stres s a
will b e tensil e (+ ) i f it tend s t o separat e th e materia l o n opposit e side s o f
the section , o r i t wil l b e compressiv e ( —) i f i t tend s t o pus h togethe r th e
material on opposit e side s of the section . The shearin g stress T has a tendency
for th e materia l o n on e sid e o f th e sectio n t o slid e b y th e materia l o n th e
other sid e o f the section .
When th e force acting on the area i s distributed uniformly ove r the area ,
each elemen t o f the are a wil l be subjecte d t o th e sam e intensit y of loading ,
and th e magnitude of the stress at every point wil l be the same a s the averag e
value, which is computed b y dividing the total forc e by the whol e area. Thus,
for uniforml y distribute d stress ,
We wil l generall y b e workin g wit h plan e stress . Suppose , i n Fig . 2.1c ,

that all the elemental forces P wer e contained i n planes paralle l to the plane
defined b y lines N an d S . The normal stresse s and th e shearing stresses would
also li e in thes e planes , an d s o n o stresse s woul d appea r i n plane s norma l
to th e plan e containin g line s N an d S . Thi s conditio n give s u s th e plan e
stress state .
STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSI S AN D STRESS-STRAI N RELATION S 45
FIG. 2.2. Elemen t subjected to plan e stress.
2.3. Biaxial stresses

Since mos t o f our problem s ar e plan e stres s problems , w e want t o develo p
the transformation equations for this stress state. Figure 2.2 shows the plane
stress state , where a z — -cxz = i yz = 0. The sig n convention for th e stresse s is
the following: (1) the normal stress is positive (tensile) it it is directed outwar d
from th e plane , negativ e (compressive) i f directed inwar d towar d th e plane ;
and (2 ) the shear stresse s are positiv e when directed in a positive coordinat e
direction o n a plan e whos e outwar d norma l i s directe d i n a positiv e
coordinate direction, or when directed in a negative coordinate direction o n
a plane whose outward normal is directed i n a negative coordinate direction .
In Fig . 2.2 , al l stresse s ar e positiv e accordin g t o th e sig n conventio n jus t
stated.
Suppose the element in Fig. 2. 2 has a cutting plane, AB, passed throug h
it a s show n in Fig . 2.3 . W e no w wan t t o determin e th e stresse s i n th e new
x'y' system , wher e x' i s normal t o plan e A B an d / lie s in plan e AB . The
normal stres s actin g o n plan e A B i s designate d a s a x., whil e th e shearin g
stress o n tha t plan e i s r x y. I n orde r t o determin e th e ne w stress state , th e
equilibrium o f the elemen t i n Fig . 2. 3 must b e considered . I f forces i n th e x '
direction ar e summe d (takin g th e distanc e in th e z direction , o r norma l t o
the paper , a s unity) , th e followin g results:
From Fig. 2.3, we see that OA/AB = cos 9 and OB/AB = sin 9. Dividing each
term b y A B an d usin g these relationships , <r x. ca n b e expresse d i n term s of
ax, ff y, x xy, an d 9 , Thus,
46 THE BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANCE STRAIN GAG E
FIG. 2.3. Elemen t cut b y plan e AB .
By summin g force s in th e y ' direction , w e obtai n
Following th e sam e procedur e a s before , the expressio n fo r i x•,,. becomes
Equations (2.3 ) and (2.4 ) can b e expresse d i n term s o f 2 8 b y usin g the

following identities :
The expression s fo r a x, an d T X.... ar e rewritte n as
Equations (2.5 ) and (2.6 ) allo w th e determinatio n o f a x, an d r x,y, a t a poin t

for an y valu e o f the cuttin g plane angl e 0 .
STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSI S AN D STRESS-STRAI N RELATION S 4 7
As th e angl e 2 9 varie s fro m 0 ° t o 360° , a x, wil l chang e i n value . Th e

objective i s to find its maximum and minimu m values. This i s accomplishe d
by differentiatin g ff x- wit h respec t t o 9 an d settin g th e resultin g equatio n
equal t o zero . Fro m Eq . (2.5),
Dividing eac h ter m b y co s 29 results in
The directions of the principal stresses , and therefor e the principal axes,
are determine d fro m Eq . (2.7) . Thus , tw o values , 90 ° apart , fo r 9 ar e
determined. On e valu e corresponds t o th e angl e measure d fro m th e x axi s
to th e firs t principa l axi s (counterclockwis e i s positive ) alon g whic h th e
maximum principa l stres s acts . Th e othe r valu e correspond s t o th e angl e
measured fro m th e x axi s t o th e secon d principa l axi s alon g whic h th e
minimum principa l stres s acts . Equatio n (2.7 ) by itsel f doe s no t allo w u s t o
distinguish betwee n th e tw o axes , an d s o w e must cal l i n anothe r trigono -
metric relationship in orde r t o distinguis h between the two .
There ar e tw o quadrant s i n whic h tan 2 0 can hav e th e valu e given b y
Eq. (2.7); these are the first and thir d quadrants. Considerin g first quadrant
values fo r Eq . (2.7) , we have
Substituting th e value s o f si n 20 an d co s 20 give n b y Eqs . (2.8 ) an d (2.9) ,

respectively, int o Eq . (2.5 ) result s i n G X, =a 1. Carryin g ou t th e require d
algebra,
If third-quadran t value s ar e used , si n 20 an d co s 20 ar e negative .

Substitution of these values into Eq. (2.5) gives the second principa l stres s as
We ca n no w writ e th e equatio n fo r th e principa l stresse s a s
Since Eqs . (2.8 ) an d (2.9 ) giv e th e value s o f si n 20 an d co s 2 0 fo r th e

principal stresses, substitutio n of these value s int o Eq . (2.6) shows t o be
zero. Thi s tell s u s tha t ther e i s n o shearin g stres s o n th e plane s containin g
the principal stresses . This is also apparent i f Eqs. (2.6) and (a ) are compared.
In orde r t o determin e th e orientatio n o f wit h respec t t o th e x axis ,
two o f the thre e trigonometri c relation s give n b y Eqs . (2.7) , (2.8), an d (2.9 )
must b e used .
The sam e procedur e ca n b e use d i n findin g th e maxmu m valu e o f T ,
in th e x y plane . Thi s is achieved b y differentiatin g . with respect t o 0 an d
setting th e resultin g equatio n equa l t o zero . Fro m Eq . (2.6),
Dividing each ter m b y co s 28,
Note tha t Eq . (2.11 ) i s the negativ e reciproca l o f Eq . (2.7) . I n thi s case , th e

value o f ta n 2 0 give n b y Eq . (2.11 ) wil l b e negativ e i n eithe r th e secon d o r
fourth quadrant . Takin g second-quadran t values ,
Substituting thes e value s o f si n 20 an d co s 29 int o Eq . (2.6 ) result s i n

rx,y, = T max . Carrying ou t th e operation ,
STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSI S AND STRESS-STRAI N RELATION S 4 9
If fourth-quadran t value s ar e used , si n 29 is negative and co s 29 is positive.

Substitution o f these value s into Eq . (2.6 ) yield s
Thus, th e maximu m shearin g stres s ca n b e written as
If value s o f si n 26 an d co s 29, give n b y Eqs . (2.12 ) an d (2.13 ) an d wit h

appropriate sign s fo r eac h o f th e tw o quadrants , ar e substitute d int o Eq .
(2.5), w e will find that eac h plan e o f the maximu m shea r stres s elemen t will
be subjecte d t o a norma l stres s tha t ma y b e tensile , compressive , o r zero .
The valu e o f the norma l stres s actin g o n thes e plane s is
It i s bes t i f th e maximu m shea r stres s i s considere d i n term s o f th e

principal stresses . I n th e plan e stres s state , Eq . (2.14 ) ca n b e expresse d i n
terms of an d b y using Eq. (2.10). If i s subtracted from , the result is
Thus,
The transformation equation s hav e been developed for the biaxial stress
state b y taking= = i yz = 0. The biaxia l stres s equation s ca n b e used
even though a z is some valu e other than zero; that is , az i s the third principa l
stress, makin g a z = a3. The shearin g stresse s i xz an d i yz, however , must be
zero, otherwise we would be obliged t o use the more complx stress equation s
for th e triaxia l stress state . Figure 2. 4 shows such an element . If crz = <r 3 =0 ,
then th e elemen t o f Fig. 2. 4 reduces t o th e elemen t i n Fig . 2.2 .
We see there will always be three mutually perpendicular principa l stres s
axes, an d correspondin g t o thes e direction s ther e wil l b e thre e principa l
stresses whos e numerica l value s ma y b e positive , negative , o r zero . Th e
FIG. 2.4. Elemen t wit h a , = a 3 no t equa l to zero .
stresses ar e
algebraically
Figure 2. 5 shows triaxial , biaxial, and uniaxia l stress states . Note , however ,
that while tensile stresses are shown, some or all could als o be compressive.
FIG. 2.5. Triaxia l (a) , biaxia l (b) , and uniaxia l (c) stress states .
We tur n ou r attentio n onc e agai n t o th e shearin g stress . I f th e stres s

state is triaxial, then no matter what the values of the three principal stresses
are, th e maximu m shear stres s at th e point wil l alway s be
where a max an d <r min ar e principa l stresses .

Since w e ar e dealin g wit h th e biaxia l stres s state , th e thir d principa l
stress, <r 3, wil l b e zero . Th e maximu m shearing stres s a t th e poin t ma y o r
may no t b e in the x y plane , depending o n th e sign s of a^ and a 2. Ther e are ,
then, thre e cases t o consider .
(a) ff j an d a 2 hav e opposite signs ; a { > 0, a3 = 0 , a2 < 0.
Thus,
and greater than zero;
Thus
and less than zero;
Thus
Figure 2. 6 shows th e thre e cases , wit h on e o f the shea r plane s marke d

for eac h case . Th e secon d shea r plan e fo r eac h cas e i s a t 90 ° t o th e on e
shown. Generally , i n th e cas e o f th e maximu m shea r stress , w e ar e no t
concerned wit h th e orientatio n o f the element , but instea d wan t to kno w its
magnitude.
FIG. 2.6 . Plane s of maximum shear fo r th e thre e cases of plane stress.
Summary of major equations

Example 2.1. A plane stress element, shown in Fig. 2.7, has the following stresse s
acting o n it :
Determine th e principal stressss and their orientation relativ e to the x axis , then
sketch th e principa l stres s element . Comput e th e maximu m shearin g stres s a t
the point .
Solution. Th e principa l stresse s ar e determine d fro m Eq . (2.10) .
Use Eqs . (2.7 ) and (2.8 ) t o determin e th e orientatio n o f CTJ with respec t t o th e
x axis.
Since the onl y match o f tan 2 9 and si n 26 is in the thir d quadrant, th e angl e 29
lies in the third quadrant . Thus , 2 9 = 217.3°, or 9 = 108.7° , measured counter -
clockwise from th e x axis. Figure 2.8 shows the orientation o f CTJ and a 2 relative
to th e x axis .
The maximu m principal stres s i s a l, an d th e minimu m principa l stres s is
a2. Th e intermediat e principal stress i s <r 3 =0 . Using Eq . (2.17) , the maximum
shear stres s i s
FIG. 2.7. Biaxia l stres s elemen t fo r Exampl e 2.1.
FIG. 2.8. Principa l stres s elemen t fo r Exampl e 2.1.
2.4. Mohr's circle for stress

Equations (2.5 ) an d (2.6 ) ar e parametri c equation s fo r a circle , wit h th e
coordinate o f an y poin t o n th e circl e being (o^. , T A . V ) . If these equations ar e
plotted, th e curv e wil l advanc e i n a clockwis e directio n rathe r tha n i n th e
counterclockwise directio n tha t i s take n a s positive . Thi s conditio n ca n b e
alleviated by redefining the sig n o f the shearin g stress. The graphica l metho d
we use is known as a Mohr's circle , and i s named afte r Ott o Mohr , a Germa n
engineer an d professor , who propose d i t i n 1880 .
The sig n conventio n fo r normal stresse s i s the sam e a s give n in Sectio n
2.3. The shearin g stress , however, will b e defined as follows : a shearin g stres s
will be positive if the pair , acting on opposit e and paralle l face s o f an element,
form a clockwis e couple.
FIG. 2.9. Mohr' s circl e for stress.
Figure 2. 9 shows a n elemen t an d th e correspondin g Mohr' s circle . T o

plot th e circle, construc t th e orthogona l a an d i axes , the n star t wit h th e
element fac e norma l t o th e positiv e x axis . Here a x i s a positive stress , so its
value i s lai d of f on th e a axi s a s OA . Next , th e shea r stres s o n thi s fac e i s
seen t o for m a clockwis e coupl e wit h th e shea r stres s on th e fac e norma l t o
the negativ e x axis . Thi s i s positiv e shea r stres s fo r Mohr's circle. Th e
magnitude o f r xy i s plotted a s A B paralle l t o th e T axis. The coordinate s o f
point B ar e (a x, r xy). Th e stresse s o n th e fac e norma l t o th e positiv e y axi s
are plotte d next . Her e <r }, is positive an d i s laid of f on th e a axi s as OC . Th e
shear stresse s o n th e face s norma l t o th e y axi s for m a counterclockwis e
couple an d thu s ar e negative . The magnitud e o f r xy o n thi s fac e i s plotte d
parallel t o th e T axis i n th e negativ e directio n a s CD . Th e coordinate s o f

point D are (a y, —r xy). Point s B and D are connected b y a straight line whose
length i s the diamete r o f the circl e with it s center a t poin t E . The diamete r
extended outwar d throug h poin t B represent s th e x axis , while the diamete r
extended outwar d throug h poin t D represents the y axis . On th e circle , these
points ar e 180 ° apart, whic h correspond s t o 90 ° on th e element . The angl e
29 is measured fro m B E ( x axis) as positive in the counterclockwise direction.
Points F an d G ar e th e maximu m shea r stres s value s (i n th e x y plane) ,
designated her e a s r ] 2 , whil e points H an d / ar e a 1 an d a 2, respectively.
Mohr's circl e is particularly usefu l wit h th e han d calculator . A freehand
sketch o f Mohr's circle can b e mad e an d desire d orientation s take n fro m it .
Stress magnitude s an d angle s ca n b e compute d wit h th e calculator .
If we examine Mohr's circl e shown in Fig. 2.9, the following can b e seen:
1. Th e cente r o f th e circl e correspond s t o th e isotropi c (o r hydrostatic )
component o f stress, a H. Thi s i s the stres s denne d b y Eq . (2.15).
2. Th e radiu s o f th e circl e is T 12 , given b y
Note her e tha t T 12 i s the maximu m shea r stres s i n th e x y plane , bu t if

ai an d a 2 ar e o f opposite sign , then i t i s the maximu m shea r stres s a t
the point .
3. Fro m Mohr' s circl e we see that the principa l stresse s may b e expresse d
as
Note tha t Eqs . (2.23) an d (2.24 ) are anothe r for m o f Eq . (2.10).

4. Mohr' s circle i s very helpfu l i n determining th e locatio n o f a t. W e saw
in Sectio n 2. 3 that tw o trigonometri c relationship s wer e require d t o
locate (r 1( while on th e circl e w e can locat e i t visuall y and comput e th e
angle b y usin g
where 2 0 is the acut e angl e betwee n B E an d th e a axis.

5. Th e signs of the stress components ar e easily determined fro m th e circle.

Normal stresse s presen t n o problem , bu t fo r the shea r stres s it is more
convenient t o calculat e th e magnitude analyticall y and the n determine
the sig n (directio n o f the stress ) b y referenc e to th e circle .
While w e have develope d transformatio n equation s an d Mohr' s circl e
for plan e stress , th e fac t tha t th e thir d principa l axi s exists shoul d b e kep t
in mind, even though the stres s in tha t directio n i s zero. A s long a s we have
principal stresse s a 1, a 2, an d <r 3, thre e Mohr' s circle s ma y b e drawn . Thei r
radii wil l b e give n by
For ou r cas e o f plane strain , & 3 = 0, and s o th e radi i becom e
Figure 2.1 0 shows the case where al > a 2 > 0 and a 3 = 0. It is obvious fro m
the diagra m tha t th e maximu m shea r stres s a t th e poin t i s r max = T 13 . If
<73 = 0 had bee n ignored , w e might hav e been foole d int o thinkin g tha t T 12
was th e maximu m shea r stress .
Example 2.2 . Th e elemen t i n Fig . 2.1 1 ha s th e followin g stresse s actin g o n it :
ax = 10000 psi, a y = 3000 psi, t xy = -8000 psi

(the sig n o f i xy conform s t o th e conventio n establishe d i n Sectio n 2.3) .
Perform th e liste d tasks .

(a) Dra w th e correspondin g Mohr' s circle .
(b) Sketc h a n elemen t showin g th e principa l stresse s an d thei r orientatio n
relative t o th e x axis .
(c) Sketc h a n elemen t showin g th e maximu m shea r stres s i n th e x y plan e an d
its orientatio n relativ e t o th e x axis .
Solution, (a ) Althoug h a free-han d sketc h o f Mohr' s circl e coul d b e made , i t

will be drawn to scale, but pertinen t value s will be calculated. I n plotting Mohr's
circle, th e followin g steps ar e taken :
1. Plo t a x = 1000 0 psi on th e a axi s a s point A .

2. Sinc e i xy form s a clockwis e coupl e o n th e paralle l face s norma l t o th e x
axis, i t i s plotte d a s positiv e fo r Mohr' s circle . Throug h poin t A , plo t
Txy = 8000 psi i n th e positiv e i direction . Thi s give s poin t B , whos e
coordinates ar e (10000 , 8000) .
3. Plo t CTJ, =300 0 psi on th e a axi s a s poin t C .
FIG. 2.10. Three-dimensiona l Mohr' s circl e for plan e stress .
FIG. 2.11 . Stres s elemen t fo r Exampl e 2.2 .
4. Fro m poin t C , plot i xy = — 8000 psi in th e negativ e T direction. Thi s give s

point D , whose coordinate s are (3000, - 8000) .
5. Joi n point s B and D t o ge t th e diamete r o f th e circle . The intersectio n o f
the lin e B D wit h th e o axi s i s th e cente r o f the circl e E .
FIG. 2.12. Mohr' s circl e fo r Exampl e 2.2 .
6. Dra w th e circl e an d measur e al l angle s fro m th e x axi s a s shown ,

with the counterclockwise directio n bein g positive. The complete d Mohr' s
circle i s show n i n Fig . 2.12 .
From Eq . (2.21),
From Eq . (2.22),
Equations (2.23 ) and (2.24 ) give a , an d a 2, respectively:
(b) I n orde r t o determin e th e orientatio n o f ff 1 relativ e t o th e x axis , w e

go i n a clockwise directio n fro m th e x axi s o n th e circl e throug h th e angl e
20, = 66.4° to reach CT, .The acute angle 20, ca n be computed usin g Eq. (2.25):
Since w e traveled in a clockwis e direction o n th e circl e t o arriv e at <r, , we must

go i n the sam e directio n whe n locatin g CT, relative to th e x axi s for the element ;
that is , Oj = 33.2 ° clockwise . Th e elemen t i s show n i n Fig . 2.13 . Not e tha t w e
could als o hav e gone i n a counterclockwise direction o n th e circl e t o arriv e a t
<T,, thu s traversin g th e circl e throug h 20 , = 293.6° . O n th e element , th e angl e
between th e x axi s an d CT, is 146.8° , whic h i s th e vecto r fo r <r , in th e secon d
quadrant o f Fig . 2.13 .
(c) Th e maximum shear stres s in th e xy plan e i s r,2 . Fo r thi s problem, th e
maximum shea r stres s a t th e poin t i s also T max = r 12 = 873 2 psi. To determin e
the orientatio n o f the maximu m shea r stres s element , go i n a counterclockwise
direction o n th e circl e unti l i 12 i s reached. Thi s i s the poin t whos e coordinate s
are (6500 , 8732) . Sinc e i, 2 i s positive here , th e shea r stresse s o n opposit e face s
of th e elemen t for m a clockwis e couple . Continu e movin g o n th e circl e i n a
counterclockwise directio n unti l — T , , is reached. A t thi s point, th e coordinate s
of (6500, —8732 ) ar e th e norma l an d shea r stresse s o n th e elemen t face , which
is 90 ° fro m th e firs t face . Th e elemen t i s show n i n Fig . 2.14 . Th e angl e
202 = 90° - 20, , and so 02 = 11.8".
FIG. 2.13. Principa l stres s elemen t fo r Exampl e 2.2.

FIG. 2.14. Elemen t showin g T ma). in Exampl e 2.2 .
2.5. Basic concepts of strain

Accompanying stres s ther e i s usuall y some typ e o f deformatio n whic h w e
regard a s strain. As in the cas e o f stress, we find there ar e tw o genera l kind s
of strain ; namely, linea r strai n an d shea r strain .
Linear strai n i s represente d b y th e lengthenin g ( + fo r tension ) o r
shortening ( — for compression) o f a straight lin e in the material. W e assume
that al l longitudinal fibers of the ba r elongat e identically , and tha t th e cros s
sections of the ba r tha t ar e originall y plane an d perpendicula r t o th e axi s of
the ba r remai n s o durin g elongation . Suc h a ba r i s shown i n Fig . 2.15 , and
its uni t strai n s is given b y th e expressio n
where 6 = total elongatio n o f the ba r

L = original lengt h o f the ba r
If th e cros s sectio n o f th e ba r i s no t constant , o r i f th e loa d i s

not uniforml y applied , al l longitudina l fiber s o f th e ba r wil l no t elongat e
uniformly, an d s o Eq . (2.29 ) represent s averag e strai n only . Thus, th e uni t
strain varie s fro m poin t t o poin t alon g th e bar . I n thi s case, th e uni t strai n
is determine d b y considerin g th e elongatio n d d o f a cros s sectio n o f length
FIG. 2.15. Elongatio n o f a bar.
dL. Th e uni t strai n a t a poin t ca n b e written as
If axia l compressio n i s applied , Eqs . (2.29 ) and (2.30 ) apply , wit h th e uni t
strain bein g negative.
When a bar , suc h a s th e on e i n Fig . 2.15 , is loaded uniforml y ove r th e
end faces , onl y thos e cros s sections norma l t o th e ba r axi s ar e subjecte d t o
stress. Observatio n o f such test s show s that th e extensio n o f the ba r i n th e
axial directio n i s accompanied b y a latera l contractio n o f the bar . Poisson ,
a Frenc h mathematician , demonstrated analyticall y that th e axial and latera l
strains ar e proportiona l t o eac h othe r withi n th e rang e o f Hooke's law , and
the rati o i s constant fo r a give n material . Thi s rati o i s known a s Poisson' s
ratio an d i s expressed a s
Figure 2.1 6 show s a n element , give n b y abed prio r t o loading , whos e

corners ar e square . Th e elemen t i s then loade d b y the shearin g stres s show n
and distort s int o ab'c'd. Sinc e th e angl e 7 throug h whic h line s a b an d c d
rotate i s ver y small , it i s assumed tha t ab ' i s equal t o a b an d dc ' i s equal t o
dc. In thi s case, ta n y = bb'/ab, an d s o for small angles ta n 7 may b e replace d
by 7 . Thus , th e shearin g strai n i s give n b y th e angl e 7 , whos e valu e i s i n
radians.
2.6. Plane strain

The transformatio n equations fo r plane stres s were developed i n Section 2.3 .
There th e stresses in the z direction wer e zero; that is, a, = t x, = T V, =0 . We
noted, however , tha t i f a z = ff 3(rx, = i y. = 0), then <r 3 could hav e a valu e
other tha n zer o an d th e biaxia l transformation equation s wer e stil l valid .
Since ou r wor k wit h strai n gage s wil l generally involv e applyin g the m
to th e surfac e o f a machin e element , w e wil l nee d th e transformatio n
equations for plane strain. This implies that e . = y x. ~ y y. = 0, and w e might
STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSI S AND STRESS-STRAI N RELATION S 63
FIG. 2.16. Elemen t subjected t o pur e shear .
assume tha t a plan e stres s stat e produce s a plan e strai n state . Thi s i s no t
the case , however , fo r biaxia l stresse s produc e a strai n i n th e z directio n
because o f the Poisso n effect . Th e strai n produced, e z, wil l b e th e principa l
strain e 3, with y xz = yyz = 0. This wil l becom e apparen t whe n stress-strai n
relationships ar e examined.
The stres s transformatio n equation s an d th e strai n transformatio n
equations hav e th e sam e form , an d s o th e strai n transformatio n equation s
can b e written directly by making th e following substitution s into th e stress
transformation equations :
Making thes e substitution s int o Eqs . (2.5 ) an d (2.6 ) wil l yiel d th e strai n
transformation equations . Thus ,
The sign of the shear strain must be compatible wit h shear stress. Figure
2.17 show s a n elemen t subjecte d t o positiv e shea r stress . Prior t o loading ,
sides A B an d A C ar e a t righ t angle s t o eac h other . Afte r th e stresse s ar e
applied th e right angl e BAG will deform to angle B'AC', whic h is n/2 - y xy.
Since thi s distortio n i s produced b y positive shear stresses , th e shea r strain ,
yxy, wil l be denned as positive whe n the angl e betwee n tw o orthogonal line s
decreases.
FIG. 2.17. Elemen t subjecte d t o positiv e shea r stresses.
The orientatio n o f a t an d E J with respec t t o th e x axi s i s the same . I n

order t o determin e th e orientatio n o f <T , with respec t t o th e x axis , tw o o f
the thre e trigonometri c relation s give n b y Eqs . (2.7) , (2.8) , an d (2.9 ) wer e
used. These thre e expressions may b e writte n i n terms of strain, wit h th e us e
of tw o o f th e thre e equation s establishin g the orientatio n o f e ^ Th e thre e
required expression s i n term s o f strain ar e
The principa l strains , S L an d s 2, follo w directl y fro m Eq . (2.10 ) whe n

the appropriat e value s of strain ar e substitute d for stress . Thi s give s
The secon d ter m o n th e righ t sid e o f Eq . (2.37 ) is one-half o f the maximu m

shear strai n i n th e plane . Therefore ,
Unlike stresses , whic h ca n onl y b e determine d indirectly , linear strain s

are subjec t t o direc t measurement . I f an x y referenc e syste m i s chosen, then
strain measurement s ar e mad e i n thre e known direction s relativ e to th e x y
coordinate syste m throug h th e us e o f three-element strai n rosettes . A delt a

rosette has three gages arranged a t 60° (or 120° ) intervals, while a rectangular
rosette ha s thre e gage s arrange d a t 45 ° intervals. Eac h measure d strai n i s
entered int o Eq . (2.32) as e x., and 0 is the angl e betwee n th e x axi s and th e
measured strain . Th e thre e strai n reading s use d i n Eq . (2.32 ) produce thre e
independent equation s tha t ar e solve d simultaneousl y for E X, ey, an d y xy.
Knowing th e componen t strain s e x, a,, , an d y xy, w e ca n no w comput e th e
principal strain s b y usin g Eq . (2.37) . Th e principa l strai n axe s ar e locate d
relative t o th e x axi s by usin g an y tw o o f Eqs. (2.34) , (2.35), and (2.36) .
Summary of major equations
Example 2.3 . Th e followin g strain s an d thei r orientatio n relativ e t o a n x y

coordinate system o n a machine elemen t ar e given. (Note: The symbo l /i stand s
for 1 x 1(T 6).
The arrangemen t o f the gage s givin g these reading s i s shown i n Fig . 2.18 .
(a) Determin e e x, s y, and y xy.

(b) Determin e e l an d e 2 an d th e orientatio n o f e^ realtive t o th e x axis .
(c) Determin e (y/2) max in th e plane .
FIG. 2.18. Gag e arrangemen t fo r Exampl e 2.3.
Solution. I n orde r t o determin e «, an d e 2, w e must first determin e e x, e y, an d

yxy i n th e x y coordinat e system . Thi s require s thre e independen t equations ,
which w e obtain b y usin g Eq. (2.32) . Not e tha t e. x, becomes i n tur n e a, s b, an d
EC, while 9 takes o n th e correspondin g value s of O a, 6h, an d Q c.
The thre e equation s reduc e to
Solving th e equation s simultaneously , w e obtai n E X = 80 0 uin/in; e y =

— 300 /^in/in; }'xy = 1 200 uradians. The principa l stresses are computed usin g Eq.
(2.37).
(a)
STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSI S AND STRESS-STRAI N RELATION S 67
FIG. 2.19. Orientatio n o f the principa l stresse s i n Exampl e 2.3.
(b) I n orde r t o determin e th e orientatio n o f e ^ wit h respec t t o th e

x axis , Eqs. (2.34 ) and (2.35 ) will be used. Fro m Eq . (2.34),
Rrom Eq. (2.35),
The commo n quadran t i s the first, and s o 2 9 = 41.5°. Thus, e 1 lie s at a n angl e
of 9 = 23.75° in a counterclockwis e directio n fro m th e x axis . The orientatio n
is show n i n Fig . 2.19 .
(c) Th e maximu m shearin g strai n i n th e plane i s obtaine d b y usin g

Eq. (2.38).
Note: Th e proble m coul d also b e solve d b y alignin g th e x' an d / axe s

along E O and e c, respectively, then throug h th e us e of Eq. (2.32), determining th e
component strain s i n th e x'y' system . Finally , th e transformatio n equation s
could b e use d t o ge t th e desire d value s in th e x y coordinat e system .
FIG. 2.20. Mohr' s circl e fo r strain .
2.7. Mohr's circle for strain

Mohr's circl e for strain is constructed in a manner simila r to tha t o f Mohr' s
circle fo r stress . Figur e 2.2 0 show s th e Mohr' s circl e fo r strai n an d it s
attendant element . Figure 2.20 a i s the elemen t use d fo r th e constructio n o f
Mohr's circl e fo r stress , whil e Fig . 2.20 b show s th e elemen t i n it s distorte d
position (greatl y exaggerated).
To plo t th e diagram, construct the orthogonal e and y/ 2 axes, then start
with th e x axi s an d plo t e x as O A o n th e e axis. The shearin g stresses acting
on th e element faces ope n angl e DAB t o D'A'B', an d s o it is taken as positive
for Mohr's circle. This is the shearing strai n y xv, an d sinc e i t is positive, y xy/2,
is plotte d a s A B paralle l t o th e y/ 2 axis . Th e coordinate s o f poin t B ar e

(ex, y xy/2). Next , plo t E y as O C on th e e axis an d y xy/2 a s C D parallel to th e
y/2 axis . The coordinate s o f point D are (E y, — yxy/2). Connec t point s B an d
D wit h a straigh t line ; length B D i s the diamete r o f the circl e with it s cente r
at point E . The diameter extende d outward through poin t B represents the x
axis, while the diamete r extende d outwar d throug h poin t D represents th e y
axis. Thes e tw o points , 180 ° apar t o n th e circle , correspon d t o 90 ° on th e
element. Th e angl e 2 6 is measured positiv e i n a counterclockwis e directio n
from th e x axis . Point F i s th e maximu m valu e o f y/2 i n th e x y plane , an d
its coordinates ar e [_(E X + s y)/2, y max /2]. Point G is the othe r maximu m value
of y/2, and it s coordinates ar e \_(E X + s y)/2, — ymax/2]. Point s H an d / ar e th e
valuesof the principa l strains , e^ and e 2, respectively. The value s of 29 on th e
circles fo r stres s an d strai n correspond . Fo r instance , th e angl e between a 1
and th e x axi s o n th e circl e fo r stres s i s identica l t o th e angl e betwee n E ^
and th e x axi s on th e circl e for strain .
If we examine Mohr's circle shown in Fig. 2.20, the following can be seen:
1. Th e cente r o f th e circl e correspond s t o a n isotropi c (hydrostatic )

component o f strain, % .
2. Th e radiu s o f the circl e is
3. Fro m Mohr' s circle w e see that th e principal strain s ar e
Note tha t Eqs . (2.41 ) an d (2.42 ) are anothe r for m o f Eq. (2.37).
4. Mohr' s circl e i s very helpfu l i n determinin g th e locatio n o f e^ W e saw
in Sectio n 2. 6 that tw o trigonometri c relationship s wer e require d t o
locate e 1; while on th e circl e we can locat e i t visuall y and comput e th e
angle b y usin g
where 2 9 is the acut e angl e betwee n B E an d th e e axis.

5. Th e signs of the strain components are easily determined from th e circle.

Normal strain s present no problem , but fo r th e shea r strain, i t is more
convenient t o calculat e its magnitud e an d the n determin e its sig n b y
reference t o th e circle .
Example 2.4. Th e strains on the surface o f a machine element are the following:
EX = 100 0 uin/in , a v = —40 0 uin/in, y xy = 80 0 uradians
(a) Plo t Mohr' s circl e and determin e th e principa l strain s « , an d f: 2.

(b) Determin e th e orientatio n o f t', } relativ e to th e x axis .
(c) Determin e f; v ., e. y-, and y v ) .- fo r 0 = 3 5 .
Note: y xy i s positive by th e sig n conventio n establishe d i n Sectio n 2.6 , an d

so mus t b e plotte d a s negative fo r Mohr' s circle .
Solution, (a ) Mohr' s circl e fo r strai n wil l b e plotte d t o scale , bu t th e pertinen t

values wil l b e calculated. Th e followin g step s ar e take n i n plottin g the diagra m
shown i n Fig . 2.21.
1. Plo t E X = 100 0 |iin/in o n th e e . axis as poin t A .

2. Sinc e y xy = 80 0 uradians, i t mus t b e take n a s negative fo r Mohr's circle.
Thus, w e plo t "f xy!2 = —40 0 uradians fro m e, t parallel t o th e negativ e y/ 2
axis. Thi s i s point B , whose coordinate s ar e (1000 , —400) .
3. Plo t e, y =—40 0 uin/in o n th e B axis a s poin t C .
4. Fro m e, y, plot y xy/2 = 40 0 uradians paralle l t o th e positiv e y/ 2 axis . Thi s
is poin t D , whos e coordinate s ar e ( — 400,400).
5. Joi n points B and D to get the diameter o f the circle. Th e intersection of line
BD wit h th e c axis i s the cente r o f th e circl e £ .
6. Dra w th e circl e and measur e al l angles fro m th e x axi s a s shown , wit h th e
counterclockwise directio n bein g positive .
From Eq . (2.39),
From Eq . (2.40),
From Eq . (2.41),
FIG. 2.21. Mohr' s circl e for Exampl e 2.4.
From Eq . (2.42) ,
(b) Th e orientatio n o f E J relative t o th e x axi s ca n b e measure d directl y

from th e circle . I t lie s i n a counterclockwis e directio n fro m th e x axis . We ca n
also calculat e it s value usin g Eq . (2.43) :
Therefore, 9 = 14.87° . The orientation s o f e l an d s 2 ar e show n i n Fig . 2.22 .

(c) Th e thre e value s can b e scaled directl y from th e circl e if so desired. W e
can als o us e Eq . (2.32 ) t o determin e th e norma l strains , an d Eq . (2.33 ) t o
determine th e shearin g strain . Usin g Eq . (2.32 ) an d 9 = 35°, s x. ca n b e
determined.
FIG. 2.22. Principa l strain s fo r Exampl e 2.4.
For e y., the angl e is 0 + 90°.
Using Eq . (2.33) and 0 = 35 ,
Observe her e tha t y^ y ' s negativ e whe n compute d usin g th e transformation

equation, whic h i s in keepin g with th e valu e o f - t>x,y, from th e Mohr' s diagram.
All of the compute d value s can b e checked by usin g Mohr' s diagram, shown in
Fig. 2.21.
2.8. Stress-strain relationships

We hav e considere d stres s an d strai n separatel y a t a point . I n developin g
the transformatio n equation s fo r stress, the stati c equilibrium o f the elemen t
was examine d an d th e resultin g equations wer e no t dependen t o n materia l
properties. Althoug h th e strai n transformatio n equation s wer e writte n
directly fro m thos e o f stress, on e shoul d b e awar e o f the fac t tha t the y ma y
be develope d fro m th e geometr y o f smal l deformations , an d therefor e
material properties d o not appear . Th e objective, now, is to relat e stress and

strain, an d s o material propertie s wil l be the link .
Robert Hook e was the first to stat e th e relationshi p betwee n stress and
strain. Fo r a tensil e tes t i t can b e state d a s
where o x = the longitudinal stress

EX = th e longitudina l strain
E = a constant o f proportionality called the modulus of elasticity
In th e mos t genera l for m o f Hooke' s law , i t i s assume d eac h stres s

component ha s a linear relationship with the six strain components, resulting
in 3 6 elastic constants. Fo r a n isotropi c material, however , it ca n b e shown
that th e 36 constants ar e not al l independent and tha t onl y two independent
constants exis t (1).
By testing, three elastic constants ca n be determined fo r a given material.
The elasti c constant s ar e th e modulu s o f elasticity , E , th e shea r modulu s
(modulus o f rigidity), G , and Poisson' s ratio , v . If a tensil e test i s conducted
on a specimen with a rectangular cros s section, the stress <r x will be uniforml y
distributed ove r tw o paralle l section s norma l t o th e x axis , with th e x axi s
taken i n the direction o f loading; the face s norma l t o th e y an d z axes would
be stress free. Observatio n o f such tests show the extension in the x direction
is accompanied b y a lateral contractio n i n the y an d z directions. Th e strai n
in thes e tw o direction s i s negativ e and proportiona l t o th e strai n i n th e x
direction. Thus, a s show n b y Eq . (2.31),
where v is Poisson' s ratio .

Since there are only two independent constant s fo r an isotropic material,
a relationshi p mus t exis t between E, v, and G . The shea r modulu s G can b e
expressed i n term s o f E an d v as
The si x equations relatin g strai n i n term s o f stress ar e

If Eqs . (2.47 ) are solve d fo r stres s i n term s o f strain, w e have
Equations (2.47 ) an d (2.48 ) represen t th e triaxia l stres s an d triaxia l strai n

case. Special stress and strai n states may be determined fro m thes e equations.
Plane stress state: a , = yx. = yy, = 0. Th e plane, or biaxial , stres s cas e was
developed i n Sectio n 2.3 . Since a z = 0 , Eq. (2.48c) can b e used t o determin e
s, i n term s o f s x an d e Therefor e
By substitutin g th e expressio n fo r K , given b y Eq . (2.49 ) int o Eqs . (2.48a )

and (2.48b) , we arrive a t
The correspondin g strai n equation s ca n b e obtaine d fro m Eqs . (2.47) :
The expression s fo r e z give n b y Eqs . (2.49 ) an d (2.51c ) giv e identica l

results, o f course . A s pointe d ou t earlier , eve n thoug h a plan e stres s stat e
exists, th e strai n stat e i s triaxial.
Plane strain state: E Z =y xz = j yz = 0 . Sinc e ez = 0 , az ca n be written in terms
of a x an d a y b y usin g Eq. (2.47c) . This gives
The valu e of a z give n b y Eq . (2.52 ) can b e substitute d into th e expression s

for e x and e y, given by Eqs. (2.47a) and (2.47b) , respectively. The expressions
for e _ and e yv in term s o f stress then becom e
The corresponding equation s for stress in terms of strain are, from Eqs . (2.48),
Once again, not e that whe n we have plane strai n we do no t hav e plane
stress. Furthermore, th e values of a. given by Eqs. (2.52) and (2.54c ) produc e
identical results.
Uniaxial stress state: a y = a . = T X). = i x. = T V ,_ = 0 . I n the case o f a uniaxial
stress state , Eqs . (2.47 ) reduc e t o
We se e here tha t eve n thoug h a uniaxia l stress stat e exists , the strai n stat e
is triaxial .
Our equation s hav e been writte n i n terms of the xyz coordinat e system,
but i f w e ar e dealin g wit h th e principa l stresse s an d strains , the n th e
subscripts x , y , an d z ca n b e replace d b y subscript s 1 , 2, an d 3 t o pu t th e
equations i n term s of principal stresse s and strains . In thi s case, ther e would
be n o shearin g strain s an d henc e n o shearin g stresses . Equation s (2.47 )
become
Equations (2.48 ) become
Corresponding change s ca n b e made fo r the othe r stres s an d strai n states .
2.9. Application of equations

The material developed can now be used in an application. Suppose we have
an existin g steel machine elemen t o f suc h a shap e tha t th e stresse s canno t
be determined analytically. At a point in question a three-element rectangular
strain rosett e i s applie d i n orde r t o determin e th e strains . Th e gage s ar e
applied s o that on e gage is aligned alon g th e chose n x axis , as shown in Fig .
2.23. The gage s are designate d a s a, b, and c . As the membe r i s loaded, eac h
gage wil l b e strained . Ou r goa l i s to obtai n th e principa l stresse s and thei r
orientation relativ e to th e x axis .
After testin g has been completed, the followin g informatio n is presented
for analysis :
efl = - 80 0 uin/in at 9 a =0°

£„ = -30 0 uin/i n a t 8 b = 45°
ec = 120 0 uin/in a t 9 C =90 °
E = 30 x 10 6 psi an d v = 0. 3
Before th e principa l strain s ca n b e calculated , e x, e y, an d y xy mus t b e

determined. Th e desire d value s can b e compute d usin g the strai n reading s
in conjunctio n wit h Eq . (2.32) . It i s obviou s tha t e x — Ea and s y = e c. Thus ,
we ca n us e th e readin g give n by s b an d Eq . (2.32 ) in orde r t o obtai n y xy/2:
where 9 = 45°. This gives

FIG. 2.23 . Three-elemen t rectangula r rosette .
Thus,
The principa l strain s ca n b e compute d usin g Eq . (2.37) :
K! = 131 8 uin/in; i; 2 = — 9 1 8 uin/i n
The orientatio n o f K, can b e determined b y using any tw o o f Eqs. (2.34) ,

(2.35), an d (2.36) . Fro m Eq . (2.34) ,
From Eq . (2.35) ,
FIG. 2.24. Orientatio n o f principal strains .
Since th e onl y matc h i s third quadrant , 2 9 must b e in tha t quadrant ; thus ,

29 = 206.6°, or 9 = 103.3° . Figure 2.2 4 shows the orientation o f the principa l
strains relativ e to th e x axis .
A Mohr' s circl e coul d als o hav e bee n used , an d s o i t wil l b e draw n i n
order t o check the values of the principal strain s and thei r orientation. Note ,
however, that while yxy/2 fo r the transformation equation i s negative, its sign
must b e changed t o positiv e when plotting Mohr' s circle . Figure 2.2 5 shows
the diagra m fo r strain . Mohr' s diagra m show s quite clearly th e orientatio n
of E! relative to th e x axis . From the circle , we see that w e could hav e gon e
in a negative (clockwise) direction fro m th e x axi s to E I through a n angl e of
29 = 153.4° . In Fig . 2.24, this would be the clockwise angle of 0 = 76.7 ° from
the x axi s t o E ± shown i n th e fourt h quadrant .
Since thi s i s a plan e stres s problem , a v an d a 2 ma y b e determine d b y
using Eqs . (2.50a ) an d (2.50b) . Her e th e subscript s x an d y ar e change d t o
1 an d 2 , respectively. Thus,
The orientatio n o f a 1 an d cr 2 W'H; °f course , be th e sam e a s e l an d e 2.

FIG. 2.25. Mohr' s circl e for strain .
The tw o principa l strain s e^ and £ 2 have been calculated . Becaus e of the

Poisson effect , ther e will also b e a strain alon g th e z, or 3, axis and s o e3 = s, .
This strai n ca n b e compute d b y usin g eithe r Eq . (2.49 ) o r Eq . (2.51c) .
Choosing Eq . (2.51c),
Since a 3 = 0 an d a ^ an d <7 2 are o f opposit e sign , th e maximu m value

of th e shea r stres s a t th e poin t i s
The proble m coul d hav e bee n approache d i n a differen t manner . Onc e

sx, E y, and }' xv wer e determined , a x, a y, an d t xy coul d hav e bee n compute d
by usin g the stress-strain relationships, an d th e proble m complete d b y using
the stresses .
2.10. Stress and strain invariants

The development o f the transformation equation s for stress has been limite d
to th e biaxia l stress state . Th e derivatio n for th e triaxia l stres s state , a s wel l
as th e determinatio n o f the principa l stresse s and thei r orientatio n relativ e
to th e origina l coordinat e system , is mor e complex . Durin g thi s proces s a
cubic equatio n i s developed whos e root s ar e rea l an d ar e th e value s o f the
principal stresses , a^, a 2, an d <J 3(1). The cubi c equation i s
where
The term s / 1? I 2, an d / 3 ar e calle d stres s invariants , sinc e the y ar e

constants fo r any axi s transformation . Considerin g 7 t a s a n example ,
Thus, th e su m o f the norma l stresse s fo r an y transforme d axe s wil l always

have th e sam e value . On e ca n chec k Ex . 2.1, where <7 3 = 0 , and fin d tha t
A cubi c equatio n simila r t o Eq . (2.58 ) ca n als o b e develope d fo r th e

determination o f the principa l strain s (1) . It i s
where
Again, th e root s o f Eq . (2.62 ) ar e th e value s o f the principa l strains , e t, e 2,

and e 3. The terms / t, I 2, an d / 3 ar e called strai n invariants.
The stress states tha t we deal wit h ar e generally biaxial . The strain stat e
will be triaxial, but sinc e the strains that wil l b e measured ar e o n th e surface
of a machin e element , th e strai n norma l t o th e surfac e at tha t poin t wil l b e
due t o th e Poisso n effect . I n thi s case th e strai n normal t o th e surfac e a t th e
point wil l b e constan t regardles s o f th e orientatio n o f th e axes . Therefore,
for plan e strain , I t ca n b e writte n as
/, = e x + E y = £ v, + « v, = E ] + i: 2 = a constan t
since e , = zz, = c3.

It wil l b e pointe d ou t late r i n th e tex t how / , ca n b e use d whe n strain
rosettes ar e considered .
Problems
In problem s 2. 1 through 2.8 , determine th e principal stresse s and show , by sketching,
their orientatio n relativ e t o th e x y coordinat e system . Dra w Mohr' s circl e fo r eac h
and determin e th e maximu m shear stres s a t th e point .
For al l problems i n this chapter , use v = 0. 3 and E = 30 x 10 6 psi.

Prob. No. psi psi psi
2.1 10000 3500 -5000
2.2 12500 12500 8000
2.3 -8000 4700 5500
2.4 9500 9500 0
2.5 -15000 -8500 -3000
2.6 0 0 7500
2.7 -15000 -15000 -8000
2.8 12000 -4000 0
2.9. Fo r th e cantileve r bea m an d th e loadin g show n i n Fig . 2.26, determin e th e

following:
(a) Th e principa l stresse s a t poin t A an d B an d thei r orientatio n relativ e t o

the x axis .
(b) Th e maximu m shea r stres s a t point s A an d B .
2.10. A closed-end tub e ha s a n insid e diamete r o f 2.000 in an d a n outsid e diamete r
of 2.12 5 in. Th e interna l pressur e i s 75 0 psi an d th e tub e i s subjecte d t o a
torsional momen t o f 3000 in-lb. Determine th e principa l stresses .
2.11. Tw o gear s ar e keye d t o a rotatin g shaf t a s show n i n Fig . 2.27. Forc e F D is
applied t o gea r D in th e y z plane . Determin e th e reactiv e forc e F c (als o i n th e
yz plane) , an d th e bearin g reactions , assumin g frictionles s bearings . Dra w a
free-body diagra m o f the assembly and determin e th e maximum shearing stres s
in th e shaf t betwee n th e gears .
2.12. A mechanic use s a torqu e wrenc h an d a n extensio n bar t o tighte n a nu t (Fig.
2.8). I f the torqu e wrenc h read s lOOft-lb , determin e th e principa l tensil e stres s
and th e maximu m shea r stres s a t th e sectio n show n o n th e extensio n bar.
FIG. 26
FIG. 2.28.
84 THE BONDE D ELECTRICAL RESISTANC E STRAI N GAG E
FIG. 2.29.
2.13. Figur e 2.2 9 show s a principa l stres s elemen t an d it s orientatio n relativ e

to th e x axis . Determin e a x, a y, an d T X>,, the n sketc h th e elemen t showin g th e
stresses i n thei r prope r directions .
2.14. Figur e 2.3 0 shows a stress element. Using Mohr's circle, determine the following:
(a) Th e principa l stresses . Sketc h th e principa l stres s elemen t an d sho w it s

orientation relativ e t o th e x axis .
(b) Th e maximu m shea r stress . Sketc h th e maximu m shear stres s elemen t an d
show it s orientatio n relativ e to th e x axis .
(c) Verif y you r answers b y analytica l methods .
In Problem s 2.1 5 through 2.24 , determine th e principa l strains , s t an d E 2 and> b y a

sketching, thei r orientatio n relativ e t o th e x y coordinat e system . Dra w a Mohr' s
circle fo r eac h problem . Al l values are i n |iin/in .
Prob. No.
2.15 1800 -800 1520
2.16 1660 355 -960
2.17 1035 -260 770
2.18 -140 710 -390
2.19 0 0 2000
2.20 0 0 -500
2.21 1400 400 800
2.22 -800 400 0
2.23 1 150 1 150 0
2.24 640 430 -1430
FIG. 2.30.
FIG. 2.31.
2.25. Th e followin g strain s ar e given :
= 250 0 uin/in, =- 100 0 uin/ = 150 0 uradian s
(a) Determin e gj , s 2, an d y max .

(b) Determin e th e gage readings fo r (i) a three-element rectangular rosett e and
(ii) a three-elemen t delt a rosette , assumin g gag e a i s aligne d alon g th e x
axis, as show n i n Fig . 2.31 .
2.26. Th e three-elemen t rectangula r rosett e show n i n Fig . 2.3 2 give s th e followin g
strains:
= -80 0 uin/in , = 500 uin/in, 120 0 uin/in
Determine th e principal strain s an d thei r orientation relativ e t o th e x axis .

FIG. 2.32.
2.27. A three-element rectangula r rosett e give s the followin g readings:
Determine th e principa l strain s an d thei r orientatio n relativ e to gag e a , which

is aligned alon g th e x axis.
2.28. A three-element delt a rosett e give s the followin g readings :
Determine th e principa l strain s an d thei r orientatio n relativ e to th e x axi s if

gage b is aligned alon g th e x axis .
2.29. Th e rosett e i n Fig . 2.3 3 i s attache d t o a machin e member . Determin e th e
principal strain s and thei r orientatio n i f the following strain readings have bee n
recorded:
FIG. 2.33 .
2.30. Determin e , an d a 2 f° r Proble m 2.26 .

2.31. Determin e a an d <7 2 fo r Proble m 2.27 .
2.32. Determin e a and a 2 fo r Problem 2.28.
2.33. Give n th e followin g strains :
ex = 75 0 uin/in e y = — 800 u.in/in

ez = 450 uin/in y xy = 200 uradians
yyz = — 5000 (iradians y xz = 3000 ^radian s
Determine
2.34. I f E! = 80 0 |iin/in and £ 2 = —20 0 (iin/in, determine the stress necessary to make
£3 = 0.
2.35. Give n th e followin g stresses :
Determine th e principal strain s s l, e 2, and E3.

2.36. Th e strai n gag e rosette , Fig . 2.34 , i s mounte d o n th e surfac e o f a machin e
member. Previous calculations have yielded the following strains in the xy plan e
at poin t 0 :
sx = 157 0 uin/in, e y = —47 2 uin/in, y xy = 141 6 uradians
(a) Determin e th e expecte d strai n rosette readings .

(b) Determin e al l o f the principa l strains .
(c) Determin e a x, a y, an d t xy a t poin t 0.
(d) Sketc h the principal stress element and it s orientation relativ e to the x axis .
Show th e value s of o ^ an d <7 2-
FIG. 2.34.
88 THE BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANCE STRAI N GAG E
2.37. Fo r th e stres s elemen t show n i n Fig . 2.35 , determine th e following :

(a) Th e stres s actin g alon g th e z axi s that wil l mak e R . = 0 .
(b) Wit h the stress from par t (a ) acting on the element, compute c x, ey, and
2.38. Th e 1.0-i n diameter stee l shaf t i s loaded a s show n i n Fig . 2.3 6 an d ha s a strai n
gage rosette attached a t point A . Determine the expected values of «„, s,,, and c.
FIG. 2.35.
FIG. 2.36.
STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSI S AND STRESS-STRAI N RELATION S 8 9
REFERENCES
1. Durelli , A . J. , E . A . Phillips, an d C . H . Tsao , Introduction t o th e Theoretical and

Experimental Analysis o f Stress and Strain, New York , McGraw-Hill , 1958, Chaps .
1, 2 , 4 .
3
ELEMENTARY CIRCUITS
3.1. Introduction
Since the change in resistance of a strain gag e is measured b y its effect upo n
either the current passing throug h th e gage o r th e voltage drop across it , the
gage mus t form par t o f some kin d o f electrical circuit. Figure 3. 1 shows suc h
a strai n gage .
For initia l condition s w e can writ e
where E = voltage dro p across th e gag e

/ = curren t passin g throug h th e gag e
Rg = gage resistanc e
When th e gag e resistanc e change s fro m R g t o R s + AR 9 , either th e current ,

/, o r th e voltage , E , or both , wil l b e changed .
It i s our purpos e no w t o explor e tw o simpl e circuit s and t o investigat e
the correspondin g effect s o f uni t changes , AR g/Rg, i n gag e resistanc e upo n
voltage and current . Schematic diagrams o f the two elementary circuits, each
containing a singl e strai n gage , ar e show n i n Figs . 3. 2 and 3.3 . Th e firs t o f
these indicate s a constant-voltag e sourc e connecte d t o th e gage , whil e th e
second represent s a constant-curren t circuit.
FIG. 3.1. Strai n gage.

ELEMENTARY CIRCUIT S 91
FIG. 3.2. Constan t voltage applie d t o gage .
FIG. 3.3. Constant-curren t circuit .
3.2. Constant-voltage circuit

For th e cas e show n i n Fig . 3.2 , th e applie d voltage , V , will b e th e sam e a s
£, th e potentia l dro p acros s th e gage . Becaus e thi s circui t contain s a
constant-voltage sourc e (fo r example, a batter y o f sufficien t size) , there wil l
be n o chang e i n potentia l dro p acros s th e gag e eve n thoug h ther e ma y b e
variations i n resistance .
Due t o th e applicatio n o f constan t potential , V , th e onl y thin g tha t
happens whe n the gag e resistanc e change s i s a chang e i n the current . Thus ,
when th e gag e resistanc e change s fro m R g t o R g + AR g, th e correspondin g
change i n curren t i s from /t o 7 — A/.
We can now examine how the change in current, A/, is related t o strain ,
or t o th e uni t chang e i n gag e resistance . Initially,
After a change in gage resistance of ARg, th e current changes by — A/, and s o
Expanding th e righ t side,
Since E = IR g, Eq . (3.2 ) becomes
or
Equation (3.3 ) ma y no w b e expressed i n term s o f unit change s in resistanc e

by dividin g each ter m by R g. Thi s give s
Solving fo r A I produce s
We know , however, that
where £ = strain , in/i n

GF = gag e facto r
Substituting th e valu e of AR g/Rg give n b y Eq . (3.5 ) into Eq . (3.4 ) gives
We can now write the expression for the change in current per unit of strain as
The curren t ca n b e written i n term s o f the applie d voltag e a s
Using thi s value of /, Eq . (3.7 ) become s
Equations (3.4 ) an d (3.6 ) indicat e tha t th e chang e i n current , A/ , i s a

nonlinear functio n o f the uni t chang e i n gag e resistance , o r th e strain . O n
this accoun t i t i s sometime s mor e convenien t t o expres s Eq . (3.7 ) i n th e
following modifie d form :
where n , the nonlinearit y facto r fo r thi s case, is
Figure 3. 4 show s a curv e representin g th e value s o f th e nonlinearit y

factor, n , a s give n i n Eq . (3.10) , i n term s o f th e chang e i n gag e resistance ,
FIG. 3.4. Nonlinearit y factor vs . unit change i n gag e resistance .

From th e relationshi p expresse d i n Eq . (3.9), we can dra w tw o interest -

ing conclusions :
1. Th e circui t indication , o r output , pe r uni t strain , A//e , i s a nonlinea r
function o f the current / an d th e gage facto r G t.
2. Th e maximu m indication , o r output , i n term s o f curren t chang e pe r
unit o f strai n wil l occu r fo r ver y smal l (theoreticall y zero) strains . I n
quantitative term s thi s will b e represente d b y th e produc t o f the initia l
current an d th e gag e factor , 7GF .
Since th e maximu m curren t (roughl y 3 0 milliamperes ) tha t ca n b e
carried b y th e gag e depend s upo n th e abilit y t o dissipat e heat , ther e wil l
definitely b e a n uppe r limi t fo r th e outpu t pe r uni t strain , A//e , tha t ca n b e
achieved for any particular installation. For example , if the maximum current
Im i s 30 milliamperes an d th e gag e facto r G F is 3.5, then th e maximu m value
of A// e wil l b e
= (0.030)(3.5) = 0.10 5 amps/unit strai n
or
= 0.10 5 microamps/microstrain
It shoul d b e note d that , fo r th e indicatio n o f strain , thi s i s a current -

sensitive circuit . A s such , i t possesse s certai n characteristic s tha t i t share s
with othe r type s o f current-sensitive circuits use d wit h strai n gages .
Since A//e , th e outpu t pe r uni t strain , varie s directl y wit h th e gag e
current, the highes t possibl e curren t consisten t wit h th e limitation s impose d
by heatin g effect s shoul d b e employed . Equatio n (3.8 ) indicate s tha t thi s
objective ca n b e achieve d eithe r b y th e us e o f low-resistanc e gage s o r b y
employing high value s for the applie d voltage . However , because considera -
tions of safety an d convenienc e impose a n uppe r limi t o n th e applie d voltag e
V, i t wil l b e desirabl e t o selec t strai n gage s o f low resistanc e an d hig h gag e
factor, fo r thi s typ e o f circuit , i n orde r t o achiev e th e maximu m possibl e
indication fo r a give n strain.
3.3. Constant-current circuit

An alternativ e t o th e circui t whic h applie s a constan t voltag e t o th e gag e i s
the circui t deliverin g a constan t curren t t o th e gage . Figur e 3. 3 shows th e
circuit. I n thi s cas e A / = 0 a t al l times . However , du e t o th e fac t tha t th e
current i s constant, ther e wil l be changes i n the voltag e drop across the gag e
as it s resistance changes . W e ar e able , therefore , to determin e th e resistanc e
change b y measurin g th e chang e i n voltag e drop acros s th e gage .
ELEMENTARY CIRCUIT S 9 5
We no w investigat e th e relationshi p betwee n th e uni t chang e i n gag e

resistance and th e corresponding chang e in voltage dro p acros s th e gage for
the constant current circuit . I n making th e analysis, w e refer to Fig . 3.3 . The
initial condition s are agai n give n by Eq . (3.1).
When th e resistance of the gage changes from R g to R g + AR g, w e can writ e

the correspondin g expressio n fo r the voltag e drop acros s th e gag e a s
Substituting th e valu e o f E from Eq . (3.1 ) int o Eq . (3.11) , we hav e
Equation (3.12 ) can be written in terms of s and G F by using Eq. (3.5). Thus,
The potentia l dro p acros s th e gag e pe r uni t of strain ma y b e written as
From thes e equation s w e ca n dra w th e followin g conclusions fo r th e

constant curren t circuit:
1. Th e chang e i n potentia l dro p acros s th e gage , E , wil l b e a linea r
function o f the strai n (o r th e uni t chang e i n gag e resistance , AR g/Rg).
2. Th e indication , or output , per uni t strain is a linear function o f each of
the thre e quantities : (a ) gag e curren t 7 , (b) gag e resistanc e R g, an d
(c) gage facto r G F, as wel l as thei r product .
3. Th e maximu m output pe r uni t strain , ( E/e)max, wil l occu r whe n th e
product IR gGF reache s a maximum.
4. Fo r thi s typ e o f circuit , whic h i s voltage-sensitive , th e precedin g
indicates tha t the maximum output will be achieved wit h high-resistance
gages with high gage factors. This i s in direct contras t t o th e constant -
voltage (current-sensitive ) circuit fo r whic h th e maximu m outpu t i s
achieved wit h low-resistance gages possessin g hig h gag e factors.
5. Sinc e the gag e resistance R g an d th e gag e factor G F are bot h propertie s
of the gage, and becaus e th e maximu m curren t I m is determined b y the
gage's abilit y to dissipate heat, the maximum attainable output per unit
strain, (A£/e)max, depends entirely upon the characteristics of the gage.
96 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANCE STRAI N GAG E
Item (5 ) is rather importan t becaus e i t tells us that the maximum possible

output, pe r uni t o f strain, i s dependent onl y upo n th e propertie s o f the gag e
and no t upo n th e characteristic s o f the circui t t o whic h i t is attached. I f th e
efficiency o f th e electri c circui t i s 10 0 percent, the n th e maximu m possibl e
output ca n b e achieved .
The efficienc y o f th e electri c circui t i s expresse d a s th e rati o o f th e
maximum output fro m th e circuit per unit of strain divided by the maximum
possible output fro m th e gag e pe r uni t o f strain. According to thi s definition,
the constant-curren t circui t i s 10 0 percen t efficien t sinc e i t deliver s th e
maximum possibl e outpu t fro m th e gage .
3.4. Advantages of the constant-current circuit

The tw o circuit s just discusse d represen t differen t approache s t o th e deter -
mination o f th e sam e thing , namely , strain . The y ar e bot h specia l case s o f
the potentiometri c circuit , whic h i s o f a mor e genera l nature , an d includ e
certain o f the advantage s o f each o f these tw o elementar y forms .
The linea r relatio n betwee n strai n an d th e output, E, o f the constan t
current circui t i s a tremendou s advantage , i f no t a necessity . Fo r metalli c
sensors thi s characteristi c i s desirabl e bu t no t s o importan t sinc e th e
resistance change s ar e small . However , fo r smeiconducto r gage s subjecte d
to any appreciable amoun t of strain this is practically a necessity, particularly
since th e degre e o f nonlinearit y varie s wit h change s o f referenc e o r initia l
reading.
Since th e constant-curren t circui t give s its indicatio n o f strai n i n term s
of a chang e i n voltage , it i s ideally suited for us e with numerous well-known
techniques an d standard instruments alread y develope d (fo r other purposes)
to measure smal l voltage changes precisely. This represents both convenienc e
and economy .
About th e only rea l advantag e o f the constant-voltage (acros s th e gage )
circuit lies in its ability to us e a simple, inexpensive battery as a power supply .
However, thi s advantag e i s als o possesse d b y th e potentiometri c circuit ,
which ca n alway s approximate , an d sometime s achieve , constant-curren t
conditions, wit h th e correspondin g advantage s o f th e constant-curren t
circuit.
There wa s no constant-current powe r suppl y commercially availabl e for
strain gage us e until the early 1960 s (1). Although the constant-current powe r
supply cost s considerabl y mor e tha n a battery , nevertheless , i t i s no t a n
expensive instrument . Referenc e 1 contain s a lis t o f it s specification s an d
characteristics, whil e Fig . 3. 5 is a schemati c diagra m o f a constant-curren t
circuit.
Some additiona l advantage s o f a constant curren t circui t are a s follows :
1. Withi n th e powe r capabilit y o f th e constant-curren t source , ther e wil l

be n o effec t fro m lon g lead s o f appreciabl e resistance , sinc e th e lea d
FIG. 3.5 . Schemati c diagram o f constant-current circuit .
resistance wil l no t alte r th e curren t flow . Sinc e a high-impedanc e

readout instrument , whic h draw s essentiall y n o current , mus t b e
employed, appreciabl e resistanc e i n th e lead s t o i t wil l caus e n o
trouble, fo r practicall y n o curren t flow s i n thes e leads .
2. Fo r th e sam e reason s give n i n Ite m (1) , i f the arrangemen t show n i n
Fig. 3. 5 is employed, variations i n contact resistanc e at switche s or sli p
rings wil l hav e n o effec t o n th e indicate d outpu t fro m th e gag e a s lon g
as th e curren t sourc e ca n respon d rapidl y enoug h t o th e resistanc e
changes t o maintai n th e constan t current .
3.5. Fundamental laws of measurement

In th e foregoin g circui t analysi s i t ha s bee n assume d tha t th e readou t
instrument woul d dra w n o current . Thi s bring s u s t o th e consideratio n o f
two fundamenta l concept s whic h appl y no t onl y t o strai n gage s an d thei r
associated electrica l instrument s bu t i n genera l t o measurement s o f al l
kinds (2) .
These concept s ar e frequentl y referre d t o a s th e fundamental laws o f
measurement an d ca n b e briefl y state d a s follows :
1. Th e instrument , o r device , use d t o mak e a measuremen t shoul d hav e

no (o r negligible ) effec t upo n th e quantit y bein g measured .
2. Th e quantity being measured shoul d hav e no (o r negligible) effect upo n
the instrument , o r device , used t o mak e th e measurement.
Numerous example s of violations o f these laws may b e cited . However , th e

following examples taken from strai n gage studies will serve as illustrations:
1. A larg e strai n gag e o n a stif f carrie r i s use d t o measur e strai n o n a

slender specime n o f low-modulu s material . Thi s violate s th e firs t la w
because th e stiffenin g effec t o f th e gag e mask s th e tru e valu e o f th e
strain tha t i s to b e measured .
2. A hig h gag e facto r strai n gage , whic h ha s bee n develope d t o measur e

very smal l strains , an d whic h wil l suffe r a los s i n gag e facto r i f
overstrained, i s inadvertentl y use d t o measur e strain s wel l int o a
condition o f yielding . Thi s violate s th e secon d la w becaus e a charac -
teristic o f th e gage , namel y th e gag e factor , ha s bee n change d b y th e
strain tha t th e instrumen t is endeavoring t o measure .
In estimatin g conformit y wit h th e law s o f measurement , sinc e mos t
measuring devices have some influenc e (althoug h perhap s ver y small) on th e
quantity bein g measured , i t i s necessar y t o determin e t o wha t degre e thi s
influence i s taking place an d whethe r or not thi s can b e considered negligibl e
for th e particula r se t o f condition s a t hand . Unde r on e se t o f condition s a
given effec t migh t b e quit e negligible , wherea s i n othe r circumstance s th e
same thin g migh t b e ver y important . Fo r example , fo r stres s analysi s on e
can often safel y neglect errors which ar e exceedingly importan t when relatin g
to loa d cell s an d othe r weighin g devices .
Problems
3.1. Plo t A// / vs . ARa/Rg fo r value s o f ARg/R,, betwee n 0 an d 1.0 .
3.2. A strai n gag e wit h R a = 12 0 ohms an d G F = 2.5 i s bonde d t o th e simpl y
supported beam shown in Fig. 3.6. A constant voltage of V = 2. 4 volts is applied
across th e gage . The bea m i s restrained in suc h a manne r that i t i s free t o ben d
but no t t o buckle . Determine (a) th e gag e curren t afte r loadin g an d (b ) th e
nonlinearity factor .
3.3. Red o Problem 3.2 for Rg = 35 0 ohms but al l other factors remaining the same .
3.4. I n Fig . 3.2 , a resisto r is shunted across th e strai n gage, R a, i n orde r t o simulat e
a hig h strain . If R g = 12 0 ohms, G F = 2.15 , V - 3 volts, an d th e shun t resistor
is R p = 100 0 ohms, determine the final curren t I f, an d th e nonlinearit y factor .
3.5. I n the constant-current circuit shown in Fig. 3.3, a resistor. Rp, i s shunted across
Rg. If / = 0.02 5 amperes, Rg = 120 ohms, Gf = 2.0 , and E = -0.0 6 volts , deter-
mine th e valu e o f R p.
FIG. 3.6 .
REFERENCES
1. Stein , Pete r K. , "Th e Constan t Curren t Concep t fo r Dynami c Strai n Measure -

ment," Strain Gage Readings, Vol . VI , No . 3 , Aug-Sept . 1963 , pp . 53-72 . Als o
BLH Measurement Topics, Vol . 6 , No. 2 , Spring 1968 , pp . 1-2 , an d Instruments &
Control Systems, Vol . 38 , No. 5 , May 1965 , pp . 145-155 .
ELEMENTARY CIRCUIT S 9 9
2. Stein , Pete r K. , Measurement Engineering, Stei n Engineerin g Services , Inc. , 560 3

East Mont e Rosa , Phoenix , A Z 85018-4646 , Vol . II , 1962 , Chap . 24 . Vol . I I is :
The Strain Gage Encylopaedia. Chap . 2 4 i s o n Circuits for Non-Self-Generating
Transducers.
4
THE POTENTIOMETRIC CIRCUIT
4.1. Introduction
The potentiometri c circui t i s als o know n a s th e ballas t circuit , o r serie s
circuit. Because , i n effect , i t correspond s t o hal f a Wheatston e bridge , i t i s
sometimes referred t o a s the hal f bridge. The circui t is represented schemati -
cally i n Fig . 4.1.
In it s elementar y form , a s applie d t o strai n gages , th e potentiometri c
circuit contain s th e followin g three majo r components :
1. A power supply , usually a battery , whic h wil l furnis h constan t voltag e
V t o th e circuit.
2. A strai n gage o f initia l resistanc e R a.
3. A ballas t resistance , o f initia l valu e R h, t o contro l th e curren t i n th e
circuit. Sometimes the ballas t resistance consists of a second strai n gag e
which, dependin g upo n th e particula r condition s prevailing , may o r
may no t b e identica l to R fl.
In additio n t o th e abov e components , ther e mus t als o b e som e mean s o f
obtaining a measure , o r readout , o f th e chang e i n voltag e dro p acros s th e
gage (o r ballast resistance). This provides an indicatio n o f the change i n gage
resistance, A7? g, which, in turn, represents a measur e o f the strain . The exac t
nature o f the readou t device , or system , wil l depen d upo n th e magnitud e o f
the signal , A£ , an d th e precisio n wit h whic h i t i s desire d t o mak e th e
observation.
A stud y o f Fig . 4. 1 reveal s tha t th e potentiometri c circui t i s reall y a
compromise betwee n th e tw o simpl e arrangement s describe d i n Chapte r 3
on elementar y circuits . Both o f th e elementar y circuits are actuall y specia l
cases o f this somewha t mor e generalize d form . Th e followin g concepts wil l
assist i n clarification:
1. R b = 0: If the ballas t resistanc e i s reduced t o zero , w e have th e cas e of
the strain gage directly connected t o a constant-voltage power supply.
2. R b - > oo: In this case R h is very large relative to R g. Le t us consider wha t
happens a s th e ballas t resistanc e i s increased an d th e applie d voltage ,
V, is correspondingly steppe d u p t o maintai n som e desire d initia l value
of gage current before strain takes place at the gage (i.e., when AR9 = 0) .
As R b becomes progressivel y larger, the gage resistance R s assume s
THE POTENTIOMETRI C CIRCUI T 101
FIG. 4.1. Th e potentiometri c circuit.
a smalle r proportio n o f th e tota l resistanc e i n th e circuit . I n con -

sequence, any changes in gage resistance, AK 3 , will have a progressively
smaller influenc e o n th e flo w o f current , unti l ultimately , whe n R b i s
large enough , th e effec t o f change s i n gag e resistanc e wil l hav e a n
insignificant effec t o n th e current . Whe n thi s conditio n ha s bee n
reached, for practical purposes , we have essentially achieved a constant-
current circuit.
Subject t o th e limitation of keeping the applied voltag e within safe
working limits, the potentiometric circui t may be made to approximat e
a constant-curren t circui t t o an y degre e o f precision . Unde r thes e
conditions w e might think of the powe r suppl y an d th e ballas t resisto r
as being combined int o a singl e unit providing, within specified limits ,
a constant-curren t sourc e connecte d t o th e strai n gage .
3. AR b = — AK9 : Sometimes i t i s possibl e t o var y th e ballas t resistanc e
(for example , when it consists of a second strai n gage) i n such a manne r
that it s change, A/? 6, is equal i n magnitude, but o f opposite sign , to th e
change i n gag e resistanc e AR 9 . Unde r thes e condition s th e tota l
resistance in the circui t remain s constant . Thus , for a constant applie d
voltage, w e hav e a tru e constant-curren t circui t possessin g al l th e
advantages indicate d previously.
4.2. Circuit equations

In orde r t o obtai n a n immediat e insigh t int o th e propertie s o f the potentio -
metric circuit , th e circui t equation s an d som e discussio n o f the m ar e
presented here . Th e complet e derivation s wil l b e develope d late r i n th e
chapter.
For convenience , the relationship between th e ballast resistor , R b, an d
the gag e resistance , R g, i s expressed a s a dimensionles s rati o a s follows:
The incrementa l output fro m th e circuit , when writte n in term s o f unit

changes i n ballas t an d gag e resistances , an d th e rati o a , is expressed a s
where n is a nonlinearit y facto r give n as
For a singl e activ e gage , R b i s a constan t an d AR b = 0, s o Eqs . (4.1 )

and (4.2 ) reduc e t o th e following:
Since AR g/Rg = strai n time s gag e facto r = eG f , Eqs . (4.3 ) an d (4.4 ) ca n b e

rewritten a s
Characteristics of the circuit

Some discussio n o f th e equation s fo r th e potentiometri c circui t i s no w i n
order.
1. Difference o f tw o strains — Eq. (4.1) . Whe n th e ballas t resistanc e i s
variable, th e chang e i n outpu t voltage , A£ , i s directly proportiona l t o
the algebraic differenc e betwee n the unit changes in the gage and ballas t
resistances, providin g the nonlinearit y factor , n , can b e neglected . Thi s
THE POTENTIOMETRI C CIRCUI T 10 3
means the circuit is capable of providing a reading directl y proportiona l

to th e algebraic difference between the strain s a t tw o gage locations. If
the gages hav e positive and negativ e gage factors , then th e reading wil l
be th e algebrai c sum .
2. Magnification o f th e strain gage signal — Eq. (4.1) . Whe n strain s o f
known rati o bu t o f opposite sig n prevai l a t tw o locations , th e signa l
ARg/Rg ca n b e increase d b y usin g a secon d activ e gag e fo r th e ballas t
resistor, Rb. Fo r example , if the strain at the gage comprising th e ballas t
resistor, R b, i s equa l bu t o f opposit e sig n t o R g, th e outpu t wil l b e
doubled. I n thi s particula r cas e w e hav e a constant-curren t circui t
whose output will be linear wit h strain, and o f the maximum obtainabl e
value pe r uni t o f strain .
3. Linearity — Eqs. (4.2 ) and (4.4) . Basically, the incrementa l outpu t o f the
circuit, A£ , i s a nonlinea r functio n of the strain .
Single gage. Fo r a singl e gag e wit h a fixe d ballas t resistance , R b,
nonlinearity i s alway s th e case . Nevertheless , th e nonlinearit y
factor, n , ca n b e mad e negligibl y smal l b y havin g R b larg e
relative t o R g.
Two gages. When th e ballas t resistance , R b, consist s o f a secon d strai n
gage (which is not necessaril y required t o hav e the same resistanc e
or gag e facto r a s R g), th e optimu m conditio n i s achieved whe n
When thi s situatio n prevail s w e hav e a constant-curren t circui t

that give s a linea r outpu t o f maximum attainabl e valu e pe r uni t
strain; tha t is,
where I m i s the maximu m permissibl e gag e current .

When th e ballas t resistanc e i s fixed and severa l like gages are connecte d
in serie s i n th e adjacen t arm , show n i n Fig . 4.2 , th e change i n voltage drop
across all the gages will correspond to the average of the strains experienced
by th e gages. I n othe r words , A £ represent s th e averag e strain , e , for thi s
arrangement.
For lik e gase s i n series , th e previou s equation s ca n b e use d wit h th e
following modifications :
FIG. 4.2. Gage s in serie s i n th e sam e arm.
What wa s previously expressed a s the unit change in gage resistance is now
unit change
Substituting th e value s o f a give n b y Eq . (4.8 ) and th e uni t chang e i n gag e

resistance give n b y Eq . (4.9 ) int o Eq . (4.3) , we arrive at
Similarly, th e valu e of n i s
Applications
The potentiometri c circui t shown i n Fig . 4. 1 will wor k equally well for stati c
or dynamic strains , o r combination s thereof . However, the mean s employe d
to measur e A £ impos e certai n limitation s which determin e its applicabilit y
for stati c strai n a s wel l as dynami c strai n observations .
If th e resistanc e chang e i n th e strai n gag e i s larg e enoug h s o tha t a n
instrument employed t o measure E , the initial voltage drop across the strain
gage (fo r zero strain) , i s also capabl e o f measuring th e change , E , t o th e
desired degre e o f precision, the n bot h stati c an d dynami c observation s ca n
be made (a s long a s the dynami c response o f the instrumen t i s suited t o th e
frequencies o f th e strai n signals).
THE POTENTIOMETRI C CIRCUIT 105
FIG. 4.3. Potentiometri c circuit with filter to eliminate steady component, E, from the output.
In general , however , E wil l be too small to be measured conveniently,

and wit h th e desire d precision , o n th e sam e scal e a s tha t use d fo r th e
measurement o f E . I n orde r t o overcom e thi s difficulty , i t i s customar y t o
use a filte r tha t wil l eliminat e th e stead y voltage , E , s o tha t E ca n be
amplified an d measure d b y itself . Th e metho d work s ver y wel l fo r th e
determination o f dynamic strains , but th e filter which eliminates the stead y
(zero-frequency) component , E , als o eliminate s an y othe r zero-frequenc y
signals and, i n consequence, preclude s the possibilit y o f making stati c strai n
observations. Th e potentiometri c circui t with a filter to eliminat e the steady
component, £ , i s shown schematicall y i n Fig . 4.3 .
Due t o th e relativel y smal l signal s produce d b y metalli c strai n gages ,
and th e consequen t us e of the filter to eliminat e £ , th e us e o f the potentio -
metric circuit has, in the past, bee n limited to dynami c strain measurements .
As a result of the developmen t o f semiconductor strai n gages wit h high gag e
factors, and th e availability of four- o r five-place digital voltmeters , it is likely
that thi s circui t will also be use d fo r numerou s stati c applications .
Advantages and limitations of the potentiometric circuit

Among th e advantage s o f th e potentiometri c circui t th e followin g may b e
included:
1. Extrem e simplicity.
2. Abilit y t o approach , an d i n som e case s t o reach , th e linearit y an d
optimum outpu t o f the constant-curren t circuit .
3. Th e circui t is able t o us e a simpl e constant-voltage , ripple-free , power
supply fro m a batter y (dr y cell ) and , a t th e sam e time , t o provid e a n
output i n the form o f a voltag e chang e tha t ca n b e measured relativel y
easily.
4. Th e circuit , the readou t instrument , an d associate d amplifie r (i f one is
used), ca n al l be connecte d t o a commo n ground .
Among th e limitation s of th e potentiometri c circuit w e fin d th e following :

1. Inabilit y to measur e stati c strain s wit h metalli c or othe r strai n gage s
producing ver y low-leve l signals . This i s no t reall y a limitatio n of th e
circuit, bu t o f the readou t equipmen t associate d wit h it .
2. Th e strai n signal , A£ , i s directl y proportiona l t o th e batter y voltage ,
V. I f th e batter y run s down , th e strai n signa l wil l b e influenced . Fo r
dynamic measurement s whic h ca n b e complete d i n a shor t spac e o f
time, thi s wil l probabl y caus e n o difficulty , bu t i f observations ar e t o
be mad e ove r a considerabl e time interval, the n periodi c check s of th e
battery conditio n shoul d b e made.
4.3. Analysis of the circuit

For th e purpos e o f analyzing the potentiometri c circuit, refer agai n t o Fig .
4.1 an d conside r th e cas e wher e the resistance s of both th e strai n gage , R g,
and th e ballas t resistor , R h, underg o changes .
Under initia l conditions , befor e any change s tak e place, th e expressio n
for th e voltag e dro p acros s th e gag e is
If R h an d R g chang e t o R b + AR b an d R g + A.R g, respectively , the voltag e

drop acros s th e gage become s £ + A £ an d i s expressed a s
By subtractin g th e valu e o f £ give n b y Eq . (4.12 ) fro m bot h side s o f Eq .

(4.13), th e chang e i n voltag e dro p acros s th e gage , A£ , is
Now divid e th e numerato r an d denominato r o f th e right-han d sid e o f Eq .

(4.14) by R g. Thi s puts all of the quantities into terms of dimensionless ratio s
and uni t changes . Thus ,
Again w e can writ e th e rati o o f the ballas t t o gag e resistanc e as
and s o
Insertion o f th e value s o f a an d l/R g, give n b y Eqs . (4.16 ) an d (4.17) ,

respectively, into Eq . (4.15 ) gives
We observe that , i n Eq . (4.18) , all of the quantitie s involvin g resistance

are expressed either in terms of the dimensionless ratio, a , or as unit changes
in gag e an d ballas t resistances . I f we assum e th e ballas t resistanc e t o b e a
strain gage , the n th e uni t change s i n th e resistance s ar e directl y relate d t o
strain, since
Equation (4.18 ) can be reduced t o a simpler and mor e convenient form.

We star t b y slightl y rearrangin g th e term s an d puttin g everythin g over a
common denominator . Thi s gives
Clearing th e parenthese s i n the numerator , Eq . (4.19) become s

This reduce s t o
Multiplying th e numerato r an d denominato r o f Eq . (4.20 ) b y ( 1 + a )

results i n
Equation (4.21 ) indicate s tha t E wil l no t b e a linea r functio n o f the

difference between th e uni t change s in gage and ballas t resistance s unles s
This wil l take plac e whe n
which give s u s
This mean s
Since R g i s usually not equa l t o — R h, i n general E wil l b e a nonlinea r

function o f th e differenc e betwee n th e uni t change s i n gag e an d ballas t
resistances.
We now examine the deviation from linearity , represented b y the symbol
n, in a modifie d versio n o f Eq . (4.21) . It ma y b e rewritte n a s
where n i s th e nonlinearit y factor.

Since Eqs. (4.21) and (4.26) represent the same quantity, E, w e see that
We now solv e for the nonlinearity factor, n, in terms of the uni t change s
in th e ballas t an d gag e resistances , R g/Rg, R b/Rb, an d th e rati o o f th e
ballast t o the gage resistance , a = R b/Rg. Rearrangemen t o f Eq. (4.27) shows
that
Putting th e right-han d sid e ove r a commo n denominato r give s
This reduce s t o
Dividing th e numerato r an d denominato r o f th e right-han d sid e b y

ARg/Rg + a R b/Rb, w e arrive a t
Thus, fo r a give n set o f conditions, th e deviatio n fro m linearit y can b e

determined fro m Eq . (4.29) . Not e tha t th e nonlinearit y i s a functio n o f a ,
Rg/Rg, an d R b/Rb.
Limitation on applied voltage V

Since th e signal , E , i s directl y proportiona l t o th e applie d voltage , th e
maximum outpu t wil l b e achieve d fo r th e larges t valu e o f V . Thi s wil l b e
limited b y th e followin g tw o practica l considerations :
1. Th e maximu m current , I m, tha t th e gag e ca n carry . Frequentl y th e
maximum curren t wil l b e limite d t o abou t 3 0 milliamperes, bu t i t ma y
be less , dependin g o n th e particula r conditions prevailing .
2. Th e maximu m voltag e tha t ca n b e safel y handle d fo r a give n applica -
tion. U p t o 30 0 volts have bee n use d i n som e cases , bu t i t i s preferre d
to kee p V dow n t o 9 0 volts. I f i t wer e no t fo r thi s restriction , an y
potentiometric circuit , fo r practica l purposes, coul d b e mad e linea r b y
making th e rati o a = R h/Rg indefinitel y large .
From th e firs t limitation , whe n l m i s th e maximu m permissibl e gag e
current, th e maximu m allowabl e voltag e wil l b e
However, th e secon d restrictio n o f safety ma y requir e th e us e of a somewha t

lower value .
Use with a single gage

When onl y on e strai n gag e i s use d i n th e circuit , th e ballas t resistanc e wil l
be fixed. Under thi s condition, R h i s constant an d R h = 0 . Equations (4.26 )
and (4.29 ) the n reduc e t o Eqs . (4.3 ) and (4.4) . The latte r two equation s wil l
be renumbere d i n thi s section fo r convenience ; the y ar e
and
If i t i s more convenien t t o dea l i n term s o f strai n rathe r tha n i n term s

of uni t change s i n gag e resistance , the n Eqs . (4.5 ) an d (4.6 ) ma y b e used .
Again, renumberin g give s
THE POTENTIOMETRI C CIRCUIT 11 1
and
Circuit efficiency
The circuit efficiency, , of a particula r circui t may b e expressed a s the rati o
of it s maximu m output , pe r uni t o f strain , t o th e correspondin g valu e fo r
the constant-current circui t tha t produce s th e maximum obtainabl e output .
Thus,
By expressin g Eq . (4.33 ) i n term s o f current, w e can readil y determin e

the efficienc y o f a give n circui t wit h a singl e gage. Sinc e
we can substitut e this valu e of V into Eq . (4.33 ) t o obtai n
From Eq . (4.35) ,
Equation (3.14 ) give s the potentia l dro p acros s th e gag e pe r uni t o f strain,
for a constant-curren t circuit , a s
and s o
It is interesting to note that, for the potentiometric circuit, the maximu m

value of E/E occur s whe n n = 0 , which corresponds to zer o strain . Fo r th e
constant-current circuit , whos e outpu t i s linea r wit h strain , n = 0 fo r al l
values o f strain.
Since « i s a functio n o f strain , al l comparison s shoul d b e mad e o n th e
same basi s o f strain, o r fo r th e sam e valu e of n . However, th e onl y valu e of
n commo n t o th e constant-curren t circui t an d al l potentiometri c circuit s is
n = 0 . Hence thi s valu e must b e employe d fo r th e previou s analysis.
Gages in series
Sometimes i t is desirable t o obtai n th e averag e valu e of the strain s a t severa l
different locations . Thi s ca n alway s b e don e b y measurin g th e individua l
strains a t eac h locatio n an d subsequentl y calculating th e averag e value . Fo r
static observation s ther e i s n o proble m becaus e w e merel y emplo y a
switching devic e t o connec t eac h gage , i n turn , t o th e strain-indicatin g
instrument. Bu t fo r dynamic observations, i n orde r t o determin e th e strain s
at al l location s simultaneously , it i s necessar y t o hav e a complet e channe l
of instrumentatio n fo r eac h strai n gage , o r t o hav e a high-spee d scannin g
device.
Unless w e need t o kno w th e individua l values of the strai n at eac h gage ,
time, equipment , an d effor t ca n b e save d i f a readin g o f th e averag e valu e
can b e obtained directly . Fortunately , w e are abl e t o d o thi s b y connectin g
a numbe r o f like gages i n series , as show n i n Fig . 4.4 .
Equations (4.31 ) throug h (4.34 ) stil l appl y fo r gage s i n series , bu t th e
values o f the symbol s wil l b e somewha t different . I n th e ar m o f th e circui t
containing th e strai n gages , th e resistanc e wil l no w b e mad e u p o f th e su m
of th e resistance s o f the individua l gages. Thus ,
where x = the numbe r o f like gages . Th e tota l resistanc e change i n this ar m
FIG. 4.4. Potentiometri c circui t wit h strai n gage s i n series .

consists o f the su m o f the change s i n th e individua l gages. Thus ,
The rati o a is expressed a s
Equation (4.31 ) no w become s
and Eq . (4.32 ) i s
For x like gages of resistance R g, Eq . (4.37) may b e modified as follows :
Using AR g/Rg = sGF, E ca n be written in terms o f strain:
We se e that th e averag e strai n i s

and s o
Equation (4.39 ) tell s u s tha t i f « i s smal l enoug h t o b e neglected , the n

E x eav .
Equation (4.38 ) become s
Maximum applied voltage

When gage s ar e adde d i n series , th e rati o a mus t b e kep t fixe d i n orde r t o
maintain a give n conditio n o f linearity . This mean s th e ballas t resistanc e
must be stepped u p proportionately. However, to obtain th e greatest outpu t
per unit of strain, the gage current must be maintained a t it s maximum value,
lm. Th e applie d voltag e mus t the n b e increase d i n proportio n t o th e tota l
resistance i n th e circuit . Therefore , subjec t t o th e limitation s o f safety , th e
maximum applie d voltage , V m^, fo r gage s i n serie s wil l b e give n by
Static vs. dynamic measurements

An examinatio n o f th e schemati c diagra m Fig . 4. 1 fo r th e potentiometri c
circuit, and Eqs. (4.1), (4.3), and (4.5) for the incremental outpu t E, indicate s
that al l we need for a strain measurement is to observ e the change i n voltage
drop across th e gage . Thi s applie s t o eithe r stati c o r dynami c conditions .
This i s perfectl y correct . However , whe n w e begi n t o loo k int o th e
practical aspect s o f selectin g a suitabl e measurin g instrument , we ru n int o
the difficult y tha t E ma y b e ver y smal l relativ e to E . I n thi s case , i f the
instrument ha s a readou t scal e suitabl e fo r measurin g E , it ma y b e entirely
unsuited for the measurement of E, o r vice versa. We should therefore make
some preliminar y estimate o f the approximate value s of E and E i n orde r
to decid e upon a n instrument, or readou t system , which will determin e E
(or th e strain ) t o th e desire d degre e o f precision.
To illustrat e this point, we take u p tw o examples . The first considers a
semiconductor strai n gage, th e second a metallic strain gage. Fo r simplicity .
THE POTENTIOMETRI C CIRCUIT 115
consider tha t a = R b/Rg wil l b e larg e enoug h s o the outpu t an d linearit y of

the constant-current circuit are closely enough approximated for all practical
purposes.
Example 4.1. Th e followin g value s ar e give n fo r a potentiometri c circui t usin g

a semiconducto r strai n gage :
Gage resistance, R s 12 0 ohms
Gage factor, GF 10 4
Gage current, / 2 0 milliamps
Solution. Th e voltage , £ , acros s th e gag e is
E = IR g = (0.020)(120) = 2. 4 volts
For optimu m condition s (constan t current ) and assumin g th e gag e ha s linea r

response,
or
When s = 400 0 microstrain = 400 0 uin/in, the n
A£ = 250f i = (250)(400 0 x 1 0 ~6) = 1 volt
We ca n loo k a t ho w thi s migh t b e represente d o n a D C voltmete r (o r

recorder) wit h a linea r scal e 5 inches lon g marke d of f in inche s and subdivide d
in tenth s o f inches . Thi s i s represente d graphicall y i n Fig . 4.5 . Not e tha t th e
voltmeter shoul d hav e hig h impedanc e t o avoi d loadin g th e circuit.
FIG. 4.5. Voltmete r reading s o n linea r scale , semiconducto r gage.

FIG. 4.6. Reading s o n digita l voltmeter, semiconductor gage .
For zer o strain th e pointer wil l come t o the position fo r 2.4 volts (2.4 inches
along th e scale) . I f the gag e facto r i s positive, th e pointe r wil l mov e t o th e righ t
when strai n i s applied (fo r positive strain) or t o th e lef t (fo r negative strain) b y
an amoun t o f 1 inch fo r ever y 400 0 microstrain , o r 0. 1 in fo r ever y 40 0
microstrain. I f we ca n mak e observation s o f th e positio n o f th e pointe r t o th e
nearest half-divisio n o n th e scale , th e reading s wil l b e goo d t o th e neares t
200 microstrain.
For strain s o f th e orde r o f 400 0 t o 500 0 microstrain, a readin g t o
the neares t 20 0 microstrain represent s th e neares t 4 o r 5 percent , whic h
in man y case s i s goo d enough . However , i f we ar e dealin g wit h magnitude s o f
400 o r 50 0 microstrain, the n a readin g t o th e neares t 20 0 microstrain ( + 5 0
percent) i s no t nearl y goo d enough , an d s o a differen t typ e o f voltmete r i s
required.
Let us see how th e same situatio n appears o n a high-impedance, four-place
digital voltmete r capable o f measuring from 0 to 9.99 9 volts . Initially, the mete r
will rea d 2.40 0 volt s fo r zer o strain , a s show n i n Fig . 4.6 . Fo r a strai n o f
+ 400 microstrain, A £ wil l b e 0.100 , s o th e mete r wil l rea d 2.50 0 volts, o r a
change o f 0.100 t o th e neares t 1 in 10 0 or th e neares t 1 percent.
This exampl e indicate s tha t fo r thi s particula r semiconducto r gage ,

operating under the stated conditions, the potentiometric circuit can be used
for stati c o r dynami c (u p t o th e frequenc y limit s o f th e instruments ) strai n
measurements a s follows :
1. Wit h th e simpl e mete r fo r strain s o f 4000 microstrain an d above .

2. Wit h the four-place digital voltmeter for strains above 200 microstrain.
For dynami c observation s a t frequencie s highe r tha n thos e t o whic h thes e

meters wil l .faithfully respond , a differen t syste m wil l hav e t o b e used .
Example 4.2. Th e followin g value s are give n for a metalli c strai n gag e use d i n
a potentiometri c circuit :
Gage resistance , Rg 12 0 ohms
Gage factor, G t 2.0 8
Gage current, / 2 0 milliamps
Solution. Th e voltage , E , acros s th e gag e is
E = IRg = (0.020)(120 ) = 2. 4 volts
For optimu m condition s (constan t current) ,
A£ = IR gGFs = (0.020)(120)(2.08) e = 5e
Thus, whe n e = 400 0 microstrain = 400 0 uin/in,
E= 5s =5(400 0 x 1 0 ~6) = 0.02 volts

or
A£ = 0.0 1 volts for 200 0 microstrai n
On th e mete r scal e illustrate d i n Fig . 4.5, this woul d b e equivalen t t o

20000 microstrain fo r one minor division, as shown in Fig. 4.7. For 400 0 micro -
strain th e pointe r woul d mov e 1/ 5 of a mino r division , and fo r 400 microstrain
there woul d hardl y b e an y perceptibl e motio n a t all . Obviously, thi s kin d o f
meter canno t b e use d wit h metalli c gage s becaus e th e rati o A£/ £ i s too small .
We no w conside r wha t wil l happe n wit h a four-plac e digita l voltmeter .

This i s indicated i n Fig . 4.8 , where we observe tha t a readin g t o th e neares t
200 microstrain i s possible . I f th e instrumen t ha d fiv e places , however , we
could obtai n a readin g t o th e neares t + 20 microstrain. Thi s woul d b e
adequate fo r essentiall y al l requirements . Therefore , fo r th e metalli c gage ,
FIG. 4.7. Voltmete r reading s o n linea r scale , metalli c gage .

FIG. 4.8. Reading s o n digita l voltmeter , metalli c gage.
the simpl e voltmete r i s unsuitable, bu t a four-plac e digital voltmete r migh t

be use d fo r relativel y roug h reading s ( + 5 percent ) o f hig h strains . A
five-place digita l voltmete r woul d b e capabl e o f indication s dow n t o
+ 20 microstrain, an d fo r al l reading s abov e 20 0 microstrain capabl e o f
achieving a precisio n o f 1 percent o r better .
Static strains
The preceding example s indicat e that static strain measurements can be made
with th e potentiometri c circui t provide d tha t w e hav e a suitabl e readou t
instrument an d tha t th e strain s ar e sufficientl y large .
When large strain s ar e to be measured wit h a semiconductor strai n gag e
possessing a high gage factor , the change i n the voltage drop across the gag e
will b e large enough , wit h respec t t o th e initia l value , to permi t satisfactor y
observations wit h a n inexpensiv e meter . However , whe n semiconducto r
gages ar e subjecte d t o smal l strains , o r fo r metalli c gages , th e chang e i n
potential drop across the gages wil l be so small, relative to the ambient value ,
that a comparativel y expensiv e digita l voltmete r wil l b e require d t o obtai n
a reasonabl y precis e strai n indication .
Since static strain measurements requiring the use of an expensive digital
voltmeter can b e obtained equall y well b y other method s wit h les s expensive
instruments, th e us e o f th e potentiometri c circui t fo r stati c reading s i s no t
very attractive .
Dynamic strains
For dynami c strai n measurement, th e simplicity of the potentiometric circuit
and th e convenienc e o f using a commo n groun d fo r th e circui t an d relate d
components, make i t ver y attractive , i n spit e o f the fac t tha t ther e ar e othe r
cicuits tha t ca n als o b e use d t o determin e time-varyin g strain. Wher e stati c
FIG. 4.9. Potentiometri c circui t a s applie d t o dynami c strai n measurements .
observations ar e not required , the potentiometric circuit is very popular an d

widely used .
The usua l arrangemen t fo r usin g a potentiometri c circui t t o measur e
dynamic strain s i s shown i n Fig . 4.9 . This include s a filte r (condenser ) tha t
will eliminate the steady component, E , but will pas s th e dynamic part, E
(representing th e strain ) o f th e potentia l dro p acros s th e gage . Whe n
the signal , E , ha s bee n isolated , i t ca n b e amplifie d an d show n a s a
function o f time on som e readil y available instrument suc h as a cathode-ray
oscilloscope.
The resul t o f eliminating E i n orde r t o observ e E i s to impos e th e
frequency limitation s (both uppe r an d lower ) of th e filter and th e amplifie r
upon the final output signal . Sinc e th e filter was put int o the syste m for the
specific purpose of eliminating the steady component, E , it will also eliminate
any stead y strain signals.
We shoul d not e tha t i t i s th e filter , whic h i s a par t o f th e readou t
apparatus, tha t make s th e syste m unsuite d fo r stati c strai n measurement .
The potentiometric circuit itself responds t o both stati c and dynamic strains,
although w e can onl y observ e dynami c strains wit h this particula r metho d
of obtainin g th e indication .
4.4. Linearity considerations

We ca n no w examin e th e deviatio n fro m linearit y o f the signal , E , wit h
respect t o strain , o r AR g/Rg, i n a potentiometri c circui t with a singl e strai n
gage an d a fixe d ballas t resistanc e R b. Fo r thi s purpose , i t wil l b e bes t t o
express the signal E a s a fraction of £, the initial potential dro p across the
gage. W e know that
where
The initia l potentia l dro p acros s th e gag e i s
The applie d voltag e acros s th e circui t i s
Substituting th e valu e o f V given by Eq . (4.43 ) into Eq . (4.31 ) results i n
Since the circui t efficiency give n by Eq . (4.36 ) is r\ = aj(\ + a) , Eq. (4.44 ) ca n

be rewritte n as
Figure 4.1 0 show s E/ E fro m Eq . (4.44 ) plotte d versu s AR 9 /R 9 fo r

various value s o f a = R hjRa. Fo r comparativ e purposes , th e linea r relatio n
for th e constant-curren t circuit , representing th e optimum , is also shown .
From Fig . 4.10 , we observe th e followin g characteristics :
1. Th e deviatio n fro m linearit y becomes large r a s AR g/Re increases .
2. Fo r a give n valu e o f A/? 9 /R g , th e deviatio n fro m linearit y i s les s fo r
larger value s o f a an d approache s zer o a s a become s ver y large .
Since it i s necessary t o kno w the applie d voltage , V , that i s required fo r
a given potentiometric circuit , we can choose the gage resistanc e and curren t
from whic h E , the voltag e dro p acros s th e gage , ca n b e compute d b y usin g
Eq. (4.42). Usin g Eqs . (4.42 ) an d (4.43) , the rati o V/ E i s
The applie d voltag e V can no w b e calculate d usin g Eq . (4.46) .

FIG. 4.10. Rati o A£/E a s a function o f R/K .
Linearization with variable ballast resistance

The general case. Le t us now look int o what may be achieved when the rati o
Eg/Eb, a t tw o locations , i s known fro m th e physica l conditions whic h prevail,
especially whe n eithe r s g o r s b i s tensio n an d th e othe r i s compression . B y
the us e of one, o r more , strai n gage s for the ballas t resistance , R b, i t may b e
possible t o produc e a constant-curren t circui t wit h a constan t applie d
voltage. T o accomplis h this , the tota l resistanc e i n th e circui t mus t remai n
constant a t al l times, so that , in symbols , one ca n write
This wil l tak e plac e whe n AR b = — ARg, s o tha t th e tota l resistanc e o f th e

circuit, neglectin g lea d resistance , is given b y th e expressio n
Let u s no w examin e th e relationshi p betwee n AR b an d — ARg tha t wil l

permit u s t o hav e a constant-curren t circui t wit h constan t applie d voltage ;
that is , when AR b = -AR g. Fro m th e basi c strai n gag e relatio n give n in
Chapter 1 , we can writ e
SO tha t
and
Therefore, th e ratio —AR h/ R !l ma y be written as
Since th e rati o R h/Rg wil l alway s be positive, Eq. (4.49) indicates tha t eithe r
sb/£g o r (G F)b/(Gp\ mus t b e negativ e i n orde r t o achiev e constant-curren t
conditions.
It shoul d b e note d tha t i f R a an d th e ballas t gage , o r gages , ar e no t
operating unde r identica l lateral strai n conditions, th e term (G F)b/(GF)g ma y
have to b e modified slightly to tak e into account th e difference s i n the ratio s
of latera l strai n t o axia l strai n on eac h gag e (latera l effect s ar e discusse d i n
a late r chapter) . However , thi s proble m ca n b e completel y eliminate d b y
selecting gages, for bot h R a an d R h, whic h hav e transverse sensitivity factors
equal t o zero .
For semiconducto r gages , whic h ca n b e manufacture d wit h eithe r
positive o r negativ e gage factors , this means tha t thes e gage s ca n b e use d i n
locations o f strai n o f eithe r th e sam e o r opposit e sign . However , fo r gage s
with metal sensors , fo r which the gage factors are only positive, one is limited
to th e requiremen t tha t R g mus t b e locate d i n th e regio n o f tensil e strai n
while R b mus t b e subjecte d t o compressiv e strain , or vic e versa.
Let u s assum e fo r th e momen t tha t (G F)b = (G F)g = G F. Fo r th e
constant-current circuit s the nonlinearit y factor, n , becomes zero . Thi s ca n
be show n b y referrin g t o eithe r Eq . (4.2 ) or Eq . (4.29) . Thus ,
From this ,
If th e ballas t resistanc e consist s o f a strai n gage , whic h i s subjecte d t o th e

appropriate amoun t of strain with respect t o that occurrin g at R g, then , even
though R b an d R g ma y no t b e equal, i t is still possible , b y suitabl e choice of
relative strain , gage factor , an d resistance , to produc e a situation suc h tha t
ARb = — AR9 , and thereb y t o achiev e linearity between incremental output ,
E, an d th e strain, a s well as the maximum signal pe r uni t o f strain.
The analysis of this is done by using Eq. (4.26), then taking ARb = — ARg
and n = 0. Thus,
This reduce s t o
Since
then
Using becomes
Equation (4.50 ) is vali d fo r al l value s o f Ri,/R g = a.

The relation expressed in Eq. (4.50) indicates that whe n one has selected
the gag e resistance , R g, th e gag e current , / , an d determine d th e gag e factor ,
GF, on e ha s establishe d th e valu e o f output pe r uni t strain , sinc e
For a give n gag e curren t an d resistance , / an d R g, th e choic e o f the

ballast resistance, R b, wil l determine the necessary applied voltage , V , or vice
versa.
Comparison with fixed ballast resistance

It is of interest to compare the outpu t pe r uni t strain for this variable-ballast
constant-current circuit , given b y Eq . (4.51) , wit h th e correspondin g circui t
containing a fixed ballast, Rb. Fo r th e fixed ballast, A£ is given by Eq. (4.35):
From this , th e outpu t pe r uni t strai n i s
The relativ e output of the fixed-ballast circuit to th e constant-curren t circuit

is obtaine d b y takin g the rati o o f Eq . (4.52 ) to Eq . (4.51) . Calling thi s rati o
R rel , w e obtain
or
where r \ = circui t efficiency .

Figure 4.1 0 als o show s th e sam e informatio n i n term s o f th e rati o o f
the ordinate s o f th e curve s t o th e correspondin g ordinate s o f th e straigh t
line for the constant-current circuit. In this figure we see two points commo n
to al l th e curves , including th e straigh t lin e fo r constan t current . Th e firs t
point correspond s t o the origin , or zero valu e for &R g/Rg. Th e second poin t
corresponds t o AK 9 /R g = — 1. Thi s latte r poin t represent s a somewha t
theoretical concept , sinc e i t correspond s t o a reductio n i n gag e resistanc e
equal t o the original value , Rg. Thi s means that th e gage resistance ha s bee n
reduced t o zero , whic h cannot b e achieve d i n actua l practic e wit h conven -
tional strai n gages , althoug h i t migh t b e possibl e wit h a slide-wir e device
under short-circuit conditions. If ARg/Rs = — 1 could be achieved, this would
mean th e voltag e dro p acros s th e gag e ha d bee n reduce d t o zer o an d
consequently E/ E= — 1.
Let u s now examin e two differen t situation s involving th e linearization
of the potentiometri c circuit wit h variabl e ballast resistance. I n th e firs t cas e
the gag e an d ballas t resistance s wil l b e equal , R h = R a, an d i n th e secon d
case the y wil l b e unequal , R h = £ R,.
Example with equal ballast and gage resistances

A usual case of this nature is represented by the use of two like gages mounted
back t o bac k o n a uniform beam o f rectangular cros s section an d subjecte d
to simpl e bending , a s show n in Fig . 4.11 . I n thi s particula r case , R b = R g,
(GF)b = (G F\, and , due t o th e characteristic s of the beam , e fc =— eg, so that
the genera l equatio n fo r th e rati o o f changes i n th e resistanc e o f the ballas t
to tha t o f the gag e fo r thi s special cas e reduce s t o
Therefore, thi s rati o fulfill s th e requirement s fo r a constant-curren t circui t

(when supplie d wit h constant voltage) . Thus, the equation fo r E, give n by
the genera l expressio n o f Eq. (4.26) , is
Since, for thi s case, V = 21R, th e valu e o f A£ is
From this ,
FIG. 4.11. Bea m in bending with potentiometric circuit, (a) Wiring diagram, (b) Space diagram.
and
This circui t i s automaticall y temperature-compensated , a s a n active -

dummy system , a s lon g a s th e tw o gage s ca n b e maintaine d a t equa l
temperatures.
Gages with positive and negative gage factors

Another method o f achieving the sam e electrical characteristics is to us e two
gages of equal resistance having gage factors of equal magnitude but opposit e
sign. Th e gage s ar e the n installe d sid e b y side, either independentl y o r o n a
common carrier . Thus , fo r an y strain , positive o r negative , th e increas e i n
resistance of one gage is just equal to the decrease in resistance of the other ,
and constant-curren t (optimum ) condition s wil l therefor e prevail . Thi s
system ha s th e advantag e tha t bot h gage s ar e subjecte d t o th e sam e strain .
The circui t is shown i n Fig . 4.12.
For gage s wit h metalli c sensors, th e concept o f employing elements with
positive an d negativ e gag e factor s i s somewha t academic , a s fe w metal s
possess negativ e strai n sensitivity . Mos t o f thos e tha t d o posses s thi s
characteristic hav e othe r propertie s tha t mak e the m undesirabl e fo r strain
gages. However , sinc e th e adven t o f semiconducto r gages , whic h ca n b e
produced wit h a n infinit e variet y o f gage factor s running from abou t — 100
to abou t +200 , thi s concep t o f linearizin g th e circui t ha s becom e ver y
important. Sanche z an d Wrigh t (1) give excellent quantitative information .
Example with unequal ballast and gage resistances

The approach t o linearization under the special condition s of Rb = R g, while
convenient, is not a n essentia l condition. W e now loo k int o the genera l cas e
to determine the relationship actually required between R b and R . We know
FIG. 4.12. Gage s wit h ( + ) and ( —) gage factor s place d sid e b y side .
that fo r conditions o f constant curren t (V assumed fixed) the total resistanc e

in th e circui t mus t remai n constant . To achiev e this , i t i s necessary tha t
If strain gage s ar e use d for bot h R b an d R g, then , since e = ( R/R)/GF fo r a

strain gage , we can writ e
and
The subscripts b and g refer t o quantities related to th e ballas t an d th e gage ,

across whic h E i s being measured , respectively .
In orde r t o satisf y Eq . (4.25) , we must have
This mean s we can hav e any physicall y possible value s for the si x quantities
in Eq . (4.56 ) a s lon g a s w e satisf y th e equation . Th e rati o Rt/R g ma y no w
be expressed a s
Since R b an d R g mus t always be positive for strain gages , Eq . (4.57 ) tells us

that i f the tw o gag e factor s have th e sam e sign , then th e strain s mus t hav e
opposite sign , or vic e versa.
Theoretically, ther e is a wid e choice of values for th e quantitie s i n Eq .
(4.57). Fro m a practica l poin t o f view, however, there ar e som e limitations .
For example , whe n tw o gage s hav e bee n chosen , R b/Rg i s fixed as wel l a s
the rati o o f the gag e factors , which do no t hav e to b e the same . This mean s
that th e gage s mus t b e installe d a t location s suc h a s e a/e6 wil l satisf y Eq .
(4.57). I f this ca n b e don e conveniently , we have a mean s o f adjustment for
difference betwee n gag e factors.
When (G F)e = (G F)b, Eq . (4.57) reduces t o
Equations (4.57 ) and (4.58 ) indicat e the possibilit y o f linearizing th e circui t

with a pai r o f unlik e strain gage s whe n e g/eb = ^ — 1.
Example 4.3. Tw o gage s o f unequa l resistance , bu t o f equal gag e factor , ar e t o

be use d o n a cantileve r beam , a s show n i n Fig . 4.13 . Th e gage s ar e arrange d
along th e longitudina l axis , to p an d bottom , an d th e purpos e i s to desig n th e
beam cros s sectio n s o th e potentiometri c circui t i s linearized.
Solution. Sinc e a = R^/R g, w e choose « b = -K g/a. Fro m Eq . (4.54 ) we hav e
From Eq . (4.55) ,
With(G f ) h = (G F ) 9 ,then AK b = — AK9 , and s o the nonlinearity factor, n, is zero.

The signa l fro m th e circuit , A£ , i s given b y Eq . (4.1) :
and s o
We also kno w tha t
Fif;. 4.13 . Cantileve r bea m wit h strai n gages .

Substituting thi s value of V into th e expression for E, w e obtain
or
Thus, under these particular conditions , E i s a linear function o f strain.

To complet e th e problem , R b an d R g mus t be chosen, and the n a n
appropriate bea m cros s sectio n determine d s o tha t th e necessar y
requirements wil l b e met . Tw o gage s readil y availabl e wit h th e sam e
gage facto r hav e resistance s o f 12 0 ohms an d 35 0 ohms. Mino r differ -
ences betwee n th e gage s ca n b e expected , o f course , bu t the y wil l
probably be less than 1 percent. For thi s problem, choose R b = 35 0 ohms
and plac e i t o n th e to p o f the beam , the n R g = 12 0 ohms i s placed o n
the bottom of the beam directly underneath R h. This produces the value
of a and th e relationship between eb and e g. Determining the beam cros s
section i s lef t a s a homewor k problem .
4.5. Temperature effects

Whenever th e mechanica l strai n varie s rapidl y i n relatio n t o chang e o f
temperature, i t i s perfectl y permissibl e t o emplo y a singl e strai n gage , a s
shown in Fig . 4.14, and t o neglec t th e effec t o f the temperatur e chang e upo n
the signa l fo r th e time-varyin g part o f th e strain , eve n thoug h th e sensin g
element o f th e strai n gag e ma y hav e a hig h respons e t o change s i n
temperature. This procedure is quite appropriate when the mechanical effec t
takes place i n such a relatively short interva l of time that th e accompanyin g
change i n temperatur e i s to o smal l t o caus e a n appreciabl e erro r i n th e
indication o f th e dynami c componen t o f th e strain . However , i t i s always
desirable to make an estimate of the approximate error anticipated fro m thi s
procedure a s applie d t o a particula r se t of conditions.
Let us now look into what may be expected from a strain gage of known
temperature response , a s mounte d o n a particula r material , whe n a give n
amount o f strai n i s t o b e measure d a t som e particula r frequenc y i n th e
presence o f a varyin g temperature.
To illustrat e th e point , conside r th e following :
Strain magnitude 50 0 microstrain

Frequency 6 0 cycles/sec
Gage respons e t o temperatur e chang e 150microstrain/° F
Rate of temperature change 12°F/mi n
FIG. 4.14 .
What wil l b e th e error , durin g on e cycle , o n th e trac e o f a recordin g

oscillograph?
Time fo r on e cycl e = 1/6 0 sec
Temperature chang e i n 1/6 0 sec =(1/60)( 12/60) = 1/300 CF
Gage respons e fo r 1/30 0 F = (1/300)(150 ) =0. 5 microstrain
Percent erro r i n signa l = 0.5/50 0 = 0. 1 percent
For stres s analysis , i n general , a n erro r o f 1 percen t ca n safel y b e
neglected. However , w e mus t realiz e that th e precedin g calculatio n applie s
only t o th e dynami c strai n signal for a singl e cycle, which is completed i n a
very shor t interva l o f time. It give s no informatio n in regar d t o th e gradua l
change i n referenc e or zer o shift .
Let u s no w loo k int o th e questio n o f th e lengt h o f tim e fo r recordin g
a transien t strai n withou t exceedin g a specifie d amoun t o f erro r du e t o
change i n temperature . W e assum e th e sam e numerica l value s use d i n th e
preceding example , and determin e the tim e to develo p a 1 percent erro r du e
to zer o shif t o r referenc e change. Figur e 4.1 5 wil l hel p t o illustrat e wha t i s
taking place .
Limiting erro r i n microstrai n = 1 percent o f 50 0 = 5 microstrain
Change i n temperatur e t o develo p thi s error = 5/15 0 = 1/30° F
Time for temperature change of 1/30°F to take place = (1/30)/12
= 1/36 0 min
= 1/ 6 sec
This neglect s an y error s produce d b y temperatur e change s i n th e lea d wire s
and soldere d joints . I t als o assume s tha t th e amplifier s transmit th e strai n
signals faithfull y a t thes e frequencies .
Slowly varying strains vs. temperature change

We hav e just discusse d th e measuremen t o f dynamic strai n withou t regard
to temperature . W e no w conside r th e measuremen t o f dynamic strai n whe n
the influence s of temperatur e chang e canno t b e neglected . Therma l effect s
FIG. 4.15.
can produc e intolerabl y larg e error s no t onl y whe n th e mechanica l effec t

varies slowl y in th e presenc e o f moderate variatio n in temperature , bu t als o
for certai n combination s o f high-frequenc y strain s an d violentl y fluctuatin g
temperature, suc h as migh t occu r i n certai n part s o f gas turbines . However,
since th e importan t facto r t o conside r i s represented b y th e relativ e rates of
change o f strain an d temperatur e wit h respect t o time , the sam e method s of
combating th e temperatur e effect s ma y b e applie d t o eithe r o f thes e tw o
conditions. Some approaches t o thi s problem, with comments on the relative
merits, wil l no w b e noted .
Self-temperature-compensated strain gage

When applicable , on e o f the mos t effectiv e way s of minimizing the influenc e
of temperatur e chang e i s t o emplo y a self-temperature-compensate d strai n
gage. However , it is necessary tha t th e environmenta l conditions be suitable
and, i n general , w e have t o conside r th e followin g points.
1. On e ma y hav e t o b e satisfie d wit h a gag e o f lowe r factor , sinc e th e

usual self-temperature-compensate d gage s hav e gag e factor s o f abou t
2.0 as contraste d wit h isoelastic gages wit h a gag e facto r o f about 3. 5
(or platinum-tungsten alloy s and pur e platinum, whose strain sensitivi -
ties ar e abou t 4 an d 6 , respectively).
2. Th e maximu m temperatur e (o r minimu m temperatur e fo r cryogeni c
applications) a t whic h th e strai n gag e i s expecte d t o operat e wil l
determine whethe r a conventiona l self-temperature-compensate d gag e
can b e employe d a t all , o r i f i t wil l b e desirabl e t o us e a gag e tha t
permits adjustmen t t o sui t a particula r se t o f conditions .
3. Th e averag e operatin g temperatur e wil l hav e t o b e considere d s o tha t
one ma y selec t a gag e wit h th e bes t compensatio n fo r th e operatin g
conditions. Thi s is due t o th e fac t tha t th e gage's temperatur e respons e
per uni t chang e i n temperatur e varie s wit h temperature . A gag e
possessing th e bes t compensatio n o n a particula r materia l a t roo m
temperature ma y not b e nearly as well-compensated a t highe r or lower
temperature a s som e othe r gag e wit h a muc h poore r performanc e a t

room temperature .
4. Th e rang e o f temperature variatio n i s naturally of utmost importance ,
since i t i s th e magnitud e o f th e temperatur e chang e whic h determines
the erro r fro m thi s source . I f temperature variatio n coul d b e reduce d
to zero , ther e woul d b e n o erro r fro m thi s cause . Zer o shif t migh t still
occur i f the operatin g temperatur e i s differen t fro m ambien t tempera -
ture, but thi s will no t appea r i n th e dynami c signal from th e potentio -
metric circuit unless the temperature change fro m ambien t to operatin g
conditions take s plac e ver y rapidly .
5. Lea d wir e errors mus t als o b e considered. Eve n though a self-tempera-
ture-compensated strai n gag e ma y b e employe d wit h grea t succes s t o
minimize the effect s o f temperature change s withi n the gag e itself , there
still ma y b e appreciabl e error s arisin g fro m th e temperatur e change s
occurring i n th e lea d wires , especiall y i f th e rang e o f temperatur e
variation i s large . Th e lengt h o f lea d wir e subjecte d t o temperatur e
change will , o f course , b e important . Th e commo n metho d fo r eli -
minating th e erro r cause d b y changes o f temperature in th e lea d wires
is t o us e th e three-wir e system shown i n Fig . 4.16.
The junction , C i n Fig . 4.16 , betwee n th e gag e an d th e tw o lead s

indicated a s ballas t an d gag e mus t b e mad e righ t a t th e gage . Th e ballas t
and gag e lead s mus t be brought ou t t o th e res t o f the circui t in close contac t
with eac h othe r s o the y wil l b e subjecte d t o th e sam e temperatur e effects .
For convenience , th e commo n lea d i s usuall y brought ou t i n contac t wit h
the othe r two , bu t thi s i s no t essential , sinc e i t carrie s n o curren t (high -
impedance readou t instrumen t assumed ) an d doe s no t for m a par t o f th e
actual strai n gag e circuit . W e no w loo k int o th e require d relationship s
between th e resistance s o f the thre e leads: (a ) th e commo n lead , an d (b ) th e
ballast an d gag e leads .
FIG. 4.16. Three-wir e system for potentiometri c circuit.

The common lead

The sol e purpose o f the common lea d i s to sens e the chang e in voltage drop
across th e gage . Becaus e it carries n o curren t an d i s not reall y a par t o f the
strain gag e circuit , its resistance, and an y change s thereof , will not influenc e
the indicated outpu t from th e circuit. For convenience , this lead i s frequently
identical t o on e o r bot h o f th e othe r two , bu t thi s i s no t essential , no r i s
it necessar y tha t th e commo n lea d shoul d b e subjecte d t o th e sam e
temperature condition s a s th e othe r two .
The ballast and gage leads

We no w conside r mean s o f eliminatin g (o r minimizing ) errors cause d b y
temperature change s i n th e othe r tw o leads . Sinc e th e ballas t lea d an d th e
gage lea d ar e i n serie s wit h the ballas t an d gag e resistances , an y chang e of
resistance produce d i n eithe r o f the lead s b y a chang e i n temperatur e wil l
appear t o th e readou t instrumen t as a chang e i n gag e resistanc e (strain) .
This result s in a n erro r i n th e strai n indication . However , b y appropriat e
proportioning o f th e resistances , i t i s possibl e t o mak e th e temperature -
induced error s cance l eac h othe r s o tha t th e outpu t signa l fro m th e circui t
is independent o f thi s temperature effect .
Because the tota l indicate d outpu t fro m th e circuit may be obtained b y
superposition o f th e effect s i n th e lead s o n th e indicatio n fro m th e strai n
gage, i t i s i n orde r t o conside r th e resistanc e change s i n th e lead s b y
themselves an d t o determin e unde r wha t condition s th e indicate d outpu t
from the m ca n b e reduce d t o zero .
The output of the potentiometric circuit, A£, is given by Eq. (4.1). It is
Here w e observ e that th e outpu t i s proportional t o th e differenc e betwee n

the uni t change s i n gag e an d ballas t resistances . Thus,
Equation (4.59 ) indicate s tha t ther e wil l b e n o outpu t fro m th e circui t

when th e uni t change s i n gag e resistanc e an d ballas t resistanc e ar e equal .
Therefore, i f this condition ca n b e fulfille d whe n the lea d resistanc e changes ,
the effec t wil l no t b e see n b y th e readou t instrument , and th e circui t output
will b e independen t o f temperatur e effect s i n th e leads . Thus , w e se e b y
inspection that , i f th e uni t change s i n lea d resistanc e ar e equal , th e
temperature effect s wil l balanc e out . Th e leads , then , shoul d b e selecte d s o

that
where R hL = ballas t lea d resistanc e

RgL — gag e lea d resistanc e
To prov e th e statemen t mathematically , we make tw o assumptions :

1. Fo r th e tim e bein g th e ballas t an d gag e resistance s wil l remai n fixed ,
while th e resistance s o f th e lead s underg o changes . Th e resistanc e
changes i n th e circui t wil l the n b e R hl o n th e ballas t sid e an d R, lL
on th e gag e side .
2. Bot h lead s wil l hav e the sam e temperatur e coefficient , s o tha t eac h wil l
exhibit th e sam e percentag e chang e i n resistanc e pe r uni t chang e i n
temperature. Thus ,
From Eq . (4.59) we see that fo r zero output , E = 0 , and so
For th e particula r situatio n a t hand , whe n lea d resistanc e i s take n int o

account, w e can writ e
If we substitute the value s of ARhI an d &R aI_, give n b y Eqs . (4.60 ) and (4.61) ,
respectively, int o Eq . (4.63) , we have
This reduce s t o
By inversion , we hav e
which give s u s
Equation (4.64 ) is the necessar y relation betwee n the resistance s o f the lead s
in orde r t o permi t cancelin g ou t o f th e effect s o f th e temperatur e change s
upon them . This equatio n als o tells us that, for the specia l cas e in which the
ballast an d gag e resistance s ar e equal , the tw o lead s shoul d b e alike.
The mai n poin t o f th e analysi s i s t o dra w attentio n t o th e fac t tha t i t
is necessary t o conside r th e circui t parameters i n orde r t o achiev e complet e
elimination o f th e error s arisin g fro m change s i n temperatur e o f the leads .
For example , if we were to us e identical leads with a ratio o f Rh/Rg = 5 , only
20 percent o f the erro r woul d b e eliminated.
Temperature compensation with two active strain gages

Whenever ther e i s a know n fixed ratio betwee n th e strain s a t tw o nearb y
locations o n th e sam e membe r (o r betwee n strain s i n tw o direction s a t a
single location), i t may b e possible t o achiev e temperature compensatio n b y
using a secon d activ e strai n gag e fo r th e ballas t resistance . Successfu l
application o f thi s metho d o f temperatur e compensatio n requires th e
following:
1. Th e tw o gage s mus t alway s b e maintaine d a t equa l temperature s i n
spite of fluctuation s i n the temperatur e of the membe r upo n whic h they
are mounted .
2. Th e temperature characteristics of the gages must be matched a s closely
as possibl e ove r th e operatin g rang e o f temperature .
3. Th e sign s o f the gag e factor s an d th e sign s and relativ e magnitudes of
the strain s must be compatible .
Equal strains of opposite sign

The method o f equal strains of opposite sig n is best suited, although certainly
not limited , t o condition s involvin g tw o strain s o f equa l magnitud e bu t o f
opposite sign , such as encountered o n opposite side s of a beam o f rectangular
cross sectio n unde r th e influenc e o f bending . Unde r thes e conditions , tw o
identical strai n gage s ar e used . Th e gage s ma y b e connecte d t o th e circui t
by tw o identica l pair s o f leads, o r b y th e three-lea d syste m wher e identical
ballast an d gag e lead s ar e used . The circuit s are show n in Fig . 4.17 .
136 THE BONDED ELECTRICAL RESISTANC E STRAI N GAG E
FIG. 4.17. Two identical gages.
With thi s arrangement, changes i n temperatur e wil l caus e equa l resist -

ance change s i n bot h th e ballas t an d gag e side s o f th e circuit . Du e t o th e
temperature change , thi s result s in AR h = AR a. Sinc e the gages are identical,
/?,, = R g, an d so , due t o temperatur e change.
Thus, the change s in temperature wil l no t affec t th e outpu t fro m th e circuit ,

as ca n b e see n fro m Eq . (4.1) . an d i t wil l respon d onl y t o th e influenc e o f
the mechanica l strain s on th e gages .
The propertie s o f th e circui t fo r thi s particula r situatio n ma y b e
summarized a s follows:
1. Temperatur e compensation , a s just shown.

2. Linearit y betwee n output , A£ , an d th e mechanica l strain , K . For th e
mechanical effect , R fl = — R h, henc e n = 0 .
3. Maximu m obtainabl e outpu t pe r uni t o f strain . Thi s i s equa l t o th e
output pe r uni t strai n from a constan t curren t circuit.
This come s abou t becaus e AK, ; = — R h, n = 0 , R s = R h, an d a = 1.

Therefore, fro m Eq . (4.1) ,
For th e condition s a t hand ,
V=1R9(\ + a) = 2IR g
Substituting thi s valu e o f V int o th e precedin g equatio n fo r A£ , an d the n

dividing bot h side s by e , gives u s
This neglect s lea d resistance .

It i s interestin g t o observ e that , fo r an y fixe d temperature , thi s i s a
constant-current circuit becaus e th e resistanc e change s i n th e two gage s just
balance eac h othe r an d th e tota l resistanc e i n th e circui t remain s constant .
However, whe n th e temperatur e changes , th e tota l resistanc e i n th e circui t
changes an d consequently , fo r constan t applie d voltage , V , th e curren t
changes. Du e t o th e constan t voltage , though , th e curren t chang e jus t
compensates fo r th e overal l resistanc e change , s o tha t eve n whe n th e
temperature i s changin g (an d th e curren t i s varying ) th e behavio r o f
the circui t i s th e sam e a s tha t o f a constant-curren t circui t a t constan t
temperature.
Unequal strains of opposite sign

When th e strain s ar e o f opposit e sign , i t i s alway s possibl e t o obtai n
temperature compensation b y using a second active strain gage for the ballast
resistance provide d tha t
1. Th e gag e factor s of both strai n gage s hav e th e sam e sign .
2. Th e tw o gage s hav e identica l temperatur e characteristics.
When tw o identical gages ar e used , equa l change s i n temperatur e wil l
produce equa l change s i n resistanc e an d therefor e equa l uni t change s i n
resistance (becaus e th e gage s ar e identical) . Thi s mean s ther e wil l b e n o
influence o n th e outpu t fro m th e circuit . I n othe r words , temperatur e
compensation ha s bee n achieved . However , th e outpu t an d linearit y o f th e
circuit wil l depen d upo n th e rati o o f the strains .
In th e analysi s dealin g wit h strain s o f equa l magnitude , bu t opposit e
sign, excep t fo r th e sig n o f th e circui t output , i t wa s unimportan t t o
distinguish between th e ballast gag e correspondin g t o R h an d the active gage
corresponding t o R g, sinc e bot h wer e equall y active . However , whe n th e
strains to which the gages ar e subjecte d are unequal , it is necessary to specif y
whether R g correspond s t o th e numericall y larger o r smalle r strain .
In accordanc e wit h thi s requirement , w e wil l conside r tha t th e activ e
gage, R g, i s subjected t o th e numericall y larger strain , and th e ballas t gage ,
13S TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAI N GAG E
R h , experience s th e numericall y smalle r strain . Accordin g t o thi s specifica -

tion, the ratio o f the strai n o n th e ballas t gage, R h , t o th e strai n o n th e active
gage, K 9 , wil l li e between 0 , when ther e i s no strai n o n th e ballas t gage , an d
- 1 , when th e strain o n th e ballas t gag e i s just equa l (bu t opposit e i n sign )
to tha t o n th e activ e gage . Unde r thes e conditions , th e circui t wit h tw o
identical gage s wil l exhibi t th e followin g characteristics :
1. Temperatur e compensatio n wil l b e achieved .
2. Th e sign o f the output wil l correspond t o the sign of the strain o n R g.
3. Th e magnitud e o f th e outpu t wil l alway s b e large r tha n tha t availabl e
from a singl e gage wit h a fixed ballast o f equal initia l resistance . A s th e
strain rati o approache s — 1. the outpu t wil l approac h a valu e twic e a s
large a s thi s latte r figure .
4. Th e outpu t wil l alway s b e a t leas t 5 0 percen t o f th e maximu m
obtainable (wit h a constant-curren t circuit) , and , a s th e strai n rati o
approaches — 1, will actuall y approac h thi s optimu m value .
5. Th e nonlinearit y o f the output , with regar d t o strain , wil l disappea r a s
the strai n rati o approache s - 1.
It i s interestin g t o not e that , sinc e non e o f th e precedin g propertie s
depends upo n an y specifi c valu e o f the rati o o f the strain s o n th e tw o gages ,
the circui t wil l wor k equall y well for al l strai n ratio s betwee n 0 and — 1. Th e
actual valu e of the strai n rati o prevailin g under a particula r se t of condition s
will, o f course, b e reflected , either directl y o r indirectly , i n th e calibratio n in
terms o f the strai n o n R, r
When th e strai n rati o approache s — 1, the outpu t an d linearit y may b e
sufficiently clos e t o th e optimu m (constant-curren t conditions ) fo r th e
particular requirement s a t hand . If , however, th e strai n rati o i s neare r t o 0 ,
it ma y b e preferabl e t o conside r a n alternativ e metho d o f temperatur e
compensation tha t wil l yield highe r outpu t an d bette r linearity .
Use of more than two identical yayes or two similar yayes of unequal resistance
When E b/eg, th e rati o o f the strain s o n R h an d R a. i s small, i t wil l b e possibl e
to improv e th e linearity , an d t o increas e th e outpu t fro m th e circuit , b y
making th e ballas t resistance . R h , large r tha n th e gag e resistance , R a . Fo r
best result s with thi s approach , th e rati o >- h/t:a mus t b e known , an d it s value
must remai n fixed.
As show n previously , the optimu m condition s wil l prevail , for gage s of
equal gag e factor , whe n th e rati o
This i s a necessar y requiremen t whe n dealin g wit h gages whos e temperatur e

response an d othe r characteristic s mus t b e matche d a s nearl y a s possible .
Thus, unde r th e condition s expressed i n Eq . (4.58), we will hav e a constant -

current circuit , with all th e advantages , for a negative strai n rati o whe n th e
ratio R b/Rg i s numerically equa l t o th e invers e ratio o f the strains .
How wil l th e differenc e i n resistanc e betwee n R b an d R s influenc e th e
temperature compensation ? Fortunately , thi s differenc e betwee n R b an d R a
will no t alte r th e temperature-compensatin g characteristic s a s lon g a s th e
gages use d for R h an d R g hav e matched temperatur e characteristics, because
unit change s i n resistance s are involved ; whereas, to establis h th e constant -
current circuit , we had t o conside r tota l resistanc e change s i n th e tw o arm s
of the circuit. We can best illustrate this by considering th e situation in which
we have a single gage for R g an d a number of gages, x, all identical with R g,
connected i n serie s t o for m R h whic h wil l thu s be x time s as larg e a s R g. I f
there i s a chang e i n temperature , the n w e have the following :
Change in resistance
Unit change in resistance
Hence, fo r a chang e i n temperature , th e outpu t fro m th e circuit , A£, wil l b e

zero becaus e
This mean s w e still hav e temperature compensatio n eve n throug h R b > R g.

Furthermore, since x is not require d to be an integral number, the compensa -
tion ma y b e affecte d eithe r b y usin g integra l number s o f identical gage s o r
by employing any two gages havin g the appropriate resistanc e ratio , as long
as th e gag e facto r an d temperatur e characteristic s ar e th e same .
We ma y therefor e summariz e th e characteristic s o f thi s particula r
arrangement o f the potentiometri c circuit by sayin g tha t
1. Temperatur e compensation ca n alway s be achieved as long as the gage s
corresponding t o R b and R g have the same temperatur e characteristics ,
even thoug h the y hav e differen t resistances .
Furthermore, when Rb/Rg — — Ks/eb, th e followin g additiona l propertie s
will b e exhibited:
2. Th e output, E , wil l b e linear wit h strain .
3. Th e magnitud e o f the outpu t wil l correspond t o tha t obtainabl e fro m
a constant-curren t circuit , i.e.,
It shoul d b e noted tha t i f the resistanc e o f the ballas t gage , R b, i s mad e

greater tha n tha t require d t o produc e constant-curren t conditions , th e
output ca n be increased somewha t more, but a t the expense of linearity.
The writer s fee l i t woul d b e bette r t o hav e R a large r i n th e firs t plac e
and t o kee p R h i n th e prope r proportio n t o produc e constant-curren t
conditions, an d henc e linearity , between strai n an d circui t output .
Strains of one sign only

When th e strain s a t al l location s wher e gage s ca n b e mounte d ar e o f on e
sign onl y (eithe r all tension o r al l compression), i t i s still possibl e t o achiev e
temperature compensatio n b y usin g a n activ e ballast . However , unles s th e
strain on th e ballas t gages i s relatively small, this is not a n attractiv e metho d
for eliminatin g th e temperatur e effect , fo r th e followin g reasons :
1. Whe n th e gage s correspondin g t o R h an d R g bot h hav e th e sam e sig n
for th e gag e factor, the resul t o f strains of like sign actin g o n the m wil l
be t o reduc e th e circui t outpu t belo w tha t availabl e fro m R g actin g
alone i n conjunctio n wit h a fixe d o r inactiv e ballast. I n certai n type s
of transducers , however , the advantag e o f temperatur e compensatio n
more tha n offset s a sligh t loss i n sensitivity .
2. Wit h change s o f resistance o f the sam e sig n i n bot h side s of the circuit,
it i s impossibl e t o achiev e constant-curren t conditions , an d th e cor -
responding linearit y betwee n strai n an d th e output . Actually , th e
deviation fro m linearit y wil l b e greate r tha n tha t fo r fixe d R b an d
variable R g.
3. Althoug h the us e o f gages wit h positive and negativ e gage factor s ma y
be very attractive for increasing th e circuit output a t constant tempera -
ture, ther e ma y b e considerabl e difficult y i f th e temperatur e changes .
The magnitud e o f the difficult y wil l depend upo n th e precisio n desire d
and th e magnitud e o f the temperatur e fluctuation .
Since th e temperatur e respons e o f a gag e depend s upo n th e effec t
of temperatur e upo n th e gag e factor , th e temperatur e coefficien t o f
resistance o f the materia l o f th e sensin g element , an d th e differenc e i n
coefficients o f expansion o f the sensin g elemen t an d th e materia l upo n
which i t i s mounted, i t i s very difficult t o mak e al l thes e effect s balanc e
out, excep t a t on e o r tw o temperatur e levels , because the y ar e actually
nonlinear function s o f temperature .
As an example , le t u s imagine tha t th e coefficient s o f expansion o f
the sensin g elements o f both gages ar e th e sam e bu t differen t fro m tha t
of th e materia l upo n whic h the y ar e mounted . I f there i s a chang e i n
temperature, bot h gage s wil l feel an expansion or contraction. However ,
since thi s effect wil l b e indistinguishabl e from simila r strain s produce d
by direc t mechanica l action , i t wil l appea r i n th e for m o f a n outpu t
from th e circuit unless the temperature change also produces compensa -
ting change s i n th e resistance s o f th e sensin g elements.
We migh t thin k o f a specia l cas e i n whic h temperature compensatio n

might b e achieve d a s follows :
1. Imagin e that th e coefficien t o f expansion o f both gage s is matched wit h

the materia l upo n whic h the y ar e mounted . Unde r thes e conditions ,
when there i s a chang e in temperature , th e sensin g elements wil l mov e
freely wit h the base material an d n o resistanc e change takes plac e a s a
result o f differential expansio n o r contraction .
2. I f the temperature coefficients o f the tw o sensin g elements are th e same,
then equa l uni t change s i n resistanc e wil l appea r i n bot h side s o f th e
circuit an d ther e wil l b e n o effec t o n th e output .
3. Th e effec t o f temperatur e o n th e valu e o f th e gag e factor s shoul d b e
negligible (or compensating) , since otherwise a chang e in temperature,
although producin g n o direc t outpu t fro m th e circuit , ma y hav e th e
inconvenience o f changing the calibration .
Further details in regard to temperature effects an d methods of allowing

for the m ar e give n by Hine s an d Weymout h (2), and Wnu k (3) .
4.6. Calibration
In orde r t o determin e wha t th e signa l fro m th e circui t represent s i n term s
of strain , som e typ e o f calibratio n i s require d (4) . Ther e ar e a numbe r o f
different way s in whic h thi s can b e done , an d eac h metho d wil l hav e som e
special advantage s wit h respec t t o som e particula r application . Fo r th e
purpose here , however , one usua l metho d wil l b e discusse d i n som e detail .
We wil l conside r th e shun t calibratio n metho d a s applie d t o a singl e
gage wit h a fixe d ballast . Thi s involve s the simulatio n o f a chang e i n gag e
resistance b y th e introductio n o f a larg e know n resistanc e i n paralle l wit h
the gage , and calculatio n o f the equivalen t strain which corresponds t o th e
circuit output. Theoretically, w e should be able to employ a series resistance,
but i n genera l thi s wil l b e s o smal l tha t variation s i n contac t resistanc e a t
switches ar e likel y t o impai r th e accuracy . Fro m a practica l poin t o f view,
it is better to us e a large parallel resistanc e becaus e the variation s in contac t
resistance a t switche s will the n b e reltivel y insignificant.
Figure 4.1 8 represent s a potentiometri c circui t wit h a fixe d ballas t
resistance, R b, a strain gage , R g, a calibratin g resistor , R c, an d a switch , S,
to bring Rc into the circuit. Although not show n in the diagram, there should
be som e mean s (chopper ) o f opening an d closin g th e switch , S, at approxi -
mately th e sam e frequenc y a s th e strai n gag e signal .
Let u s conside r that , fo r th e moment , th e strai n gag e i s a t res t unde r
zero strain . Whe n th e switch , S , i s closed , th e readou t devic e wil l sens e a
change i n resistance, AR C , which produce s a chang e i n voltage , AE C, at th e
output terminals . Thi s chang e i n resistance , AR C, correspond s t o th e
difference betwee n th e gag e resistance , R g, an d th e combine d effect , R cg, o f
FIG. 4.18. Potentiometri c circui t wit h calibration resistor .
R an d R c i n parallel . Fo r th e paralle l resistances ,
This give s R cfl a s
The chang e i n resistance , AR C , i s
Since strai n i s represented b y uni t chang e i n resistance , w e no w divid e

both side s o f Eq . (4.66 ) b y R g, s o tha t
Solving fo r R c, th e calibratin g resistance , give s
Since th e readou t devic e canno t determin e whethe r th e chang e i n

resistance tha t i t sense s come s fro m strai n i n th e gag e o r th e introductio n
of th e paralle l calibratin g resistance , a s fa r a s i t i s concerne d AR C /R 9
represents
or
Substituting this equivalent value of strain into Eq. (4.68), we may no w write
the expressio n fo r th e siz e o f the calibratin g resistanc e t o represen t a given
strain a s
In som e cases , however , i t wil l b e necessar y t o determin e th e strai n

simulated b y a calibratin g resistanc e o f som e arbitrar y o r predetermine d
value. Unde r thes e condition s Eq . (4.69 ) is used t o solv e for s , which gives
From Eq . (4.70 ) w e ca n comput e th e strai n simulate d b y a calibratin g

resistance o f some particula r magnitude .
Special case for uniaxial stress

For uniaxia l stres s conditions , whe n the gag e axis is lined u p with the stres s
axis, Eqs . (4.69 ) an d (4.70 ) ca n convenientl y be expresse d directl y i n term s
of stress . This i s due t o th e fac t tha t fo r uniaxia l stres s
where a = stress
E = modulus o f elasticity
Substituting thi s valu e o f e into Eq . (4.69 ) produce s
Thus,
Problems
4.1. Verif y Eq . (4.21) .
4.2. Verif y Eq . (4.29) .
4.3. I n Eq . (4.29) , le t AR h = 0 an d ^R g/'Ra = G f.e, wher e G F = 2.0. Plo t th e
nonlinearity factor , n , vs . the strain , R , on log-lo g pape r fo r value s of a = 1 , 2,
5, and 9 i n orde r t o sho w th e dependenc y o f n o n th e strai n level , E.
4.4. Usin g the dat a i n Proble m 4.3 , on semilo g paper plo t n vs. the rati o a in orde r
to sho w th e dependenc y o f n o n th e rati o a .
4.5. Th e followin g dat a ar e availabl e fo r th e potentiometri c circuit : V = 3 5 volts,
Rg = 12 0 ohms, R h = 108 0 ohms, and G F = 2.0 . Determine the circuit efficienc y
and th e strai n tha t wil l resul t i n a 2 percen t erro r i n A£ . Wil l th e curren t i n
the circui t exceed 0.0 3 amperes ?
4.6. Red o Proble m 4. 5 i f the strai n gag e i s change d t o R g = 35 0 ohms, al l othe r
factors remainin g the same .
4.7. I f th e voltag e i n Proble m 4. 6 i s increase d s o tha t th e circui t curren t i s
0.03 amperes, wil l th e erro r b e affecte d I f the erro r i s no t t o excee d 2 percent ,
compute th e change in E .
4.8. A stee l tensio n lin k o f rectangula r cros s sectio n i s subjecte d t o a n axia l loa d
that varie s betwee n 0 an d 3 3 750 Ib. Th e loa d i s offse t fro m th e longitudina l
axis o f th e bar , a s show n i n Fig . 4.19 . Fou r gages , arrange d alon g th e
longitudinal axis , ar e bonde d a t th e cente r o f eac h fac e o f th e ba r an d wire d
in serie s t o for m th e potentiometri c circui t o f Fig . 4.4 . I f R s = 35 0 ohms,
GF = 2.5 , R h = 700 0 ohms , V = 60 volts, an d E = 3 0 x 10 6 psi,
(a) Determin e th e strai n o n eac h gage .

(b) Determin e th e maximu m value of A £ considerin g n = 0.
(c) Comput e th e nonlinearit y term, n . Is i t wort h considering ?
4.9. A steel beam i s subjected to a bending moment o f M = 1 2 500 in-lb and a tensile
force o f F = 1800 0 Ib , as shown in Fig. 4.20. Using £ = 3 0 x 10 6 psi, G F = 2.08 ,
Rh = R g = 12 0 ohms, an d V = 25 volts,
(a) Determin e th e strai n o n eac h gage .

(b) Determin e th e chang e i n resistanc e o f R g an d R h.
(c) Determin e th e value of E .
(d) I s thi s a constant-curren t circuit?
(e) I f the loa d F i s eliminated, will thi s b e a constant-curren t circuit?
4.10. Usin g a T cross section , determine suitable dimensions for the bea m i n Exampl e
4.3 i f £ = 15 0 Ib, a = 1 5 in, an d L = 1 8 in.
FIG. 4.19.
FIG. 4.20.
REFERENCES
1. Sanchez , J. C. and W . V. Wright, "Recent Development s i n Flexible Silicon Strai n

Gages," in Semiconductor an d Conventional Strain Gages, edited b y Mills Dean II I
and Richar d D . Douglas , Ne w York , Academi c Press , 1962 , pp. 307-345 .
2. Hines , Frank F. and Leo n J. Weymouth, "Practical Aspects of Temperature Effect s
on Resistanc e Strai n Gages, " i n Semiconductor an d Conventional Strain Gages,
edited b y Mill s Dea n II I an d Richar d D . Douglas , Ne w York , Academi c Press ,
1962, pp. 143-168 .
3. Wnuk , S. P. Jr., "Strai n Gage s for Cryogenics, " IS A Journal, Vol . 11 , No. 5 , Ma y
1964, pp . 67-71 . Reprinted b y permission. Copyright © Instrument Society o f
America 1964. From Strain Gages o f Cryogenics, S . P. Wnuk , Jr .
4. Geldmacher , R . C. , "Ballast Circui t Design, " SESA Proceedings, Vol. XII, No . 1 ,
1954, pp. 27-38 .
5
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
5.1. Introduction
Although th e potentiometri c circuit , show n i n Fig . 5. 1 an d discusse d i n
Chapter 4 , possesses man y desirabl e characteristic s fo r use with strain gages ,
nevertheless, i t doe s presen t th e difficult y tha t th e strai n signal , E , mus t
either b e measure d i n combinatio n wit h a ver y muc h large r voltage , E , o r
first isolate d an d the n measure d b y itself.
When E i s determined b y measuring th e combined quantit y E + E ,
and notin g th e chang e fro m a comparabl e indicatio n o f E, one run s int o th e
problem tha t i f E i s relatively small with respec t t o E , a smal l erro r i n the
observation o f either E o r E + E ma y produc e a n excessivel y large an d
intolerable percentag e erro r i n th e comparativel y smal l change , E . Th e
importance o f th e readin g error , o f course , wil l depen d upo n th e relativ e
magnitudes o f E an d E , an d th e instrument s availabl e fo r makin g th e
observations.
For larg e signals from semiconducto r gages , ther e ma y b e no proble m
in obtainin g sufficientl y precis e value s of E fro m reading s o f E + E . I n
general, however , for strain gage wor k i t will be preferable to isolate E an d
measure thi s quantity entirely b y itself . Thi s approac h i s much mor e direct ,
since it involves making an observatio n immediatel y upon th e quantity that
is the rea l measur e o f the strain .
For dynami c strains , E ca n be isolated b y using a filter (condenser)
FIG. 5.1. Potentiometri c circuit.

WHEATSTONE BRIDG E 14 7
that wil l block th e stead y componen t £ bu t stil l transmi t th e time-varying

signal, E. Fo r stati c strains thi s syste m will not wor k because the filter wil l
not transmi t an y constant valu e of E. Therefore , anothe r approac h mus t
be sought.
The rea l difficult y encountere d i n makin g stati c strai n measurement s
with the potentiometric circuit is caused by the wide divergence in the relative
magnitudes between E and E , an d s o we now look int o th e possibilit y of
overcoming this problem. W e can achiev e our objectiv e either by increasing
E wit h respec t t o E (usin g semiconductor gage s wit h large strains ) or by
reducing E relative to E. Th e latter approach must be followed to develo p
a metho d fo r metalli c gages , o r fo r semiconductor s whe n th e strai n leve l is
low. If a schem e for reducing E relative to E ca n be worked out, an d i f it
can b e carrie d t o th e ultimat e s o tha t E i s finally reduced t o zero , the n we
have achieve d a mean s o f isolatin g E s o tha t th e strai n signa l ca n be
measured directly by itself. The ideas just expressed are presented graphically
in Fig . 5.2 , which indicates qualitativ e relations between £ an d E .
Figures 5. 3 and 5. 4 show various stages in the development of a metho d
for reducin g E t o zero , an d thereb y facilitatin g the direc t measuremen t of
the strain signal, E, b y itself. The fundamental idea is to change the reference
level fro m whic h E + E i s measured s o that th e numerical value of E will
be reduced and , ultimately , brought t o zero .
Instead o f measuring E + E a s the potentia l dro p acros s th e gage ,
shown as points A an d C in Fig . 5.1 , we will establish a reference other tha n
C wit h a stead y potentia l leve l muc h nearer , o r perhap s equal , t o tha t
prevailing at A . I f an auxiliar y battery wit h voltage V l (whic h is slightly less
than the voltage drop across the gage) is introduced and connecte d a s shown
in Fig . 5.3a , the n b y measuring the voltag e dro p across terminals A an d B
FIG. 5.2. Qualitativ e relations between E an d A£ .

FIG. 5.3. Method s o f reducing £ wit h respec t t o A£ .
FIG. 5.4. Wheatston e bridge.
instead o f across A an d C , th e steady-stat e component , E , wil l b e reduce d

by an amoun t equa l t o V v. Even though thi s is a mov e in the righ t direction ,
since E ma y b e exceedingl y small , especiall y fo r metalli c gages , th e
introduction o f th e auxiliar y batter y ma y no t reduc e E sufficientl y wit h
respect t o E. Consequently , w e strive for something better .
An improved techniqu e i s shown in Fig . 5.3b . Her e a n auxiliar y batter y
with voltage , V 2, that i s greater tha n th e potentia l dro p acros s th e gage , i s
connected t o a potentiometer wit h which we can var y the voltag e drop, V BC,
between point s B and C . Thus, w e can no w contro l th e voltag e a t termina l
B. Furthermore , since , for zer o strai n conditions , th e differenc e i n potentia l
between A an d B represent s th e steady-stat e component , E , o f th e output ,
control o f th e voltag e a t B als o provide s contro l o f E . Therefore , b y

adjusting th e potentiomete r unti l there i s no potentia l differenc e betwee n A
and B , w e ca n mak e £ equa l t o zer o an d thereb y eliminat e i t fro m th e
output. Whe n thi s ha s bee n done , an y chang e i n th e gage' s resistanc e wil l
produce a chang e i n potentia l a t termina l A . Thi s chang e i s equa l t o A£ ,
which ca n b e measure d directly , and b y itself , agains t th e referenc e voltage
at termina l B .
What has actually been accomplished b y making the initial adjustment,
which bring s th e potentia l differenc e acros s A- B t o zero , i s t o mak e th e
voltage drop, V BC, from B to C equal t o th e potentia l drop across th e gage ,
VAC. Then , when terminal B i s used for referenc e we have, in effect , change d
the leve l o f reference voltage fro m th e leve l at C t o th e origina l leve l a t A .
We can now rea d A £ independentl y (because we are using E as the referenc e
level o f voltage).
Theoretically, this method provide s us with a direct means o f observing
the strai n signal , A£ , fo r bot h stati c an d dynami c strains . However , fo r
practical reason s thi s procedur e i s no t convenien t t o us e (especiall y fo r
long-time stati c readings ) becaus e i t i s subjec t t o error s arisin g fro m
differences i n rat e o f deca y (voltag e drop ) betwee n th e tw o batteries .
Fortunately, thi s difficult y ca n b e eliminate d very easily.
Let u s now se e how th e difficult y involve d with th e secon d batter y ca n
be overcome . Th e onl y requiremen t i n regar d t o th e voltage , V 2, o f th e
auxiliary batter y i s tha t i t shoul d b e large r tha n th e potentia l dro p acros s
the gage . Sinc e th e presenc e of R b require s that th e voltage , V , must als o b e
larger than the potential drop across the gage, it appears tha t a single battery
can b e use d t o powe r bot h circuits , whic h ca n b e connecte d togethe r a s
shown i n Fig . 5.4a . Thi s i s th e well-know n Wheatstone bridge , whic h i s
shown i n mor e conventiona l for m i n Fig . 5.4b . Whe n th e terminal s A an d
B o f the Wheatstone bridg e are brough t to th e sam e potential , th e bridg e is
said to be balanced (E = 0). However, since it is quite possible that the bridge
might be initially unbalanced, the output indicated in Fig. 5.4 has been shown
as £ + A£ , wher e £ represent s th e potentia l differenc e betwee n A an d B
resulting from initia l unbalance, and A£ corresponds t o the change in output
due t o th e chang e in gag e resistance.
5.2. Elementary bridge equations

As with the potentiometri c circuit, the Wheatston e bridge circui t equations ,
and som e discussio n o f them , wil l b e presente d first . Figur e 5. 5 shows a n
idealized Wheatston e bridge in which all four arm s may contain strai n gages.
The bridg e i s supplie d wit h a constan t voltage , V , (fro m a sourc e o f zer o
internal resistance ) at terminal s D and C . The output voltag e across A- B i s
measured wit h an instrumen t of infinite impedanc e whic h draws no current .
Although this represents a theoretical situation , nevertheless , there are times
when i t ca n b e ver y closely approximated .
FIG. 5.5. Idealize d Wheatston e bridge .
For a n initiall y balanced bridge , E = 0 . Thus,
From thi s
When th e gage s ar e strained , th e incrementa l bridg e outpu t i s given as
where n = the nonlinearit y facto r which , fo r thi s case , i s ver y closel y

approximated b y
When th e gage s ar e al l alike and o f initial resistance R a, the n
For thi s case a = I an d Eqs . (5.3 ) and (5.4 ) simplif y t o

WHEATSTONE BRIDG E 151
FIG. 5.6. Generalize d bridge .
and
Equations (5.1 ) through (5.7 ) are th e elementar y bridg e equations. Fo r

a more general concept o f the Wheatston e bridge , we examine Fig. 5.6 . Her e
allowance i s made fo r th e interna l resistance , R s, o f the powe r suppl y an d
the fac t tha t th e meter resistance , R m, ma y not b e infinite. Sinc e R s is treated
merely as a resistance in serie s with th e bridge , this might include resistanc e
of leads , a voltag e control , o r an y othe r resistance , includin g th e actua l
internal resistanc e o f the powe r suppl y itself. Whe n th e resistanc e i n serie s
with the power supply and th e resistance o f the meter (or galvanometer) ar e
taken into account, th e expression fo r the incremental output, A£ 0, fro m a n
initial conditio n o f balance i s given by
where R BI = bridge inpu t resistanc e a s see n betwee n terminal s D an d

C (no t includin g R s)
RBO = bridge outpu t resistanc e a s see n b y th e mete r acros s
terminals A an d B (thi s includes th e serie s resistance R s)
Analysis o f the circui t show s tha t fo r th e unbalance d bridge ,
and
where
If each arm o f the bridg e no w contain s one o f four identica l strain gage s
whose initial resistance i s Rg, a s given by Eq . (5.5), and th e bridge is initially
balanced, then , unde r thi s special condition ,
This mean s tha t whe n th e change s i n gag e resistanc e ar e small , a s usuall y

occurs wit h metalli c gages , w e ca n writ e th e expressio n fo r AE 0 t o a ver y
good approximatio n a s
From Eq . (5.16) , we see that th e maximu m output, (A£) max , wil l occu r
when R s = 0 and R m = oc.
Galvanometer current
For th e unbalance d bridge , i t ca n b e show n tha t th e curren t throug h th e
meter (galvanometer ) can b e expressed a s
When R s = 0, Eq. (5.17) reduces t o
Ways of using the Wheatstone bridge

There ar e thre e differen t way s i n whic h th e Wheatston e bridg e i s usuall y
employed t o obtai n indication s fro m strai n gages : the nul l balance system ;
the unbalanc e system ; the referenc e system.
The null balance system. I n thi s syste m ther e i s provision fo r adjustin g th e
resistance i n on e o r mor e arm s o f the bridg e to compensat e fo r th e effec t o f
change i n gag e resistance . Th e bridg e i s brough t t o initia l balanc e b y
manipulating th e adjustabl e resistances . Then , afte r th e gage s hav e bee n
subjected t o strain , a further adjustmen t o f the variabl e resistances i s made
to restor e th e conditio n o f balance. Th e amoun t o f the adjustmen t required
to reestablis h th e balanc e i s a measur e of the chang e i n gag e resistance , o r
the strain . This metho d ha s th e advantag e o f giving an indicatio n indepen -
dent o f variations in bridg e suppl y voltage and, unde r certai n conditions , it
will eliminat e some nonlinearities.
On th e othe r hand , it s us e i s limite d t o static , o r exceedingl y low-
frequency dynamic , observations . Thi s i s du e t o th e fac t tha t i t take s
appreciable time to rebalance the bridge and, in consequence, it is impossible
to follo w rapidl y fluctuatin g changes . Furthermore , dependin g upo n th e
manner in which the rebalancin g of the bridg e is accomplished, th e readou t
may b e a nonlinea r quantit y requirin g a conversio n char t fo r determinin g
strain. In th e even t that al l four bridg e arm s contain strai n gages, it ma y be
impossible to avoid an appreciable amount of desensitization (loss in effectiv e
gage factor) caused b y th e balancin g network . If a direc t calibratio n ca n b e
made, thi s should no t presen t a seriou s difficulty .
The unbalance system. Th e bridge is directly connected to the readout device ,
which ma y b e a galvanometer , a cathode-ra y oscilloscope , o r som e typ e of
recording oscillograp h producin g a recor d o f th e strai n signa l (usually ,
although not necessarily) as a function o f time. This system has the advantage
that it is suited for both stati c and dynami c observations. However, since its
indication i s directl y proportiona l t o th e applie d voltage , a stabl e powe r
supply i s required. For measurement s conducted ove r long period s o f time,
this i s particularly important.
The reference system. Ther e ar e certai n instrument s combinin g th e advan -
tages o f both th e nul l balance an d th e unbalanc e systems , an d a t th e sam e
time eliminating som e o f the undesirabl e feature s o f each procedure . Thes e
instruments incorporat e a n interna l bridg e tha t i s separate fro m th e strai n
gage bridg e bu t powere d fro m th e sam e source . Provisio n i s mad e fo r
FIG. 5.7 . Schemati c diagram o f referenc e bridg e wit h gag e facto r control.
adjustment o f the resistance s i n th e interna l bridg e so that it s output ca n b e

set a t som e fixe d valu e o r controlle d t o matc h th e outpu t o f th e externa l
bridge. I t i s thus possibl e t o emplo y th e interna l bridg e a s a referenc e fro m
which t o establis h th e strai n indication . A schemati c diagra m o f a circui t
with a referenc e bridg e i s show n i n Fig . 5.7 .
When th e outpu t o f the interna l bridg e i s calibrated, then , by compari-
son, on e i s abl e t o evaluat e th e indicatio n fro m th e externa l bridge . Th e
comparison an d evaluatio n ca n b e carrie d ou t b y on e o r th e othe r o f th e
following tw o arrangements .
1. Th e null balance reference bridge. Wit h thi s system , th e outpu t o f th e
reference bridg e is initially adjusted to cancel th e output fro m th e strain
gage bridge . An y subsequen t chang e i n outpu t fro m th e strai n gag e
bridge wil l requir e a readjustmen t o f th e referenc e bridg e i n orde r t o
restore equalit y o f output s fro m th e tw o bridges . Th e amoun t o f th e
readjustment o f th e referenc e bridg e (i n orde r t o restor e equalit y o f
outputs fro m th e tw o bridges ) is a measur e o f th e chang e i n strain , o r
other indications , fro m th e strai n gage bridg e (1).
2. Th e unbalance reference bridge. Th e referenc e bridg e i n thi s syste m
is initiall y adjuste d s o tha t it s outpu t jus t cancels , o r balances , th e
output fro m th e strai n gag e bridge . An y subsequen t chang e i n th e
strain gag e bridg e wil l the n b e indicated b y an unbalanc e o r differenc e
in outpu t betwee n th e tw o bridges . This unbalanc e i s a measur e o f the
change whic h has take n plac e i n th e strai n gag e bridge . Calibratio n o f
this signa l can b e achieved by making a know n change i n th e reference
bridge, and the n comparing th e signa l from th e strain gag e bridg e wit h
the signa l produce d b y th e chang e i n th e referenc e bridge (2).
With bot h th e nul l balanc e an d unbalanc e referenc e bridges , w e ar e
merely comparin g th e outpu t o f th e strai n gag e bridg e wit h a calibrate d
reference. Fro m this , then, th e indicatio n from th e strai n gag e i s evaluated .
The nul l balanc e referenc e syste m i s suite d t o stati c an d low-frequenc y

dynamic conditions . Th e unbalanc e referenc e syste m ca n b e use d fo r bot h
static an d dynami c observations .
Some of the advantages of the reference bridge methods are as follows:
1. Th e strai n indicatio n i s independent o f the powe r suppl y voltage tha t
is connected t o th e tw o bridges . I n th e cas e o f the unbalanc e referenc e
method, i t i s necessary that th e calibratio n indicatio n shoul d b e mad e
with the same applied voltage as that employed for the strain indication.
2. Th e syste m lend s itsel f convenientl y to th e inclusio n o f a gag e facto r
adjustment.
3. Th e referenc e bridg e ca n b e se t u p an d calibrated , the n lef t alone .
4. Th e strain gag e bridge ca n be closed, and , sinc e its output i s compare d
with that from th e reference bridge, it is not necessary t o provide further
adjustment b y addin g serie s o r paralle l resistanc e i n an y on e o f th e
arms. Thi s i s a grea t convenienc e whe n al l fou r arm s o f th e bridg e
contain strai n gages , becaus e i t overcome s th e necessit y fo r including
trimming resistance s t o achiev e initia l balance .
Summary of properties of the Wheatstone bridge

1. Fo r strai n gage applications, probabl y the most attractiv e characteristi c
of th e Wheatston e bridg e i s it s abilit y t o provid e th e mean s fo r
measuring bot h stati c an d dynami c strains , o r combination s thereof ,
conveniently.
2. I n compariso n wit h th e potentiometri c circuit , the Wheatston e bridg e
is more elaborate . Thi s i s to b e expected sinc e i t actuall y contain s tw o
potentiometric circuit s connecte d together . Furthermore , du e t o th e
nature o f th e Wheatston e bridge , a measurin g syste m employin g i t
cannot hav e al l component s connecte d t o a commo n ground . I f on e
side of the inpu t is grounded, the n th e outpu t must b e floating, or vic e
versa. This requires complete isolatio n o f one part o f the system relative
to th e remainder .
3. Temperatur e compensation . Unde r suitabl e conditions th e Wheatston e
bridge wil l provide an electrica l method fo r temperature compensatio n
of strai n gage s a s wel l a s man y othe r convenien t propertie s o f th e
potentiometric circuit . On e wil l observ e tha t fo r a singl e active strai n
gage, the equations representin g the output from th e Wheatstone bridge
reduce t o exactl y th e sam e for m a s th e correspondin g expression s fo r
the potentiometri c circuit.
4. Optimu m bridg e ratio (for a single gage). When th e Wheatstone bridg e
is to b e used wit h a single gage, we have th e opportunit y o f making a n
arbitrary decisio n regarding the choic e o f the bridg e ratio , whic h is the
ratio o f the resistance s i n th e hal f bridg e connecte d acros s th e powe r
supply an d containin g th e strai n gage . Thi s rati o i s represented b y th e
symbol a in Eqs. (5.3) and (5.8) . Examination of the relations expresse d
in th e equation s fo r the bridg e outpu t indicate s tha t th e valu e of the bridg e

ratio, a, necessary fo r optimum outpu t pe r uni t change i n resistanc e (o r pe r
unit chang e i n strain ) wil l depen d upo n th e characte r o f th e powe r suppl y
as follows :
Character of power supply Value of ratio a for
maximum output per
unit strain
=
a. Fixe d voltage (V = constant) a \
b. Variabl e voltag e (max. gage curren t = constant ) a =1
For th e fixed-voltag e powe r supply , i t ca n b e prove n analyticall y that

for optimu m output , a = \ . However , for the variable-voltage power supply ,
since theor y predict s th e optimu m bridg e outpu t fo r th e larges t possibl e
value o f a , w e wil l hav e t o procee d fro m practica l consideration s i n orde r
to establis h a definit e an d convenien t valu e fo r the bridg e ratio.
We commenc e b y selectin g a strai n gag e o f resistance R g an d decidin g
upon th e maximum permissible gage curren t and th e maximum voltag e tha t
can be safely employed. From the maximum permissible current and voltage ,
the tota l resistanc e i n th e hal f bridge , R ± + R 2, ca n b e computed . I f R g
corresponds t o #, , th e bridg e ratio , a = R 2/Ri, ca n b e calculated .
Since approximatel y 9 0 percent o f the ultimat e output can b e achieved
with a bridg e rati o o f 10 , there is little incentiv e t o mak e th e bridg e ratio , a,
larger than 1 0 because th e required increase in applied voltag e goes up much
faster tha n th e gai n i n output . Man y investigator s prefer t o us e a valu e of
about 5 for the bridge ratio , since this will yield an outpu t of about 8 5 percent
of th e ultimate . Correspondingly, th e voltag e require d i s onl y abou t thre e
times a s grea t a s tha t neede d whe n a = 1.
If a carrie r syste m i s employed , th e powe r requirement s wil l usuall y
necessitate keepin g the valu e o f the bridg e rati o nea r on e (3).
5. Computin g characteristics. Equations (5.8) and (5.16 ) also indicate that,
by appropriat e contro l o f th e parameters , th e Wheatston e bridg e ca n
be employed t o perform certain additions, subtractions, multiplications,
and divisions . The relationship s ca n b e summarize d b y th e followin g
statements:
Subject t o th e possibility of some nonlinearities, the bridg e output,
E, wil l be:
a. Directl y proportiona l t o th e applie d voltage .
b. Directl y proportional to the sums and difference s o f the unit change s
in th e resistance s i n th e fou r arms .
c. Directl y proportional t o th e produc t o f the applie d voltag e an d th e
net uni t change i n resistanc e o f all fou r arms .
1
Practica l consideration s wil l usuall y plac e a n uppe r limi t o f abou t 1 0 o n th e maximu m usabl e
value o f the bridg e ratio .
d. Inversel y proportiona l t o function s involvin g resistanc e i n serie s

with th e bridg e an d powe r supply , an d th e resistanc e o f th e
instrument which is used to determine the output voltage or current.
Stein (4 ) gives a detailed discussion.
5.3. Derivation of elementary bridge equations

Figure 5.8 shows a n elementar y an d idealize d Wheatston e bridg e i n whic h
all fou r arm s ma y contai n strai n gages . I n th e succeedin g analysis , th e
following assumption s hav e bee n made :
1. Th e bridge is supplied wit h a constant voltage, V , from a source whos e
impedance i s negligible .
2. Th e resistance s o f the lead s fro m th e powe r suppl y t o th e bridge , an d
of al l th e lead s connectin g th e interna l components o f the bridge , ca n
be neglected .
3. Th e outpu t fro m th e bridg e i s represented b y th e differenc e i n voltag e
between terminals A and B. The instrument used to measure the output
has infinite impedanc e an d draw s n o current .
The bridg e outpu t i s the differenc e i n voltag e betwee n A an d B , which
is als o th e voltag e dro p fro m A t o C minus the voltag e drop fro m B t o C .
According t o assumption (3), no current flows from A to B; thus, current / t
flows through R 1 an d R 2, whil e current / 2 flows through R 3 an d R 4. Since
the voltag e aroun d eac h loo p mus t su m to zero , w e can write
FIG. 5.8. Elementar y Wheatston e bridge .

From thes e
Let u s no w conside r th e situatio n i n whic h all fou r arm s o f the bridg e

contain strai n gage s whos e initia l resistance s ar e R ^ R 2, R 3, an d R 4, a s
shown i n Fig . 5.8 . The correspondin g initia l output, E , is then
Substituting th e value s o f 7 j an d I 2, give n b y Eqs . (5.21 ) an d (5.22) ,

respectively, into Eq . (5.23) , w e hav e
or
If each gage undergoes a change in resistance such that R^ - > Kj + AR15

#2 - * R2 + &R2, R 3 - > R 3 + AK3> an d R 4 ^ # 4 + AK 4 , the n th e bridg e
output wil l change fro m E to E + E . Equatio n (5.25 ) can be written, using
the ne w resistances an d ne w output , as
With the full bridge , just as in the case of the half bridge (potentiometri c
circuit), we can show tha t the change i n output, E, i s a function of the unit
changes i n gag e resistance , o r th e strain s in th e materia l t o whic h the gage s
are attached .
The valu e o f E ca n no w be determined , i n term s o f resistances , b y
subtracting E , or it s equivalen t a s expresse d b y Eq . (5.25) , from bot h side s
of Eq. (5.26) . This result s in
Equation (5.27 ) is a perfectly genera l expression for the change in bridge

output from an y initial condition. I t specifie s n o particular relatio n betwee n
the initia l resistances o f the bridg e arms , bu t unfortunatel y i t i s somewha t
cumbersome t o handle .
For th e specia l situatio n i n whic h th e bridg e i s initiall y balanced , th e
initial output , E , wil l b e zer o an d th e expression fo r th e chang e i n output ,
A£0, wil l b e muc h simple r tha n th e genera l relation give n by Eq . (5.27).
When th e bridg e i s initially balanced, th e initia l output is
This means tha t
Equation (5.29 ) indicate s that , fo r a balance d bridg e (outpu t = 0) , a

definite relatio n mus t exis t amon g th e resistance s o f th e fou r arms . Thi s
relationship can b e expressed i n th e thre e followin g ways :
1. Fro m Eq. (5.29), we see that the cros s products of the resistance s in th e
arms mus t b e equal. Thu s
2. W e als o se e tha t
Equation (5.31 ) indicate s tha t th e ratio s o f the resistance s i n th e tw o

halves o f the bridge , whic h ar e i n serie s with the powe r suppl y (DAC
and DE C i n Fig . 5.8), must b e equal . Thi s ratio , frequentl y calle d th e
bridge ratio , i s equivalen t t o th e rati o o f ballas t resistanc e t o gag e
resistance in the potentiometric circuit. It i s represented b y the symbol
a. Hence ,
Bridge ratio
3. I f we divide the bridg e into tw o halve s with respec t t o th e tw o outpu t

terminals (ADB and ACB in Fig . 5.8), the rati o of the resistance s in
these tw o halve s mus t als o b e equal . Lettin g th e symbo l b represen t

this ratio , w e have
When th e value s of the ratio s a and b hav e bee n chosen , an d als o th e

resistance i n on e o f th e bridg e arm s (fo r example , Rj) , th e othe r thre e
resistances ca n b e computed .
For any values of a and b
For any values when a = b
For any value of a when b = 1
For any value of b when a — \
When a = b = 1
(equa l arm bridge )
Choice of ratios a and b

a = b = 1 Sinc e i t i s frequently desire d t o us e strai n gage s i n tw o an d fou r
arms o f th e bridge , th e equal-ar m arrangemen t i s probabl y th e
most usual , in spite of the fac t that , for a singl e gage, it s efficienc y
is onl y 5 0 percent .
a > 1 Fo r operatio n wit h a single gage, and unde r some conditions wit h
two gages, th e efficiency ca n be improved b y increasing th e bridg e
ratio. Ther e i s relativel y littl e t o b e gained , however , b y goin g
beyond a rati o o f abou t 10 , which wil l yiel d approximatel y 9 0
percent o f th e ultimate . Man y investigator s prefe r t o us e a
maximum valu e of 5, which allows considerably lowe r voltag e for
the powe r suppl y wit h a n efficienc y tha t i s above 8 0 percent .
b / 1 Th e choic e o f the valu e o f b is no t critical . I t i s ofte n take n a s
unity for convenience. We should avoi d making thi s ratio s o large
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 161
that th e relativel y low resistanc e o f one sid e o f the bridg e cause s

an exceedingl y heavy curren t deman d o n th e powe r supply .
Output of the initially balanced bridge

When the bridge is initially balanced, th e expression fo r the change in output
from th e initia l condition i s simplified. By referring t o Eq . (5.27), we see that
the second ter m corresponding t o the initial output drop s out , because E = 0
for th e conditio n o f balance .
In orde r t o b e specifi c w e wil l us e th e symbo l A£ 0 fo r th e chang e i n
output fro m th e initia l conditio n o f balance. Thi s make s a distinctio n wit h
respect to the symbol E whic h has been use d for the change in output fro m
any initia l condition. Therefore , A£ 0 correspond s onl y to th e specia l case of
initial bridg e balance . Sinc e th e outpu t o f th e bridg e i s usuall y nonlinear ,
this distinctio n betwee n th e genera l cas e an d a particula r cas e i s necessary .
Furthermore, it becomes more important wit h larger resistance changes, suc h
as thos e tha t ma y b e encountered wit h semiconductor gages .
We now rewrite Eq. (5.27) in the simplified form corresponding t o initial
bridge balance . I t become s
Since th e strai n gag e indicate s strai n i n term s o f uni t change s i n

resistance, w e no w procee d t o conver t Eq . (5.34 ) int o term s o f ratio s an d
unit changes. If both numerator and denominator ar e divided by the produc t
RiR3, Eq. (5.34) can b e rewritten as
As we are now dealing with conditions o f initial bridge balance, w e introduce

the relation s give n by Eqs . (5.29 ) and (5.32) . They ar e
These relation s ar e no w substitute d into Eq . (5.35) to arriv e at

Multiply th e numerato r an d denominato r b y a to obtai n
Next, Eq . (5.36 ) can furthe r b e rearranged .
This reduce s t o
In orde r t o pu t Eq . (5.37) into a mor e desirabl e form, let
Equation (5.37 ) become s

The brackete d ter m i n Eq . (5.38 ) is the nonlinearit y factor , and s o A£ 0 ca n

now b e written as
where th e nonlinearit y factor, ( 1 — n), is
Equation (5.40 ) i s exac t an d wil l yiel d correc t value s o f n , o r ( 1 — n),

for al l value s o f th e uni t change s i n resistanc e o f th e bridg e arms . I t is ,
however, somewhat inconvenien t t o handle .
When th e uni t change s i n resistanc e ar e smal l relativ e to unit y (let u s
say les s tha n 1 0 percent), thei r product s wil l b e eve n smalle r (les s tha n 1
percent) an d ca n b e neglected . From Eq . (5.40 ) w e can therefor e develop a
much simple r an d ver y good approximat e relationshi p i f we disregard th e
second-order quantitie s i n th e numerato r an d i n th e expansio n o f th e
denominator. This procedur e wil l give us
Equation (5.41 ) can b e solved for n by letting
Thus,
The relatio n fo r n become s
If w e compar e Eq . (5.39 ) for th e bridg e outpu t an d Eq . (5.42 ) for th e

nonlinearity factor with the corresponding expression s for the potentiometric
circuit, a marked similarit y will be observed. Furthermore , if the bridg e arm s
corresponding t o R 3 an d R 4 contai n fixed resistors, AjR 3 an d AR 4 wil l bot h
be zero . Equation s (5.39 ) an d (5.42) , then, becom e identica l wit h thos e o f
the potentiometric circuit. In additon, Eq. (5.42) loses its approximate nature
and become s exact.
Equations (5.39 ) an d (5.42 ) ca n b e writte n i n term s o f strain , sinc e
R/R= G FE. With like gages i n al l fou r bridg e arms , a = 1 , and Eq . (5.39)
can b e writte n as
Equation (5.42 ) becomes
When measurin g elastic strains in metals , the erro r du e t o nonlinearity

is generall y smal l an d i s usuall y ignored . A s a rul e o f thumb , th e error , i n
percent, i s approximately equa l t o th e strain , i n percent .
When nonlinearit y mus t b e take n int o account , it s influenc e fo r an y
bridge arrangemen t ca n b e readily computed throug h th e us e o f Eqs. (5.39)
and (5.40) . To illustrat e this, a quarter-bridge circuit can be examined, where
ARl/Ri = G F£. Usin g thi s valu e of AR l/Rl an d a = 1 , Eq. (5.39 ) produce
The nonlinearit y factor, ( 1 — n), i s obtaine d fro m Eq . (5.40) . Thus ,

Substituting th e valu e of (1 — n) give n by Eq . (5.46 ) into Eq . (5.45 ) yields
This expressio n ca n b e rewritte n as
The strain , e , i n thes e equation s mus t b e entere d a s e x 1 0 6 in/in. Th e

second ter m i n th e denominato r o f Eq . (5.47 ) produces th e nonlinearit y in
A£ 0 /K Thus , a compressive strai n will produce a n indicated valu e of A£0 /K
that is too large in magnitude, while a tensile strain will produce an indicated
value that i s too lo w in magnitude.
Reference 5 gives a tabulatio n o f th e effec t o f nonlinearity for variou s
bridge arrangements. Furthermore, it also gives the ratio o f the actual strain,
e, to th e indicate d strain, e;. In orde r t o sho w this, we know that ( A /K)/e ;
is equal t o th e constan t G f /4, an d s o the followin g ca n b e written:
From this , the indicate d strai n is
Solving Eq . (5.48 ) fo r E produces
The rati o o f - can b e writte n a s
or
166 THE BONDE D ELECTRICAL RESISTANC E STRAI N GAG E
In th e followin g tw o exampl e problems , tw o bridg e arrangement s ar e

developed, whil e other s are lef t a s problem s a t th e en d o f the chapter .
Example 5.1. A cantileve r bea m wit h fou r gage s arrange d i n a ful l bridg e i s
shown i n Fig. 5.9 . Each pag e wil l rea d th e sam e magnitud e o f strain, with gage s
1 an d 3 i n tension , an d gage s 2 an d 4 i n compression . Usin g Eqs . (5.39 ) an d
(5.40), determin e E 0. Als o determine , .
Solution
bridge rati o = 1 ,
From Eq . (5.39),
Equation (5.40 ) is
Substituting th e gage facto r an d appropriat e strain s fo r R/R, w e have
FIG. 5.9. Cantileve r bea m wit h strai n gage s aligne d paralle l t o th e longitudina l axis .
The circui t i s linear, an d s o th e outpu t is
Since th e circui t i s linear an d ( 1 — n) = 1 , then
Example 5.2. A round ro d i n tension ha s four gage s mounted o n it i n order t o

form a full bridge . Gages 1 and 3 are mounte d i n the axia l direction 180 ° apart .
Gages 2 and 4 are mounted transvers e t o gage s 1 and 2 , respectively, as shown
in Fig . 5.10 . Determin e E 0, usin g Eqs . (5.39 ) an d (5.40) , a s wel l a s E/E t.
Solution
bridge ratio = 1
From Eq . (5.39) ,
FIG. 5.10. Tensio n membe r wit h strai n gages .

From Eq . (5.40),
Substituting i n th e gag e facto r an d appropriat e strains , we hav e
Multiplying th e expressio n for A£ 0 b y ( 1 — n), w e obtai n
Thus,
The valu e of the indicate d strain ca n b e writte n as
Equating thi s to th e valu e of A£ 0 whe n nonlinearit y i s considered gives
Thus,
Solving fo r E ,
In term s o f the rati o o f th e actua l strain , s . to th e indicate d strain, E,. , w e have
Other bridg e arrangement s ca n b e handle d i n th e sam e manner .

Alternate method for the derivation of elementary bridge equations

An alternat e metho d fo r developin g th e expressio n fo r th e output , A£ 0, o f
an initiall y balance d Wheatston e bridg e wil l b e shown . Conside r th e
possibility o f connectin g tw o potentiometri c (half-bridge ) circuits together
in parallel , a s show n in Fig . 5.11 .
The initial resistances are Rlt R 2, R 3, and R^. Since the two half-bridges
are t o b e joined together , the y wil l bot h b e subjecte d t o th e sam e voltage,
V. The potential drops acros s R t an d #4 ar e represented a s £2 -1 an d £3-4 ,
respectively, and ca n b e expresse d as
where
When th e tw o half-bridge s ar e pu t togethe r t o for m a Wheatston e

bridge, a s show n in Fig. 5.12 , and the n initially balanced, th e voltag e drops
FIG. 5.11 . Tw o potentiometri c circuit s (o r tw o hal f bridges) .

FIG. 5.12. Wheatston e bridge formed fro m tw o hal f bridges.
across resistance R t an d R 4 mus t be equal. Thus, from Eqs . (5.52) and (5.53),
From this , it is evident that a 2 - i = a

a-4- Thi s mean s tha t
where
For initia l bridge balance , th e ballas t rati o mus t b e th e sam e fo r bot h

sides, a s expresse d b y Eq . (5.54) . When change s tak e plac e i n eac h ar m b y
the appropriat e A# , th e potentia l dro p acros s R t an d R 4 wil l be
The bridg e output , A£ 0, wil l b e equa l t o th e differenc e i n voltag e betwee n

A an d B . Therefore,
For the condition of initial balance, however, £

From th e relation s fo r the potentiometri c (half-bridge ) circuit , a s given

by Eq . (4.21) ,
Rearranging,
In a lik e manner , A£ 3 _ 4, i s written
Note that , in Eqs. (5.57 ) and (5.58) , R 2 an d R 3 ar e th e ballast resistances . If

the values of A£2 -i an d A£ 3 _ 4 given by Eqs. (5.57 ) and (5.58) , respectively,
are substitute d into Eq . (5.56) , th e outpu t voltag e wil l b e
If th e brackete d ter m onl y i s considered, i t ca n b e expresse d a s

If th e numerato r i s expanded, i t become s
Combining al l terms , th e outpu t voltag e is
Equation (5.60 ) i s exactly the sam e a s Eq . (5.37).
5.4. General bridge equations

We wil l no w conside r a somewha t mor e elaborat e arrangemen t o f th e
Wheatstone bridge . Thi s wil l includ e the followin g items tha t wer e omitte d
in th e previou s section :
1. Th e effec t o f resistanc e i n serie s wit h th e bridge . Thi s wil l includ e th e
internal resistanc e o f th e powe r suppl y a s wel l a s th e resistanc e o f th e
leads connectin g th e bridg e t o th e energ y source . I n th e analysis , bot h
of thes e resistance s wil l b e lumpe d togethe r an d considere d a s thoug h
they presente d a singl e combine d resistanc e in serie s wit h th e bridge .
2. Th e influenc e o f th e mete r (o r galvanometer ) resistanc e on th e bridg e
output voltage. In the previous section, th e analysis of the bridge output
was mad e o n th e assumptio n tha t th e mete r presente d a n infinit e
impedance and , in consequence, woul d draw no current from th e bridge.
We wil l no w examin e th e situatio n i n whic h th e mete r ha s a finit e
impedance an d draw s som e curren t fro m th e bridge .
Fortunately, th e result s o f th e analysi s o f th e idealized , o r simplified ,
bridge circui t ca n b e use d i n buildin g up th e genera l case , whic h include s
the precedin g considerations .
Effect of resistance in series with the bridge

The bridge input resistance , R BI, an d th e bridge outpu t resistance , R BO, ar e
given b y Eqs. (5.9 ) and (5.10) , respectively. Here w e will outlin e the metho d
of computin g them . Sinc e Thevenin' s theore m wil l b e used , i t i s state d a s
follows (6) :
Any two-termina l netork o f fixed resistances and source s o f e.m.f. may b e
replaced b y a singl e sourc e o f e.m.f. havin g an equivalen t e.m.f . equa l t o
the open-circui t e.m.f . a t th e terminal s of the origina l network and having
an internal resistance equal to the resistance looking back into the network
from th e tw o terminals , an d wit h al l source s o f e.m.f . replace d b y thei r
internal resistance .
The resistanc e i n serie s wit h th e bridg e wil l includ e th e interna l
resistance of the power supply as well as the resistance of the leads connecting
the bridge to th e source of energy. I n th e analysis , both o f these resistances
are lumped together and considere d a s a single combined resistanc e in series
with th e bridge . Th e effec t o f th e serie s resistanc e i s t o reduc e th e voltag e
actually receive d a t th e bridg e compare d wit h tha t availabl e a t th e powe r
supply, sinc e th e tota l voltag e mus t b e apportione d acros s th e serie s an d
bridge resistances rather than being applied entirely to the bridge. The circuit
is agai n show n in Fig . 5.13 .
In orde r t o comput e R BI, th e circui t is opened a t point s D and C . The
resistance, R s, i s no longe r i n th e circui t bein g considered , an d neithe r ar e
there energ y sources . Lookin g int o th e bridg e fro m point s D and C , we see
a circui t wit h resistance s R it R 2, R 3, R 4 an d R m. Sinc e th e circui t is not a
combination o f series and paralle l resistances , it must b e changed int o suc h
a combination . Figur e 5.14 a show s th e origina l circui t bein g considered ,
while Fig . 5.14 b show s the converte d circuit.
FIG. 5.13. Wheatston e bridge with suppl y resistance an d mete r resistance.

FIG. 5.14. Origina l circui t (a ) an d equivalen t circui t (b).
The mean s o f obtainin g th e circui t o f Fig . 5.14 b wil l b e outlined . Th e

resistances R 2, #3 , and R m form a Delt a networ k tha t mus t b e converted t o
a Wy e network consistin g of resistances R A, R B, an d R c. Th e resistances in
the Wy e networ k (6 ) are give n as
Referring t o Fig . 5.14b , th e resistance s R B + R^ an d R c + R 4 ar e i n

parallel, and thei r equivalent resistanc e is then in series with R A. Th e bridge
input resistanc e i s then
Equation (5.64 ) ca n b e expresse d i n term s of the origina l resistance s show n

in Fig . 5.14 . Although considerabl e algebr a i s involved, the fina l resul t i s
If th e resistance s J? 1; R 2, R 3, an d R 4 ar e increase d b y thei r individua l

R values , the n Eq . (5.65 ) become s Eq . (5.9) , th e expressio n fo r R BI.
Furthermore, if R! = R2 = R3 = R4 = Rg, the n Eq. (5.65 ) reduce s to
RCD = R g> regardless o f the valu e of R m.
Since R s i s in serie s wit h the bridge , th e bridg e voltage , V DC, is
Equation (5.66) shows that whe n a resistance i s in series with the bridge, the
voltage mus t b e multiplie d b y th e desensitizatio n factor , 1/( 1 + RJR BI), i n
order t o determin e th e actua l bridg e voltage .
Since th e bridg e outpu t i s directly proportional t o th e applie d voltage ,
the voltage , V DC, can b e substitute d fo r th e voltage , V , i n Eq . (5.39) . Th e
value o f A£ 0 the n become s
It shoul d b e note d i n Eq . (5.67 ) tha t R BI i s no t a constant , sinc e i t varies

with th e R quantities . I f th e uni t change s i n resistanc e ar e large , then ,
depending o n the relative magnitude of Rs, som e allowance fo r the variatio n
in R BI ma y b e required .
Influence of meter resistance

So fa r w e hav e examine d th e bridg e outpu t voltag e whe n th e meter , o r
indicating device , wa s considere d a s havin g infinit e inpu t impedance . W e
now loo k a t wha t happen s whe n th e mete r (o r galvanometer ) ha s a finite
resistance and draws current from th e bridge. To do this, the circuit is opened
between th e mete r and on e o f the outpu t terminal s o f the bridge , a s show n
in Fig . 5.15 . Thevenin' s theore m wil l the n b e applie d i n orde r t o ge t a n
equivalent circuit.
According to Thevenin's theorem, we first find the open-circuit potentia l
between point s A an d B . In orde r t o d o this , the loop, o r mesh , equation s
can be written by referring to Fig. 5.15. As we see, there will be two equations .
They ar e
FIG. 5.15. Wheatston e bridg e wit h suppl y resistanc e and outpu t mete r disconnected .
Rearranging, w e have
Solving Eqs . (5.68) an d (5.69 ) simultaneousl y fo r 1 ^ and / 2 result s i n
The potential , E , across A B i s
Substituting th e value s o f / , an d I 2 give n b y Eqs . (5.70) an d (5.71) ,

respectively, int o Eq . (5.72) , w e hav e
Thus, Eq . (5.73 ) i s the voltag e sourc e applie d t o th e equivalen t circuit .

The interna l resistanc e o f th e equivalen t circui t mus t b e determined .
This i s accomplishe d b y lookin g bac k int o th e networ k fro m terminal s A
and B wit h th e potential , V , shorted. Th e interna l resistanc e o f V i s adde d
FIG. 5.16. Origina l circui t (a ) an d equivalen t circuit (b).
to th e resistanc e R s. Th e origina l networ k an d th e equivalen t networ k ar e

shown i n Fig . 5.16 . Figure 5.16 a show s R s acros s terminal s D and C so tha t
resistances R±, R2, an d R s for m a Delt a network tha t i s to b e converted t o
the Wy e network, show n b y resistance s R D, R E, an d R F i n Fig . 5.16b . W e
see that R D i s now i n serie s wit h the paralle l resistanc e forme d b y R F + R 3
and R E + R 4. Th e Wye resistances are
The equivalen t resistance, R AB, i s
The resistanc e R AB ca n b e expressed i n term s of the origina l resistance s

shown i n Fig . 5.16a . Carryin g ou t th e necessar y algebra, th e fina l resul t is
Again, if resistances R t, R 2, R 3, and K4 are increased b y their individua l R

values, the n Eq . (5.78 ) become s Eq . (5.10) , th e expressio n fo r R B0. Also , if
Rt = R 2 = R3 = R 4 = R g, the n Eq . (5.78) reduce s t o R AB = Rg, regardles s
of th e valu e o f R, .
The circuit can now be drawn as shown in Fig. 5.17. The voltage source,
E, is given by Eq. (5.73). The curren t flowing through the circuit is the mete r
current, / galvo . Thus , w e can write
Equation (5.79 ) can b e rewritte n as
where E m i s the voltag e drop across th e meter .

If w e conside r th e specia l cas e i n whic h th e bridg e ha s bee n initiall y
balanced, the n Eq . (5.80 ) ca n b e expresse d a s
Rearranging Eq . (5.81 ) to obtai n A£ m0, th e chang e i n voltag e dro p acros s

the mete r fro m a conditio n o f initial balance, w e have
Equation (5.82 ) show s th t th e outpu t i s furthe r desensitize d b y th e facto r

1/(1 + R Also note that RBio is not a constatnt, since it varies with
the R quantities . If the unit changes in resistance are large, depending upo n
the relativ e magnitudes o f Rm, som e allowanc e for variatio n in R BO ma y b e
required.
FIG. 5.17. Equivalen t circui t fo r th e Whealston e bridge.

There ar e tw o desensitizatio n factor s involved , on e concernin g th e

resistance i n th e powe r supply , R s, an d th e othe r concernin g th e mete r
resistance, R m. Multiplyin g the right sid e of Eq. (5.67) by the desensitizatio n
factor containin g R m, th e chang e i n voltag e dro p acros s th e meter , A£ m0,
from a conditio n o f initial balance, become s
If R! = R 2 = R3 = K4 = R g, then R BI = RBO = Rg, and the bridge ratio

is a = 1 . Using &R/R = G Fe, Eq. (5.83 ) become s
Meter current
The curren t draw n b y th e meter , o r galvanometer , ca n b e compute d b y
referring t o Fig . 5.17 . The voltage , £, i s given by Eq. (5.73). If the resistances
in Eq . (5.73) are increased b y the R quantities , a s per Eqs. (5.11 ) through
(5.14), t o mak e i t compatibl e wit h R BO, the n th e galvanomete r curren t fo r
the unbalance d bridg e is
When expanded , Eq . (5.85 ) become s Eq . (5.17). For th e balance d bridge ,
Example 5.3. A full bridg e i s made u p o f four 120-oh m gages, each wit h a gage
factor o f G F = 2.05. The gage s ar e mounte d o n a cantilever beam, wit h gage s 1
and 3 o n th e to p surfac e an d gage s 2 an d 4 o n th e botto m surfac e directly
underneath. Thus , e l = e 3 = s an d s 2 = £ 4 = — e. Assum e tha t n ma y b e
neglected.
(a) Usin g a n instrumen t such that R m - > oo and R s = 0, determine A£ m0.

(b) Usin g an instrument such that Rm = 350 ohms and Rs = 0, determine A£m0.
Solution, (a ) Equatio n (5.84 ) reduce s t o Eq . (5.43) . Thus ,
(b) Sinc e R s = 0 and R B, = R BO = R q, Eq . (5.84) is
The outpu t signa l i s reduced b y approximatel y 2 5 percen t whe n a mete r wit h

R= 350 ohms i s used .
5.5. Effect of lead-line resistance

When strain gages are located a t a test area remot e fro m th e instrumentation,
lead-line resistanc e densensitize s th e syste m an d produce s strai n read -
ings lowe r tha n thos e actuall y occurring . Thes e resistance s wil l no t onl y
desensitize the circuit, but the y will affec t calibratio n and ma y als o introduc e
a temperature-compensatio n problem . Th e objectiv e no w i s t o examin e
several commo n circui t arrangement s an d determin e t o wha t exten t eac h i s
desensitized b y lead-lin e resistance .
Full bridge
As pointe d ou t i n Sectio n 5.4 , th e interna l resistanc e o f th e powe r supply ,
Rs, coul d als o hav e bee n include d i n th e lead-lin e resistanc e tha t i s in serie s
with th e powe r supply . Reserving now th e symbo l R s fo r the powe r suppl y
internal resistance , ther e i s in serie s wit h it th e lead-lin e resistance , 2R sL, as
shown i n Fig . 5.18 . Whil e no t state d explicitl y i n Sectio n 5.4 , th e mete r
resistance, R m, could als o have included the lead-line resistance on the output
side o f the circuit . Again, this is evident i n Fig . 5.18 . The resistances , R sL o n
the powe r sid e an d R mL o n th e outpu t side , coul d als o contai n switch , and
other, resistances .
Lead-line resistanc e ca n b e accounte d fo r withou t a ne w analysi s b y
replacing R s wit h R s + 2R sL an d R m wit h R m + 2R mL i n Eq . (5.83). Thus,
FIG. 5.18. Wheatston e bridge wit h lead-lin e resistance.
If /? ! = R 2 = R 3 = K4 = R g, the n R B} = RBO = R g, th e bridg e rati o is

a = 1 , and usin g R/R= G FE, Eq. (5.87) can b e rewritten as
For th e case in which .Rm is very large, there is no correction for lead-line
resistance o n th e outpu t side . Thus , fo r a syste m wher e R m — > oo (ope n
circuit) an d R s i s negligible, Eq. (5.88 ) reduces t o
Therefore, fo r th e remot e ful l bridg e th e outpu t signa l i s desensitize d

(attenuated) b y the factor R g/(Rg + 2R sL).
In th e circuit s that follow , th e interna l resistanc e i n th e powe r supply ,
Rs, wil l b e considere d negligibl e and th e mete r resistance , R m, wil l b e large
enough s o tha t th e outpu t sid e is taken a s open .
Half bridge —four wire

In thi s arrangement , R j an d R 2 ar e th e activ e gage s an d ar e locate d a t a
distance fro m th e instrument . Eac h lea d ha s a resistanc e o f R L. Th e circui t
is show n i n Fig . 5.19 .
FIG. 5.19. Hal f bridge wit h fou r lea d wires .
If th e loo p equation s ar e writte n and the n solve d fo r th e currents , / j

and / 2, th e resul t is
The potentia l differenc e betwee n points A an d B is
Substituting th e value s o f 1 ^ an d / 2 give n b y Eqs . (5.90 ) an d (5.91) ,

respectively, into Eq . (5.92 ) produces
Equation (5.93 ) gives the initia l output, E, for th e unbalance d bridge .

If gages R l an d R 2 underg o a change in resistance such that R t change s
to R t + AR i an d R 2 change s t o R 2 + AR 2, the n th e bridg e outpu t wil l
change fro m E to E + E, an d so Eq. (5.93) becomes
If w e start wit h an initiall y balanced bridge , th e initia l output , E , is
From this ,
Thus, Eq . (5.94 ) can b e rewritten, for a n initiall y balanced bridge , as
Equation (5.97 ) can b e written in terms of unit changes i n resistance by

multiplying an d dividin g A/?j by R 1 an d AK 2 by R 2. Doin g this , and usin g
Eq. (5.96) , the en d resul t is
The resistanc e R 4 ca n b e eliminated fro m Eq . (5.98) by again usin g Eq.

(5.96). Making this substitution and carrying out the intervening algebra, Eq.
(5.98) ca n finall y b e rewritten as
Equation (5.99 ) ca n b e put int o a mor e desirabl e for m i f we let

Using Eqs . (a) , (b) , and (c) , Eq . (5.99 ) become s
The brackete d ter m i n Eq. (5.100 ) is the nonlinearit y factor, (1 — n), an d

so b y substitutin g th e value s of A , B , and C give n by Eqs . (a) , (b) , an d (c) ,
respectively, bac k int o Eq . (5.100), the output , A£ 0, become s
where
Letting R t = R 2 = R g and knowing R/R = G FE, the output, AE 0 , from Eq .

(5.101) an d n , from Eq . (5.102), can b e written in terms o f strains. These tw o
equations the n becom e
For thi s half-bridge arrangement, the output i s desensitized (attenuated )

by th e facto r R g/(Ra + 2R L). Althoug h R l an d R 2 wer e considere d activ e
gages, on e coul d b e activ e and th e othe r use d a s a compensatin g (dummy )
gage fo r temperatur e compensation . Th e dumm y gag e i s mounte d o n a n
unstrained piec e o f materia l simila r t o tha t o n whic h th e activ e gag e i s
mounted, wit h bot h gage s subjecte d t o th e sam e temperature .
Half bridge —three wire

In thi s circuit , 7? j and R 2 ar e locate d som e distanc e fro m th e instrument ,
but R j an d R 2 ar e joined a t A ' s o tha t onl y on e lea d i s brought fro m thi s
juncture t o th e instrument . Eac h lea d ha s a resistanc e o f R L. Th e circui t is
shown i n Fig . 5.20 .
FIG. 5.20. Hal f bridge wit h thre e lead wires.
If th e loo p equation s ar e writte n an d the n solve d fo r th e currents , / j

and / 2, w e obtai n
The potentia l differenc e betwee n point s A an d B is
Substituting th e value s o f / t an d I 2 give n b y Eqs . (5.105 ) an d (5.106) ,

respectively, into Eq . (5.107) gives the output , £ , fo r the unbalance d bridge .
Thus,
If gages R 1 an d R 2 underg o a change in resistance such that R l change s

from R l t o R1 + ^Rl an d R2 change s from R 2 t o R2 + AR 2> then the bridge
output wil l change fro m E t o E + A£. Equatio n (5.108 ) the n become s
If we start wit h an initiall y balanced bridg e an d writ e the output , A£ 0,

in term s o f the uni t changes i n resistance , th e fina l resul t is
Equation (5.110 ) ca n b e pu t int o a mor e desirabl e form , an d s o i t ca n b e

rewritten a s
where
Letting R i = R 2 = R g and knowing R/R = G F£, AE0 an d n from Eqs .

(5.1 11) and (5.112) , respectively , becom e
The output, A£ 0, o f this circuit is desensitized b y the factor Rg/(Rg + R L)\

thus, we see that th e desensitizatio n o f the three-wir e half bridg e differ s fro m
the four-wire half bridge. Thi s circuit ca n b e used i n the same manne r a s the
circuit wit h fou r wires . Table 5. 1 compares the desensitizatio n factor s o f th e
two circuits .
Table 5.1. Compariso n o f desensitizatio n fac-

tors fo r three-wir e an d four-wir e hal f bridge s
Wire resistance, Three-wire, Four-wire,
RL Rgl(Re + R,) Re/(Rg + 2RL)
0 0 0
5 0.960 0.923
10 0.923 0.857
15 0.889 0.800
20 0.857 0.750
25 0.828 0.706
30 0.800 0.667
Quarter bridge —three wire

In thi s circuit R 1 i s the onl y activ e gage an d i t is located a t a distanc e fro m
the instrument. Thre e lead s o f resistance R L ar e use d in this circuit, with the
third lea d bein g brough t fro m th e gage t o the center poin t connection , A , at
the instrument , as show n i n Fig . 5.21 . The tw o lea d wire s in adjacen t arm s
should b e of the sam e lengt h an d maintaine d a t th e sam e temperature . Thi s
three-wire circui t i s th e standar d metho d fo r a singl e activ e temperature -
compensated strai n gag e in thi s arrangemen t (7) .
If th e loo p equation s ar e writte n an d the n solve d fo r th e currents , / j
and I 2, w e have
The potentia l differenc e betwee n point s A an d B is
Substituting th e value s o f / j an d I 2 give n b y Eqs . (5.115 ) an d (5.116) ,

respectively, into Eq . (5.117) gives the output , E , for the unbalance d bridge .
Thus,
If gage R ! undergoe s a change in resistance fro m R 1 t o R 1 + AR 1, the n
FIG. 5.21. Quarte r bridg e with thre e lead wires .

the bridg e outpu t wil l chang e fro m E t o £ + E . Equatio n (5.118 ) the n

becomes
If we start fro m a n initiall y balance d bridg e an d writ e the output , A£ 0 ,

in term s o f unit change s i n resistances , w e hav e th e fina l resul t a s
where
Letting R ± = R 2 = R g an d usin g R/ R = G FK, A£0 an d n fro m Eqs .

(5.120) an d (5.121) , respectively, becom e
In thi s circui t th e resistor , R 2, i s equa l t o R g an d i s locate d a t th e

instrument. The equations ar e identical t o those for the three-wire half bridg e
if R 2 i n tha t circui t i s a dumm y gage . I n tha t cas e AR 2/R2 an d £ 2 are zero ;
thus, Eqs . (5.111) , (5.112), (5.113), and (5.114 ) reduce t o Eqs . (5.120) , (5.121),
(5.122), an d (5.123) , respectively .
Quarter bridge —two wire

As in the three-wire quarter bridge , R^ i s the onl y active gage and i t is locate d
some distanc e fro m th e instrumen t b y tw o lea d wires , eac h havin g a
resistance o f R L. I n thi s circuit , temperatur e compensatio n i s lost , an d fo r
RL o n th e orde r o f 0.5 ohms th e bridg e wil l no t balance , an d s o th e initia l
reading wil l b e tha t fo r a n unbalance d bridge . A valu e o f R L o n th e orde r
FIG. 5.22. Quarte r bridge with tw o lea d wires .
of several ohms will generally be ou t o f the instrument' s rang e an d reading s

cannot b e obtained . Th e circui t i s shown i n Fig . 5.22.
As before, the potential difference betwee n points A and B is found. It is
If R I undergoe s a chang e i n resistanc e fro m R 1 t o R ± + A,R l5 th e bridg e

output wil l chang e fro m £ t o E + E. Thus ,
If w e star t wit h a balance d bridge , th e output , A£ 0, ca n b e writte n i n

terms o f the uni t chang e i n resistance , an d s o th e fina l resul t is
where
If R 1= R2 = Rg, the n AE 0 an d n , fro m Eqs . (5.126 ) an d (5.127) ,

190 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAIN GAGE
respectively, ca n b e written a s
If th e lead-lin e resistanc e i n a particula r circui t i s known , th e outpu t

voltage, A£ 0, ca n b e correcte d b y multiplyin g i t b y th e reciproca l o f th e
desensitization facto r fo r tha t circuit . Corrections fo r th e circuit s discusse d
are listed , wher e AE 0c i s the correcte d outpu t voltage .
Full bridge
Half bridge—four wire
Half bridge —three wire
Quarter bridge —three wire
Quarter bridge —two wire
Figure 5.2 3 shows th e influenc e o f lead-line resistanc e o n a half-bridg e

four-wire circuit. The information plotted i s from a cantilever bea m test , with
one gag e o n to p o f the bea m an d th e secon d gag e o n th e botto m directl y
underneath.
FIG. 5.23. Influenc e o f lead-line resistance, R L, o n a half-bridge , four-wir e circuit .
Figure 5.2 4 show s th e influenc e o f lead-line resistanc e o n a half-bridg e

three-wire circuit . Th e sam e cantileve r bea m wa s used , bu t i t i s apparen t
that th e attenuatio n o f thi s circui t i s les s tha n tha t o f th e fou r wires. A
comparison o f Eqs . (5.131 ) an d (5.132 ) show s th e reaso n fo r this .
Example 5.4. Th e linea r driv e tub e o f a machin e ha s fou r 120-oh m gages ,

forming a full bridge , mounte d o n it in order t o determin e the longitudinal forc e
acting o n th e tube . Gage s 1 and 3 are aligne d paralle l t o th e longitudina l axi s
and ar e 180 ° apart , whil e gage s 2 an d 4 ar e mounte d transvers e t o th e
longitudinal axis . The bridg e i s connected t o th e instrumentation , located i n a
control booth , wit h 100f t o f No . 2 6 coppe r wir e havin g a resistanc e o f
4.081 ohms/100 ft. Figur e 5.2 5 show s th e driv e tub e an d bridg e arrangement .
Determine th e outpu t voltage .
Solution. Wit h gages 1 and 3 in opposite arms, as well as gages 2 and 4 , bending
strains wil l b e cancele d an d onl y longitudina l compressiv e strain s wil l b e
recorded. Furthermore , th e nonlinearit y facto r wil l b e smal l an d ca n b e
FIG. 5.24. Influenc e o f lead-line resistance , R L, o n a half-bridge , three-wir e circuit.
FIG. 5.25. Driv e tub e wit h bridg e arrangemen t fo r measurin g axia l force.
disregarded. Thus ,
and
Ignoring the lead-lin e resistance for the moment, Eq. (5.43 ) ca n b e used t o
compute A£ 0:
The voltage , A£0, can b e corrected by usin g Eq . (5.130).
This resul t show s that th e signa l wa s reduced b y approximatel y 6. 8 percent. In

passing, not e tha t i f 350-ohm gage s wer e used , th e correctio n facto r woul d b e
Thus, the signa l would b e reduced b y approximately 2.3 percent, and so , if long
lead line s ar e used , it woul d b e bette r t o us e higher-resistance gages .
5.6. Circuit calibration

The tw o basi c method s o f calibrating a strai n gag e circui t are mechanica l
and electrica l (8 , 9) . Th e mechanica l calibratio n method , whil e goo d fo r
establishing the validit y of the measurin g system , is inconvenient an d costl y
for regula r use. In thi s section, electrical calibratio n onl y will be considered ,
where a calibratio n resistor , R c, i s shunte d acros s on e o f th e gages .
Furthermore, i t wil l b e assumed tha t th e permissibl e error wil l b e such tha t
the nonlinearit y o f th e Wheatston e bridg e ca n b e neglected . A s a furthe r
restriction, only arm R t wil l be shunted, as shown in Fig. 5.26 . For a detailed
analysis o f shun t calibration , fo r bot h smal l an d larg e strains , Referenc e 9
is recommended .
When th e resisto r R c i s shunte d acros s R ls wher e R ^ = R g, th e tota l
resistance i n tha t ar m i s reduced. Th e equivalen t resistance is
FIG. 5.26. Wheatston e bridge wit h calibratio n resistor.
The chang e i n resistanc e i n th e bridg e ar m i s
Dividing bot h side s o f Eq. (5.136 ) b y R q give s
Since R/ R = G Fe, th e equivalen t strai n produce d b y shuntin g R c acros s

R1 i s
The negativ e sig n tell s u s tha t thi s calibratio n metho d produce s a n

equivalent strai n tha t i s compressive i n sense. Precisio n calibratio n resistor s
can b e purchased, usin g G F = 2.0 , that wil l give microstrains o f even values ,
such a s 500 , 1000 , etc . Thi s metho d ca n b e employe d whethe r o r no t a
quarter-, half- , o r full-bridg e circui t i s bein g used . Knowin g th e bridg e
arrangement, th e surfac e strai n a t th e primar y gag e ca n b e foun d b y
calculation. It shoul d b e noted that the shunt is applied at the gage and no t
at th e instrument.
Example 5.5 . Determin e th e valu e o f R c tha t wil l produc e an equivalen t strai n

of -50 0 uin/i n whe n G F = 2.0 and R g = 12 0 ohms.
FIG. 5.27. Circui t wit h calibratio n resistor , R c, shunte d acros s resisto r
Solution. Solvin g Eq. (5.138 ) for R c produce s
The calibration of a circuit with gages mounted remote from th e instrument

and tha t hav e equa l resistance , R L, i n eac h lea d lin e wil l b e considered .
Equations (5.130 ) throug h (5.134 ) sho w th e factor s b y whic h th e indicate d
output voltage (or indicated strain ) will have to b e multiplied in order t o obtain
the true output value.
Figure 5.2 7 shows a half-bridg e arrangemen t wit h R r a n activ e gag e
and R 2 bein g eithe r a n activ e o r a dumm y gage . Th e calibratio n resistor ,
Rc, ca n b e locate d a t eithe r R ^ o r bac k nea r th e instrument , bu t i n eithe r
case it s lead s als o hav e the sam e resistance , R L. I n general , fo r hig h values of
Rc, it s lead resistance s wil l hav e little effect o n th e calibratio n strain . Whe n R L
is now shunte d across R lt th e gai n (gag e facto r setting ) o f the instrumen t can
be adjuste d s o tha t th e indicate d strai n read s th e calibratio n strain . Fo r
subsequent loading, the instrument will now read th e strains directly. Although
a hal f bridge has bee n shown , the method als o applie s to a quarter, half, o r ful l
bridge.
5.7. Comments
In th e developmen t o f th e bridg e equations , th e outpu t o f th e bridg e ha s
been i n term s o f voltage , specifie d eithe r a s AE 0 o r A£ m0. I n th e strai n
instrumentation generall y used , the instrument is calibrated to rea d directl y
in strain . Furthermore , i f a ful l bridg e i s considered , a s show n i n Fig . 5.28 ,
we have learned, startin g wit h ar m 1 , that th e arm s alternat e i n sign . Thus,
FIG. 5.28. Wheatston e bridge showing th e sign s o f the respectiv e arms.
if a gag e connecte d i n ar m 2 i s subjecte d t o a compressiv e strain , th e sig n

will b e change d an d th e indicato r wil l giv e a positiv e value . Because o f this
property o f the Wheatston e bridge , bridg e circuit s ca n b e arrange d i n suc h
a manne r tha t w e ca n isolate , fo r instance , th e effec t o f a n axia l forc e an d
null ou t th e effect s o f bending . Th e bridg e arrangemen t i n Fig . 5.10 , a s a n
example, wil l d o jus t tha t b y cancelin g bendin g strain s an d producin g th e
strains o f the direc t axia l force.
Many times , a numbe r o f strai n gages , use d i n quarter-bridg e circuits ,
may b e bonde d a t variou s location s o n a structure . Becaus e i t woul d b e
time-consuming and awkward to connect eac h strai n gage, in turn, to a strain
indicator an d the n load th e structure, a switching and balancin g uni t i s used
in conjunctio n wit h th e strai n indicator . A typical multichanne l applicatio n
is show n i n Fig . 5.2 9 wit h a strai n indicato r an d it s companio n switchin g
and balancin g unit .
In thi s application , a numbe r o f gage s ar e connecte d t o th e switchin g
and balancin g uni t which, in turn, is connected t o th e strai n indicator . Here ,
six o f a tota l o f ten channel s are used . Th e switc h is turned t o eac h channe l
and th e strai n indicato r i s balanced b y usin g the balancin g potentiomete r o f
the individua l circuit. Then, a t ever y load level , the switc h is turned t o eac h
channel an d tha t strai n recorded .
Since th e strai n gage s ma y no t al l b e alik e (singl e gage s an d rosette s
may b e mixed) , there wil l b e severa l differen t gag e factors . I n thi s case , se t
one valu e of G F on th e strai n indicato r an d correc t th e indicate d strai n b y
calculation. Sinc e R/ R wil l b e th e sam e regardles s o f the valu e of G F used,
we can writ e
FIG. 5.29. Multichanne l arrangemen t usin g a switchin g an d balancin g unit . (Courtes y o f

Measurements Group , Inc.)
This i s rearranged t o
where G' F = gage facto r set o n th e strai n indicato r

GF = gage factor of the strai n gag e
e' = indicate d strai n
e = correcte d (actual ) strai n
Therefore, onc e al l o f the indicate d strain s ar e recorded , Eq . (5.140 ) can b e

used t o determin e the actua l strains.
Problems
5.1. A full bridge , made u p o f 120-oh m gages , ha s a constant-voltage power supply
of 1 0 volts. The followin g resistor s ar e shunted , in turn, across ar m R^ . 11 9 880,
11 880, 1080 , 360 , 120 , 40, and 1 0 ohms. Using Eqs. (5.39) and (5.40) , plot A£ 0
vs. A.R,/Kj .
In Probs. 5. 2 through 5.7 , use Eqs. (5.39) and (5.40 ) to determine an expression for
5.2. I n Fig . 5.9 , gage 1 is the onl y activ e gage, so tha t

5.3. I n Fig . 5.10 , gages 1 and 2 are th e activ e gages, thu s and
5.4. I n Fig . 5.9 , gages 1 and 2 are th e activ e gages. I n thi s case and
5.5. I n Fig . 5.9 , gages 1 and 3 are activ e gages, s o tha t
198 THE BONDE D ELECTRICAL RESISTANC E STRAI N GAGE
FIG. 5.30 .
5.6. A cantileve r bea m ha s gage s arrange d a s show n i n Fig . 5.30 . Gage s 1

and 2 are longitudina l gages, mounte d to p an d bottom , respectively . Gage 3 is
mounted o n th e botto m transvers e t o gag e 2 , while gag e 4 i s mounted o n th e
top transvers e t o gag e 1.
5.7. Th e gage s o f th e cantileve r bea m i n Fig . 5.3 0 ar e rewire d int o th e bridg e
arrangement show n i n Fig . 5.31.
5.8. A smal l assembl y machin e ha s th e dimension s show n i n Fig . 5.32 . Gage s 1
and 2 ar e bonde d a t th e inne r an d oute r radius , respectively , i n a longi -
tudinal direction . Eac h gag e i s rea d individually , with e, ^ =108 3 uin/in an d
e,2 = —65 2 uin/in. Determine th e stresse s a t eac h gag e locatio n a s wel l a s th e
load actin g o n th e machine . Th e materia l i s steel.
5.9. Tw o stee l sleeve s are shrun k together, a s shown in Fig . 5.33 . The nomina l radi i
are a = 2.00 in, b = 2.7 5 in, an d c = 3.2 5 in. Afte r assembly , a strai n gag e i s
bonded t o th e oute r cylinde r i n th e hoo p (tangential ) direction , th e strai n
indicator i s balanced , an d the n th e inne r cylinde r i s pushe d out . Afte r
disassembly, th e strai n gag e give s a readin g o f —84 0 uin/in. Determin e th e
shrink-fit pressur e an d th e amoun t o f interference .
FIG. 5.31 .
FIG. 5.32.
FIG. 5.33.
5.10. A cantilever beam , show n i n Fig . 5.34 , ha s a widt h o f 2 in an d a thicknes s of

0.250 in. A weight o f 2 5 Ib ca n b e positione d a t an y poin t betwee n 1 0 in an d
18 in from th e support . Strai n gage s are t o b e placed a t 1 in an d 8 in fro m th e
support.
(a) Sho w tha t th e differenc e i n th e moment s a t th e strai n gag e location s wil l
be th e sam e fo r an y positio n o f th e loa d withi n it s range ; tha t is ,
AM = M! -MS .
(b) Determin e a suitabl e full-bridg e arrangemen t tha t wil l giv e th e strai n
associated wit h A M and determin e its magnitude.
FIG. 5.34 .
5.11. A thick-walle d cylinde r o f stee l wit h cappe d end s i s subjecte d t o a n interna l

pressure. The inne r radius is 2 in and th e oute r radiu s is 3.125 in. On th e outsid e
surface a t mid-length , tw o strai n gage s ar e bonded . Gag e 1 is i n th e circum -
ferential (hoop ) directio n an d gag e 2 i s i n th e longitudina l direction . Afte r
pressurization th e followin g reading s ar e obtained :
KI = 59 0 u.in/in, e. 2 = 13 9 uin/in
Determine th e stres s stat e and th e interna l pressure.

5.12. Figur e 5.3 5 show s a cantileve r bea m wit h offse t loading . Fou r longitudina l
strain gage s ar e bonde d t o th e bea m a t sectio n A- A an d the n arrange d int o
the bridg e circuit s illustrated in A , B, C, an d D . Beneat h eac h bridg e circui t is
the strai n indicato r reading . Determin e th e loads , F x, F y, and F, , as wel l a s th e
total strai n a t eac h gage .
5.13. Whe n a shaft i s in pure torsion, the principal stresses , and therefor e the principa l
strains, lie at ±45 ° to th e longitudinal axis. If a pai r o f strain gages ar e bonde d
to th e shaf t i n thes e direction s an d anothe r pai r ar e bonde d diametricall y
opposite, then , if they ar e arrange d int o a prope r ful l bridge , onl y the torsiona l
effect wil l b e measure d b y th e bridge . Furthermore , i f the shaf t i s subjected t o
bending moments o r axia l forces, their effect wil l be canceled. Figur e 5.3 6 shows
a sectio n o f th e shaft .
FIG. 5.35 .
gages c and d diametrically opposite gages a and b
FIG. 5.36 .
(a) Sketc h a Mohr' s circl e and verif y th e strai n directions.

(b) Sho w ho w th e gage s shoul d b e arrange d int o a ful l bridge .
(c) Explai n why strain s due t o bendin g moments o r axia l force s wil l cancel .
5.14. Th e die s o n a two-post castin g machine ar e to b e set so that eac h pos t ha s a n
equal axia l force. Tw o gage s ar e bonded , 180 ° apart, t o eac h pos t a s show n in
Fig. 5.37 . Th e gage s ar e arrange d i n tur n t o for m th e bridg e circuit s shown ,
along wit h thei r respectiv e reading s afte r loading . I f th e post s ar e 3. 0 in i n
diameter, determin e the following :
(a) Th e axia l force i n each post .
(b) Th e bendin g momen t i n each pos t i n the plan e containin g gages .
5.15. A round tensio n lin k mad e o f steel carries a maximum load o f 50 000 Ib.
(a) Arrang e four strai n gages into a ful l bridg e so that temperature compensa -
tion i s achieved an d onl y tensile loading i s measured .
FIG. 5.37 .
(b) Determin e th e lin k diamete r i f n o individua l strain gag e i s subjecte d t o

more tha n 1500uin/in .
(c) Usin g a gage facto r o f 2.0, determine A£ 0 /K a t th e maximu m load.
5.16. A circuit has th e followin g resistances :
R = R2 + 120 ohms, R3 + R4 + 500 ohms, Rm = 750 ohms,
Rs = 0
If R ] an d R 2 chang e b y 1 5 percent, wha t i s the percentag e chang e i n R BI1

5.17. Comput e th e bridg e resistanc e fo r arm resistance s of Rt, R 2, R? , and R 4 whe n
Rs = 0 and R m = GO . Us e Thevenin's theorem.
5.18. A Wheatstone bridg e ha s th e followin g resistances :
R1 = R} = 12 0 ohms, R 2 = R4 = 600 ohms, R m = 500 ohms,
Rs = 7 ohms
If th e bridg e i s initiall y balance d an d V = 1 0 volts, determin e A£ m0 fo r th e
following conditions :
(a) Resistance s R ^ an d R 3 increas e b y 1 percent.
(b) Resistance s R l an d R 3 increas e by 1 5 percent.
5.19. I f /?], R 2, .R 3, and R 4 i n Proble m 5.1 8 each increase by 1 5 percent, determin e
A£m0-
5.20. Usin g the value s give n in Proble m 5.1 8 for R lt R 2, K 3, K 4, an d V , let R l hav e
the followin g percentag e changes : 0.5 , 1.0 , 2.0, 5.0, 10.0 , an d 15.0 .
(a) Fo r R s = 0 and R m = oo , plot AE m0 vs . the percentage change in Rj .
(b) Fo r R s = 0 and R m = 75 0 ohms, plot E m0 vs . the percentage change in R l.
5.21. A n aluminum cantilever beam, shown in Fig. 5.38, has four strai n gages bonde d
to it. Gages a and b are on the to p o f the beam, wit h gage a being a longitudinal
gage an d gag e b bein g a transvers e gage . Gag e c (longitudinal ) an d gag e d
(transverse) ar e directl y underneath. The followin g dat a ar e given :
R9 = 12 0 ohms, G F = 2.08 , E = 1 0 x 10 6 psi, v = 0.33 ,
Rs = 0 , K = 1 0 volts
(a) Arrang e the gages into a full bridg e in order to get the maximum reading.
(b) Whe n the en d o f the bea m i s deflected 0.225 in, determine A£ m0 i f Rm = oo;
if R m = 300 0 ohms; i f Rm = 450 ohms.
(c) I s it worthwhil e considering th e chang e i n R BO o r t o comput e n l
5.22. A round, hollo w shaf t o f steel ha s fou r 120-oh m gage s bonde d t o it . The gage s
are arrange d i n a ful l bridg e i n orde r t o functio n a s a torqu e mete r (se e Fig .
5.36). The shaf t ha s a n oute r diamete r of 1.50 0 in, an inne r diameter o f 1.125 in,
and i s subjecte d t o 700 0 in-lb o f torque . I f V = 1 0 volts, G F = 2.07 , an d th e
lead-line resistanc e i s 2.0 ohms, determin e A£ 0.
5.23. A weight , W , i s a t res t a s show n i n Fig . 5.39 . When th e weigh t i s release d i t
falls ont o th e stop , wher e a latc h i s engage d tha t keep s i t fro m rebounding .
FIG. 5.38.
FIG. 5.39.
Strain gages a and b are bonded longitudinall y to the vertical bar and wired into
opposite arm s o f a ful l bridge , wit h th e gage s i n adjacen t arm s bein g dummy
gages. Eac h lea d o f the bridge has a resistance o f RL = 1. 5 ohms . Assuming the
stress i s uniformly distribute d throughou t th e lengt h o f the vertica l bar, deter-
mine W i f th e maximu m strai n recorde d b y th e bridg e i s 1520uin/in , d =
0.505 in, v = 0.3 , E = 30 x 10 6 psi, R g = 12 0 ohms, h = 1 8 in, and L = 3 0 in.
5.24. Th e dumm y gages in Proble m 5.2 3 are replace d wit h gages bonde d transvers e
to gage s a an d b . The lea d wire s ar e als o extende d s o tha t eac h lea d ha s a
resistance of RL = 2.5 ohms. Using the value of f^from Proble m 5.23 , determine
the maximum indicated strain that the meter would record fo r a repeated test .
5.25. Fou r 120-oh m gage s ar e bonde d t o a machin e elemen t an d individuall y
connected t o a strai n indicato r throug h a switchin g an d balancin g unit ,
using th e three-wir e quarter-bridg e circuit show n i n Fig . 5.21 . Th e followin g
data ar e given:
Gage No. G y R L K, /.tin/in

1 1.9 50 195 0
2 2.07 50 124 5
3 2.0 00 -50 0
4 2.1 54 97 5
A gag e facto r o f 2. 0 i s se t o n th e strai n indicator . Determin e th e actua l
strain a t eac h gage .
REFERENCES
1. "Portabl e Digital Strain Indicator P-350A, " Bulleti n 130-A , Measurements Group,
Inc., P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh , NC 27611 , 1980. (No w ou t o f print.)
2. "Portabl e Strain Indicato r P-3500, " Bulletin 245, Measurements Group, Inc. , P.O .
Box 27777 , Raleigh, N C 27611 , 1983.
3. Handbook o f Experimental Stress Analysis, edite d by M . Hetenyi, New York , Wiley,
1950, pp . 191-193 .
4. Stein , Pete r K. , "Strain-Gage-Based Computers, " Strain Gage Readings, Vol . IV ,
No. 4, Oct.-Nov. 1961, pp. 17-50 . Also, Chap. 2 6 in Th e Strain Gage Encyclopaedia,
Vol. I I o f Measurement Engineering, b y Pete r K . Stein , 1962 , 2 d edition , Stei n
Engineering Services , Inc. , Phoenix , A Z 85018-4646 . (No w ou t o f print. ) (1960 ,
1st edition. )
5. "Error s Du e to Wheatston e Bridg e Nonlinearity," TN-507, Measurement s Group ,
Inc., P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1982.
6. Herber t W . Jackso n an d Presto n A . White, III , Introduction t o Electric Circuits,
7e, (j j 1989 , pp . 213 , 236 . Adapte d b y permissio n o f Prentice-Hall , Englewoo d
Cliffs, Ne w Jersey .
7. "Studen t Manua l fo r Strai n Gag e Technology, " Bulleti n 309B , Measurement s
Group, Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1983 , p . 24.
8. Handbook o n Experimental Mechanics, edite d b y A . S . Kobayashi , Englewoo d
Cliffs, Prentice-Hall , 1987 , pp. 102-104 .
9. "Shun t Calibratio n o f Strai n Gag e Instrumentation, " TN-514 , Measurement s
Group, Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh , NC 27611 , 1988 .
6
SENSITIVITY VARIATION
6.1. Introduction
Reasons for varying strain sensitivity

Why shoul d on e desir e t o var y the sensitivit y of strain gages , or th e circuits
of whic h the y for m a part ? I n general , thi s requiremen t stem s fro m a nee d
to pu t th e indication s fro m tw o o r mor e strai n gage s o n a commo n basis ,
or in the correct relativ e proportions. Ther e are numerous special situation s
which ma y sho w up . However , a fe w of the mor e commo n case s requirin g
sensitivity variatio n ar e liste d as follow s (1) :
1. T o allo w fo r difference s i n gag e facto r amon g individua l gage s when
the readou t fo r all gages i s to b e made directl y in term s o f strain o n a
single scale . Fo r example , th e gag e facto r dia l adjustmen t o n strai n
indicators.
2. T o combine the indications from severa l strain gages in different relativ e
proportions. Fo r example , th e direc t an d automati c computatio n o f
some quantit y whos e indication depend s upo n a combinatio n o f two,
or more , strai n indication s i n specified relative proportions .
3. T o facilitat e th e us e of an instrumen t whic h has a limite d inpu t rang e
with a strai n gag e tha t develop s a n outpu t whic h i s large r tha n th e
maximum tha t ca n b e accepte d b y th e instrument . Fo r example , th e
use o f a standar d strai n indicato r designe d fo r metalli c gage s wit h a
semiconductor gag e tha t i s subjected to a reasonabl y large strain . Th e
same sor t o f situation ma y als o prevai l when a meta l gag e i s use d t o
measure post-yield strains o f several percent.
4. T o adjus t th e calibratio n facto r o f a transduce r t o som e convenien t
round number . Fo r example , t o adjus t t o a readou t o f 100 0 o n th e
indicator scal e fo r 100 0 unit s o f th e quantit y bein g measured , a s
contrasted wit h a n indicato r readin g o f 98 1 pe r 100 0 unit s bein g
measured.
5. Fo r automaticall y correctin g a n indicatio n fo r som e uncontrolle d
variable whic h ma y chang e b y unknow n amounts . Fo r example , th e
compensation o f a load cel l or torqu e meter indication for the influenc e
of temperature changes on the modulus of elasticity of the load-carrying
member.
6. Fo r producin g a direc t readou t o f som e quantit y whic h i s indicate d

by th e produc t o f tw o independen t quantities . Fo r example , th e
measurement o f th e instantaneou s valu e o f powe r bein g trans -
mitted b y a circula r shaft. Thi s can b e accomplishe d b y usin g a strai n
gage bridge to sense the torque and energizin g it with a variable applied
voltage (variabl e sensitivity ) tha t i s proportiona l t o th e spee d o f
rotation.
Indicated strain vs. actual strain

One wil l recal l tha t strai n i s sense d throug h a chang e i n gag e resistanc e
according t o th e followin g relationship:
Provided ther e are no inactive resistances in series (or parallel) with the gage,
the readou t instrumen t will b e able t o indicat e th e correc t valu e of strain i n
accordance wit h Eq . (6.1) . However, if there are inactiv e resistances (relative
to strain ) in series and (or ) parallel wit h th e gage , these will, to som e extent,
mask th e observatio n th e instrumen t i s makin g s o tha t th e indicate d
strain being read out i s only a fraction o f that actually prevailing at th e gage .
The correspondin g relatio n fo r th e indicate d strain is given by
where e , = th e indicate d strai n

Q, = th e desensitization factor, whose numerical value is less than 1
From Eq . (6.2) ,
The reason fo r the desensitization, or reduction in indicated strain, when

series an d paralle l resistance s ar e connecte d t o th e gage , i s tha t thes e
additional resistance s contribut e nothing to th e change in resistance in spite
of th e fac t tha t the y have a n influenc e o n th e tota l overal l valu e as see n b y
the indicatin g device . Thi s desensitizatio n becam e apparen t whe n lead-lin e
resistance wa s considere d i n Sectio n 5.5 .
SENSITIVITY VARIATIO N 20 7
Kinds of desensitization
Strain gag e desensitizatio n du e t o th e effect s o f resistance s i n serie s an d
in paralle l wit h th e gag e ca n b e considere d fro m tw o point s o f view ,
depending upo n whether the effec t represent s an inconvenience that must be
overcome or a n advantag e tha t ca n b e employed for some specifi c purpose .
One may therefore look upo n desensitization as falling into one or the other
of th e tw o categorie s tha t follow .
1. Parasitic desensitization. Thi s i s cause d b y suc h thing s a s lead-wir e
resistance an d paralle l resistance s whic h are brough t int o th e circuit
for trimmin g and balancin g purposes . Thi s i s something tha t mus t b e
accepted. Usuall y (althoug h no t always ) th e parasiti c desensitizatio n
produces a small deviation fro m th e theoretical calibratio n factor . Th e
important thin g is to appreciat e tha t thi s condition prevail s and t o b e
able to make a reasonably good estimate of the magnitude of its effect .
2. Planned desensitization. This involve s the understandin g o f the factor s
which contribute to desensitizatio n and th e deliberate manipulation of
them in order to produce certain desired results, such as those indicate d
in th e introductio n in th e reason s fo r varyin g strain sensitivity.
Other approaches to sensitivity variation

Since th e resistanc e chang e o f a strai n gag e i s actuall y determine d b y th e
corresponding effec t o n voltag e o r current , w e ma y als o approac h th e
problem o f sensitivity variation by control of the applied voltage, or the gage
current.
One may consider the use of a resistance network connected t o the gage
as a primar y mean s o f achievin g sensitivit y contro l sinc e thi s produce s a
direct effec t upo n th e indicate d relatio n betwee n strai n an d uni t chang e i n
gage resistance , independentl y o f gage curren t o r applie d voltage .
On th e othe r hand , variatio n o f sensitivity throug h contro l o f applie d
voltage, o r gag e current , mean s tha t w e hav e t o expres s th e indicatio n o f
sensitivity i n term s o f voltag e o r curren t change s pe r uni t o f strain .
Furthermore, fo r thos e systems , suc h a s nul l balanc e an d som e o f th e
reference bridg e arrangements, which produce a n indication tha t is indepen-
dent o f variations in applied voltag e or gag e current, this method o f varying
the sensitivit y i s inapplicable .
6.2. Analysis of single gage desensitization (1, 2)

Resistance in series
Figure 6.1 shows a strain gage , R g, desensitize d b y placing a resistor, R s, i n
series wit h it . The initia l tota l resistanc e i s
FIG. 6.1. Resistanc e in serie s wit h gage.
After a chang e i n gag e resistance , AR S, w e have
Dividing al l terms b y R , an d rearranging , th e resul t is
or
Since R t = R + R s, thi s reduce s t o
If th e numerator an d denominato r o f the right-han d sid e ar e divide d by R g,

then
Letting R S/R<, = s, then
In this case, the nonlinearity factor, n, is zero, and th e desensitization factor is

SENSITIVITY VARIATION 209
FIG. 6.2. Desensitizatio n o f a singl e gage wit h series resistance .
Figure 6. 2 shows the valu e of the desensitization factor, Q, as a function

of th e ratio , s , of series resistanc e t o gag e resistance .
Resistance in parallel
Figure 6. 3 shows a resistor , R p, i n parallel wit h the strain gage , R g, i n orde r
to desensitiz e th e strai n gage . Initially , the tota l resistanc e i s
After straining ,
Dividing both side s b y R, result s in

210 THE BONDED ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
FIG. 6.3. Resistanc e in paralle l wit h gage.
From this ,
Expanding th e right-han d sid e o f Eq. (6.13 ) result s i n
or
For simplicit y i n writing , le t p = R p/Rg. Usin g this , Eq . (6.14 ) i s

rewritten a s
Dividing th e numerato r an d denominato r o f the right-han d sid e b y ( 1 + p )

results i n
From Eq . (6.15),
SENSITIVITY VARIATIO N 211
FIG. 6.4. Desensitizatio n o f a singl e gag e wit h paralle l resistance .
and
Also,
The valu e of Q, the desensitizatio n facto r exclusiv e o f nonlinearities, is

shown as a function o f p in Fig. 6.4. Here it is seen that for values of p greater
than 100 , th e desensitizatio n wil l b e less tha n 1 percent.
Equation (6.18 ) indicate s that , a s long a s the paralle l resistance , R p, i s
greater tha n th e gag e resistance, th e nonlinearit y facto r wil l b e les s tha n
Combination of series and parallel resistances

An examinatio n o f the wor k covering resistances in series and resistance s in
parallel reveals that R, is greater than R g whe n series resistance is employed,
and R , is less than R g whe n parallel resistanc e is used.
FIG. 6.5. Tw o arrangement s of connecting series an d paralle l resistances to a gage .
In th e even t that i t i s desired t o desensitiz e a strai n gag e i n on e ar m o f

a bridg e whe n th e resistanc e i n eac h o f the othe r arm s correspond s t o R g,
the tw o previou s method s o f desensitizatio n ar e unsuitabl e becaus e th e
bridge cannot b e initiall y balanced. W e wil l no w investigat e how serie s an d
parallel resistances may be combined s o that R , = R g, whic h conditio n will
permit initia l balanc e o f th e bridge . Figur e 6. 5 illustrate s tw o alternativ e
methods fo r connectin g serie s an d paralle l resistance s t o a strai n gage . I n
the followin g analysis , the arrangemen t i n Fig . 6.5 a wil l b e analyzed .
The initia l resistance, R, , a s see n b y th e readou t instrument , is
After straining , th e gag e resistanc e change s t o R s + AR g, an d s o Eq . (6.19 )

becomes
If bot h side s o f Eq. (6.20 ) are divide d b y R, , th e resul t i s
Divide th e numerato r an d denominato r o f eac h brackete d ter m o n th e

right-hand sid e b y R g, the n
Since s = R sjRg and p = Rp/Rg, Eq. (6.21) can be rewritten as
For initia l bridge balance , however , R, = R g, s o Eq. (6.19) become s
In term s o f ratios ,
If bot h side s o f Eq. (6.24 ) ar e divide d b y R p, the n
Equation (6.25 ) show s tha t th e las t brackete d ter m o n th e right-han d

side o f Eq. (6.22 ) is equal t o p , and s o Eq . (6.22 ) is rewritten a s
The expressio n fo r th e uni t chang e i n resistance a s see n b y the readou t

instrument ca n no w b e written as
Expanding Eq . (6.27) produce s

From Eq . (6.25), (1 + s) p = 1 + s + p , and s o
Equation (6.25 ) also show s tha t
and
Substituting th e valu e of 1 + 5 + p give n by Eq . (6.30 ) int o Eq . (6.28) ,
This expressio n ca n als o b e writte n as
Further rearrangemen t give s
Equation (6.31 ) tell s us tha t th e desensitizatio n facto r is

Neglecting nonlinearities ,
The nonlinearit y factor , n, is
Together wit h the knowledge that s and p must always be positive, Eqs.
(6.29), (6.33) , and (6.34 ) provide u s wit h some interestin g facts .
1. Fro m Eq . (6.29 ) on e see s that p must alway s be large r tha n 1 , because

s becomes large r a s p becomes smalle r an d woul d hav e to b e infinite if
p becam e unity . Also, i f p were les s tha n unity , s woul d b e negative ,
which i s impossible .
2. Equation s (6.32 ) an d (6.33 ) indicat e tha t th e desensitizatio n facto r
approaches zer o as p approaches unity . This is to be expected, of course,
because s is approaching infinit y a s p approaches 1 , and consequentl y
any change s i n gag e resistanc e hav e less overal l influence .
3. Th e nonlinearti y factor, n, approaches zer o as p approaches 1 , and als o
as p becomes ver y large. B y differentiation w e fin d tha t th e maximum
value occur s fo r p = 2, so tha t
So far th e desensitizatio n facto r has bee n determine d fo r a give n value

of p, or s . There are , however , other situation s in whic h it wil l b e necessary
to determin e th e value s of p an d s that wil l b e require d t o produc e a given
desensitization. Fo r thi s purpos e w e wil l nee d t o fin d p an d s i n term s of
Q. From Eq . (6.33) ,
From thi s
From Eq . (6.29),
or
Substituting th e valu e o f p give n b y Eq . (6.35 ) int o Eq . (6.34) , th e

nonlinearity factor , n , can b e writte n as
From Eq. (6.37) we see that n = 0 when Q equals 0 or 1 , and b y differentiatio n

we fin d tha t th e maximu m valu e occurs whe n Q = 0.25 ( p = 2) , which, as
previously, produce s th e maximu m nonlinearity represented a s
For rapi d evaluatio n o f the ratio s p and s that ar e require d to produc e

a give n desensitization, Fig . 6.6 , in whic h the value s are plotte d i n term s of
2, wil l b e found helpful. Sinc e Fig. 6. 6 neglects the effec t o f nonlinearity, th e
value o f >/2(l — v2) na s bee n plotte d a s a functio n o f Q, in Fig . 6.7 . In
most cases , however, it wil l b e sufficien t i f we know that the maximu m value
is 0.25.
A note on temperature effects

The derivation s o f thi s sectio n al l assum e tha t th e temperatur e remain s
constant. However , i f ther e i s a temperatur e change , a fals e indicatio n o f
strain wil l b e produce d unles s al l o f th e followin g ar e independen t o f
temperature changes: (1 ) the gag e resistance , (2 ) the resistanc e o f the leads ,
(3) the auxiliary series and parallel resistances. Theoretically, these condition s
can b e fulfille d b y usin g a self-temperature-compensate d strai n gag e wit h
leads an d auxiliar y resistance s havin g a zer o temperatur e coefficien t o f
resistance. Obtainin g a suitabl e strain gag e shoul d presen t n o problem , bu t
acquiring lead wire (including soldered joints), and auxiliar y resistances, with
zero respons e t o temperatur e ma y presen t a difficul t problem . O n thi s
account i t wil l b e preferable t o tak e anothe r approac h usin g th e half-bridge
arrangement a s discusse d i n th e followin g section.
FIG. 6.6. Serie s an d paralle l resistance s fo r singl e gag e desensitization . (Fro m ref . 2.)
FIG. 6.7. ,/£>( ! - JQ } a s a function o f Q.
6.3. Analysis of half-bridge desensitization

In thi s section, methods of eliminating the effect s o f temperature changes by
employing activ e an d dumm y gages i n adjacen t arm s o f a hal f bridg e wil l
be discussed.
Duplicating the system for a single gage

The mos t direc t approac h i s t o se t u p duplicat e arrangement s i n th e tw o
adjacent arm s o f th e hal f bridg e an d t o mak e sur e tha t correspondin g
components are subjecte d to exactl y the sam e temperatur e conditions.
When th e temperatur e variatio n at th e gag e is greater tha n tha t a t th e
readout instrument , it will be best to locate the series and parallel resistances
near th e instrument and t o ru n th e leads out t o th e gages, making sure that
the lead s fro m th e paralle l resistance s aroun d th e gage s ar e equa l i n length
and tie d int o th e syste m a t equivalen t locations i n bot h arm s o f th e hal f
bridge.
In th e even t tha t th e hal f bridg e i s t o b e connecte d acros s th e powe r
supply, i t wil l no t b e necessar y t o us e bot h paralle l an d serie s resistanc e
because th e rati o o f the tota l resistanc e i n eac h ar m ca n b e maintaine d a t
unity for either series or paralle l resistanc e connected t o th e gage . If the hal f
bridge is connected acros s the bridge output, depending upon th e resistances
in th e othe r tw o arms , the rati o o f the resistance s o f the arm s in serie s wit h
the power suppl y may , or ma y not , be unity .
When th e hal f bridg e i s connected acros s th e powe r supply , although
the adjustment may be a little more difficult, i t will be preferable to desensitize
with serie s resistanc e alon e becaus e th e outpu t wil l b e linea r an d th e
complication o f the extr a lead s fro m th e paralle l resistance s ca n b e elimi -
nated. Thi s mean s that th e standar d four-lea d active-dummy system can b e
employed wit h a pai r o f equal serie s resistor s in eac h ar m adjacen t t o th e
readout instrument , as lon g a s th e tota l resistanc e i n eac h ar m doe s no t
exceed th e capabilit y o f the instrument .
The concep t o f desensitizatio n usin g serie s resistanc e alon e i n a hal f
bridge become s eve n mor e attractiv e whe n on e wishe s t o us e a singl e
FIG. 6.8. Desensitizatio n with temperatur e compensation.
self-temperature-compensated strai n gage in the active arm, because on e can

then us e the three-wir e system wit h all th e resistanc e (exclusiv e of leads) i n
the inactive arm in, or at, the readout instrument , and stil l maintain freedom
from th e influenc e o f temperature.
Figure 6. 8 shows a schematic layout for one arrangement o f half-bridge
desensitization wit h temperature compensation .
An alternate and superior method of desensitization

An alternate method o f desensitization, whic h uses the half bridge to provid e
temperature compensation , i s shown schematically in Fig. 6.9 . This arrange -
ment employ s a commo n paralle l resisto r i n both arms .
Some o f the advantage s o f this system ar e a s follows:
1. Th e tota l effectiv e resistanc e i n eac h o f the tw o desensitize d arm s ca n

be mad e equa l t o th e gag e resistance , R g, i f desired. Thi s i s merel y a
convenience. Th e onl y requiremen t i s that , initially , th e effectiv e
resistance should be the sam e i n both arms.
FIG. 6.9. Alternat e method o f half-bridge desensitization.

FIG. 6.10. Physica l connection s o f gages t o indicator . Note: O n som e indicator s th e relativ e
positions o f th e terminal s fo r th e activ e and compensatin g gage s ar e reverse d wit h respec t t o
this diagram .
2. On e les s resisto r i s required tha n fo r th e previou s method .

3. Th e equations for computing th e serie s and paralle l resistances , R s an d
Rp, ar e simpler .
4. Th e networ k o f resistances require d i s simple and eas y t o instal l at th e
strain indicator , a s show n i n Fig . 6.10 .
5. Al l the advantage s an d simplicit y of the standar d active-dumm y system
are retained . N o additiona l lea d wire s are required .
Limitations
In th e analysi s tha t follows , tw o limitation s wil l becom e evident ; however,
these shoul d caus e n o difficult y i f one i s cognizan t o f them . Fo r emphasi s
the limitation s wil l b e summarize d here .
1. Th e inpu t impedanc e o f the instrument connected t o th e bridg e outpu t

must b e extremel y high.
2. Th e pai r o f gage s (hal f bridge ) containin g th e desensitizin g networ k
must b e connected acros s th e bridg e powe r supply .
Analysis
Let u s refe r t o Fig . 6.9 , whic h show s a half-bridg e diagra m wit h a pai r o f
like gage s an d a desensitizin g networ k consistin g o f tw o serie s resistance s
and a singl e paralle l resistanc e commo n t o bot h gages .
The firs t ste p i n analyzin g th e networ k wil l b e t o determin e th e
equivalent o f th e combine d gag e an d paralle l resistance s whic h shoul d b e
considered i n each o f bridge arm s 1 and 2 . This ca n b e don e b y mean s o f a
Delta-Wye transformation , a s show n i n Chapte r 5 .
Figure 6.1 1 show s th e Delt a networ k forme d b y th e strai n gages , R gl
FIG. 6.11. Delta-wy e transformation .
and R g2, an d the parallel resistor , R p. Als o in the same figure is the equivalent
Wye network.
From thi s transformation ,
where Rel = equivalent resistanc e i n arm 1

Re2 = equivalent resistanc e i n arm 2
Re0 = equivalen t resistanc e i n the output circui t
The equivalen t total resistances , R ^ an d R 2, i n arm s 1 and 2 o f th e

bridge ma y no w b e expressed a s
Examination o f Fig. 6.12 indicates that the transformation ha s facilitated

setting up relatively simpl e expressions fo r the equivalent resistance s i n arm s
1 and 2 of the bridge . However , i t als o indicate s tha t ther e i s resistive effect ,
FIG. 6.12. Electrica l equivalen t o f Fig . 6.9.
represented b y R e0, i n th e outpu t circuit . This latte r influence , Re0, mus t b e

allowed fo r i n som e manner .
One wa y o f allowin g fo r R e0 i s t o mak e i t ineffectiv e b y usin g a ver y
high-impedance readou t devic e s o tha t essentiall y n o curren t flow s across
the outpu t fro m th e bridge . Thi s i s th e reaso n fo r statemen t (1 ) unde r
Limitations. Ite m (2) of the limitations can b e explained b y considering wha t
would happe n i f th e hal f bridg e containin g th e gage s wer e no t connecte d
across th e powe r supply . I n thi s case , wit h th e hal f bridg e containin g th e
gages acros s th e output , th e effec t o f R e0 wil l b e th e sam e a s tha t o f an y
other resistanc e i n serie s wit h th e bridg e acros s th e powe r supply . Tha t is ,
a desensitizatio n o f th e entir e bridg e wil l tak e place . Thus , t o avoi d thi s
overall desensitizing effect, th e hal f bridg e wit h th e gage s mus t b e connecte d
across th e powe r supply .
The derivatio n o f the expressio n fo r th e desensitizatio n facto r wil l no w
be considered . Not e tha t eve n thoug h tw o identica l strai n gage s (bot h o f
resistance R e) ar e use d i n th e hal f bridge , thei r resistance s hav e bee n
designated separatel y by the symbols, R9, an d R s2, t o indicate their respective
locations i n th e bridge . Thi s i s necessar y becaus e th e tw o gage s wil l hav e
somewhat differen t function s i f one i s t o d o th e strai n measurin g an d th e
other t o provid e temperatur e compensation .
Since th e serie s and paralle l resistances , R s and R p, ca n b e so chosen a s
to provid e fo r a wid e range o f resistances in th e bridg e arms , le t us conside r
that thei r value s will b e s o chose n that , numerically,
Thus, fro m Eqs . (6.41) , (6.42) , an d (6.43) , Eqs . (6.44 ) an d (6.45 ) wil l resul t
when initia l condition s ar e used :
and
Let u s no w se e what happen s whe n th e gag e i n ar m 1 is strained an d

changes it s resistanc e t o R gl + &Rgl. Since R gl appear s i n th e expression s
for bot h R i an d R 2, thi s chang e wil l influenc e bot h arm s 1 and 2 o f th e
bridge and, consequently , w e will have t o conside r change s i n bot h o f them
simultaneously. Hence , afte r th e change , Eqs . (6.44 ) an d (6.45 ) wil l becom e
and
The uni t change s i n resistanc e i n th e arm s o f th e bridg e ca n no w b e

found by dividing Eqs. (6.46) and (6.47) by R1 an d R 2, respectively, so that
and
From th e relation s expresse d i n Eq . (6.43) , Eqs . (6.48 ) an d (6.49 ) ca n b e

simplified t o
and
Since th e bridg e outpu t i s proportiona l t o th e algebrai c differenc e

between th e uni t change s i n resistanc e o f adjacen t arms , on e ca n obtai n a
measure o f thi s b y subtractin g Eq . (6.51 ) fro m Eq . (6.50) . Thi s mean s tha t
what th e instrumen t indicate s is
Equation (6.52 ) simplifie s t o
From Eq . (6.53 ) i t ca n b e see n tha t th e desensitizatio n factor , Q t, i s

given b y
If th e numerato r an d denominato r o n th e right-han d sid e o f Eq. (6.54 ) ar e

divided by Rg, an d the ratio R p/Rg i s expressed b y the single symbol p, then
This expressio n ca n b e rewritte n as
If eithe r Eq . (6.41 ) or Eq . (6.42 ) i s use d wit h th e value s give n i n Eq . (6.43) ,

then w e obtain
From Eq . (6.55),
and th e nonlinearit y factor is given b y
which wil l always be les s tha n (0.5)( R g/Rg).

Sometimes i t wil l b e necessar y t o determin e th e size s o f th e serie s
and paralle l resistance s whic h wil l b e require d t o produc e a give n desen -
sitization. Thi s ca n b e done b y solvin g Eq. (6.56 ) fo r p an d s in term s o f Q.
This result s in
and
For convenience , th e value s o f p an d s hav e bee n plotte d agains t Q in

Fig. 6.13 . Fro m Eq . (6.57 ) th e valu e of the nonlinearit y factor, n , has bee n
determined i n term s o f Q a s
Example 6.1. A cantileve r bea m ha s fou r longitudina l strai n gage s (R g =

120 ohms) bonded to it that ar e arranged int o a full bridge . Whe n a 5-lb weight
is place d o n th e beam , th e strai n indicato r read s 214 0 uin/in.
(a) Us e a series resistance in arms R t an d R 2, as shown in Fig. 6.1 , to desensitize
the syste m so that th e readin g i s reduced t o 150 0 uin/in.
(b) Us e a paralle l resistanc e i n arm s R { an d R 2, a s show n i n Fig . 6.3 , t o
desensitize th e syste m so tha t th e readin g i s reduced t o 150 0 uin/in.
Solution, (a ) Fo r eac h gage ,
The tw o arm s no t desensitize d wil l rea d a tota l o f 107 0 (iin/in. Th e othe r tw o

arms must read 150 0 — 1070 = 43 0 uin/in, or 215 |iin/in per arm. Equatio n (6.8 )
is no w used , bu t i f bot h side s ar e divide d b y G F, the n A.R,/(G FRt) = £> , the
desired indicate d strain , an d A.R g/(GFRs) = E, the actua l strain . I n term s o f
strain, then , Eq . (6.8 ) is
FIG. 6.13. Ratio s p an d s as function s o f Q.
or
From this , s — 1.488, and s o
Rs = 1.488K 9 = 1.488(120 ) = 178.5 6 ohms
Therefore, us e a serie s resistor o f 178.5 6 ohms i n arms R t an d R 2.

(b) Refe r t o Fig . 6. 3 fo r th e paralle l arrangement . Again , tw o arm s wil l
read 53 5 uin/in, whil e th e tw o desensitize d arm s wil l eac h rea d 21 5 uin/in.
Considering th e nonlinearit y portio n t o b e unity , Eq . (6.15 ) gives
or
From this , p = 0.672 , an d s o
Rp = 0.612R S = 0.672(120) = 80.6 4 ohm s
Therefore, us e a paralle l resisto r o f 80.64 ohm s i n arm s R t an d R 2.
Example 6.2. A torque meter (four activ e arms wit h R s = 12 0 ohms each ) read s
1420 uin/in when subjected t o a torsional momen t o f 1200 in-lb. Desensitize on e
arm, usin g parallel-series resistance s i n order t o hav e th e strai n indicato r rea d
1200 uin/in .
Solution. The mete r readin g mus t be reduce d by 142 0 — 1200 = 220 uin/in.
Since eac h ar m read s 1420/ 4 = 35 5 uin/in, the n th e ar m tha t i s desensitize d
must rea d 355-220 = 13 5 uin/in. Thus , R,/(G f R,) = 13 5 uin/in an d &R J
(GFRg) = 35 5 uin/in. Again , considerin g th e nonlinearit y portio n t o b e unity ,
Eq. (6.31 ) gives
or
From this , p = 2.609, an d s o
Rp = 2.609R g = 2.609(120) = 313.0 8 ohm s
From Eq . (6.29) ,
Thus,
Rs = 0.622K , = 0.622(120 ) = 74.6 4 ohm s
Use a serie s resisto r o f 74.64 ohms an d a paralle l resisto r o f 313.08 ohms .
6.4. Analysis of full-bridge sensitivity variation

There ar e certai n situation s in which it is desirable t o var y the sensitivit y of
an entir e bridge . Fo r example :
1. T o compensat e th e outpu t fro m loa d cell s fo r change s i n modulu s of
elasticity of the load-carrying element due to variations in temperature.
2. T o permi t a standard strai n indicator, whic h has bee n designed fo r use
with metallic gages, to be employed with a semiconductor bridge whose
output i s in exces s of the rang e o f the instrument.
3. T o perform some computation automaticall y in order t o obtain a direc t

readout o f som e desire d quantity , as i n th e cas e o f th e torqu e mete r
that i s mad e t o indicat e powe r transmitte d b y makin g th e excitatio n
voltage proportiona l t o th e spee d o f rotation.
Method of approach
Since th e bridg e outpu t i s directly proportional t o th e applie d voltage , th e
sensitivity ca n b e varie d b y mean s o f voltag e control . Frequentl y thi s i s
accomplished b y usin g a powe r suppl y wit h a fixe d voltag e tha t i s greate r
than tha t neede d t o energiz e th e bridg e an d the n reducin g thi s t o th e
necessary leve l by including a fixed, or variable , resistance i n serie s wit h th e
bridge, accordin g t o th e particula r requirement s a t hand . Th e arrangemen t
Limitation
Since thi s metho d o f sensitivit y variatio n depend s upo n controllin g th e
voltage actually applied t o the bridge, it is unsuited for use with a null balance
system wher e indicatio n i s independen t o f th e magnitud e o f th e applie d
voltage. Likewise , i t wil l no t wor k fo r certai n type s o f referenc e bridg e
instruments whic h hav e als o bee n designe d t o produc e reading s tha t ar e
independent o f supply voltage , or fluctuation s therein .
Derivation of equations
The voltag e acros s th e bridg e ca n b e expressed a s
FIG. 6.14. Bridg e wit h resistanc e i n series .

where V P = powe r suppl y voltag e

Rs = resistance i n series with the bridg e
RBI = input resistanc e o f the bridge , excluding R s
The bridge output (assuming initial balance and neglecting nonlinearity)

is expressed a s
Note that, in Eq . (6.62), infinite impedanc e i s assumed a t th e bridg e output.

Therefore, wit h respec t t o th e voltag e o f the powe r supply ,
For a constant-voltage powe r supply , this mean s tha t
In othe r words , the desensitizatio n facto r fo r th e entir e bridg e is given by
This valu e o f Q assumes th e bridg e resistanc e remain s constant .

When th e bridg e resistanc e remain s constant , a s i n th e cas e o f certai n
transducers, such as torque meters, in which the resistances in adjacent bridg e
arms chang e b y equa l amount s bu t o f opposite sign , o r whe n change s ar e
proportionately ver y small, as i s usually th e cas e wit h metalli c strain gages ,
Eq. (6.65 ) is directly applicable. Als o observe tha t Eq . (6.65 ) i s o f the sam e
form a s Eq . (6.9 ) whe n th e symbo l s is used t o represen t th e rati o R S/RBI.
On thi s account, Fig . 6. 2 may be used to determine no t onl y the desensitiza -
tion factor for a single gage with resistance in series, but als o the correspond -
ing effec t fo r a n entir e bridg e wit h a resistanc e i n series .
Effect of changes in bridge resistance

When ther e is an appreciabl e chang e i n the bridg e resistance, Eq . (6.65 ) wil l
have to be modified by considering the actual bridg e resistance, R BI + AR BI,
at any particular instant. In this case, Eq. (6.65) can be written in the modified
form
Except fo r th e factor , 1/[ 1 + AR B,/RBI] i n th e denominato r o f Eq . (6.66) ,

Eqs. (6.65 ) an d (6.66 ) ar e alike .
The erro r i n Q can no w b e examine d i f the chang e i n bridg e resistanc e
is neglected. Examinatio n o f Eq. (6.66 ) indicates that th e erro r produce d b y
neglecting th e chang e i n bridg e resistanc e wil l b e smal l fo r smal l ratio s o f
both R S/RBI an d AR B,/RBI.
To ge t some ide a o f the numerica l value of the error , we can investigate
a particular situation for approximate values . The following values are given:
R— 40 percent fo r a singl e active arm
Neglecting th e chang e i n bridg e resistance ,
The change i n bridge resistance can no w b e included. If the singl e active

arm change s b y 4 0 percent , then , fo r fou r equa l arms , AR BI wil l b e abou t
10 percent. Thi s can b e verified b y assuming 120-oh m gage s and computin g
the bridg e resistanc e wit h R m = oo . In thi s case,
Thus, for the conditions given, the error in Q caused b y neglecting the chang e
in bridg e resistanc e wil l b e les s tha n 2 percent .
For smalle r ratio s o f RJRB, an d AR B,/RBI, th e variation s will be even
less and, consequently , fo r a grea t man y cases, w e are justified i n neglecting

the effec t o f change s i n tota l bridg e resistance . Nevertheless , i t i s alway s
desirable t o chec k t o b e sur e tha t th e probabl e erro r fro m thi s sourc e wil l
fall withi n tolerable limits .
Discussion
Use o f a bridge with unequal arms. Th e precedin g exampl e suggest s tha t i n
a bridg e containin g a singl e strai n gag e (i f one ha s th e choice) , ther e ma y
be som e advantage s t o b e gaine d b y havin g tw o o f the arm s o f somewhat
higher resistance than th e strain gage . In addition t o improvin g the linearity
and increasin g th e outpu t pe r uni t strain , thi s procedur e wil l enabl e u s t o
reduce the rati o AR B,/RBI, eve n for large values of resistance chang e i n th e
one activ e arm , an d thereb y cu t dow n o n th e variatio n Q wit h chang e i n
bridge resistance .
Temperature effects. A not e o f caution, especiall y i n respec t t o transducer s

involving fou r activ e arm s containin g semiconducto r gages , wil l b e men -
tioned wit h regard t o the total change i n bridge resistance . Eve n though the
gages al l change b y exactly the sam e amoun t an d n o bridg e outpu t result s
from this , nevertheless, as far as the total bridg e resistance i s concerned, thi s
effect wil l b e additive an d wil l hav e som e influenc e o n th e valu e of Q. If th e
ratio RJR BI i s small, th e effec t ma y no t b e noticeable , bu t fo r larger ratio s
of serie s t o bridg e resistance , th e influenc e on Q should b e checked .
Increasing an d decreasing the sensitivity. Equation s (6.63 ) an d (6.64 ) sho w

that th e maximum output will occur whe n Rs = 0. For thos e applications in
which on e may wis h to b e able t o increase , o r decrease , th e sensitivit y from
some usua l valu e (such a s modulu s compensatio n o f loa d cells) , i t wil l b e
necessary to design the system to provide for normal operation a t somewhat
less tha n th e maximu m outpu t s o that i t wil l b e possible t o decreas e R s b y
the necessar y amoun t i n orde r t o achiev e the desire d increas e i n sensitivity .
When R s ha s bee n reduce d t o zero , th e maximu m possibl e sensitivit y will
have bee n achieved .
Problems
6.1. A singl e strai n gag e record s 125 6 nin/in . I f G F = 2. 0 an d R g = 12 0 ohms,
determine th e valu e o f the serie s resistor , R s, tha t i s required i n orde r t o hav e
R,/R,= 0.002. If this gage is used i n a quarter-bridge circui t an d R 2 = R$ =
R4 = 12 0 ohms, ca n th e bridg e b e initiall y balanced ? I f one i s fre e t o choos e
resistors R 2, R 3, an d R 4, ca n the bridge b e initially balanced ?
6.2. Repea t Proble m 6. 1 using a paralle l resistor , R p.
6.3. Repea t Proble m 6. 1 using serie s an d paralle l resistor s s o that R t = R g.
6.4. Develo p equation s fo r th e series-paralle l arrangemen t show n i n Fig . 6.5b .
Follow th e metho d use d fo r Fig . 6.5a .
6.5. I n Fig . 6.8 , a half-bridg e circuit i s show n wit h fou r lea d wires . Th e bridg e i s
desensitized wit h serie s resistor s alone . I f th e activ e gag e o f 12 0 ohms i s
subjected t o a strain of s, determine the value of Rs neede d t o make the indicated
strain, e ;, equal t o 0.75c.
6.6. I n Proble m 6.5 , th e dumm y gag e become s a n activ e gage . I f B I = e , an d
e2 = — VB, will th e valu e o f R s chang e i f th e indicate d strain , e, , i s t o b e 7 5
percent o f th e tota l strain?
6.7. I n Exampl e 6.1 , desensitiz e arm s R , an d R 2 b y usin g a combinatio n o f series
and paralle l resistances .
6.8. Figur e 6.1 5 shows th e smal l assembl y machin e use d i n Proble m 5.8 . I n orde r
to measur e th e loa d o n th e machine , add tw o gage s o n th e centerlin e A-A s o
that gag e 3 i s transvers e to gag e 1 and gag e 4 i s transverse to gag e 2 . To ge t
the strain s in Proble m 5.8 , gages wer e used wit h G F = 2.0 8 and R s = 12 0 ohms.
Using F = 34 0 800 Ib fo r th e strain s obtaine d i n Proble m 5.8 , perfor m th e
following tasks :
(a) Arrang e th e gage s int o a ful l bridg e i n orde r t o ge t th e maximu m output .

Sketch th e bridg e arrangement .
(b) Sinc e the sensitivity of the circuit can be altered b y adjusting the gage factor,
set th e gag e facto r so tha t a n indicate d strai n o f 1 uin/in represent s a forc e
of 10 0 Ib. The gag e facto r settin g range s fro m 1.1 5 to 3.50 .
6.9. Using th e dat a give n i n Proble m 6.8 , desensitiz e th e circui t b y addin g serie s
resistors in the two arm s with gages 1 and 3 . A force of 200 Ib is to be represented
by a n indicate d strai n o f 1 (lin/in.
6.10. Rewor k Proble m 6. 9 but us e paralle l resistors .
FIG. 6.15.
6.11. Tw o 120-oh m gage s ar e arrange d i n a half-bridge circuit for tempera-

ture compensation . Th e gag e in ar m 1 is active while the gag e in ar m
2 i s a dummy . Upon loading , th e activ e gage read s 269 5 uin/in. I t i s
desired to desensitize the system using the arrangement show n in Fig .
6.9 so that th e indicate d strai n is 2000 jxin/in. Determine R s an d R p.
REFERENCES
1. Murray , Willia m M . an d Pete r K . Stein , Strain Gage Techniques, Lecture s an d

laboratory exercise s presente d a t MIT , Cambridge , MA : Jul y 8-19 , 1963 , pp .
249-286.
2. Stein , Pete r K. , "Individua l Strai n Gag e Desensitization, " Lette r t o th e Editor ,
SESA Proceedings, Vol . XIV , No. 2 , 1957 , pp . 33-36 .
7
LATERAL EFFECTS IN STRAIN GAGES
7.1. Significance of strain sensitivity and gage factor

Strain sensitivit y i s a genera l ter m relatin g uni t chang e i n resistanc e an d
strain i n a n electrica l conductor accordin g t o th e followin g expression :
In symbols , this is
where S = strai n sensitivity

R = initial resistance
R= change in resistance
e = strai n
The numerical value of the strai n sensitivity will depend upo n th e condition s
under whic h it ha s bee n determined .
For a straigh t conducto r o f unifor m cros s sectio n tha t i s subjected t o
simple tension , o r compression , i n th e directio n o f it s axis , and unstraine d
laterally, th e strai n sensitivit y is a physica l propert y o f th e material . Th e
numerical value will be represented by S,, which is determined b y the relation
where L i s the initia l length.

The transverse effect i n strain gages (1-11). Whe n a conductor i s formed into
a gri d fo r a strai n gage , th e relationshi p betwee n unit chang e i n resistanc e
of th e conducto r an d th e strai n become s muc h mor e complicated , an d th e
LATERAL EFFECT S I N STRAI N GAGE S 235
numerical valu e o f th e strai n sensitivit y i s influence d b y a variet y o f

conditions. Th e mos t importan t ar e th e following:
(a) Th e strai n sensitivit y o f the materia l o f the sensin g element .
(b) Th e geometr y o f the grid .
(c) Th e strai n fiel d i n whic h th e gag e i s used .
(d) Th e directio n o f the strai n use d i n makin g th e computatio n o f the
numerical valu e o f the strai n sensitivity .
In addition , there ar e als o a numbe r o f other smalle r effects .
Special cases of strain sensitivity. Sinc e th e strai n sensitivit y is influenced by
so man y factors , i n statin g a numerica l value , th e condition s unde r which
this ha s bee n determine d shoul d als o b e known . Figur e 7. 1 shows a strai n
gage mounte d o n a surfac e which ha s referenc e axes, O A an d ON , scribe d
on it . The referenc e axes ar e paralle l an d normal , respectively , to th e gag e
axis. Th e correspondin g strain s in the axia l an d transvers e (normal ) direc -
tions wil l b e represente d b y £ a and £„ , respectively .
Lateral effects in strain gages

Although ther e i s a n infinit e variet y o f condition s unde r whic h th e strai n
sensitivity o f a strain gage might b e determined, for practical purposes there
are onl y thre e specifi c situation s wit h whic h on e mus t b e concerned , a s al l
other condition s ca n b e represente d i n term s o f thes e thre e specia l cases ,
which ar e a s follows :
Fa = axial strai n sensitivity

Fn = norma l strai n sensitivity
GF — the manufacturer' s gag e factor
FIG. 7.1. Singl e strain gag e aligned alon g axis OA .

These thre e specifi c values o f strai n sensitivit y are define d i n th e following

ways:
Axial strain sensitivity
when th e norma l strai n i s zero. Thi s ca n b e written as
when £ „ = 0 .
Normal strain sensitivity
when th e axia l strai n i s zero. Thi s ca n b e writte n as
when e = 0 .
The manufacturer's gage factor. Th e manufacturer' s gag e factor , a s deter -
mined i n accordanc e wit h AST M Standar d E2 5 1-86(12), mean s th e strai n
sensitivity, wit h referenc e t o th e axia l strai n o n th e gag e whe n th e gag e i s
mounted i n a uniaxia l stres s field, with the gag e axi s in th e directio n o f th e
stress axis , and o n a piec e o f material o f known Poisso n rati o (v 0 = 0.285) .
This procedur e correspond s t o calibratin g th e gag e i n a biaxia l strai n field
in whic h th e latera l strain , e n, i s equa l t o — v0 e a . I n symbols , th e manu -
facturer's gag e facto r can b e expresse d as
when
7.2. Basic equations for unit change in resistance

Since strai n gages , i n general , chang e thei r resistance s fo r bot h axia l an d
normal strains , let us proceed toward s establishing a general relation fo r unit
LATERAL EFFECT S I N STRAI N GAGE S 23 7
change i n resistanc e b y considerin g eac h o f thes e effect s alone , an d the n

adding th e individua l influenc e t o determin e th e resul t o f bot h axia l an d
transverse strain s actin g simultaneously .
Derivation. T o develo p th e require d expressions , w e commence b y writing
Eq. (7.1 ) in term s o f change i n resistanc e a s follows:
Equation (7.6 ) i s general bu t need s furthe r specification when applie d

to an y particula r conditio n t o whic h th e gag e ma y b e subjected . Equatio n
(7.6) wil l be applied t o the determination of the change in resistance produced
under th e following two conditions :
(a) Whe n e a ^ 0 and e n = 0

(b) Whe n s a = 0 and e n ± 0
The tw o change s ar e the n adde d togethe r t o determin e th e overal l chang e

in resistanc e resultin g from th e combine d effec t o f th e strain s paralle l an d
normal to th e gage axis .
For th e first condition, wher e there i s strain only i n the direction o f the
gage axis, the symbols of Eq. (7.6) will take on the following particular values:
R= ARa Chang e o f resistance

S = F a Strai n sensitivit y (by definition)
£ = £ „ Strai n
Substituting thes e value s into Eq . (7.6 ) gives
For th e secon d condition , whe n ther e i s strai n only i n th e directio n

normal t o th e directio n o f the gag e axis , th e symbol s o f Eq. (7.6 ) will take
on th e followin g particular values :
R= ARn Chang e i n resistance

S = F n Strai n sensitivit y (by definition )
E = e n Strai n
Again, substituting these value s into Eq . (7.6) yields

When th e gag e i s subjected, simultaneously, to strain s i n th e axia l an d

normal directions , th e expressio n fo r th e tota l chang e i n resistanc e ca n b e
written b y addin g Eqs . (7.7 ) and (7.8 ) together t o giv e
Thus,
From this , th e overal l unit chang e i n resistanc e ca n b e foun d b y dividing

both side s o f Eq. (7.10 ) by R , th e resistanc e o f the gage , s o that
The transverse sensitivity factor, K . Althoug h Eq. (7.11 ) present s th e funda -

mental relation betwee n uni t changes i n resistance an d th e axia l and latera l
strains, i t i s no t i n a convenien t for m fo r th e user , sinc e th e manufacturer s
do no t giv e the value s of F a and F n directly. Instead, the y provide th e user s
with th e equivalen t information in term s o f gage facto r (determine d unde r
uniaxial stress ) an d th e transvers e sensitivit y factor . Transvers e sensitivit y
factor i s a poorly chosen name, since it can easily be mistaken for the norma l
strain sensitivity represented b y the symbol Fn. The meaning of the transverse
sensitivity factor , whic h wil l b e represente d b y th e symbo l K , ca n no w b e
examined. I n orde r t o d o this , Eq. (7.11 ) ca n b e rewritte n as
If the rati o F n/Fa i s represented b y the singl e symbol K, the n th e uni t change
in resistanc e is expressed a s
This means tha t th e transvers e sensitivity factor fo r a strai n gag e i s defined

as th e rati o o f th e norma l sensitivit y t o th e axia l sensitivity . I t ca n b e
expressed a s
The significanc e o f the numerica l valu e of the transvers e sensitivit y factor is

that it indicates the proportion (or percentage) by which the transverse strain
contributes t o th e total indicated strai n fro m th e gage. Tabl e 7. 1 lists values
taken from th e literature for the gage factor (approximate) an d the transverse
sensitivity facto r fo r SR- 4 wir e gage s (1) . Table s 7. 2 and 7. 3 are gag e an d
transverse sensitivity factors for foil gages from tw o manufacturers (13,14).
Table 7.1. Typica l value s o f gag e facto r an d

transverse sensitivit y facto r fo r SR- 4 gage s
Gage type Gftapprox.) K(%)
A-l 2.0 2.0

A-5 2.0 3.5
A-6 2.0 1.75
A-8 1.8 -2.0
A-ll 2.1 0.5
A-12 2.0 1.0
A-14 2.0 -0.75
A-18 1.9 -2.0
C-l 3.5 1.75
C-5 3.3 4.0
C-8 3.1 -2.0
C-10 3.2 -0.75
Source: referenc e 1 .
Table 7.2 . Typica l value s fo r gag e facto r an d

transverse sensitivit y coefficients "
Gage type G F K(%)
FAE-03-12 1.90 1.3

FAE-03-35 1.88 -0.3
FAE-06-35 2.02 0.7
FAE-12-12 1.98 -0.8
FAE-12-100 2.04 -0.6
FAE-25-12 2.07 0.0
FAE-50-35 2.02 -1.7
FAB- 12- 12 2.02 -1.2
FAB-12-35 2.03 0.5
FAP-03-12 1.87 0.0
FAP-06-12 1.96 -0.7
FSM-03-12 1.94 0.4
FSM-12-12 2.00 -2.7
FSE-06-35 1.99 -1.4
FSE-25-35 2.03 -1.7
" The liste d value s ar e typica l only . Actua l G F an d K
values t o b e use d depen d o n foi l lot , an d ar e provide d
on th e engineerin g data for m provide d with eac h package
of gages.
Table 7.3 . Typica l value s fo r gag e facto r an d trans -

verse sensitivit y coefficient "
Gage type Gf K(%)
EA-06-0625AK-120 2.025 + 0.5° 0.8

EA-06-125BT-I20 2.085 + 0.5° 0.7
WA-06-250BG-120 2.040 ± 0.5" -1.1
CEA-06-250UW-120 2.045 + 0.5" 0.6
CEA-06-250UW-350 2.085 ± 0.5" 0.4
EA -06-03 1CF- 120 2.000± 1.0" 1.4
ED-DY-031CF-350 3.25 ± 3.0" N/A
CEA-06-125UN-120 2.060 ± 0.5" 1.0
CEA-06-125UN-350 2.090 + 0.5° 0.5
WA-06-500AE-350 2.065 + 0.5" -1.4
WK-06-500AE-10C 2.04+ 1.0" - 5.9
EA-06-500BH-120 2.060 ± 0.5° 0.1
SA-06-250BK-10C 2.065 ± 0.5" -0.5
SK-06-250BK-30C 2.06 + 1.0" -1.9
SK-06-031EC-350 1.99 + 1.0" 0.5
Source: referenc e 14.

"The liste d value s ar e typiea l only . Actua l Ci F and K value s t o h e
used depen d o n foi l lot , an d ar e provide d o n th e engineerin g dat a
form provide d wit h eac h packag e of gages.
For th e standar d type s o f gages , th e numerica l value s o f K will , i n

general, b e les s tha n abou t 4 percent , an d fo r man y gage s th e K facto r i s
less tha n 2 percent . Fo r comparabl e gag e size , foi l gage s usuall y exhibit
smaller value s of K tha n wir e gages, an d som e eve n indicate K equal s zero .
Flat-grid wir e gage s wil l alway s have a positiv e valu e o f K . Wrap-aroun d
construction fo r wire gages produces negative values of K, due to the Poisson
effect withi n th e gage . Foi l gages , dependin g upo n th e materia l o f th e foil ,
can exhibi t eithe r positiv e o r smal l negativ e values of K .
Relations between gage factor an d the axial and normal strain sensitivities. Th e
relation betwee n th e axia l strai n sensitivity , Fa, o f a strai n gage , an d th e
manufacturer's gage factor, GF, can now be investigated. Since the gage factor
is determine d unde r uniaxia l stres s conditions , wit h th e gag e axi s i n th e
direction o f th e stres s axis , w e wil l conside r th e genera l aspect s o f thi s
condition first, and the n tak e u p th e specia l situatio n whic h prevails when
the gage s ar e calibrated . Figur e 7. 2 shows a gag e i n a uniaxia l stress field.
For uniaxia l stress i n th e directio n o f the gag e axis,
where v = Poisson' s ratio fo r th e materia l upon whic h th e gag e i s mounted .

For thi s situation, the expressio n fo r unit change i n resistance , given b y Eq .
LATERAL EFFECT S I N STRAI N GAGES 241
FIG. 7.2. Strai n gag e in a uniaxia l stress field.
(7.13), ca n b e writte n as
When the gage factor i s being determined, the Poisson rati o corresponds
to v 0 = 0.285 , whic h i s th e valu e fo r th e ba r o n whic h th e manufacture r
makes th e calibration . Therefore , fo r conditions o f calibration ,
For th e sam e conditions , however , the manufacture r tells us that
From thi s we can write
Since th e uni t chang e i n gag e resistance , R/R, i s independent o f the

mathematical relation s whic h ar e use d t o expres s it , Eqs . (7.17) an d (7.19 )
represent th e sam e thing , so tha t
From this ,
242 THE BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
or
Since F n = KF a, the n
7.3. Determination of gage factor and transverse sensitivity factor (12)

Several method s o f determining the gag e facto r fo r bonded resistanc e strain
gages wil l b e outlined . The tw o method s considere d wil l b e a bea m i n pur e
bending an d a constant-stres s cantileve r beam .
Beam in pure bending

Figure 7. 3 shows a typica l system. The tes t bea m i s loaded b y dead weights
in such a manner tha t the beam i s subjected to pur e bending. The test beam ,
of a suitable material, has minimu m dimensions of 0.75 in by 1. 0 in by 3 0 in,
and the minimum distance between the pivot points on the supports is 96 in.
The assembl y is symmetrical about a vertica l line at it s midpoint.
The pivots and weight s are adjusted to give a strain on the beam surfac e
of 100 0 + 5 0 uin/in. The strain over the usabl e portion o f the tes t beam ma y
not var y b y mor e tha n 1 percent o f the strai n a t th e referenc e point. Th e
need fo r measurin g th e strai n directl y can b e eliminate d b y maintainin g a
calibration o f th e syste m wit h a Clas s A extensomete r (15) . However , th e
strain a t th e referenc e poin t ma y als o b e measure d wit h a permanentl y
FIG. 7.3. Constant-bending-momen t method for gage-factor determination . (From ref. 12 with
permission. (C D ASTM. )
mounted strai n gage that has been calibrated by spanning i t with a Class A
extensometer.
The usabl e portio n o f the bea m i s to b e at leas t one-hal f of its exposed
length. Measurement s ove r each test statio n ar e made with the extensometer
in orde r t o verif y th e strai n distributio n ove r th e bea m width . Gage s ar e
installed o n th e unstraine d tes t sectio n an d the n th e bea m i s loade d thre e
times to th e require d strai n leve l to 100 0 ± 5 0 uin/in. The gag e factor of the
individual gage is determined b y dividing the uni t chang e i n gage resistanc e
by th e strai n valu e determined fro m th e bea m calibration .
Constant-stress cantilever beam

A typica l syste m usin g a constant-stres s cantileve r bea m i s show n i n Fig .
7.4, whil e the bea m detail s ar e give n i n Fig . 7.5 . The siz e an d arrangemen t
of th e equipmen t mus t b e suc h tha t th e bea m ca n b e deflecte d i n eithe r
direction t o produc e a strai n o f 120 0 uin/in. Tw o o r mor e referenc e strain
gages ma y be permanently bonde d t o th e bea m an d calibrate d b y spanning
them with a Class A extensometer. The constant-stres s are a i s also explore d
with th e Clas s A extensomete r i n orde r t o determin e th e are a wher e th e
strain i s th e sam e a s tha t o f th e referenc e gages . Onl y area s wher e th e
differences i n strain between the extensometer an d th e reference gage do no t
exceed 1 0 uin/in ar e t o b e used .
Test gage s are installe d i n th e satisfactor y areas, wit h the activ e axis of
the gag e paralle l t o th e cente r lin e o f th e beam . Th e bea m i s deflecte d s o
that th e surfac e strai n i s 100 0 + 5 0 uin/in, an d th e uni t resistanc e chang e
recorded. Thre e suc h reading s ar e taken , wit h the gage facto r computed fo r
each loadin g cycle.
FIG. 7.4. Constant-stres s cantilever beam method for gage-faclor determination . (From ref. 12
with permission. © ASTM.) .
NOTE I—AM dimensions are in inches (I in - 25.4 mm).

Noit 2—Surfaces "A" and "D" lo be parallel 10 0.0005 T1R and flai to 0.0002 TIR.
Note 3—Sides of beam must form iriangje at apex as shown. Maximum allowable deviation of beam sides from correct IIIMI
±0.001 in. in active area, 0.003 in. elsewhere.
FIG. 7.5. Constant-stres s cantileve r beam . Al l dimension s are i n inche s ( 1 in = 25. 4 mm).
Surfaces A an d B t o b e paralle l t o 0.0005 TI R an d fla t t o 0.0002 TIR. Sides of beam must for m
triangle a t ape x a s shown . Maximu m allowabl e deviatio n o f bea m sides from correc t lin e i s
+ 0.001 in i n activ e area , 0.003 in elsewhere . (Fro m ref. 12 with permission . © ASTM. )
Transverse sensitivity
Strain gag e transvers e sensitivit y results i n a n undesire d signa l induce d b y
strains i n directions othe r tha n th e on e bein g measured. The errors induced
in the plane o f the gages depend on th e stress distribution in the gaged areas .
Figure 7. 6 shows a typical test rig for determining transverse sensitivity, while
Fig. 7.7 gives the test bea m detail s and gag e arrangements . Th e control gag e
may b e eithe r a Clas s A extensomete r o r a permanentl y installe d an d
waterproofed resistanc e strai n gag e temperatur e compensate d fo r th e bea m
material an d calibrate d b y a Clas s A extensometer.
The sid e plate s fastene d t o th e bea m ar e loade d a t thei r lowe r edg e
through th e us e o f the cran k mechanism , a s show n i n Fig . 7.6. Thi s place
the bea m i n compressio n a s wel l a s i n bending . Th e transvers e direction i s
in th e lon g directio n o f the beam , an d so , on th e to p surface , th e transvers e
strain du e t o th e compressiv e loa d i s a tensil e strain , whil e th e transvers e
strain du e t o bendin g i s a compressiv e strain . Th e dimension s o f th e
apparatus ar e chosen s o that these two strains cancel each other , thus leaving
a plan e strai n conditio n acros s th e beam .
The tes t beam ha s 1 6 defined stations . The differenc e betwee n the strain
measurements b y the control gage an d th e actual strain at each station , both
parallel an d perpendicula r t o th e principa l strai n direction , mus t b e deter -
mined. The strain perpendicular to the principal strain (th e transverse strain)
must b e les s tha n 4 uin/in o r 0. 5 percen t o f th e principa l strain , wit h a
maximum principa l strai n o f 100 0 + 5 0 uin/in.
LATERAL EFFECTS IN STRAIN GAGES 245
FIG. 7.6. Transverse-sensitivit y test rig . (From ref . 12 with permission . © ASTM. )
FIG. 7.7. Testin g station s an d gag e arrangemen t fo r transverse-sensitivit y test . (From ref . 12
with permission . © ASTM. )
A tes t require s a minimu m of five identical gages o f one type . At leas t

three gage s are mounted perpendicula r to the principal strain direction and
a minimu m o f tw o gage s ar e mounte d paralle l t o th e principa l strai n
direction. After gag e installation , th e beam i s loaded t o about 100 0 uin/in at
least thre e time s befor e reading s ar e taken . Afte r thes e thre e loa d cycles ,
readings from th e control gag e and th e test gage s are taken i n the unloade d
condition, the n th e bea m i s loaded s o tha t th e surfac e strai n i s 100 0 uin/in
and reading s take n again . Thi s i s repeate d fo r thre e loadin g cycles . Th e
transverse sensitivit y is computed a s
where R,/R, 0 = uni t resistanc e chang e i n transverse gag e

ARL/RLO = uni t resistanc e change i n gage paralle l t o th e principa l
strain directio n
The rang e o f all values obtained i s to b e reported , whil e the transvers e

sensitivity o f a gag e typ e i s taken a s th e averag e o f all value s recorded .
7.4. Use of strain gages under conditions differing from those

corresponding to calibration
If a strai n gag e i s use d unde r biaxia l condition s whic h diffe r fro m thos e
prevailing durin g calibration , theoretically , ther e wil l b e a n erro r i n th e
indicated valu e o f th e axia l strain . Fortunately , thi s error i s usuall y rather
small an d ca n b e neglected . I t ca n b e show n tha t fo r gage s whos e K facto r
is les s tha n 3 percent, th e maximu m error wil l no t excee d abou t 4 percen t
as long a s th e numerica l value of the norma l strai n does no t excee d tha t of
the axia l strain.
The exact valu e of this error can no w be examined, along wit h a simpl e
means o f correctin g fo r i t unde r an y conditio n o f biaxia l strain . Fo r thi s
purpose, it will be convenient to represen t th e ratio o f normal t o axia l strain
by a singl e symbol . Thus,
From Eqs . (7.13 ) an d (7.21) , a n expressio n fo r th e uni t chang e i n

resistance ca n b e writte n as
From Eq. (7.24), ^„ =ae a. Substituting this value of £„ into Eq. (7.25) yields
Solving Eq . (7.26 ) for s a gives
The significanc e o f th e resul t give n i n Eq . (7.27 ) is represente d b y th e

following observations :
1. Th e quantit y ( R/R)/GF correspond s t o th e indicatio n o f strai n a s

determined b y th e manufacturer . That is,
2. Th e ter m ( 1 — v0K)/(i + tzK) represent s a modifyin g facto r whos e

value depend s upo n a , the rati o betwee n the norma l an d axia l strains
on the gage. When the gag e is employed in a stress field corresponding
to calibration conditions , a = — v0 and th e modifying expression reverts
to unity , sinc e th e indicate d strain , fo r this case, represent s th e correc t
value.
3. Sinc e the value of K wil l be small with respect t o unit y (less than abou t
4 percen t fo r standar d gages ) fo r mos t gages , a precis e knowledg e of
the exac t valu e of a i s not required . Th e rati o o f the indicate d norma l
and axia l strains shoul d b e good enoug h withou t corrections; however,
if a bette r valu e o f th e modifyin g facto r i s desired , the n a furthe r
correction ma y be obtained b y taking the ratio of the initiall y corrected
values.
Some special cases

Correction factor,
Strain relations Ratio, a.
1. Tw o equa l an d lik e principal strains :
2. Tw o equal bu t unlik e principal

strains:
3. Uniaxia l stres s wit h the gag e axis
in th e directio n o f the stres s axis :
limits: v = 0 t o + 5
4. Uniaxia l stres s with th e gag e axi s
perpendicular t o th e stres s axis :
limits : v = 0 to + ^
We can write an expression fo r the error that result s when a single strain
gage i s used i n a biaxial stres s field. The actua l strai n alon g th e gag e axi s is
Ea, while the actua l strain norma l t o th e gag e axis is £„. From Eq . (7.27), the
248 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICAL RESISTANC E STRAI N GAG E
Table 7.4 . Erro r i n strain s whe n usin g a uniaxia l gag e i n a

biaxial field
True strain , £„ Tru e stain , £ „ a = £„,£ „ nW

t;a 5c 50 18.7
sa 3t: 3 a 11.6
K 2i: 2 8.1
e.a i: aI 4.5
ca 0 0 0.0
<-„ - Ka - 1 -2.5
f.a - 3<: 0 - 3 -9.6
£„ -5e, - 5 -16.7
£„ -10E 0 -1 0 -34.3
strain indicato r wil l rea d
The percent error, q, between the meter reading, E'a, and the actual strain, sa, is
This reduce s t o
Table 7.4 shows the resulting error between the strain indicato r reading ,
s'a, an d th e actua l strain , s a, fo r a gag e wit h a transvers e sensitivit y of
K = 0.035.
7.5. Indication from a pair of like strain gages crossed at right angles
We assume tha t th e strai n gradient i s so small that bot h gages are subjected
to th e sam e strai n condition . Le t u s no w examin e th e tota l uni t chang e i n
resistance o f both gage s whe n the y ar e connecte d i n series . Sinc e th e gage s
are oriente d a t righ t angles , conside r the m t o b e aligne d parallel , an d
perpendicular, t o th e referenc e axes, OA an d ON , a s show n in Fig . 7.8 , an d
that the y make any angle 9 (or 0 + 90°) wit h respec t t o th e direction s o f the
principal axes.
The strai n gage s whos e axe s are paralle l an d perpendicula r t o O A an d
ON ca n now be examined. Subscripts a and n will refer th e variou s quantities
to thes e axes , respectively . When th e tw o gage s ar e connecte d i n series , R T
FIG. 7.8. Strai n gages crosse d a t righ t angles.
is th e tota l resistanc e o f both gages , whil e AR T i s the chang e i n resistanc e

of both gages . Thus ,
or
This ca n b e rewritten as
where ft = R n/Ra = ratio o f resistance o f gage N t o resistanc e o f gage A .
From Eq . (7.11),
Also, fro m Eq . (7.21) , for a singl e gage w e have
For eac h gage , then,
The uni t change i n resistance for the tw o gage s in series, given by Eq . (7.31) ,
can b e rewritten by substituting the value s of &R a/Ra an d AR n/Rn, give n by
Eqs. (7.32 ) and (7.33) , respectively, into Eq . (7.31) . This produce s
Equation (7.34 ) is a general expressio n for th e uni t change i n resistanc e

of bot h gage s i n term s o f variabl e strains , th e gag e factors , transvers e
sensitivity factors , an d resistances , al l o f which may b e differen t fo r eac h o f
the tw o gages .
In it s presen t form , Eq . (7.34 ) i s no t ver y convenient ; however , it ca n
be reduce d t o workabl e condition s fo r certai n specia l situations . Fo r
example, if the tw o crosse d gage s ar e alik e in all respects , the y will hav e th e
same gag e factors , th e sam e transvers e sensitivity , an d equa l resistances .
Thus,
(GF)a = (G F)n = G F, K a = Kn = K
Ra = R n = R, 0 = RJRa = 1
For thes e conditions , Eq . (7.34) reduces t o
This furthe r simplie s t o

LATERAL EFFECT S IN STRAI N GAGE S 25 1
An eas y wa y t o accoun t fo r th e transvers e effec t i s t o adjus t th e gag e

factor dia l o n th e strai n indicato r (th e scal e factor ) i n orde r t o correc t fo r
it. Also , a specia l situatio n o f interes t involvin g the solutio n o f Eq . (7.34 )
will b e shown when stress gages are discussed.
Problems
7.1. Th e following data ar e given for a thin-walled pressure vessel: diameter = 9 6 in,
wall thicknes s = 2 in, interna l pressur e = 100 0 psi, v = 0.3 , E = 3 0 x 10 6 psi.
Two identica l strain gages , wit h G F = 2.1 and K = 3.5 percent, ar e bonde d t o
the vessel , on e in the longitudinal directio n an d on e in the hoo p direction.
(a) Determin e th e actua l strains .

(b) Determin e th e strai n indicato r reading s fo r each gage .
(c) Determin e th e percen t erro r i n each reading .
7.2. A t a point on a machine element the stresses are a x= — 8000 psi, af = 4700 psi,
and TJ.J , = 550 0 psi. A technician bond s tw o identical strain gages, with G F = 2.0 4
and K = — 1.1 percent, along what he believes are the principal stress directions.
Gage a is located 55 ° CCW fro m th e x axis , while gage b is located 90 ° CC W
from gag e a .
(a) Hav e th e gages been properly located?

(b) Determin e th e actua l strai n a t eac h gag e if v = 0. 3 and E = 3 0 x 10 6 psi.
(c) Determin e th e indicate d strai n fo r eac h gage .
7.3. A single strain gage, with GF = 1. 9 and K = 2. 5 percent, is bonded to a member

subjected t o a uniaxial stress. The gage axi s is aligned along the principal stres s
axis. I f th e maximu m stres s i s 3 0 000 psi, v = 0.3, an d E = 3 0 x 10 6 psi,
determine th e valu e of the indicate d strain .
7.4. In Proble m 7.1 , the two gage s are wire d in serie s in orde r to hav e the strai n
indicator read 100 0 uin/i n when the vesse l is pressurized to 100 0 psi. What gag e
factor settin g must b e use d to accomplis h this ?
7.5. A t a poin t o n a machin e element , a x = 25 000 psi, a y = — 5000 psi, an d i xf =
12 000 psi. Th e membe r i s loade d i n suc h a manne r tha t th e principa l stres s
axes remai n fixe d i n direction . A strai n gag e i s bonde d alon g eac h principa l
stress axis , the n the y ar e connecte d i n series . Th e gage s ar e identical , wit h
GF = 2.04 an d K = —1. 1 percent. Determin e th e gag e facto r settin g o n th e
strain indicato r s o tha t th e readin g wil l b e 50 0 uin/in whe n th e su m o f th e
principal stresses , a l + a 2, equals 2 0 000 psi.
REFERENCES
1. Baumberger , R. and F. Hines, "Practical Reduction Formulas for Use on Bonde d

Wire Strain Gage s in Two-dimensional Stress Fields," SESA Proceedings, Vol. II,
No. 1 , 1944, pp. 113-127 .
2. Bossart , K . J . an d G . A . Brewer , " A Graphica l Metho d o f Rosett e Analysis, "
SESA Proceedings, Vol. IV, No . 1 , 1946, pp. 1-8 .
3. Campbell , Willia m R., "Performance Test s of Wire Strai n Gage s IV—Axial and
Transverse Sensitivities, " NACA Technical Note No . 1042, 1946.
4. Handbook o f Experimental Stress Analysis, edite d b y M . Hetenyi , Ne w York ,

Wiley, 1950 , pp . 407-^10.
5. Meier , J. H., "On th e Transverse-strai n Sensitivit y o f Foil Gages, " Experimental
Mechanics, Vol . 1 , No. 7 , July 1961 , pp. 39-40 .
6. Wu , Charle s T. , "Transverse Sensitivit y o f Bonded Strai n Gages, " Experimental
Mechanics, Vol . 2, No. 11 , Nov. 1962 , pp. 338-344 .
7. Meyer , M . L. , " A Unifie d Rationa l Analysi s fo r Gaug e Facto r an d Cross -
Sensitivity of Electric-Resistance Strain Gauges," Reprinted b y permission o f the
Council o f th e Institutio n o f Mechanica l Engineer s fro m Journal o f Strain
Analysis, Vol . 2 , No . 4 , 1967 , pp . 324-331 . O n behal f o f th e Institutio n o f
Mechanical Engineers .
8. Meyer , M. L., "A Simpl e Estimate for the Effec t o f Cross Sensitivity on Evaluate d
Strain-gage Measurement, " Experimental Mechanics, Vol . 7 , No. 11 , Nov. 1967 ,
pp. 476-480 .
9. "Error s Du e t o Transvers e Sensitivit y i n Strai n Gages," TN-509, Measurement s
Group, Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh , N C 27611 , 1982 .
10. Measurement s Group , Inc. , "Error s Du e t o Transvers e Sensitivit y i n Strai n
Gages," Experimental Techniques, Vol. 7, No. 1 , Jan. 1983 , pp . 30-35 .
11. Handbook o n Experimental Mechanics, edited by Albert S. Kobayashi, Englewood
12. 1986 Annual Book o f ASTM Standards, 191 6 Race St. , Philadelphia , P A 19103 ,
"Performance Characteristic s o f Bonde d Resistanc e Strai n Gages, " Vol . 03.01 .
Designation: E251-86 , pp. 413^428. Copyright ASTM . Reprinte d wit h permission.
13. "SR- 4 Strai n Gage Handbook," BLH Electronics , Inc., 75 Shawmut Rd., Canton ,
MA 02021 , 1980 .
14. Dat a furnishe d b y Measurement s Group , Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh , N C
27611, 1989 .
15. 1986 Annual Book o f ASTM Standards, 191 6 Race St. , Philadelphia , P A 19103 ,
"Verification an d Classicatio n o f Extensometers, " Vol . 03.01 . Designation :
E83-85, pp . 267-274 . Copyrigh t ASTM . Reprinte d with permission.
8
STRAIN GAGE ROSETTES AND DATA ANALYSIS
8.1. Reason for rosette analysis

We sa w i n Chapte r 2 tha t fo r an y poin t o n a fre e (unloaded ) surfac e o f a
solid it is necessary to know three independent quantitie s in order t o specif y
the state of stress completely. These quantities ar e the magnitudes of the tw o
principal stresses, a 1 an d a 2, and thei r directions, 9 or 9 + 90°, with respec t
to som e reference .
For isotropic elastic materials these values can be calculated from strain s
measured on the surface at the point in question, and since three independent
quantities are to be determined, in general, it will be necessary to make three
independent measurement s o f strain . Ther e are , however , som e specia l
situations in whic h one o r tw o observation s o f strain wil l suffic e t o provid e
the informatio n necessary fo r completel y establishing th e stat e o f stress.
It wil l be well, at thi s time, to dra w attentio n t o th e fac t that , although
we refe r t o th e stres s conditio n a t a point , th e manne r o f measuring th e
strain give s the averag e ove r a smal l distance. Therefore , from th e practica l
point o f view , th e result s o f a se t o f rosett e observation s wil l approximat e
the averag e condition s ove r a smal l area . Thi s i s not objectionabl e a s lon g
as th e lengt h ove r whic h th e strai n is measured i s shor t enoug h tha t ther e
is relativel y little chang e fro m on e en d t o th e other . Th e gag e lengt h wil l
therefore depen d upo n th e strain gradien t an d may run from smal l (^ i n to
Yg in) value s to severa l inches o r more .
8.2. Stress fields

Stress fields wer e examined in Chapter 2 , where the severa l stress states were
discussed. In general, the concern ha s been with plane stress, and transforma-
tion equation s wer e developed t o enabl e th e determinatio n o f plane stres s
at a poin t i n an y directio n relativ e t o a chose n coordinat e system . Thes e
concepts wil l b e reexamine d her e in th e developmen t o f rosette analysis.
Special case of uniaxial stress (simple tension or compression)

In th e case of simple tensio n o r compression , on e knows that the direction s
of the principal stres s axes will be parallel and perpendicular t o the direction
of the applie d force , o r load , an d tha t th e magnitud e o f the principa l stres s
whose directio n i s at righ t angles t o th e loa d wil l b e zero. Thi s mean s tha t
two of the three quantities are known from th e prevailing physical conditions.
On thi s account , i t wil l therefor e b e necessar y t o mak e onl y a singl e
observation of the strain along the direction of the load i n order t o determin e
the on e remainin g unknow n quantity . Fo r a n elasti c body , th e stres s i s
calculated a s
where a = th e stres s intensity

E = th e modulu s o f elasticity of th e materia l
£ = th e measure d strai n (positiv e fo r tensio n an d negativ e fo r
compression)
It shoul d b e noted here that i f the stres s is tension, a represent s <r l, the
algebraically large r principa l stress , an d a 2 — 0- Ifthe stres s i s compression ,
ffj = 0 an d a correspond s t o <r 2, th e algebraicall y smalle r principa l stress .
Special case of biaxial stress (principal stress directions known)

In a few special case s i n which th e direction s of the principa l stres s axes (the
angle 0 ) ca n b e establishe d b y auxiliar y means , suc h a s condition s o f
symmetry o r throug h a previou s application o f a brittl e coat, there are onl y
two unknowns , cr, and a 2, the principa l stress magnitudes, t o b e determined .
These can b e found b y measuring the correspondin g principa l strains , E { and
£2, i n th e direction s o f the principa l stres s axes , an d calculatin g th e value s
from Eqs . (2.50a ) and (2.50b) . I n these equations th e subscripts , x an d y , are
changed t o 1 an d 2 , respectively . Equation s (2.50a ) an d (2.50b ) ca n b e
rewritten a s
where CT J = th e algebraicall y large r principa l stres s

<72 = th e algebraicall y smalle r principa l stres s
£t = th e algebraicall y large r principa l strai n
£2 = th e algebraicall y smalle r principa l strai n
E = the modulu s of elasticity of the materia l
v = Poisson' s rati o
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AND DAT A ANALYSI S 255
For late r us e it wil l b e mor e convenien t t o expres s th e principa l stres s

values i n the followin g form:
where the hydrostatic component o f strain an d corres -

ponds to th e cente r o f Mohr's circle
the shea r componen t o f strain an d correspond s
to th e radiu s o f Mohr's circl e
The general case

In man y instances , neithe r th e magnitude s of the principa l stresse s no r th e
directions o f thei r axe s wil l b e known . Thi s mean s tha t fo r a complet e
description o f the stat e o f stress, at an y particula r point , thre e independent
quantities must be found. In consequence, i t will be necessary t o make thre e
measurements o f linear strai n i n differen t direction s (se e Sectio n 2.6) , an d
from thes e three observations, to compute the two principal stress magnitudes
and th e direction s o f the axes .
Figure 8. 1 illustrates a pai r o f orthogonal referenc e axes , O X an d O Y,
and thre e othe r axes , OA , OB , an d OC , makin g angle s 9 a, 9 b, an d 6 C,
respectively, with respect t o th e reference s axis OX. Th e axe s OA , OB , an d
OC for m wha t is described a s a rosette , an d i f corresponding linea r strains ,
sa, £ b, an d e c, ar e measure d i n thei r respectiv e directions , th e linea r an d
shearing strains , e x, e y, and y xy, correspondin g t o th e O X an d O Y axe s of
reference, ca n b e calculated.
The value s o f e x, e y, an d y xy ar e calculate d i n term s o f th e measure d
strains, e a, e b, an d e c, b y th e us e o f Eq . (2.32) . I t i s repeate d her e an d
FIG. 8.1. Referenc e axe s OX-OY wit h rosett e axes.

renumbered a s Eq . (8.6) . Thus,
In Eq . (8.6) , th e subscript , x' , take s o n th e value s o f th e thre e measure d

strains in turn, and 8 has th e valu e associated wit h its particular strain. Thi s
gives thre e independen t equation s tha t ca n b e solve d simultaneousl y for e x,
F,y, an d y xr Th e thre e equation s s o forme d ar e
When e x, e y, and y xy have been determined b y the simultaneous solution

of Eqs. (8.7), (8.8), and (8.9) , the principa l strains ma y b e found b y using Eq .
(2.37). Thus , th e principa l strain s ar e
or
where (corresponds t o th e cente r o f Mohr's circle )
(corresponds t o th e radiu s o f Mohr's

circle)
The orientatio n o f the principe l stresses relativ e to th e referenc e axe s is

the sam e a s th e principa l strai n axe s relativ e t o th e reference s axes . Thus ,
the orientatio n o f the principa l axe s may b e obtained fro m Mohr' s circl e for
strain, or , analytically , by usin g Eq . 2.3 4 and eithe r Eq . (2.35 ) or (2.36) .
8.3. Rosette geometry

Theoretically, th e relativ e directions o f strai n measuremen t (th e angle s 9 a,
9b, an d 6 C) are o f n o particula r importance . However , fro m th e practica l
consideration o f solvin g th e equations , on e find s tha t certai n preferre d
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AN D DAT A ANALYSIS 257
FIG. 8.2. Three-elemen t rectangular rosette arrangements.
FIG. 8.3. Delt a rosett e arrangements.
orientations permi t a muc h simple r reductio n o f th e strain s int o term s of

stress. At the present tim e there are fou r generall y accepted arrangement s of
the gag e axe s for strain rosettes . Basically , there ar e just two arrangements ,
the rectangula r an d th e equiangular , bu t eac h o f thes e has a modification
involving a redundan t fourt h observatio n o f strain.
Basic arrangements involving three observations of strain

Figure 8. 2 shows tw o arrangement s o f a three-elemen t rectangula r rosette .
The thre e gag e axe s in arrangemen t (a ) are lai d ou t a t 45 ° and 90 ° to eac h
other. I n arrangemen t (b) , gag e B form s a 135 ° angle wit h gage s A an d C .
The equiangular or delta rosette has the three gage axes laid out parallel
to th e side s o f a n equilatera l triangle . Thi s typ e o f rosett e ha s th e mos t
desirable orientation s o f th e direction s o f strai n observation , bu t th e
equations fo r computing stress value s are not quit e so simple as those of the
rectangular rosette . Fo r thi s reason , th e rectangula r rosett e i s preferred by
many. Figur e 8. 3 illustrates tw o arrangement s fo r th e delt a rosette .
Modified arrangements involving four observations of strain

The T-rectangula r rosett e ha s fou r gage s wit h axe s 45 ° apart, a s indicate d
in Fig . 8.4 . Althoug h th e fourt h observatio n i s theoreticall y unnecessary , i t
FIG. 8.4, T-rectangula r rosette.
FIG. 8.5. T-delt a rosette .
nevertheless provides a convenient means of checking the strain observations,

since th e su m o f the strain s i n an y tw o direction s a t righ t angle s shoul d b e
a constan t fo r a give n set o f conditions. Thus,
The T-delt a rosett e i s essentially the sam e a s th e equiangula r arrange -

ment wit h th e addition of a fourth observatio n whic h is made a t righ t angles
to th e directio n o f on e o f th e othe r three . I t i s claime d tha t thi s for m o f
rosette ha s al l th e desirabl e characteristic s of the equiangula r type plus th e
advantage of a little more precise determination o f the hydrostatic component
of strai n a t th e referenc e point, i f this coincide s wit h th e intersectio n o f tw o
perpendicular gag e axes . The arrangemen t i s shown in Fig . 8.5 .
8.4. Analytical solution for the rectangular rosette

This analysi s i s for th e three-elemen t rectangular rosette , an d i s starte d b y
taking the O A axis of the rosette in Fig . 8. 1 as the referenc e axis and makin g
it coinciden t wit h th e O X axis . Sinc e th e three-elemen t rectangula r rosett e
is being considered, th e strai n gage axe s wil l be those shown in Fig. 8.2 . Fo r
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AN D DAT A ANALYSI S 25 9
this arrangement , then , on e ha s th e followin g angles :
Since the transformatio n equation give n by Eq . (8.6) is written in terms

of twic e the angle , th e require d value s o f the trigonometri c function s ar e
These value s ca n b e substitute d int o Eqs . (8.7) , (8.8) , an d (8.9 ) t o giv e th e

three simultaneou s equation s necessar y t o determin e e x, e y, and y xy. Thus ,
From Eq . (8.13) , i t i s seen tha t
The shearin g strain , y xy, ca n b e determine d i n term s o f the strai n reading s

by substitutin g th e value s o f s x an d s y give n b y Eqs . (8.16 ) an d (8.17) ,
respectively, int o Eq . (8.14) . I n doin g this ,
Solving fo r y xy,
Thus, Eqs . (8.16) , (8.17), an d (8.18 ) give the value s of ex, e y, and y xy i n term s
of the strai n gag e readings .
By substitutin g these values of E X, ey, an d y xy int o Eq . (8.10) , th e value s

of the principal strains are determined directly in terms of the strain reading s
from th e rosette . Consequently ,
Equation (8.19 ) can als o b e expressed a s
where
The value s of EI and £ 2 given by Eq . (8.19 ) may no w b e substituted into

Eqs. (8.2 ) an d (8.3 ) i n orde r t o determin e the principa l stresses , a l an d <r2.
In mos t cases , however , the numerica l value s o f th e principa l strain s nee d
not b e known, since the values of A and B , given by Eqs. (8.20a) an d (8.20b) ,
respectively, can be substituted into Eqs. (8.4) and (8.5 ) in order to determine
fTj an d a 2 directl y in terms of the strai n observations on th e rosette. Carrying
out thi s operation yields
Equations (8.21 ) and (8.22 ) are no t i n th e simples t for m bu t th e for m

given lends itself better to th e determination o f the directions of the principa l
stress axes.
Determination of the principal stress axes directions

In orde r t o determin e th e orientatio n o f th e principa l stres s axes , th e
orientation o f the principa l strai n axes ma y b e found instead , sinc e th e axe s
of eac h coincide . I n Sectio n 2.6 , th e orientatio n o f the principa l strai n axe s
relative to the reference axes were found analyticall y by the us e of Eqs. (2.34),
(2.35), an d (2.36) . Note , also , tha t th e angl e B i s alway s measure d i n a
counterclockwise direction fro m th e positive OX axis to the positive 01 axis ,
which correspond s t o th e directio n o f e t, an d therefor e a^.
Equations (2.34) , (2.35) , an d (2.36 ) ca n no w b e expresse d i n term s of

the strai n readings o f the rosette . Thus,
To establis h the angula r relationship , 0 t, betwee n the O l axi s and th e

OA axi s (O X an d O A ar e coincident) , two o f the thre e equation s ar e used .
In fact , i f Eq. (8.23 ) is chosen , the n w e nee d onl y t o determin e th e sig n of
either si n 29 o r co s 26 t o obtai n th e matchin g quadrant . Fo r example , if
tan 2 8 is negative, then 2 6 must b e in either th e secon d o r fourt h quadrant .
If sin 26 is negative, then 2 6 could be in either th e thir d o r fourt h quadrant .
The matchin g quadrants ar e th e fourth , an d s o th e angl e 2 9 must b e in th e
fourth quadrant . Fro m this , then , th e orientatio n o f axi s O l ca n b e
determined relativ e to axi s OA .
Fortunately, a check ca n alway s be made b y sketching a Mohr' s circle .
Three rule s for determining th e angle , 9 lt betwee n th e O A an d th e O l axi s
will b e stated .
lies between 0 and
lies between 0 and
Proof of rules
Figure 8. 6 show s a Mohr' s circl e fo r a three-elemen t rectangula r strai n
rosette. The thre e strains , e a, e fc , an d e c, are represented b y points A , B, an d
C, respectively , o n th e circumferenc e o f th e circl e an d a t th e end s o f th e
radial line s that ar e 90° apart and take n i n the same sequenc e as the rosett e
axes, which are 45 ° apart.
262 THE BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAI N GAGE
FIG. 8.6. Mohr' s circle fo r th e rectangula r rosett e wit h thre e observation s o f strain.
If point A lies anywhere along th e semicircumference below the abscissa ,

then angl e 20 ^ wil l b e positive and hav e values between 0° and 180° , so tha t
0! wil l be between 0° and 90° . If point A happen s to li e on th e semicircumfer-
ence abov e th e abscissa , the n angl e 20 1 wil l li e between 0 an d —180 ° an d
0! wil l b e between 0 ° and -90° .
How ca n w e tell whether point A i s above o r belo w th e absciss a o n th e
Mohr diagram ? A stud y o f Fig . 8. 6 show s tha t poin t A wil l li e belo w th e
abscissa wheneve r poin t B i s t o th e righ t of th e cente r o f the circle ; that is ,
when e, b > (e a + eJ/2. Poin t A wil l be above the abscissa when eb < (s a + e c)/2.
and wil l li e on th e absciss a whe n e. b = ^ a + e c)/2. Fro m this , th e followin g
rules ca n b e se t down:
1. Th e angle , 9 lt wil l lie between 0° and +90 ° when e. b > (e a + e c)/2. This
2. Th e angle , 0 t, wil l lie between 0° and -90 ° whe n eb < (e a + e c)/2. Thi s
is illustrate d i n Fig . 8.8 .
3. Figur e 8. 9 shows tha t th e angle , O l, wil l b e zer o whe n £ b = (e a + e c}/2
and £ fl > e c. Fro m th e figure , i t i s eviden t tha t e a = e l7 th e maximum
principal strai n i n th e plane . Figur e 8.1 0 shows tha t th e angle , 0 1; wil l
be 90 ° when e fc =(t. a + e c)/2 and e a < e. c. It i s apparent fro m th e figur e
that e. a = £ 2, the minimu m principal strai n i n th e plane .
FIG. 8.7. Moh r diagra m fo r
FIG. 8.8. Moh r diagra m fo r

FIG. 8.9. Moh r diagra m fo r and
FIG. 8.10, Moh r diagra m fo r and

The differenc e i n th e sig n o f th e shearin g strain , y xy, shoul d agai n b e

reviewed i n Sectio n 2. 6 i n orde r t o mak e th e analytica l solutio n fo r 6 1
compatible wit h th e solutio n fro m Mohr' s circle.
Example 8.1. A three-elemen t rectangula r strai n rosett e give s th e followin g

readings:
ea = 135 0 uin/in, e b = — 500 uin/in, e c = 56 0 |iin/in
(a) Determin e th e principal strains .

(b) Determin e 9 l analytically .
(c) Sketc h th e orientatio n of the principa l axe s relative to OA .
(d) Dra w a Mohr' s circl e and chec k th e positio n o f 9 ^
(e) Determin e a l an d <r 2 using v = 0. 3 and E = 30 x 10 6 psi.
Solution, (a ) Th e principa l strain s ar e give n by Eq . (8.19).
(b) Equation s (8.23 ) and (8.24 ) will b e use d t o determin e 0j .
From this , 2 9 may b e in eithe r the secon d o r fourt h quadrant .
The numerato r o f si n 29 is negative , a s ca n b e see n fro m ta n 29 , an d s o only

the sig n o f si n 20 i s needed . Sinc e si n 26 i s negative , 2 0 ma y b e i n eithe r th e
third o r fourt h quadrant . Sinc e th e fourt h quadran t i s the matchin g quadran t
in each, 29 is a fourth-quadrant angle . Thus ,
20j = 360 - tan ~ '| - 3.68 3 54| = 285.2°

0, = 142.6°
The angle , 9 l, i s measured i n a counterclockwis e directio n fro m th e O A axi s

to th e O l axis .
(c) Figur e 8.11 shows the orientation o f the Ol axi s relative to the OA axis.
FIG. 8.11. Orientatio n o f the principa l strai n (an d stress) axe s relativ e t o th e referenc e
coordinates i n Exampl e 8.1.
This ca n als o b e verified by the us e of Rul e 2 , since e, b < (e a + e c)/2. In thi s case ,
fJi lie s between 0 ° and —90° , which is the acut e angl e betwee n th e O A axi s an d
£1( goin g i n a clockwis e (negative) direction .
(d) I n orde r t o dra w Mohr' s circle, K X, e. , and y xy ar e compute d usin g Eqs .
(8.16), (8.17) , an d (8.18) .
Ex = e, a =135 0 uin/i n
£y = £ c = 56 0 uin/in
yxy = 2eh - (e a + sc) =2(-500) - (135 0 + 560) = -291 0 uradian s
Figure 8.1 2 gives Mohr's circle . Note that yxy i s negative from the transformation
equation, bu t fo r th e Mohr' s circl e i t mus t b e plotte d a s positive . Thi s i s i n
accordance wit h th e sig n conventio n establishe d i n Chapte r 2 . I f th e circl e i s
traversed i n a counterclockwis e directio n fro m th e x axis , the n 20 l = 285.2°,
which i s the angl e compute d i n par t (b) .
(e) Equation s (8.2 ) an d (8.3 ) ca n b e use d t o determin e a l an d a 2,
respectively.
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AN D DAT A ANALYSI S 267
FIG. 8.12. Mohr' s circl e fo r Exampl e 8.1.
8.5. Analytical solution for the equiangular or delta rosette

The procedure use d for the rectangular rosett e will also be used for the delt a
rosette. The O A axi s of the rosette , Fig . 8.1 , is taken coinciden t wit h the O X
axis o f reference. For thi s arrangement , then,
and
Equations (8.7) , (8.8), and (8.9 ) can b e used wit h these trigonometric values
to for m th e thre e simultaneou s equation s neede d i n orde r t o determin e ^ x,
ey, and y xy. Thi s result s in
Substituting th e valu e o f e x give n b y Eq . (8.29 ) int o Eqs . (8.27 ) an d (8.28 )

yields
Equations (a ) an d (b ) ca n b e solve d simultaneousl y for e y and j xy. Thus ,
The principa l strain s i n term s o f th e rosett e reading s ma y no w b e

determined b y substitutin g thes e value s o f £ x, e y, an d j xy int o Eq . (8.10) .
Consequently,
Equation (8.32 ) can als o b e expresse d a s
where
The value s of el an d £ 2 given by Eq. (8.32) may no w b e substituted int o

Eqs. (8.2 ) an d (8.3 ) i n orde r t o determin e th e principa l stresses , CT, and a 2,
in term s o f the rosett e strai n readings . Thi s gives
Determination of the principal stress directions

As with any rectangula r rosette , th e orientatio n o f the principa l strai n axe s
will b e determine d analyticall y through th e us e o f Eqs . (2.34) , (2.35) , an d
(2.36). Once again, note that th e principal strai n axes and the principal stress
axes coincide , an d tha t th e angl e 9 i s measure d i n a counterclockwis e
direction fro m th e positiv e O X axi s t o th e positiv e 0 1 axis , whic h cor -
responds t o th e direction o f el5 an d therefor e t o a t.
Equations (2.34) , (2.35) , an d (2.36 ) ca n no w b e expresse d i n term s of
the strai n readings o f the rosette . The y ar e
As with the three-element rectangular rosette , an y two of the three equation s

must be use d in orde r to establis h 9^. If Eq. (8.36 ) is chosen, the n onl y the
sign of sin 28 or cos 29 need be determined i n order t o establish th e matching
quadrant.
As before , a chec k ca n alway s b e mad e b y sketchin g a Mohr' s circle .
Three rule s for determining th e angle , 0 t, betwee n th e O A axi s and th e O l
axis wil l b e stated .
1. lies between 0 ° an d +90 °
2. lies betwee n 0 ° and -90 °
3.
Proof of rules
Figure 8.1 3 shows a Mohr' s circl e for th e delt a rosette . Sinc e th e gag e axe s
of the equiangular rosette are incline d at 120 ° (or 60° ) relative to each other ,
the point s representin g th e correspondin g strain s o n th e circumferenc e of
Mohr's circle are locate d a t th e vertice s of the equiangula r triangle ABC, a s
indicated i n th e figure . A study of the diagra m reveal s that a s th e strain s £„,
Eh, an d e c vary , th e triangl e AB C wil l rotat e abou t it s centroid , whic h i s
located a t th e cente r o f the circle.
Before continuing , however , attentio n i s draw n particularl y t o th e
observation that if one starts at point A and follow s around the circumference
of Mohr' s circl e i n th e counterclockwis e direction, th e nex t statio n reache d
will b e point C . On firs t thought , this might appear t o b e an error , sinc e in
going around th e rosette axes in the same direction , axis B follows axi s A, as
shown i n Fig. 8.13a . The apparen t discrepanc y is caused b y th e fac t tha t th e
FIG. 8.13. Gag e axe s and Moh r diagram for equiangular rosette.
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AN D DAT A ANALYSIS 271
FIG. 8.14. Cas e in whic h and
angular displacement s ar e double d i n Mohr' s diagram . I f on e extend s th e

axis O C into th e positio n OC ' shown in Fig . 8.13b , the n th e reaso n fo r th e
relative positions o f the point s A , B , and C on th e circumferenc e of Mohr' s
circle shoul d b e clear .
If point A happen s t o fal l a t th e extrem e left o f the circumferenc e of the
circle, Fig . 8.14 , then, since th e centroi d o f ABC lie s o n th e abscissa , C B i s
at righ t angle s t o OA , whic h means tha t s c = e,, . Also, because A i s a t th e
extreme left o f the circle, e a = £ 2, which is the algebraicall y smalle r principa l
strain. Fro m th e diagra m i t i s see n tha t 20\= +180° , an d therefor e
6l = +90° , which substantiates Rul e 3(b).
If th e relativ e values of e a, e fc , and e c are no w change d s o tha t triangl e
ABC rotate s i n a counterclockwise direction fro m th e positio n i n Fig . 8.14 ,
sb wil l becom e smalle r tha n s c and poin t A wil l mov e o n t o th e lowe r hal f
of th e circumferenc e of the circle . Under thes e conditions th e angl e 26 1 wil l
be between 0° and +180° , and 0 ^ will be between 0° and +90° , a s shown in
Fig. 8.1 5 and state d i n Rul e 1.
When th e triangl e AB C ha s finall y rotate d throug h 180° , point A wil l
have moved along the entire lower semicircumference of the circle and take n
up th e positio n show n in Fig . 8.16 , such that 20 1 = 0°, 9 t — 0°, sa = E V, and
since A is again on the abscissa , E C =e b. This tim e ea > e c = e b and Rul e 3(a)
is satisfied .
When th e strain s ar e furthe r altere d s o tha t th e continue d rotatio n o f
the triangl e causes poin t A t o mov e o n t o th e semicircumferenc e above th e
abscissa, then , accordin g t o definition , 26 1 become s negativ e an d wil l li e
between 0° and —180° . Strain e b will be larger than e c until A return s to th e
position corresponding t o e 2, where equality is again establishe d betwee n eb
and e c. This establishe s Rul e 2 and is indicated in Fig . 8.17 .
FIG. 8.15. Cas e i n whic h and
FIG. 8.16. Cas e i n whic h and

FIG. 8.17. Cas e i n which and
Example 8.2. Th e followin g readings wer e obtained fro m a three-element delta

rosette:
(a) Determin e th e principa l strains .

(b) Determin e O j analytically and chec k usin g the rule s listed.
(c) Determin e CTJ and a 2, usin g v = 0.3 and E = 3 0 x 10 6 psi.
Solution, (a ) Th e principa l strain s ar e give n by Eq . (8.32).
(b) Equation s (8.36 ) and (8.37 ) will b e used t o determin e 9 l.
This value of tan 2 6 shows that th e angl e may b e in either the secon d o r fourt h
FIG. 8.18. Orientatio n o f the principa l strai n (an d stress ) axe s relativ e to th e reference
coordinates i n Exampl e 8.2 .
quadrant.
The numerato r o f sin 20 is
Since th e numerato r i s positive , si n 20 ha s a positiv e value , meanin g tha t

29 ma y b e i n eithe r th e firs t o r secon d quadrant . Th e matchin g quadran t
is the second , an d s o 2 9 is a second-quadran t value . Thus ,
The angle , 6 l, i s measure d i n a counterclockwis e directio n fro m th e O A

axis t o th e 0 1 axis , a s show n i n Fig . 8.18 . T o chec k th e orientatio n o f
01; Rul e 1 applies , sinc e e c>sb, an d s o 0 , lie s betwee n zer o an d +90° .
This checks wit h Fig . 8.18 .
(c) Equation s (8.2 ) an d (8.3 ) ma y b e use d t o determin e a l an d <r 2,
respectively.
Equations (8.34 ) an d (8.35 ) could als o hav e been use d t o comput e a ^ and a 2.
8.6. Rosettes with four strain observations

These rosettes have been briefl y describe d earlier. The y ar e the T-rectangula r
rosette, whic h ha s fou r gage s wit h axe s 45 ° apart , an d th e T-delt a rosette ,
which has a fourth gag e at righ t angles to th e axis of one o f the equiangular
gages. Th e equation s fo r th e principa l strains , g j an d £ 2, and th e principa l
stresses, <T I an d a 2, i n term s o f the fou r gag e observations , wil l b e give n fo r
each configuration .
The rectangular rosette with four observations

Figure 8.1 9 show s thi s arrangement . Th e fourt h observatio n o f strai n i s
redundant, bu t i t does provid e a check since , within the limits of making the
strain readings ,
FIG. 8.19. Rectangula r strai n rosett e wit h fou r gages .
In thi s case , i t wil l b e simple r t o stat e th e expression s fo r th e principa l

strains, principa l stresses , an d th e angl e 0 l5 an d the n t o prov e the m
graphically wit h Mohr's diagram . Th e principa l strain s ca n b e written as
Equation (8.40 ) ca n als o b e expressed a s
where
The directio n o f the principa l axe s ma y b e foun d fro m th e rati o o f th e

quantities unde r th e radica l suc h tha t
Insertion o f th e value s o f A an d B give n b y Eqs . (8.41a ) an d (8.41b) ,

respectively, int o Eqs . (8.4 ) an d (8.5 ) produce s th e expression s fo r th e
principal stresses . This give s
The rule s for determinin g 6 ^ ar e a s follows :

1. I f eb > £ d: 261 lie s between 0 ° an d + 180 °
0i lie s between 0 ° and +90 °
2. I f eb < ed: 20 i lie s between 0 ° and - 180 °
$, lie s betwee n 0 ° and —90 °
3. I f e t = e, :
(a) If f and
(b) I Iff
(b) and
The abov e rule s an d Eqs . (8.39 ) throug h (8.44 ) ma y b e prove d b y

recourse t o Fig . 8.20 , whic h shows Mohr' s diagra m fo r thi s typ e o f rosette .
Since th e direction s o f strai n measuremen t i n th e rosett e ar e incline d
successively a t 45° , th e radia l line s t o th e point s A , B , C , an d D , whic h
represent th e strain s o f Mohr' s circle , wil l b e incline d successivel y a t twic e
45°, or 90°. Therefore, A, B, C, and D will be located a t the corners o f a square
inscribed i n a circle .
Since th e intersectio n o f the diagonal s o f the squar e wil l coincid e wit h
the cente r o f the circle , an d becaus e th e positio n o f the cente r o f the squar e
corresponds t o th e averag e o f the fou r corners , therefor e
Let u s no w determin e B , th e radiu s o f th e circle , i n term s o f e a, s b, e c,

and e d, the horizontal distance s fro m th e ordinate throug h 0 t o th e corners
of th e square . Thi s wil l requir e th e followin g construction :
FIG. 8.20. Mohr' s circle fo r rectangula r rosett e wit h fou r observations .
Let P b e th e cente r o f th e circl e an d dro p perpendicular s A m an d Bn ,

respectively, fro m A an d B o n t o th e absciss a a t m and n . Then fro m th e
right-angled triangle s AP m and BPn,
P= BP (radius o f the circle )
LPmA = LPnB 90°
Since
LBPA = 90°
LBPn = LPAm (90° - 20 t )
Therefore, triangle s AP m an d BP n ar e equal, s o tha t
Also,
The hypotenuse , PA , i s the radiu s o f the circle , an d s o
The valu e o f ta n 2 9 j i s
The T-delta rosette

If this rosette arrangement , shown i n Fig . 8.2 1 is considered a s containin g a
FIG. 8.21. T-delt a rosette .
delta rosett e wit h th e additio n o f a fourt h gag e whos e axi s D i s a t righ t

angles t o th e axi s A , then , althoug h th e fourt h observatio n i s redundant, a
variety o f solutions ca n b e obtaine d utilizin g all four strai n readings .
Meier (1 ) gives a solution base d o n th e metho d o f least squares , but it s
complexity i s rathe r a disadvantage . Th e followin g simpl e solutio n i s
therefore presented, sinc e its reduction o f observed strains into terms of stress
will b e ver y much easier.
Since th e averag e o f any tw o strain s measure d a t righ t angles give s the
position o f th e cente r o f Mohr' s circle , w e therefor e hav e fo r th e T-delt a
rosette th e quantit y
From Eq . (8.33a ) fo r th e delt a rosette ,
Therefore, fo r th e T-delt a rosette ,
Again, fro m Eq . (8.33b ) fo r th e delt a rosette ,
If is substitute d fo re 3 from Eq . (b) , the n
The expressio n fo r B ca n no w b e writte n a s
Again, from th e delt a rosette , th e valu e of tan 2 9 is given by Eq . (8.36) .

Thus,
The valu e o f e give n b y Eq . (c ) ca n b e substitute d int o

Eq. (d) to produc e
The valu e o f ta n 2 # give n b y Eq . (8.47 ) i s th e rati o o f th e quantitie s unde r

the radical i n Eq. (8.46). The rule s for assigning the tw o value s of 9, obtained
through th e us e of Eq. (8.47), to the correct principa l axe s is exactly the sam e
as i n th e cas e o f the equiangula r (delta ) rosette .
For th e T-delt a rosette , th e value s o f th e principa l strain s ma y b e
expressed a s
Substituting th e value s o f A an d B , give n b y Eqs . (8.45 ) an d (8.46) ,

respectively, int o Eq . (8.48 ) yields
Insertion o f the value s o f A an d B , Eqs . (8.45 ) an d (8.46 ) respectively,

into Eqs. (8.4) and (8.5 ) gives the expressions for the principal stresses. Thus,
Summary of equations
Three-element rectangular rosette:
When e t > (e a + e c)/2, 0 lies betwee n 0 ° and +90° .

Three-element delta rosette:
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AND DAT A ANALYSI S 28 1
When e lie s between 0° and +90° .

Four-element rectangular rosette:
or
When e lies between 0 ° and +90° .

Four-element delta rosette:
When E lies between 0 ° an d +90° .
Directions of principal axe s for all the summary equations are given by
8.7. Graphical solutions

If a numbe r o f rosett e observation s ar e t o b e analyzed , th e tas k ca n b e
time-consuming and tedious . The data, however, can be reduced rapidl y and
easily with the use of a programmable calculato r o r a small computer. Ther e
are times , though, when graphical solution s may b e desirable, eithe r fo r th e
purpose o f severa l peopl e checkin g eac h other , o r i f a compute r i s no t
available.
For ou r purpose , th e discussio n o f graphica l method s o f solvin g th e
rosette equation s wil l b e confine d to th e genera l case . Thi s method , whic h
has been put forward by McClintock (2) , applies to the general cas e in which
the rosett e axe s may hav e any arbitraril y chose n axes , 9 ab, and Q bc, between
them. A rosette can always be represented diagrammatically so that 9 ab + 9bc
is always less than 180° , as indicate d i n Fig . 8.22 .
The objectiv e i s t o establis h Mohr' s circl e fo r strai n b y a ver y simpl e
procedure. Th e followin g step s ar e employe d fo r finding the strai n circle :
1. Th e rosett e axe s are rearranged, b y extending them if necessary, so that
they are arranged in sequence in order of ascending or descending strai n
magnitudes (algebrai c order) . Th e include d angl e betwee n th e axe s of
FIG. 8.22. Arbitrar y rosett e axes.
minimum an d maximu m strai n mus t b e les s tha n 180° . Fo r th e

rearranged rosette , the angl e betwee n th e maximu m an d intermediat e
strain axes is designated a s a, while th e angl e betwee n the intermediat e
and minimu m strain axes is designated a s /?. For th e rearrange d rosette ,
compute a an d /? , then plac e th e intermediat e axi s i n th e vertica l
position an d la y off , on eithe r side , th e maximu m an d minimu m axes.
The possible arrangement s an d th e values of a and ft are shown in Figs.
8.23 and 8.24 . Note, in Fig. 8.24 , that th e maximum and minimu m axe s
have bee n extende d an d th e angle s a an d / ? are als o show n belo w th e
crossover point . Th e reaso n fo r thi s wil l b e explaine d i n a subsequen t
step.
2. La y ou t a strai n scal e paralle l t o th e directio n o f the absciss a (whic h
will b e establishe d later) . Next , dra w i n ordinate s a t location s corres -
ponding t o zer o strain , t: a, eh, an d E C. Thi s procedur e i s show n i n Fi
8.25. While the strai n values shown in Fig. 8.26 are positive , they might
all b e negativ e or som e positiv e and som e negative . Furthermore , th e
measured strains , E a, eb, and e c may hav e any relatio n wit h each other .
The strain s i n Fig . 8.2 5 hav e bee n plotte d i n sequenc e accordin g t o
magnitude.
3. Whe n th e diagra m correspondin g t o Fig . 8.2 5 has bee n drawn , choos e
any point , D, on th e ordinat e correspondin g t o th e intermediate strai n
value. Fro m poin t D draw straigh t line s D E an d EF , makin g angles a
and /? , respectively, with th e ordinat e o f intermediat e strain , t o mee t
the ordinates o f emax and £ rain a t £ an d F , respectively. Notice tha t ther e
are tw o possibilitie s for drawin g the line s DE an d DF , since th e angle s
of a an d f t ca n b e measured fro m eithe r th e upwar d o r th e downwar d
direction o f the ordinat e o f intermediate strain , as show n i n Fig . 8.26 .
The choic e i s governed a s follows :
(a) I n Fig . 8.23 , th e right-han d diagram s sho w th e strai n axe s i n

sequence. Her e i t ca n b e see n tha t the y g o i n a counterclockwis e
direction fro m e max to e int to £ min . In thi s case, the axi s of maximum
strain fall s t o th e right of the intermediate strai n axis , and s o a an d
/? are measure d fro m th e upwar d direction .
FIG. 8.23 .
(b) I n Fig . 8.24 , th e right-han d diagram s sho w th e strai n axe s i n

sequence. Her e i t ca n b e see n tha t the y g o i n a counterclockwis e
direction fro m e min to e int to e max . In thi s case, the axis of maximum
strain fall s t o th e lef t o f the intermediat e strai n axis , an d s o a an d
/? are measured fro m th e downward direction. This i s shown b y th e
extended line s i n Fig . 8.24 .
4. Th e final step is to dra w a circl e throug h point s D , E, and F . This wil l
be Mohr' s circl e fo r strain. The abscissa , whic h ca n no w b e drawn in ,
will pas s throug h th e cente r o f the circle , an d th e extrem e right-han d
and left-han d positions o f the circumference will represent th e principal
strains e x an d e 2. Case (a ) fro m Fig . 8.2 3 and Cas e (b ) fro m Fig . 8.2 4
are plotte d a s Figs . 8.2 7 and 8.28 , respectively.
The point s A , B , and C , which represen t th e strain s alon g th e rosett e
axes, can now b e located o n th e circumferenc e of the circl e according t o th e
following tw o requirements :
FIG. 8.24 .
1. Th e magnitude s of the strain s e , an d

2. Th e sequenc e as we go alon g th e circumference of the circle. This must
correspond t o th e sequenc e i n th e physica l layou t o f th e rosette . Fo r
example, i f the rosett e axe s follow th e sequenc e A , B , and C when one
proceeds i n the counterclockwise direction, the same order mus t prevail
as on e goe s aroun d Mohr' s circl e in th e sam e sense .
Although ther e are tw o possibl e position s fo r each o f points A , B , an d

C tha t wil l satisf y th e firs t requirement , the secon d requiremen t eliminate s
half o f them. This mean s tha t ther e i s only on e arrangemen t fo r th e point s
A, B , and C on th e circumferenc e of the circle.
FIG. 8.25.
FIG. 8.26.
Angle of reference, 9^
As soo n a s poin t A ha s bee n locate d o n th e circumferenc e of the circle , th e
angle betwee n th e radia l line s t o poin t A an d t o E J will establis h th e angl e
20 l5 as show n in Figs . 8.2 7 and 8.28 . From thi s we can determin e th e angl e
$! and locat e th e axis of el5 th e algebraically large r principa l strain , relative
to th e A axi s of the rosette .
Principal stress determination

Once the magnitudes of the principal strains, e: an d e2, have been determined,
then th e principa l stres s value s can b e compute d fro m Eqs . (8.2 ) an d (8.3) .
FIG. 8.27. Cas e i n whic h
FIG. 8.28. Cas e i n whic h

FIG. 8.29. Mohr' s circle for Example 8.3.
Thus,
Example 8.3. Three strai n gage s ar e arrange d int o a rosett e a s show n i n Fig.
8.22. Th e followin g data ar e given : £ „ =-32 5 ustrain ; e b = 130 0 ustrain; e c =
250 ustrain; 9 ab = 55° 75°. Construct a Mohr' s circle an d determine'^
£2, an d 9 1.
Solution. Sinc e s b > e c > e a, a rearrangemen t o f th e rosett e axe s wil l produc e

the configuratio n show n i n Fig. 8.23b. Th e angles , a an d , are
FIG. 8.30 . Computer-based data-aquisitio n system . (Courtes y o f Measurement s Group , Inc. )
Lay ou t a horizonta l strai n axis . O n thi s axis , erec t vertica l line s representin g
£„, s b , an d B C . Since th e maximu m strai n axi s fall s t o th e righ t o f th e vertica l
line representin g th e intermediat e axis , th e angles , a an d fj , wil l b e measure d
from th e upwar d vertical , a s show n i n Fig . 8.23b . Th e constructio n o f Mohr' s
circle i s shown in Fig. 8.29 . Fro m the circle, the following values are obtained:
«, = 1550ustrain , i: 2 =-44 0 tistrain , 20 l = 151
Machine solutions
In situation s involving th e solutio n of large number s of rosette equations , th e
employment o f machine s ca n b e ver y advantageou s fo r econom y o f bot h
time an d cost . A number o f special-purpose computer s hav e bee n develope d
over the years in order t o evaluate rosette data (3-7). Today, however , many
hand-held programmabl e calculators , som e wit h graphic s display , are avail -
able a t smal l cost . Fo r reductio n o f data fo r a fe w rosettes a t a time , thes e
are quit e convenient . Smal l desk-to p computer s ar e als o no w availabl e a t
reasonable price s an d ar e foun d i n nearl y ever y organization . Thes e ca n
reduce an d prin t ou t larg e quantitie s of data i n a shor t perio d o f time onc e
the ra w dat a hav e bee n entered .
The ultimat e aim, however, has bee n t o develop a combined computer -
plotter-tabulator fo r direct connectio n t o strai n gages . Suc h system s (8) are
now availabl e that ar e dedicate d solel y t o th e acquisitio n of strain gage dat a
(also transducers , thermocouples , etc.) . N o programmin g i s necessary ; th e
operator enter s th e required constants an d th e machine automaticall y scan s
the tes t point s an d reduce s th e data . Suc h a syste m i s shown i n Fig . 8.30 .
Problems
8.1. A tensil e specime n ha s tw o gage s bonde d t o it s surface , on e aligne d alon g th e
longitudinal axi s an d th e othe r perpendicula r t o it . Sho w tha t onl y th e
longitudinal gag e i s require d i n orde r t o determin e th e longitudina l

stress.
8.2. I n a long, thin-walle d pressure vessel , the hoo p stres s is twice the longitudinal
stress. I f th e vesse l is mad e o f steel, determine th e rati o o f the hoo p strai n t o
the longitudina l strain .
The followin g rectangula r rosettes , illustrate d i n Fig . 8.2 , ar e bonde d t o stee l with
gage A aligne d alon g th e x axis . Fo r th e reading s shown , i n uin/in , comput e th e
principal strains , th e principa l stresses , thei r orientatio n relativ e to th e x axis , an d
the maximu m shear stres s a t th e point . Sketc h th e principa l stres s elemen t an d it s
relation t o th e x y coordinat e system . Chec k th e analytica l result s b y usin g Mohr' s
circle.
a e, bs c
8.3. 122 5 11 5 90 5
8.4. 39 5 -76 0 098 5
8.5. 100 0 100 0 100 0
8.6. -72 5 5-28 5 553 0
8.7. -94 0 054 5 21 0
The followin g delt a rosettes , illustrate d i n Fig . 8.3 , are bonde d t o stee l wit h gage A
aligned alon g th e x axis . For th e reading s shown , i n uin/in , comput e th e principa l
strains, the principal stresses, their orientation relativ e to the x axis, and the maximum
shear stres s a t th e point . Sketc h th e principa l stres s elemen t an d it s relatio n t o th e
xy coordinat e system . Check th e analytica l result s by usin g Mohr's circle .
8.8. -88 0 00 -88 0

8.9. 45 5 -20 5 511 0
8.10. -61 0 023 5 -10 5
8.11. 97 5 43 5 43 5
8.12. -72 00-61 00-18 5
8.13. A four-elemen t rectangula r rosette , illustrate d i n Fig . 8.4 , i s bonde d t o
aluminium wit h gage A aligne d alon g th e x axis. The strai n observations, given
in uin/in , ar e th e following : e. a = -29 5 , e. h = -350 , e c = 550 , s d = 605 . Usin
E = 10. 5 x 10 6 psi an d v = 0.33 , determin e <T , and a 2-
8.14. I f a T-delt a rosette , illustrate d in Fig . 8.5 , i s applie d a t a poin t whos e strai n
field is identical t o tha t o f Problem 8.13 , determine th e rosett e readings .
8.15. Solv e Proble m 8. 3 by graphica l methods .
8.16. Solv e Proble m 8. 7 by graphica l methods .
8.17. Solv e Proble m 8. 9 by graphical methods .
8.18. Solv e Problem 8.1 1 by graphica l methods.
REFERENCES
1. Meier , J . H. , "Improvement s i n Rosett e Computer, " SESA Proceedings, Vol. Ill ,

No. 2 , 1946 , pp . 1-3 .
2. McClintock , F . A. , "On Determinin g Principa l Strain s from Strai n Rosette s with
Arbitrary Angles, " Lette r t o th e Editor , SESA Proceedings, Vol. IX, No . 1 , 1951,
pp. 209-210 .
3. Hoskins , E . E . and R . C. Olesen , "A n Electrica l Compute r fo r th e Evaluatio n of

Strain Rosett e Data, " SESA Proceedings, Vol . II, No . 1 , 1944, pp. 67-77 .
4. Meier , J. H. and W . R. Mehaffey, "Electroni c Computin g Apparatu s fo r Rectangular
and Equiangula r Strai n Rosettes, " SESA Proceedings, Vol . II , No . 1 , 1944 , pp .
78-101.
5. Murray , W . M. , "Machin e Solutio n o f th e Strai n Rosett e Equations, " SESA
Proceedings, Vol. II , No . 1 , 1944, pp . 106-112 .
6. Bassett , W . V., Helen Cromwell , an d W . E . Wooster, "Improve d Technique s an d
Devices fo r Stress Analysi s with Resistanc e Wir e Gages," SESA Proceedings, Vol.
Ill, No . 2 , 1946 , pp. 76-88 .
7. Williams , S . B. , "Geometr y i n th e Desig n o f Stres s Measuremen t Circuits ;
Improved Method s Throug h Simple r Concepts, " SESA Proceedings, Vol . XVII,
No. 2 , 1960 , pp. 161-178 .
8. "Syste m 4080, " Bulleti n 235-B , Measurement s Group , Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 ,
Raleigh, N C 27611 , 1985 .
9
STRAIN GAGE ROSETTES AND TRANSVERSE
SENSITIVITY EFFECT
9.1. Introduction
In Chapter 7 the effect o f transverse sensitivity on a strain gage measurement
was considered . I t wa s pointed ou t tha t th e tota l uni t resistanc e chang e i n
a gag e wa s made u p o f two parts : namely, (1) the uni t resistanc e chang e i n
the gage' s axia l direction , an d (2 ) th e uni t resistanc e chang e norma l
(transverse) to the gage axis. Furthermore, th e axial strain sensitivity , F a, and
the norma l strai n sensitivity , F n, ar e define d b y Eqs . (7.3 ) an d (7.4) ,
respectively. The transvers e sensitivity of the gag e is then take n a s the rati o
of th e norma l sensitivit y t o th e axia l sensitivity , o r K = F n/Fa.
It wa s also stated tha t i f a strain gage is used under conditions differin g
from thos e o f calibration, a n erro r wil l exis t in th e indicate d valu e o f axial
strain. Thus , i f th e strai n i s measure d b y a singl e gag e unde r biaxia l
conditions, th e erro r wil l depen d o n bot h th e valu e o f th e transvers e
sensitivity factor , K , an d th e rati o o f the norma l strai n t o th e axia l strain ,
£„/£„. Fortunately , thi s erro r i s usuall y rathe r smal l an d ca n b e neglected .
For instance , i f the norma l strai n doe s no t excee d th e axia l strai n an d th e
value o f K i s 3 percen t o r less , the n th e maximu m erro r wil l no t excee d
4 percent. Thi s i s easily verified b y usin g Eq . (7.29 ) to comput e th e error .
When strai n gag e rosette s wer e examine d i n Chapte r 8 , th e effec t o f
transverse sensitivit y was no t take n int o account . I n general , though , th e
effect o f transverse sensitivity should b e considere d when using strain gage s
in a biaxia l stres s field (1-4). I f it ca n b e demonstrate d tha t th e transvers e
effect i s negligible, then th e expression s i n Chapter 8 may b e used ; if, on th e
other hand , th e effec t i s not negligible , then th e expression s fo r determinin g
the actua l strai n tha t wil l b e developed her e shoul d b e used.
9.2. Two identical orthogonal gages

Figure 9. 1 show s tw o identica l gage s mounte d a t 90 ° t o eac h other . Th e
longitudinal axi s o f gage a is aligned alon g axi s OX , whil e the longitudina l
axis of gage b is aligned along axis O Y. The strain in the axial, or longitudinal ,
direction o f a gage i s represented b y e a, while the strai n norma l (transverse )
to th e gag e axi s i s represente d b y £„ . In orde r t o identif y th e gag e tha t i s
FIG. 9.1. Tw o identica l strai n gage s aligned alon g th e O X an d O Y axes .
subjected t o strai n and th e strai n direction, a doubl e subscrip t wil l b e used .

The firs t subscrip t denote s th e strai n directio n whil e th e secon d subscrip t
identifies th e gage . Fo r instance , i f a strai n i s designate d £ aa, th e firs t sub -
script show s th e strai n i s in th e axia l directio n o f th e gage , an d th e secon d
subscript identifie s th e gag e a s gag e a . The strai n E nb is th e transvers e strai n
on gag e b .
Since th e gage s ar e identical , they hav e equa l axia l strai n sensitivities ,
Fa, equa l manufacturer' s gag e factor , G f, an d equa l transvers e sensitivities,
K. Whe n th e gages ar e subjecte d t o an unknow n biaxial stress field, the unit
change i n resistanc e fo r eac h gag e i s
where c' aa =indicate d strai n fo r gag e a

e'ab = indicate d strai n for gag e b
Using Eq . (7.13) , we can als o writ e for eac h gag e
The right-han d side s o f Eqs . (9.1 ) and (9.3 ) ma y b e equated , an d als o th e

STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AN D TRANSVERS E SENSITIVIT Y EFFEC T 29 3
right-hand side s o f Eqs. (9.2 ) an d (9.4) . This give s
Dividing bot h side s o f each equatio n b y G F produce s
From Eq. (7.21)mit is seen that
Substituting th e valu e o f FJG F give n b y Eq . (9.7 ) into Eqs . (9.5) and (9.6)
yields
Since th e gage s ar e orthogonal , w e know tha t
Substituting th e value s o f th e transvers e strain s give n b y Eqs . (a) an d (b )

into Eqs . (9.8) and (9.9) , respectively , results i n
Equations (9.10 ) an d (9.11 ) ar e no w expresse d i n term s o f th e strain s

in th e axia l directio n o f eac h gage , an d s o th e firs t subscript , a , ca n b e
dropped. Th e apparent , o r indicated , strain s are no w expresse d i n term s of
the actua l strain s i n th e axia l directions of the gages . Thus,
If Eqs . (9.12) and (9.13 ) are solve d simultaneously, the actua l strains , ea
and £;, , will b e determine d i n term s o f the apparen t (indicated ) strains. This
operation gives
Equations (9.14 ) and (9.15 ) show that, in order t o determin e th e actua l

strain i n a desire d direction , tw o gage s mus t b e used . On e gag e i s aligne d
in th e desire d direction ; th e othe r gag e i s mounted norma l t o th e direction
of th e desire d strain . I f on e choose s t o ignor e th e transvers e sensitivit y
(K = 0) , then Eqs . (9.14 ) and (9.15 ) reduce t o e a = e' a and e h = e'h.
9.3. Two different orthogonal gages

The cas e ca n no w b e considere d i n whic h ther e ar e tw o orthogona l gages ,
each wit h a differen t F a, GF, and K . Agai n the gage s ar e arrange d a s shown
in Fig . 9.1 . Fo r gag e a w e hav e th e axia l strai n sensitivity , F aa, th e
manufacturer's gage factor, G Fa, and th e transverse sensitivity factor, K a. Th e
corresponding value s for gag e b are F ab, G Fb, and K b. W e can us e Eqs . (9.5)
and (9.6 ) t o writ e th e apparen t strains , s' aa and e' ab, in term s o f th e actua l
strains, £ aa and e ah, and th e individua l gage factors . Thus,
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AN D TRANSVERS E SENSITIVITY EFFEC T 29 5
Equation (7.21 ) also show s that, fo r each gage ,
Substituting the value s of Faa/GFa an d F ab/GFb give n by Eqs. (9.18) and (9.19 )
into Eqs . (9.16 ) an d (9.17 ) result s in
From Eqs . (a ) an d (b ) i n Sectio n 9.2 , th e norma l strain s ca n b e expresse d

in term s o f the axia l strains ; tha t is , e na = e ab an d E nb =s aa. Replacin g th e
normal strain s wit h axia l strain s i n Eqs . (9.20 ) and (9.21) , we obtai n
Again th e firs t subscript , a , for eac h strai n ca n b e droppe d sinc e th e

strains ar e i n th e axia l directio n o f each gage . Th e apparen t strains , e' a and
e'b, in term s o f th e actua l strains , e a and e fc , wil l no w b e
If Eqs . (9.24 ) an d (9.25 ) ar e solve d simultaneously , th e tru e (actual )

strains wil l b e expresse d i n term s o f th e apparen t (indicated ) strains . Thi s
operation gives
If K a = K b = K, the n Eqs . (9.26 ) and (9.27 ) reduc e t o Eqs . (9.14 ) an d

(9.15). Furthermore , i f the transvers e sensitivit y factor , K , i s take n a s zero ,
then £ „ = £' „ an d e b = r,' h.
9.4. Three-element rectangular rosette

A three-element rectangular rosette, with all gages different, wil l be examined
next. Th e rosett e i s show n i n Fig . 9.2 . The apparen t strain s fo r eac h gag e
FIG. 9.2. Three-elemen t rectangula r rosette .
can b e developed and expresse d in the same manner a s those leading t o Eqs .
(9.20) an d (9.21) . The thre e equations ar e
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AND TRANSVERS E SENSITIVIT Y EFFEC T 29 7
The norma l strain s fo r eac h gag e mus t b e expresse d i n term s o f th e axia l

strains. Fo r gage s a an d c we have s na = s ac and s nc = e aa, since thes e gage s
are 90 ° t o eac h other . Fo r gag e b , however , a Mohr' s circl e o r th e
transformation equatio n give n b y Eq . (2.32 ) mus t b e use d i n orde r t o
determine th e normal strain . Th e transformatio n equatio n i s
Before proceedin g t o determin e e nb, which is 90° from gag e b and 135 °
from gag e a , the shearin g strai n i n th e plan e mus t b e determined . I n orde r
to d o this , Eq . (9.31 ) i s use d wit h s and — 45° .
Using thes e values,
From Eq . (a),
Equation (9.31) is once again used with sx, = s nb, 9 = 135° , and the value
of y xy/2 give n b y Eq . (b) . Thus ,
Equation (c ) reduces t o
The norma l strain s ar e no w i n terms o f the axia l strains.

Equation (9.32 ) could als o hav e been obtaine d b y considering th e first
strain invariant . That is,
constan t
or
The value s o f th e norma l strain s ca n no w b e substitute d int o thei r

respective equations ; tha t is , Eqs. (9.28) , (9.29) , and (9.30) . Thi s gives
The firs t subscript , a , for each strai n ca n no w b e dropped, an d s o Eqs . (d) ,

(e), an d (f ) becom e
Equations (9.33) , (9.34) , an d (9.35 ) ma y b e solve d simultaneousl y fo r

the actua l strains , s a, e fc , and e c. This operatio n result s i n
When th e transvers e sensitivitie s of gage s a an d c ar e th e same , the n

Ka = K c = X ac. Fo r thi s condition Eqs . (9.36) , (9.37) , and (9.38 ) becom e
If K a = K b = K c = K , the n Eqs . (9.39), (9.40), an d (9.41 ) reduc e ttoo
The actua l strains , e a, e b, and e,. , have bee n determine d b y takin g int o
account th e transverse sensitivitie s of the gages making up the three-element
rectangular rosette . I n orde r t o determine th e principal strains , the principal
stresses, an d th e direction s o f th e principa l stres s (o r strain ) axes , th e
equations develope d i n Sectio n 8. 4 can b e used . Th e appropriat e equation s
from tha t sectio n wil l b e identifie d and renumbere d here .
The principa l strain s in terms o f the gag e values are given by Eq. (8.19).
The expression i s
are
The principa l stresse s are give n by Eqs. (8.21) and (8.22) . Thes e are
300 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICAL RESISTANC E STRAI N GAG E
In orde r t o establis h the angula r relationship , 0lf betwee n the 0 1 axi s

and th e O X axis , Eqs . (8.23), (8.24), and (8.25 ) were given. An y tw o o f th e
three equations are needed in order to establish 0l. The three equations are
Graphical method s could , of course, also b e used .
Example 9.1. Th e followin g dat a ar e give n fo r a three-elemen t rectangula r

rosette:
f.' = 145 0 uin/in, K a = — 6.0 percen t
s' — —96 0 uin/in, K b = 2. 5 percen t
r/ = 87 0 uin/in , K c = — 5.0 per cen t
(a) Determin e th e actua l strains , t. b , and
(b) Determin e th e principa l strains , E I an d
(c) Wha t erro r exist s i f th e principa l strain s ar e compute d usin g apparen t
strains rathe r tha n actua l strains ?
Solution, (a ) Th e actua l strain s ma y b e computed usin g Eqs . (9.36), (9.37), and

(9.38).
(b) Th e principa l strains are give n b y Eq . (9.45) .
(c) Equatio n (9.45 ) i s agai n used , bu t th e strain s wil l b e th e apparen t

strains.
The principa l strains computed by usin g th e apparen t strain readings are

slightly more than 7 percent lower tha n th e actual principal strains.
9.5. The equiangular or delta rosette

The equiangula r o r delt a rosett e i s shown i n Fig . 9.3 . The apparen t strain s
for eac h gag e are give n by Eqs. (9.28) , (9.29), and (9.30) . The transformatio n
equation, Eq . (9.31) , must b e used t o determin e e na, e nb, and e nc, the strain s
normal t o gage s a , b, and c .
The X axi s is established alon g gage a, and sinc e these two axes coincide,
In orde r t o determin e th e strain s normal t o th e gages , th e value s of
and xy/2 mus t firs t b e computed . Tw o expression s ar e obtaine d throug h
the us e o f the transformatio n equation ; thes e ar e solve d simultaneousl y for
E nd
The firs t equatio n use s gag e b . Her e s' x =£ ab, 0 = 120° , an d
Substituting thes e value s into Eq . (9.31 ) gives
FIG. 9.3. Th e equiangula r or delt a rosette .
The secon d equatio n use s gag e c . Her e E' 240°, an d

Substituting thes e value s int o Eq . (9.31 ) give s th e secon d independen t
equation tha t i s needed .
Solving Eqs . (a ) an d (b ) simultaneousl y for e v and y xy/2 produce s
Since the values of £x, ey, and 7^/ 2 ar e how known in terms of the actua l
strains alon g eac h gag e axis , th e strain s norma l t o eac h gag e ma y no w b e
determined throug h th e us e o f th e transformatio n equation , Eq . (9.31) .
Because & na is along th e Y axis, its valu e is the sam e a s e y. Thus, s na is written
as
The transvers e strain , e nb, ha s a n angl e o f 210° relativ e t o th e X axis .

Letting £ x. = £ nb and 6 = 210°, the transformatio n equatio n i s
If E X = £ aa an d th e value s o f £ y an d y xy/2, give n b y Eqs . (9.51 ) an d (9.52) ,

respectively, are substitute d int o Eq . (c), the n
Finally, th e transverse strain, £ nc, has a n angl e of 330° relative to th e X

axis. Lettin g e x. = e nc and 6 = 330°, the transformatio n equatio n i s
If £ x = £ aa and th e value s o f e ^ and y xy/2, give n b y Eqs . (9.51 ) an d (9.52) ,

respectively, ar e substitute d int o Eq . (d), the n
The require d norma l strain s ar e give n by Eqs. (9.53), (9.54), an d (9.55) .

As pointe d ou t i n Sectio n 9.4 , onc e e na wa s establishe d th e firs t strai n
invariant coul d b e used t o determin e e nb and e nc. Thus,
or
Also,
or
The expression s fo r th e norma l strain s ar e no w give n i n term s o f th e

axial strains. Substitutin g the value s of eno, £nb, and e nc, given by Eqs. (9.53) ,
(9.54), an d (9.55) , respectively , int o Eqs . (9.28) , (9.29) , an d (9.30 ) wil l giv e
the indicated strain s in terms o f the axial strains a t eac h gag e location. Also ,
since only axial strains are involved, the first subscript, a, for each strain ca n
now b e dropped . Carryin g ou t thes e substitution s gives
Equations (9.56) , (9.57) , and (9.58 ) may no w b e solve d simultaneously

for £„ , eb, an d e c. This yields
If tw o gage s hav e th e sam e transvers e sensitivit y factor , the n thes e

expressions ca n b e simplifie d accordingly. I f gages a an d c hav e th e sam e
transverse sensitivit y factor, the n K a = K c = K ac. Unde r thes e condition s
Eqs. (9.59) , (9.60) , an d (9.61 ) reduc e t o
STRAIN GAG E ROSETTE S AN D TRANSVERS E SENSITIVIT Y EFFECT 30 5
The denominator s o f Eqs. (9.62) , (9.63), an d (9.64 ) ar e alike . However, Eq.

(9.63) can b e simplified furthe r b y finding common factor s i n th e numerato r
and denominato r (1) .
If al l gage s hav e th e sam e transvers e sensitivit y factor , the n th e
expressions simplif y further . Thus , fo r K a = K b = K c = K, w e have
The actua l strains , s a, z b, an d e c, have bee n determine d b y accountin g

for th e transvers e sensitivities of the gage s making up th e delt a rosette . Th e
equations develope d i n Sectio n 8. 5 can no w b e use d t o determin e (1 ) th e
principal strains , (2 ) th e principa l stresses , an d (3 ) th e orientatio n o f th e
principal axe s relativ e t o th e origina l coordinat e system . Fo r eas e o f use ,
the pertinen t equation s wil l b e repeate d an d renumbere d here.
The principa l strains , give n b y Eq . (8.32) , ar e
The principle stresses, givn by Eqs. (8.34) and (8.35), are

In orde r t o establis h th e angle , # 15 betwee n th e 0 1 axi s an d th e O X

axis, Eqs . (8.36) , (8.37) , and (8.38 ) are used . An y tw o o f the thre e equation s
are neede d i n order t o establish 9 l.
Example 9.2. I f th e strai n gage s use d i n Exampl e 9. 1 ar e arrange d i n a delt a

rosette, a s shown i n Fig . 9.3 , determine the apparen t strain s indicate d b y eac h
gage whe n subjected t o th e stres s field of Exampl e 9.1.
Solution. Th e followin g actua l strains hav e been determine d i n Exampl e 9.1:
«„= 153 2 uin/in, O = 0°
- 1041 uin/in 45
ec = 959 uin/in, 9 C =90°
Since th e gage s i n th e delt a rosett e ar e arrange d a t 9 a = 0°, 9 b = 120° , an d

9C = 240°, the actual strain s in these directions are required before the apparen t
strains ca n b e computed. I n orde r t o comput e th e actua l strains , th e shearin g
strain must first be determined throug h the us e of Eq. (9.31), the transformatio n
equation. Fo r thi s purpos e E X = 153 2 uin/in, e, y = 959 uin/in, e x. = « 45 =
-1041 uin/in , and 0 = 45°. Equation (9.31 ) is
Thus,
From this ,
The actua l strai n i n th e axia l directio n o f gage b can b e determine d b y using

the transformatio n equatio n wit h 9 = 120°.
= 308 3 uin/in
The actua l strai n i n th e axia l directio n o f gage c may b e determine d b y usin g

the transformatio n equatio n wit h 9 = 240°.
= - 87 8 uin/i n
The apparen t strains , e' a, 4 , an d e.' c ar e give n b y Eqs . (9.56), (9.57) , an d

(9.58), respectively. The value of e'a, however, must be the same for both rosettes ,
since bot h ar e aligne d alon g th e sam e axis . Thus ,
s'a = 145 0 uin/in
The apparen t strai n reading s o n gage s b an d c fo r thi s rosett e ar e quit e

different fro m thos e fo r the rectangular rosette . Whethe r o r no t thes e values ar e
correct ca n b e verifie d b y usin g Eqs . (9.59), (9.60) , an d (9.61 ) t o comput e th e
actual strain s a t eac h gage , whic h are alread y known .
Problems
9.1. Tw o identica l strai n gage s ar e arrange d a s show n i n Fig . 9.1. The transvers e
sensitivity factor is K = —0.026 . If the indicate d strain s are e' a =76 5 uin/in an d
e'b = 255 uin/in, determine (a ) the true strain in each direction , an d (b ) the erro r
if th e transvers e sensitivit y factor i s ignored .
9.2. Tw o differen t gage s ar e bonde d t o a thin-walle d pressure vessel . Gage a with

Ka = 3. 0 percen t i s aligne d i n th e longitudina l direction , whil e gag e b wit h
Kb = —3. 9 percent i s aligne d i n th e hoo p direction . Th e followin g dat a ar e
available fo r the vessel : internal pressure = 80 0 psi, diamete r = 6 0 in, and wal l
thickness = 1.2 5 in. Determine th e indicate d strains.
9.3. Tw o lik e gages wit h K = — 1.7 percent ar e bonde d alon g th e principa l stres s
axes o f a roun d shaf t subjecte d t o pur e torsion . Determin e th e percen t erro r if
the transvers e sensitivit y facto r i s ignored .
The give n data fo r Problem s 9. 4 through 9.8 , wit h al l strain s i n uin/i n ar e fo r

three-element rectangula r rosettes . Determin e th e tru e strain s fo r eac h rostt e an d
then comput e th e erro r i f the transvers e sensitivity facto r ha d bee n ignored .
F,'a Ka, percen t l

-h Kh, percen t e,[. Kc , percent
9.4. 960 1.3 150 0.7 445 1.3
9.5. -565 1.5 -760 -0.5 315 1.5
9.6. 135 2.0 -820 1.0 865 2.0
9.7. -355 -2.0 460 1.5 -715 2.0
9.8. 800 1.8 800 1.8 800 1.8
The give n data fo r Problem s 9. 9 through 9.13 , with al l strains i n uin/in , ar e fo r three
element-delta rosettes . Determin e th e tru e strain s fo r each rosett e an d the n comput e
the erro r i f the transvers e sensitivit y facto r ha s bee n ignored .
f,'a K a, percen t e.' b K h, percen t e' c K c, percen t

9.9. 44 5 3. 0 -22 5 1. 0 -56 5 -3. 0
9.10. 81 0 3. 0 40 5 1. 0 -19 5 3. 0
9.11. 1000 1.8 1000 1.8 1000 1.8
9.12. 800 -1.3 0 0.7 800 -1.3
9.13. -565 2.0 260 2.0 695 2.0
9.14. A three-element rectangula r rosette i s bonded t o a steel specimen, a gage facto r
of 2. 0 is set o n th e strai n indicator , an d th e recorde d dat a ar e a s follows :
Gage a Gage b Gage c

Gage factor 2.15 2.05 2.15
K, percent 1.8 1.0 1.8
Strain, fiin/in 200 1608 850
(a) Correc t fo r th e gag e facto r setting.
(b) Determin e th e tru e strains .
(c) Comput e th e principa l strains .
(d) Comput e th e principa l stresse s an d thei r orientation relativ e to th e axi s of
gage a . Sketch th e element .
(e) Comput e th e maximu m shearin g stres s a t th e point .
REFERENCES
1. "Errors Du e t o Transvers e Sensitivit y in Strai n Gages, " TN-509 , Measurement s

Group, Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777 , Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1982 .
2. Dove , Richar d C . an d Pau l H . Adams , Experimental Stress Analysis an d Motion

Measurement, Columbus , OH , Charle s E . Merrill Books , Inc. , 1964 , pp. 243-251 .
From Experimental Stress Analysis an d Motion Measurement b y Richard C. Dov e
and Pau l H . Adams . Copyrigh t © 1964 . Reprinte d by permissio n o f Merrill, a n
imprint o f Macmillan Publishin g Company .
3. Dally , James W . and Willia m F. Riley , Experimental Stress Analysis, 2n d edition ,
New York , McGraw-Hill , 1978 , pp . 328-329 . Materia l i s reproduce d wit h
permission o f McGraw-Hill, Inc .
4. Handbook o n Experimental Mechanics, edited by Albert S. Kobayashi, Englewoo d
10
STRESS GAGES
10.1. Introduction
There ar e a numbe r o f situation s i n whic h on e wishe s to determin e either
the norma l o r shearin g stres s i n som e particula r directio n withou t bein g
required t o establis h the complete stat e of stress at an y particular point . Fo r
example, i f it i s desired t o evaluat e th e radia l forc e a t a give n cross sectio n
of a n aircraf t propelle r blade , thi s ca n b e accomplishe d b y multiplyin g the
average radia l stres s b y th e are a o f cross sectio n o f th e blade . Thi s sound s
simple, bu t i t ma y involv e the us e o f a grea t dea l o f equipment , especiall y
under dynami c conditions whe n all strain observations, at al l gage locations ,
may hav e t o b e made simultaneously .
The standar d procedur e fo r approachin g thi s proble m woul d b e t o
mount rosett e gage s a t eac h o f the desire d station s aroun d th e blade , an d
then calculate , fro m th e thre e strain s indicated b y eac h rosette , th e corres -
ponding stres s i n th e radia l direction , an d henc e th e radia l forc e a t thi s
section. Thi s involve s considerable computation , an d s o on e can appreciat e
that a gage whos e response i s directly proportiona l t o norma l stres s wil l no t
only reduc e th e amoun t o f instrumentatio n required , bu t i n additio n wil l
reduce th e amoun t o f calculatio n involve d i n determinin g th e fina l result .
Thus, usin g a stress gag e rathe r tha n a three-elemen t rosette a t eac h statio n
reduces th e numbe r o f channels fro m thre e t o one .
10.2. The normal stress gage (1)

A muc h simple r method , however , involves the us e of the stres s gage, which
has the capacity t o measure tw o strains at righ t angles and t o combine the m
in th e prope r proportion s s o tha t it s indication , whe n multiplie d b y th e
proper constant , gives the valu e of the stres s in th e give n direction. Th e us e
of a stres s gag e reduce s th e amoun t o f instrumentatio n require d b y two -
thirds, and th e tim e involved i n data reductio n b y eve n mor e tha n that .
Theory of the normal stress gage

Let u s conside r th e reference s axes, O A an d ON , whic h ar e a t righ t angle s
on a free surface in a two-dimensional stress system (Fig. 10.1) . The followin g
STRESS GAGES 311
FIG. 10.1. Reference s axe s OA an d ON .
relations exist between normal stres s an d linea r strain:
Simultaneous solution of Eqs. (10.1) an d (10.2 ) for a a in term s of the strains

gives
In passing , on e should observ e that th e direction s of the axes , OA an d

ON, althoug h 90 ° apart, have no particula r inclination s with respect t o th e
directions o f the principa l axes .
Let us now examine the expression for the indication from a strain gage,
which wil l be a dimensionles s quantit y i n term s o f R/R. Sinc e Eq. (10.3 )
involves strains in two perpendicula r directions , on e can refe r t o Chapte r 7
on latera l effect s i n strain gage s for a general expression for the uni t change
in resistanc e o f a strai n gage . Fro m Eq . (7.13 ) we have the genera l relation
that
where F a and K ar e constant s fo r th e gage . Furthermore , from Eq . (7.21) ,
where v 0 is the Poisso n rati o o f the materia l upo n whic h the gag e facto r was
determined. Substitutin g the valu e of F a into Eq . (7.13 ) produces
Equations (7.13 ) an d (10.3 ) indicat e tha t R/ R i s proportiona l t o

(£„ + Ke n) an d a a i s proportiona l t o (r, a + ve n ). Therefore, i f K = v , then
This mean s that , in orde r fo r th e gag e t o respon d directl y in proportio n t o

the norma l stres s i n th e directio n o f OA , K mus t b e equa l t o v.
From Eq . (10.4), we can fin d th e valu e of (£ fl + Ks n) an d the n substitute
this valu e into Eq . (10.3 ) for (e fl + vej . Thi s gives
We wil l no w conside r certai n gri d configurations , for bot h wir e gage s

and foi l gages , whic h posses s characteristic s suitabl e fo r stres s gages .
Fortunately, strai n gages wit h meta l sensin g elements lend themselves rather
well t o fulfillin g th e requirement s fo r stres s gages.
Single round wire in an L configuration

The L is the simples t configuration , as show n i n Fig . 10.2 . It consist s o f tw o
straight part s o f roun d wire , a t righ t angles , s o proportione d tha t th e
following rati o exists :
where v is the Poisso n rati o of the material upon whic h th e gag e i s to b e used
as a stres s indicator .
The following assumptions will be made in the analysis for the transvers e
sensitivity factor :
1. Th e chang e i n directio n fro m th e longe r piec e o f wir e t o th e shorte r
piece o f wire takes place ver y abruptly.
STRESS GAGE S 313
FIG. 10.2. Singl e round wir e i n a n L configuration.
2. Th e latera l effec t o f the wir e i s zero, due t o th e lac k o f efficienc y o f th e

bonding agen t i n thi s direction . (Th e reade r shoul d appreciat e tha t thi s
may not b e true for a slender stri p of foil, in which the width of the element
may b e several time s th e thickness. )
If a gage of this configuration is subjected to strains e fl and e n, the chang e

in gag e resistance , R, i s
where k = resistance pe r uni t lengt h o f the wir e

S, = strain sensitivit y of the wir e
The valu e of R/R i s then
The transvers e sensitivit y factor, K , fo r a gag e o f th e L configuration

may b e compute d b y usin g Eq . (7.14) , which is
The valu e o f R/R give n b y Eq . (b) , bu t subjec t t o th e restriction s o n th e

strains o f Eq. (7.14) , may b e substitute d int o Eq . (7.14) . Therefore,
Equation (c ) show s tha t R/ R wil l b e proportiona l t o a a whe n thi s

configuration is used as a stress gage for the normal stress in the OA direction .
However, du e t o th e amoun t o f wire required t o mak e a practica l gage , thi s
form wil l usuall y occupy to o muc h space . O n thi s account , i t i s customar y
to arrang e th e wire , or foil , i n a mor e compac t gri d form.
Two orthogonal gages of different resistances

Let u s imagine tha t tw o strai n gage s wit h resistance s R a an d R n hav e bee n
installed i n direction s paralle l t o th e referenc e axes, O A an d ON , whic h ar e
at righ t angles . Thes e tw o orthogona l gages , connecte d i n series , hav e a
combined outpu t expresse d b y Eq . (7.34) . It i s
where th e subscript s a and n refer t o th e gage s whic h are paralle l t o th e O A

and O N axes , respectively, and / ? = R n/Ra.
It wil l b e assume d tha t th e gag e factor s fo r bot h gage s hav e bee n
determined o n th e sam e calibratin g devic e so tha t v 0 is the sam e fo r the tw o
gages. Equatio n (7.34 ) can b e simplie d t o
where
Rearrangement o f Eq . (10.7 ) gives

STRESS GAGES 31 5
or
It i s seen tha t
so
Furthermore, i f
then
This concep t cover s all value s of gage facto r an d transvers e sensitivity

factor, whic h may b e differen t fo r bot h gages , fo r an y particula r valu e of .
However, since commercially available gages may not be obtainable t o satisf y
the require d value s o f v and , it ma y b e necessar y t o see k a compromise ,
or, possibly , some othe r method .
The above relations ar e somewhat complicated, so a first approximation
may b e examined . I f th e tw o gag e factor s ar e nearl y equa l an d th e tw o
transverse sensitivit y factor s ar e als o nearl y equal , on e ca n mak e th e
approximation o f equality withou t causin g ver y muc h erro r (possibl y les s
than th e erro r i n the valu e of the modulu s o f elasticity) by usin g th e values
of th e gag e facto r an d th e transvers e sensitivit y factor fo r th e gag e i n th e
direction o f th e O A axis , especiall y i f th e strain , £ a, i s somewha t large r
numerically tha n £„ . According to thi s approximation ,
Consequently,
Using thes e values , Eq . (7.34 ) become s

Rearranging gives
From Eq . (10.12 ) one ca n se e that if
then
Two specia l case s o f interest ca n no w b e examined. Th e firs t cas e take s

K = 0 fo r bot h gage s an d (G F)a = (G F)n = G F. Usin g thes e value s i n Eq .
(10.12) produce s
where f t = R n/Ra ca n hav e an y valu e betwee n 0 an d 1 . However, i f fl = v,

the tw o gage s i n serie s represen t a singl e stres s gage . Fo r th e secon d cas e
when (G F)„ = (G F)n = G F and K a = K n = K = v , the gag e i n the directio n of
the O A axi s is a stress gag e b y itsel f an d th e secon d gag e i s not required . I n
this cas e / ? = 0 . Consequently, usin g these value s in Eq . (10.12 ) gives
The proble m i s t o selec t gage s wit h appropriat e gag e factor s an d

transverse sensitivit y factors an d the n t o establis h a suitabl e valu e o f th e
ratio /? = R n/Ra. I t will be best to commence by choosing a pair of gages with
equal gage factors and equa l transverse sensitivity factors. If gages are chosen
such tha t th e transvers e sensitivit y factor s ar e no t quit e equal , a n averag e
value migh t b e use d withou t causin g seriou s error , sinc e thes e factor s
represent a secondar y effect .
10.3. The SR-4 stress-strain gage

The stress-strai n gag e show n in Fig . (10.3 ) was produce d a s a specia l item ,
but ha s sinc e bee n discontinue d (2) . I t is , however, an interestin g concep t
and worth examining. The gage consists of a pair of foil strai n gages mounted
STRESS GAGES 317
FIG. 10.3. Stress-strai n gage. (From ref. 2.)
at righ t angle s o n a commo n carrie r an d possessin g a rati o o f resistance s

such tha t
where v is the Poisso n rati o of the materia l upo n whic h the stres s gage is t o
be used . Th e tw o gage s ar e arrange d wit h three-lea d connection s s o tha t
either gri d ca n b e use d independentl y t o measur e th e strain s i n th e tw o
perpendicular directions , a- a an d n-n. I f th e tw o gage s ar e connecte d i n
series, however, they can be used together to indicate stress in the a-a direction .
Since the Poisson ratio of the material on which the gage might be used
could hav e man y differen t values , the gage s wer e limited t o tw o particula r
values, namely , 0.28 fo r stee l an d 0.3 3 fo r aluminu m an d it s alloys . Thes e
gages wer e als o furnishe d i n temperatur e compensation s fo r us e o n mil d
steel, stainles s steel , an d aluminum . Th e resistance s o f al l larg e grid s wer e
fixed at 35 0 ohms, whil e the resistance s o f the smalle r grid s wer e either 98
or 11 5 ohms, to correspon d wit h the differen t Poisso n rati o value s for stee l
and aluminum .
The use r was supplie d wit h th e followin g thre e factors:
GFa = factor for sensing strain alon g th e a- a axi s
GFn = facto r for sensing strai n alon g th e n- n axi s
GFs = factor for sensing stres s along th e a- a axi s

The resultin g strain s ar e give n by
The resultin g stres s alon g th e a a axi s i s given b y
where
In discussing the stress-strain gage, the description b y Hines (3 ) outlines

its essentia l characteristics , an d hi s argumen t wil l b e followe d here . Fro m
previous work , w e know tha t th e relationshi p betwee n stres s an d strai n i s
where stress along the a-a axis

a = stres s alon g th e n- n axi s
From Chapte r 7 , the uni t change i n resistanc e o f a gag e i s given b y Eq .
(7.11). Fo r th e stress-strai n gage , thi s is
where F a= strai n sensitivit y o f th e gag e element s fo r uniaxia l strai n

along axi s a-a wit h zero strai n alon g axi s n- n
Fn = strai n sensitivit y o f th e gag e element s fo r uniaxia l strai n
along axi s n- n wit h zer o strai n alon g axi s a- a
If th e values o f K a and e n given b y Eqs . (10.18 ) an d (10.19) , respectively , ar e
substituted int o Eq . (10.20) , th e resul t i s
STRESS GAGE S 31 9
Rearranging,
Since F n = KF a, Eq . (10.21 ) ca n b e rewritte n as
When th e gag e i s being calibrated , th e followin g two condition s mus t

be met :
1. Whe n R/R= 0 , <ra =0 . This means the change in gage resistance must
be independent o f the transvers e stress, a n.
2. Whe n a n = 0, then R/ R = (a aGFs)jE. Thi s mean s th e chang e i n gag e
resistance must be proportional t o the stress, a a, applied alon g th e a- a
axis.
From th e first condition, Eq . (10.22 ) give s
where v 0 = Poisso n rati o o f the tes t material . Thus , Eq . (10.23) show s tha t
K = v0
For th e secon d condition , Eq . (10.22 ) gives
where
Equation (10.24 ) shows that in order fo r the gage to have a unit chang e
in resistanc e proportiona l t o a a, th e stres s gag e mus t hav e a transvers e
sensitivity facto r equa l t o th e Poisso n rati o o f th e materia l t o whic h i t i s
bonded. Equatio n (10.26 ) show s ho w th e stress-gag e factor , G Fs, i s relate d
to th e other gag e constants .
In Fig . 10.3 , elemen t 1 i s th e principa l strain-measurin g grid , whil e
element 2 provides th e necessary transvers e sensitivit y when th e tw o grid s
are connected i n series. Therefore, the transverse sensitivity of the entire gage
may be controlled b y the ratio o f the resistance o f element 2 to the resistance
of element 1 ; that is , R2/R1. Th e rati o R 2/Ri = v 0 = K i s only approximate ,
since eac h elemen t ha s a smal l bu t measurabl e transvers e sensitivit y factor.
320 THE BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGE
This coul d b e corrected , however , throug h calibratio n o r b y computatio n

from th e know n characteristic s of each element .
10.4. Electrical circuit for two ordinary gages to indicate normal stress
The circui t show n i n Fig . 10. 4 wa s develope d i n 194 5 b y S . B . Williams i n
order t o produce indications whic h ar e directl y proportiona l t o th e normal
stresses i n th e direction s o f th e gag e axes . Th e circui t wa s firs t reporte d b y
Kern (4 ) an d the n appeare d i n late r paper s (5 , 6) . I f th e direction s o f th e
principal axe s coincid e wit h th e gag e axes , thi s provide s a metho d fo r
observing th e principa l stresses directly.
The valu e of the resistor , R c, i s given b y th e expressio n
where K i s the transverse sensitivity factor of the strain gages. If K = 0 , then
If K = v , then R f become s infinite , an d i n thi s case th e tw o gages , aligne d

in th e X an d Y directions , ar e themselve s stress indicators , a s eac h wil l
respond i n direc t proportio n o f th e norma l stresses , a x an d <r v, respectively.
For furthe r details on the circuit, the reader should consult the references
cited.
FIG. 10.4. Circui t fo r conversio n o f T-strai n gag e rosett e int o tw o equivalen t stres s gag e
circuits. (Fro m ref . 4.)
STRESS GAGE S 321
10.5. The V-type stress gage (4 , 7)

Schematic diagram s o f tw o form s o f wir e grid s o f a V-typ e stres s gag e ar e
shown i n Fig. 10.5 . Although these ar e depicte d a s wir e gages, foil gage s ar e
also manufacture d a s a singl e uni t wit h thi s configuration . Th e grea t
advantage o f thi s shape , whic h i s forme d b y tw o lik e gages , i s that i t ca n
easily b e mad e u p b y connectin g tw o ordinar y strai n gage s i n series ,
providing, however , tha t th e angl e betwee n thei r axe s correspond s t o th e
value o f the Poisso n rati o o f the materia l upo n whic h they wil l b e use d t o
indicate stress .
For commerciall y manufactured gages o f this nature, the angle between
the axe s o f th e tw o grid s ca n b e determine d unde r controlle d factor y
conditions. I f two separat e gage s are t o b e installed i n the field, the enginee r
in charg e wil l nee d t o b e particularl y careful t o se e that th e tw o gage s ar e
mounted wit h the correct relativ e inclination, 20, betwee n their center lines.
The directio n i n whic h the stres s i s to b e determine d wil l b e establishe d b y
the directio n o f th e bisecto r o f the angl e betwee n th e gri d axes . Ther e are ,
therefore, tw o consideration s abou t whic h the installe r o f the gage s shoul d
be meticulous . They ar e
1. Th e angl e betwee n th e gag e axes .

2. Th e directio n o f the bisecto r o f the angl e betwee n th e gag e axes .
The followin g tw o consideration s shoul d als o b e kep t i n mind :
FIG. 10.5. Schemati c diagrams of two form s o f V gage.

1. Foi l and wir e strain gages respond essentiall y to linear strains, primarily
in th e axia l direction , bu t frequentl y an d t o a lesse r extent , t o th e
transverse strai n a s well .
2. Fo r tw o lik e grid s i n series , th e combine d outpu t wil l correspon d t o
the averag e outpu t fro m eac h o f the tw o gages .
Mathematical analysis of the V-type configuration

The developmen t tha t Ker n (4 ) used wil l b e followe d bu t extende d t o tak e
in th e latera l respons e o f th e strai n gage s t o strain s i n th e directio n
perpendicular t o th e gag e axes . Le t u s consider a stres s gag e o f th e V type
as consistin g o f tw o lik e strai n gage s connecte d i n series , a s show n i n Fig .
10.5. Fo r eac h gage , Eq . (7.13 ) can b e use d t o giv e
where F a i s th e axia l strai n sensitivit y and K i s th e transvers e sensitivit y

factor.
The stress , a a, i n th e directio n o f th e axi s O A ma y no w b e state d i n
terms of the principal strains. Note, i n Fig. 10.5 , that th e principal stres s axis,
1, makes a n angl e o f 8 1 wit h respect t o th e O A axis . Again, a a is
where £ a and £ „ are th e strain s alon g an d transverse , respectively, to th e O A

axis. Th e tw o strains , £ „ and £„ , are t o b e writte n i n term s o f th e principa l
strains, ex and e 2. In order to do this, the transformation equation, Eq . (2.32),
can b e writte n i n term s o f th e principa l strain s b y takin g e
and } > = 0 . Thus ,
The strain , e a, in th e O A directio n become s
The strain , £„ , normal t o O A become s

STRESS GAGE S 32 3
Substituting th e value s o f e a an d e tt given b y Eqs . (b ) an d (c) , respectively,

into Eq . (a ) result s in
Equation (10.31 ) contains tw o terms . The firs t ter m is
which represent s th e hydrostati c component o f the principa l strain s an d i s

the cente r of a Mohr' s strai n circle . The secon d ter m is
which represent s th e pur e shea r componen t o f the principa l strain s an d i s

the radiu s o f a Mohr' s strain circle . Since the hydrostati c strain i s the sam e
in all directions, the axial an d norma l strain s acting o n th e gage due t o this
component are the same. Using Eq. (10.29), the hydrostatic component gives
a uni t resistance chang e of
In term s of principal strains , R/R i s
In a simila r manner , sinc e th e pur e shea r componen t correspond s t o tw o

equal strain s o f unlik e sign , th e uni t resistanc e chang e du e t o thi s com -
ponent i s
In term s of principal strains , R/ R i s
The averag e uni t resistanc e chang e fo r th e V-typ e gag e (tw o gage s i n

series), is R/(2Rg), wher e R g i s the resistanc e o f one hal f o f the tw o gages ,
or grids . This ca n b e written as
where e fll +0 an d are the strains the grids are subjected to . These strain s
are
If the right-han d sides of Eqs. (e) and (f ) are multiplie d and divide d by ( 1 — v )
and thes e value s ar e the n substituted int o Eq . (d) , w e have
where
Substituting th e valu e of the su m o f the cosin e term s give n b y Eq . (h ) int o

Eq. (g) , the n multiplyin g and dividin g the coefficien t o f 2 cos 29 1 co s 2<p b y
(1 + K), th e final expression fo r R/R i s
Examination o f Eqs. (10.31 ) and (10.34 ) tells u s tha t whe n
the quantitie s i n th e squar e bracke t o f eac h equatio n wil l b e identical , s o

that R/ R wil l b e directl y proportional t o a a. Thi s mean s tha t whe n on e
computes th e correc t angl e betwee n th e tw o gages , o r grids , one wil l hav e a
stress gage . Fro m Eq . (i) , the relativ e angl e o f inclination betwee n th e tw o
STRESS GAGE S 32 5
gages, o r grids , can b e established. Thus ,
This expressio n ca n als o b e writte n as
Since v will b e between 0 and 0.5 , and becaus e K ca n b e expected t o b e

less tha n 0.04 , th e produc t v K wil l be ver y smal l wit h respec t t o unity , and
so b y neglectin g th e product , vK , th e valu e of cos 2</ > become s
which is a very close approximation, especially when K tend s towards zero.

The term , co s 2(/> , can als o b e writte n a s
Using th e valu e of co s 2</ > give n b y Eq . (10.36) , th e valu e of ta n </ > becomes
If th e produc t v K i s ignored, the n
Taking th e transvers e sensitivit y factor, K, equa l t o zer o gives
Stress gage s ma y b e mad e usin g eithe r wir e or foil . A typical foi l stres s
gage i s shown i n Fig . 10.6 .
FIG. 10.6 . Foi l stress gage in V configuration. (Courtes y o f Measurement s Group, Inc.)
10.6. Application of a single strain gage to indicate principal stress (8)

There ar e certai n situation s in whic h th e direction s o f the principa l stresse s
are known . This may b e through the condition s o f symmetry, a preliminary
study wit h a brittl e lacque r coat , o r b y som e othe r method . Unde r thes e
conditions, i f tw o strai n gage s ar e installed , on e i n th e directio n o f eac h
principal axis , th e tw o strai n reading s thu s obtaine d wil l provid e sufficien t
information t o enable th e computation o f the two principa l stresses . At each
point t o b e investigated, this saves the us e of at leas t one se t of instrumenta-
tion whe n al l reading s ar e require d t o b e mad e simultaneously . Also, th e
time involve d wit h calculation s wil l b e muc h reduce d i n compariso n wit h
that require d fo r standar d rosett e analysis , which might employ equipment
for thre e or fou r observation s at eac h statio n fo r eac h loa d level .
If on e i s onl y intereste d i n on e o f th e tw o principa l stress magnitudes,
however, an d know s t o whic h axi s thi s corresponds , a singl e strai n gag e
indication fo r eac h loa d a t eac h statio n is all that i s required t o provid e th e
necessary information . Such a gag e i s shown in Fig . 10.7.
The amoun t o f require d instrumentatio n is reduce d b y two-third s i n
comparison wit h th e general rosett e method . Th e corresponding calculatio n
time ca n als o b e reduce d b y a n eve n greate r proportion , especiall y i f th e
equipment ca n b e calibrated t o giv e a direct readou t i n term s of the desire d
data.
Due t o th e fac t tha t th e strai n condition s ar e symmetrica l wit h respect
to a principa l axis , i f a V-typ e stress gag e i s t o b e use d an d line d u p wit h
the principa l axis , bot h halve s o f th e gri d wil l b e subjecte d t o exactl y th e
same strai n condition s an d wil l sho w th e sam e uni t chang e i n resistance .
This mean s tha t on e hal f of th e V-typ e gage wil l b e redundant . Becaus e o f
this onl y on e hal f o f the gag e need s t o b e used , whic h means a singl e strain
gage incline d a t th e correc t angl e </ > wit h respec t t o th e principa l axi s wil
STRESS GAGES 327
FIG. 10.7. Singl e strain gage inclined a t a n angl e 0 wit h respec t to th e principa l axis.
yield al l the necessar y information to enabl e th e evaluatio n of the principa l

stress magnitude. As shown in Section 10.5 , tan 0 = ^/ v — K. I f K = 0, then
tan
10.7. Determination of plane shearing stress

Wire and foi l gages have little response to shearing strains so, if this quantity
is t o b e determined , i t i s necessar y t o mak e th e approac h throug h th e
measurement o f linear strains , whic h can b e converte d int o th e equivalent
of plane shea r strain , and the n into term s o f shearing stress by means of the
shearing modulus of elasticity. In Chapter 8 on rosette analysis, it was shown
that linea r strain s i n certai n give n direction s ca n b e converte d int o thei r
equivalent value s in term s o f the hydrostati c component, S H, an d th e pur e
shear component , s s. Thes e tw o values are writte n in terms o f the principa l
strains a s follows :
(position o f the cente r o f Mohr's circle)
(radius o f Mohr's circle )
This is shown in Fig . 10.8 .

As shearin g stresse s ar e currentl y bein g considered , th e hydrostati c
component, which is equivalent to tw o principal strain s of equal magnitud e
and lik e sign , wil l no t concer n us . Th e pur e shea r component , whic h i s
equivalent t o tw o principa l strain s of equal magnitud e bu t o f opposite sign ,
will b e examined rather carefully . I t i s from th e pur e shear componen t tha t
the shearin g conditio n i n an y particula r directio n ca n b e determined , a s
FIG. 10.8 . Shea r strain i n term s of pure shear component.
shown i n Fig . 10.8 . Sinc e th e dat a produce d wit h any rosett e arrangemen t
can b e converted int o it s hydrostatic and pur e shea r components , i t ca n b e
seen that rosette s might, in general, be used to find the shearing strain in any
particular direction . However, except in two special cases, the data reductio n
involved i n thi s procedure i s too complicate d an d time-consuming .
Let us now look into the simpler procedures which can be accomplishe d
with just tw o strai n indications . Consider th e rectangula r rosett e wit h fou r
strain observations , which , fo r thi s specia l case , ca n b e reduce d t o tw o
measurements. Thi s rosett e consist s o f fou r strai n gage s mounte d i n th e
directions OA, OB, OC, and OD , as indicated i n Fig. 10.9 . For thi s particula r
rosette, th e value s o f % , e s, an d ta n 2 0 ar e give n b y Eqs . (8.41a) , (8.41b) ,
and (8.42) . These ar e
Furthermore, i f gages A an d C an d gage s B an d D ca n b e connecte d i n

adjacent arm s o f th e Wheatston e bridge , th e differences , (c a — ec) an d
STRESS GAGE S 329
FIG. 10.9. Arrangemen t of gage axe s fo r four-elemen t rectangula r rosette.
(sb — Ed), ca n b e read ou t directl y so that th e determinatio n o f the maximum

shear strai n an d th e directions o f the principa l axe s may b e found fro m jus t
two strain observations . Thi s save s both time and equipment. It shoul d als o
be note d tha t wit h thi s for m o f rosette i t i s als o possibl e t o determin e th e
magnitudes of the tw o principa l stresse s a s wel l a s th e direction s o f the tw o
principal axes .
When K ^ 0 , th e gage s respon d t o latera l strai n i n additio n t o axia l
strain. Thus ,
There i s no chang e i n th e direction s o f the principa l axes , since the valu e of

tan 2 9 i s independen t o f K . Figur e 10.1 0 show s a n availabl e stacke d
four-element rectangula r rosett e o f the configuratio n show n i n Fig . 10.9 .
If stres s gage s rathe r tha n strai n gage s wer e used , th e chang e i n thes e
relations woul d b e du e essentiall y t o th e differenc e i n th e numerica l valu e
of K , whic h woul d the n tak e o n th e particula r valu e o f K tha t woul d b e
FIG. 10.10. Four-elemen t rectangula r rosette. (Courtes y o f Measurements Group, Inc. )

equal t o th e valu e o f Poisson's rati o o f the materia l upo n whic h th e gage s

were installed . Hence ,
When K = v,
This ca n b e rewritten a s
or
where G , the shea r modulus , is
The shear gage

In orde r t o determin e th e linea r strai n equivalen t o f shearin g strain , tw o
gages ca n b e use d tha t ar e mounte d wit h thei r axe s havin g an y arbitrar y
angle betwee n them. In orde r t o sho w this , the argumen t give n by Perr y (9)
will be followed. The tw o gages are bonded t o the test material a s illustrated
by Fig . 10.11 .
The expression s fo r th e strains , e a and £ b, can b e writte n as
Solving Eqs . (10.46 ) an d (10.47 ) simultaneously for y xjl produce s

STRESS GAGES 331
FIG. 10.11. Arbitrar y gag e arrangement.
If gage s a an d b ar e bisecte d b y th e x axis , the n 6 A = — 9B an d s o

cos 9A = cos 9B. In tha t cas e Eq . (10.48) i s rewritten as
Furthermore, si n 29A = —si n 26 B, whic h further reduce s Eq . (10.49) t o
Perry (9 ) generalizes these result s as follows : Th e difference i n normal strain

sensed by any two arbitrarily oriented strain gages in a uniform field is
proportional to the shear strain along an axis bisecting the strain gage axes,
irrespective of the included angle between the gages.
An examination o f Eq. (10.50) shows that if the tw o gages are 90 ° apart
the denominato r become s unity , since 9 A = 45 ° (or 9 B = —45°) . Thus ,
Equation (10.51 ) tell s u s tha t th e shearin g strai n alon g th e bisecto r o f th e

gages' axe s i s equal t o th e differenc e i n th e norma l strains . I t ca n b e seen ,
then, that a two-element rectangular rosette makes an ideal shear gag e when
the two gages are arranged i n adjacent arms o f a Wheatstone bridge . Figure
10.12 show s the gag e an d bridg e arrangement .
Unless th e tw o gage s happe n t o b e line d u p wit h th e principa l axe s
(when th e individua l strai n indication s wil l correspon d t o eac h o f th e
principal strains) , no informatio n abou t th e principal strai n magnitudes , o r
the directions of the principal axes, is available from th e two gages. However,
FIG. 10.12. Two-elemen t rectangula r rosette arrange d t o measure
if on e i s onl y intereste d i n shea r i n a give n direction , th e tw o gage s wil l

provide th e necessar y data .
Since tw o strai n gage s onl y occup y hal f o f the Wheatston e bridge, th e
bridge outpu t ca n b e double d b y addin g tw o mor e gage s wit h thei r axe s
parallel an d perpendicula r t o th e firs t two . I f th e bisecto r o f th e gag e axe s
happens t o lin e u p wit h the principa l axes , the n twic e th e maximu m shea r
is indicate d b y th e outpu t fro m th e complet e Wheatston e bridge . I n
particular, i t shoul d b e note d that , sinc e th e fou r gage s i n th e Wheatston e
bridge onl y measur e strain s i n tw o direction s (at righ t angles) , the y wil l d o
nothing to determine th e directions of the principal strai n axes . Figure 10.1 3
shows severa l configuration s of commerciall y availabl e four-elemen t gage s
for determinin g shear strain.
Care mus t b e take n i n orde r t o avoi d confusio n betwee n th e four -
element shea r gag e an d th e four-elemen t rectangular rosette . Bot h emplo y
four activ e strai n gages . Th e shea r gage , whic h measure s strai n i n tw o
perpendicular directions , involve s a simpl e procedur e fo r establishin g th e
shearing strain , and thu s the shearin g stress, but i t wil l onl y permi t on e t o
find this i n a particula r direction . A rectangular rosette , o n th e othe r hand ,
is muc h mor e genera l i n nature , permittin g strai n observation s i n fou r
different direction s space d successivel y at 45° . Wit h th e rosette , on e ca n
determine th e tw o principa l strains , th e direction s o f th e tw o principa l
axes, an d th e shearin g strai n i n an y direction , includin g th e maximu m
value. However , th e correspondin g computation s ar e somewha t mor e
elaborate.
Equations (10.50 ) an d (10.51 ) wer e develope d b y considerin g th e
transverse sensitivit y factor, K, t o b e zero. I f K i s to b e accounte d for , then
sa an d E b in Eqs . (10.50 ) an d (10.51 ) will hav e t o b e modified . Thi s ca n b e
accomplished b y returnin g to Eqs . (9.14 ) and (9.15) . Thes e ar e
STRESS GAGE S 333
FIG. 10.13. Ful l bridge s fo r shea r measurement . (Courtes y o f Measurements Group, Inc.)
These equation s represen t strain s for a pai r o f orthogonal gages . Since

the gage s use d t o indicat e shea r strai n ar e arbitraril y oriented , thes e tw o
expressions wil l be rewritten . Thus ,
where £„' and ej, ' are strain s perpendicular t o e' a and e' b, respectively. The value s
of e' ^ and ej, ' can b e determine d b y usin g th e firs t strai n invariant , s o tha t
Substituting th e value s o f e ^ given b y Eq . (a ) int o Eq . (10.52) ,
Substituting th e valu e o f 4' give n b y Eq . (b ) int o Eq . (10.53) ,
Since th e shearin g strai n i s proportiona l t o (e a — eb ), we hav e fro m Eqs . (c )

and (d )
This reduce s t o
Note tha t £' a and e' b are indicate d strains .

Equation (10.54 ) show s tha t Eqs . (10.50 ) an d (10.51 ) ca n b e correcte d
for transvers e sensitivit y b y multiplyin g th e shearin g strai n b y ( 1 — v 0 K)/
(1 - X) . Therefore, Eq . (10.50) become s
Likewise, Eq . (10.51 ) fo r th e two-elemen t rectangula r rosett e become s
Problems
10.1. Tw o strai n gages with thei r axes perpendicular to each other are t o b e use d as
a stres s gage . Th e followin g data ar e availabl e for th e gages : R a = 350 ohms,
(Gr)a = 2.15 , K a = 0.007, R n = 12 0 ohms, (G f )„ = 2.05 , K n = 0.009. Wil l thi s
arrangement b e suitabl e fo r a stres s gage? I f so, specif y th e materia l on which
it ma y b e used.
STRESS GAGE S 335
10.2. Fo r th e V stress gag e show n i n Fig . 10.6 , determin e th e include d angle, using
K = 0, when designed for use on materials having the following Poisson ratios:
(a) v = 0.25 ; (b ) v = 0.30 ; (c ) v = 0.34 .
10.3. A single strain gag e i s used t o measur e th e longitudina l stres s at a point o n a n
aluminum cantilever beam. Using v = 0.3 3 and E = 10 x 10 6 psi, determine the
following:
(a) Th e angl e (f > between th e bea m axi s an d th e gag e axi s
(b) Th e longitudina l stres s fo r a recorde d strai n o f 884 microstrain.
10.4. Thin-walle d pressur e vessel s are t o b e mad e fro m severa l differen t materials .
They have an internal pressure p, a diameter d , a wall thickness t, Poisson rati o
v, an d a modulu s of elasticity E. A singl e strain gag e i s to b e bonde d t o eac h
vessel s o th e hoo p stress , a H, ma y b e monitored an d th e vesse l automatically
shut dow n i f a specifie d stres s i s exceeded . Develo p a n expressio n fo r <J H in
terms o f the vesse l dimensions, the materia l propertie s an d th e strain .
10.5. Chec k th e expression s develope d i n Proble m 10. 4 b y usin g p = 900 psi,
d = 40 in, t = 1. 5 in, v = 0.29 , and E = 2 8 x 10 6 psi.
10.6. O n th e vesse l i n Proble m 10.5 , a lin e 45° fro m th e longitudina l axi s i s drawn
from the origin of the longitudinal and circumferential axes. Two identical strain
gages ar e bonde d t o th e vesse l a t 15 ° o n eithe r sid e o f thi s line . Fo r th e
conditions i n Proble m 10.5 , determine th e strain s a t eac h gag e an d sho w they
measure the maximu m shearing strain .
10.7. A two-element rectangular rosette is to be bonded t o the web of a beam, whose
cross sectio n is shown in Fig. 10.14 , in order to determin e the maximu m shear
strain a t tha t sectio n an d thereb y th e maximu m shea r stress . Th e materia l
properties o f the bea m ar e v = 0. 3 and E = 3 0 x 10 6 psi.
(a) Determin e th e poin t wher e the maximu m shear stres s occurs .
(b) Sketc h the gag e arrangement .
(c) Determin e th e strai n a t eac h gag e whe n the tota l vertica l shearing force i s
480001b.
FIG. 10.14 .
REFERENCES
1. Williams , Sidney B. , "The Dyadi c Gage, " SESA Proceedings, Vol. I, No. 2 , 1944 ,
pp. 43-55.
2. "SR- 4 Stress-Strain-Gage, " Produc t Dat a 4323, BLH Electronics , Inc., 75 Shawmut
Rd., Canton, M A 02021 , May , 1961 . (Now ou t o f print.)
3. Hines , Fran k F. , "Th e Stress-Strai n Gage, " Proc. 1s t International Congress o n
Experimental Mechanics, 1963 , pp. 237-253 .
4. Kern , Rober t E. , "Th e Stres s Gage, " SESA Proceedings, Vol . IV , No . 1 , 1946 ,
pp. 124-129 .
5. Kern , Rober t E . an d Sidne y B . Williams , "Stres s Measuremen t b y Electrica l
Means," Electrical Engineering, Transactions, Vol . 65, March 1946 , pp. 100-107 .
6. Williams , Sidne y B. , "Geometry i n th e Desig n o f Stres s Measuremen t Circuits ;
Improved Method s Throug h Simple r Concepts, " SESA Proceedings, Vol . XVII,
No. 2 , 1960 , pp . 161-178 .
7. Sevenhuijsen , Pieter J. , "Stres s Gages, " Experimental Techniques, Vol . 8 , No . 3 ,
March 1984 , pp. 26-27 .
8. Lissner , H . R . an d C . C . Perry , "Conventiona l Wir e Strai n Gag e Use d a s a
Principal Stres s Gage, " SESA Proceedings, Vol. XIII, No . 1 , 1955, pp. 25-34 .
9. Perry , C. C., "Plane-shear Measuremen t wit h Strai n Gages, " Experimental Mech-
anics, Vol. 9, No. 1 , Jan. 1969 , pp. 19N-22N .
11
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON STRAIN GAGES
11.1. Introduction
When usin g strai n gages , th e enginee r want s t o measur e strain s produce d
only b y th e loadin g o n th e structur e and t o eliminat e strains produce d b y
other variables, particularly temperature. Since metals change their resistance
with temperature as well as with strain, the purpose of the electrical resistance
strain gage is to measure the strain-induced resistance change independently
of the temperature-induced resistance change. Therefore, we want to account ,
or t o compensat e automatically , for th e effect s o f temperature o n th e strai n
observations.
The physica l phenomen a occurrin g i n a strai n gag e bonde d t o a tes t
specimen are complex when a change o f temperature takes place (1). Among
them ar e th e following :
1. Th e bas e material expand s o r contracts .
2. Th e strain-sensitiv e filamen t o f the gag e expand s o r contracts .
3. Th e resistanc e o f the filamen t changes .
4. Th e gag e factor o f the gag e i s subject to variation .
5. Th e bon d betwee n the gag e an d th e bas e materia l ma y b e affected .
6. Du e t o the transverse sensitivity, dimensional changes whic h take place
in th e latera l direction , eithe r i n th e gag e o r i n th e bas e material , will
show a n indicate d chang e i n resistance .
7. Th e carrie r o n whic h the sensitiv e filament is mounted ma y chang e it s
properties.
11.2. Basic considerations of temperature-induced strain (2-4 )

In Chapte r 1 , in th e discussio n o f the strai n sensitivit y of a wire , Eq. (1.18 )
was developed . From this , th e expressio n fo r th e uni t chang e i n resistanc e
can b e writte n as
where v = Poisson' s rati o

L = conducto r lengt h
p = resistivity of the conducto r materia l
Equation (11.1 ) show s that th e uni t chang e i n resistanc e i s dependen t

on th e uni t change s i n lengt h an d resistivit y o f th e conductor . I f n o
mechanical strai n take s place, a uni t resistance change ca n stil l occur when
the conducto r i s subjected t o a temperatur e change.
Consider a strai n gag e bonde d t o a bas e materia l an d connecte d t o a
strain indicator . I f th e bas e materia l i s unrestraine d and the n undergoe s a
temperature change , th e strai n indicato r wil l sho w a n indicate d strai n
consisting o f the algebrai c su m o f three components.
1 . Th e base material to whic h the gage is bonded expands or contracts in

the directio n o f the gag e axis . This uni t change i n length , or strain , is
where a m = coefficien t o f thermal expansio n of the bas e material

AT = temperature chang e fro m a referenc e temperature .
2. Th e strain gag e grid material expands or contracts du e to the tempera -
ture change . This uni t chang e i n length , or strain , is
where <x g = coefficien t o f thermal expansio n o f the gri d material .

3. Sinc e th e resistivit y o f th e strai n gag e gri d materia l change s wit h
temperature, the gage resistance will change. The unit resistance change
of th e gag e is
where f t = resistance-temperature coefficien t o f th e strai n gag e gri d

material. Equation (11.4 ) can be expressed in terms of strain by dividing
both side s o f the equatio n b y G F, the gag e factor . Thus ,
The strain , calle d therma l outpu t (sometime s referre d t o a s apparen t

strain), tha t wil l b e registere d o n th e strai n indicato r ma y b e expresse d a s
the algebrai c su m o f the thre e strains . Hence,
TEMPERATURE EFFECT S O N STRAI N GAGES 339
FIG. 11.1. Apparen t strain vs. temperature for strain gage alloys bonded to steel. (From ref. 2.)
or
We are not t o assum e that th e strain given b y Eq. (11.6) is a linear function
of temperature. I t is not, since the coefficients a m, a g, and ft are also functions
of temperature. We must know, therefore, the temperatur e characteristic s of
each gag e use d a s wel l a s the temperatur e characteristic s o f the materia l o n
which th e gag e is bonded .
For illustratio n only , Fig . 11. 1 show s th e variatio n o f strai n wit h
temperature fo r severa l strai n gag e material s bonde d t o steel . Th e figur e
shows tha t larg e error s ca n occu r whe n th e strai n gag e an d th e material t o
which it is bonded ar e subjected to temperatures differin g fro m th e reference ,
or bonding , temperature . Thi s illustrate s th e nee d fo r correctio n whe n th e
strain gage system i s subjected t o temperature fluctuations. Corrections ma y
be accomplishe d b y computatio n usin g a temperature-strai n calibratio n

curve, o r b y usin g a compensating , o r dummy , gag e i n a n adjacen t ar m o f
the bridg e that i s subject t o certai n restrictions . If the correctio n i s made b y
computation, the n a temperatur e recor d mus t b e kep t durin g th e test .
Gage factor variation with temperature

The gag e factor , G F, als o varie s with temperature. I f the temperatur e rang e
is smal l an d th e variatio n i n G F is slight, then a correctio n ma y b e ignored .
If, however , the tes t temperatur e rang e i s large an d th e variatio n i n G F with
temperature cannot b e disregarded, then, depending on the required accurac y
of th e strai n measurement , a gag e facto r correction ma y b e necessary . Thi s
is illustrate d i n Fig . 11.2 , which show s th e variatio n i n gag e facto r wit h
temperature fo r severa l strai n gag e alloys . Severa l o f th e alloy s ar e linea r
over a considerable temperatur e range an d sho w quit e a variatio n i n slopes .
Constantan show s a n increas e o f les s tha n 1 percen t pe r 100° F wit h
increasing temperature, while Nichrome V shows a decrease o f over 2 percent
per 100° F wit h increasin g temperature . Isoelasti c ha s a ver y sligh t chang e
in gag e facto r betwee n roo m temperatur e an d 200 CF, bu t change s quit e
perceptibly outsid e o f thi s region. This latte r material , however , is use d fo r
dynamic measurement s rathe r tha n stati c measurements . Unde r dynami c
conditions, other error s may b e considerably greater than th e change in gage
factor, an d s o correctin g the gag e facto r may b e inessential.
In orde r t o correc t th e gag e facto r fro m it s valu e a t th e referenc e
temperature t o it s valu e a t th e tes t temperature , a simpl e procedur e i s
followed. I f Fig . 11. 2 is examined, i t i s see n tha t th e percen t chang e i n gag e
factor i s plotted versu s temperature. The gag e factor , G F T, a t som e tempera -
ture differen t fro m th e referenc e temperature i s
where G FR= gage facto r at th e reference temperature, generall y at roo m

temperature wher e G fR = G f
Gf(%) = percentag e chang e i n th e gag e facto r fro m th e referenc e
temperature t o th e tes t temperatur e
The prope r sig n o f AG F(%) must, o f course, b e use d i n Eq . ( 1 1.7).
Method of determining gage factor variation with temperature

The method o f determining th e variation i n the gage factor with temperatur e
for resistanc e strai n gage s i s give n b y ASTM(5) . Tw o methods , stati c an d
dynamic, are discussed, bu t onl y the static method wil l be outlined here . The
test apparatus, shown in Fig. 1 1.3, consists of a beam havin g a uniform stress
FIG. 11.2 . Gag e facto r variatio n wit h temperature fo r severa l strai n gag e alloys . (From ref . 3.)
FIG. 11.3. Apparatu s for stati c determination o f gage-factor variatio n vs . temperature. (From
ref. 5 with permission . © ASTM. )
area tha t i s directl y proportiona l t o th e deflectio n o f th e en d poin t

containing th e rider , whic h is located a t th e ape x o f the angl e formed by th e
beam sides .
The fixture holding th e bea m mus t b e muc h mor e rigi d tha n th e bea m
in orde r t o preven t error s du e t o it s ow n deformation . Th e slidin g steppe d
block ha s fou r surface s that mus t b e o f nearly equal steps , with the surfaces
parallel t o eac h othe r an d t o th e slidin g surfaces. The step s ar e suc h tha t a
maximum surface strain of 1000 + 10 0 uin/in is produced o n the beam. Whe n
the ride r i s resting o n th e lowes t surface of the slidin g block, th e en d o f th e
beam shoul d b e deflecte d abou t 2 percen t o f it s tota l planne d deflectio n i n
order t o insur e positiv e contact .
The gages to be tested ar e symmetricall y mounted i n the constant-stres s
area o f the beam an d aligne d wit h th e longitudinal axis. Thermocouples ar e
mounted a s near the gages a s possible an d a t eac h en d o f the constant stres s
area. The entire tes t uni t is then placed i n a temperatur e chamber , th e gage s
are connected t o th e instrumentation , and th e fixture and bea m ar e allowe d
to com e t o equilibriu m a t th e referenc e temperature, whic h is usually roo m
temperature. Wit h th e ride r restin g o n th e lowes t ste p o f th e slidin g block ,
the instrumentatio n is balanced, the n gage outpu t i s recorded a s th e ride r i s
displaced t o subsequen t step s o n th e slidin g block . Readings , take n thre e
times, ar e recorde d fo r bot h increasin g and decreasin g deflections .
The tes t chambe r i s brough t t o previousl y selected temperature s an d
TEMPERATURE EFFECT S O N STRAI N GAGE S 34 3
the process i s repeated afte r th e temperature ha s stabilized. Th e temperature

difference ove r the constant stres s area shall not exceed 5°F (3°C) or 1 percent
of th e temperatur e o f the gag e area , whicheve r is greater. Neithe r shal l th e
temperature change more than 5°F (3°C) during a test at any temperature.
The chang e i n gag e facto r i s compute d a s th e differenc e betwee n th e
gage output due to the strain for a given temperature and that at the reference
temperature. Thi s i s expresse d a s a percentag e change . Thus , th e percen t
change i n gag e facto r i s
where E t = gage outpu t a t tes t temperatur e

Er = gage outpu t a t referenc e temperatur e
If mor e accurac y i s desired , correction s ca n b e mad e fo r th e therma l
expansion o f the bea m an d th e steppe d block . Thi s give s
where a b = coefficient o f thermal expansio n o f the bea m

as = coefficien t of thermal expansion o f the slidin g bloc k
AT = difference betwee n th e tes t an d referenc e temperatur e
11.3. Self-temperature-compensated strain gages (2 , 4)

The manufacture r of strain gag e alloy s ca n contro l temperature-resistanc e
coefficients withi n reasonabl e limits . Wit h carefu l selectio n o f particula r
melts, followed by judicious process control, the alloy will exhibit a minimum
temperature response ove r a given temperature rang e when bonded to a test
specimen whos e coefficien t o f thermal expansio n matche s tha t o f the strai n
gage alloy . B y choosin g a gag e tha t i s temperatur e compensate d fo r th e
material bein g tested, a three-wire, quarter-bridge circui t may be used rathe r
than usin g a half-bridg e circui t with a matchin g dummy , or compensating ,
gage. In th e case o f the quarter-bridge circuit , the Wheatstone bridg e can be
completed b y usin g a stabl e precisio n resisto r i n th e adjacen t ar m a t th e
instrument, o r b y usin g a n instrumen t tha t accommodate s th e three-wire ,
quarter-bridge circuit . This circui t (wit h lead-lin e resistance ) wa s discusse d
in Chapte r 5 . Figur e 11. 4 show s th e three-wir e circui t (withou t lead-lin e
resistance) wit h the bridge-completio n resistor .
Self-temperature-compensated gage s ar e readil y availabl e fro m strai n
gage manufacturers. In the gage designation code, a number usuall y appears
that indicate s th e materia l fo r whic h th e gag e i s temperature-compensated .
For instance , 6 or 06 indicates a gage compensated fo r mild steel , where the
FIG. 11.4. Quarte r bridg e wit h thre e lea d wire s an d bridg e completio n resistor.
thermal expansion coefficient is 6 (uin/in)/°F. This is also designated as parts

per million pe r degree Fahrenhei t an d abbreviate d t o ppm/°F . A graph ma y
be include d i n th e gag e packe t showin g th e variatio n wit h temperatur e o f
both th e thermal output , expressed i n microstrain, and the gage factor . Ther e
may also be a polynomial expression givin g the thermal output as a functio n
of temperature . Figur e 11. 5 shows a typica l grap h o f bot h therma l outpu t
and gag e facto r variatio n vs . temperature.
In developin g th e therma l outpu t vs . temperature curve, the data give n
are for a foi l lo t rathe r tha n a gage designation. A test gag e made fro m a foi l
lot i s bonde d t o a tes t specime n an d th e procedur e give n b y AST M i s
followed (5) . The tes t specime n i s placed i n a temperatur e chambe r an d th e
gage i s connecte d t o a strai n indicator , th e gag e facto r i s se t (usuall y 2.0 )
and th e instrumen t i s the n balance d a t th e referenc e temperatur e o f 75°F .
The tes t specime n i s unrestrained an d allowe d t o expan d o r contrac t freel y
as th e temperatur e i s varied . Sinc e n o mechanica l o r therma l stresse s ar e
present a t th e equilibriu m temperatures , th e recorde d strai n a t thes e
temperatures i s du e onl y t o th e therma l effects , thu s enablin g on e t o plo t
the therma l outpu t vs . temperature . Th e therma l outpu t ma y als o b e
expressed a s a polynomia l give n as
where e TO = therma l outpu t i n microstrai n

T = temperatur e
The coefficients , A , B , C , D, an d E ma y b e give n fo r bot h th e Fahrenhei t
and Celsiu s temperatur e scales .
If greater accurac y i s required i n determining th e therma l outpu t when
testing an actual structure , the gage, or gages, ma y be bonded t o the structure
along wit h th e adjacentl y place d temperatur e senso r fo r eac h gage . Th e
strain-measuring instrumen t i s balance d a t th e referenc e temperature , an d
the structur e i n th e unrestraine d stat e (n o mechanica l o r therma l stresse s
Foil Lo t No . A38AD31 5
FIG. 11.5 . Therma l output and gag e factor variatio n vs. temperature.
present) is subjected t o th e tes t temperature , o r temperatures . The thermal

output (microstrain ) a t eac h equilibriu m temperatur e i s recorded , whic h
allows subsequent correctio n in order to obtain th e strains due to the loading.
Table 11. 1 is a listin g of the coefficient s fo r Eq . (11.10 ) fo r severa l foi l
lot numbers . The temperatur e coefficien t o f the gag e facto r fo r eac h foi l lo t
is also included.
Thermal output correction

When th e structure carryin g th e bonded strai n gag e i s loaded and teste d a t
some subsequen t temperature , th e strai n indicato r wil l sho w a n indicate d
strain, e|, tha t i s made u p no t onl y of the therma l outpu t (apparen t strain )
but als o th e strai n produce d b y the mechanica l an d therma l stresse s due t o
the loading . Settin g th e actua l valu e o f th e gag e factor , G F, give n o n th e
strain gag e dat a sheet , on th e strai n indicator , a firs t approximatio n o f the
strain a t th e test temperatur e is obtained b y subtracting the therma l outpu t
from th e indicated strain . Whe n doin g this , car e mus t b e taken i n using th e
proper sig n of the strain . This gives
Table 11. 1
Foil lo t no . Tes t materia l A B C D E
A11BP11 10 1 8 Steel 2.31 x 103 -2.79 x 10' -4.59 x 10- 2 8.60 x 10-5 -2.9 x 10 -8 °F
1.37 x 103 -5.51 x 10' -1.23 x 10 -1 4.79 X 10-4 -3.11 x 10 -7 °C
Temperature coefficient of gag e facto r = (0. 7 + 0.2)/100°C
-5
A12BJ01 101 8 Steel 7.03 x 102 -8.31 -1.78 x 10 -2 5.15 X 10 -3.37 x 10 -8
=F
-4
4.21 x 102 -1.67 x 101 -4.22 x 10 - 2 2.75 X 10 -3.53 x 10 -7
'C
2024-T4 A l 2.98 x 102 -2.94 -1.76 x 10 -2
6.06 X 10 -5
-4.59 x 10 -8 3
F
1.88 x 102 -7.00 -3.89 x 10 - 2 3.19 X 10-4 -4.82 x 10 -7 J
C
Temperature coefficient of gag e factor = (0. 8 + 0.2)/100 C
A12BJ03 101 8 Steel 7.47 x 102 -8.80 -1.86 x 10 -2 4.19 X 10-5 -1.09 x 10 -8
=F
4.47 x 102 -1.78 x 10' -4.75 x 10-2 2.36 X 10-4 -1.14 x 10 -7
"C
2024-T4 A l 2.40 x 102 -2.26 -1.44 x 10 -2 2.54 X 10-5 1.26 x 10 -8
°F
1.54 x 102 -5.58 -3.84 x 10 - 2 1.58 X 10-4 1.32 x 10 -7 !
C
Temperature coefficient of gag e facto r = (0. 8 + 0.2)/100°C
A38AD315 101 8 Steel -9.59 x 101 3.02 -2.89 x 10 -2 8.13 X 10-5 -5.99 x 10 - 8 °F
-4
-2.64 x 10' 2.53 -6.96 x 10 -2
4.29 X 10 -6.29 x 1 0 - 7 "C
Temperature coefficient of gag e factor = (0. 8 + 0.2)/100°C
Source: Courtes y o f Measurement s Group, Inc .

TEMPERATURE EFFECT S O N STRAI N GAGES 34 7
where e, ' =strai n indicato r readin g unde r tes t condition s

ETO = thermal outpu t fro m th e data shee t (microstrain )
The valu e o f e, - give n b y Eq . (11.11 ) ma y b e o f sufficien t accuracy , bu t
e'i was obtaine d wit h the actua l valu e of G F set on th e strai n indicator , while
the therma l output , S TO, wa s determine d wit h a differen t valu e o f G f
(generally 2.0) . Therefore , if further accurac y i s desired, th e therma l outpu t
should b e correcte d fo r th e differenc e i n gag e factors . Thi s i s a simpl e
procedure, a s on e ma y recal l fro m Chapte r 5 . The correctio n i s
where G F1 = gag e facto r set on th e strai n indicato r

GF2 = gage factor of the strai n gag e
£i = indicated strai n o n th e strai n indicato r
£2 = correcte d strai n
Since e TO wa s obtained b y setting a gage facto r o n th e strai n indicato r
other tha n th e actua l gag e factor , a correcte d valu e o f th e therma l outpu t
may b e calculate d b y usin g Eq . (11.12) . B y takin g G F1 = G$, G F2 = G F,
e = £
i ro> an< 3 £2 =e ro> w e hav e th e corrected therma l outpu t as
where G f i s th e gag e facto r used i n determinin g the therma l outpu t curve .

Using Eq . (11.13) , Eq . (11.11 ) ca n b e rewritten as
If desired , th e entir e therma l outpu t vs . temperatur e curv e coul d b e

corrected beforehan d fo r th e actua l gag e facto r b y usin g Eq . (11.13 ) an d
plotting a ne w curve . Note , however , tha t thi s correctio n woul d b e fo r
reference temperatur e gag e factor s an d woul d no t accoun t fo r gag e facto r
variation wit h temperature.
Example 11.1. Tw o identica l gage s ar e attache d t o a structur e a t differen t
locations. Th e gag e dat a an d therma l outpu t curv e ar e show n i n Fig . 11.5 . A
gage facto r o f 2.05 i s se t o n th e strai n indicator , th e instrumen t i s balanced a t
75°F, an d th e structur e i s loaded an d brough t t o it s test temperatur e o f 300°F.
The followin g readings ar e obtained :
Gage 1 E I = 1180|iin/i n
Gage 2 s 2 = -2060uin/i n
Use Eq . (11.14 ) t o determin e th e corrected strai n fo r each gage.
Solution. Fro m Fig . (11.5) , K ro = — 80 ^in/in (G f = 2. 0 fo r thi s curve) . Usin g

Eq. (11.14) ,
Note tha t the gage factor correctio n amounte d to onl y 2 uin/in.
Correcting for thermal output and gage factor variation

In th e precedin g example , th e therma l outpu t wa s correcte d fo r th e actua l
gage factor at th e reference temperature, since that value was set on the strain
indicator whe n makin g th e strai n measurements . I f th e gag e facto r i s als o
to be corrected a s the temperature changes, then the indicated strai n as taken
from th e strai n indicator , a s wel l a s th e therma l output , mus t b e correcte d
for th e chang e i n gag e factor . I f th e therma l outpu t curv e wa s develope d
using a gag e facto r o f G* = 2.0 , bu t a differen t valu e o f G F was se t o n th e
strain indicato r whe n th e strain s wer e measured , the n eac h strai n valu e
(indicated an d therma l output ) woul d hav e t o b e correcte d individuall y
before makin g th e fina l correction .
As lon g a s a fe w identical gage s wer e used i n a test , thi s process, while
inconvenient, coul d b e used . Generally , however , ther e woul d likel y b e a
mixture of gages with different gag e factors and therma l output curves. Under
these conditions i t i s simpler t o us e a metho d correctin g bot h th e indicate d
strain an d therma l outpu t i n on e operation .
A simpl e metho d o f correctin g fo r th e therma l outpu t an d th e gag e
factor variatio n i s available. Since th e therma l output curve s ar e develope d
using a particular gag e factor o f Gf (usuall y 2.0) at the reference temperature,
set the sam e gag e facto r on th e strai n indicato r whe n conducting tests . Th e
strain readin g ca n the n b e correcte d fo r th e effec t o f the therma l outpu t b y
using Eq . (11.11) . Th e nex t ste p i s t o correc t th e actua l gag e facto r t o it s
proper valu e at th e tes t temperature . This ca n b e don e b y usin g Eq . (11.7).
Combining thes e tw o equation s give s th e actua l strain , e , a t th e tes t
temperature. Thus ,
where E = thermal outpu t a t th e tes t temperatur e

TO
£• = strai n indicato r readin g unde r tes t condition s
Gj£ = gag e factor at whic h the therma l outpu t wa s recorde d
GFR = actual gag e factor a t th e referenc e temperature
AGF(%) = percen t variatio n i n gag e facto r a t tes t temperature , wit h
the prope r sig n
Example 11.2. A strain gag e havin g a gag e facto r o f 2.1 5 i s bonde d t o a stee l
structure an d a gage factor o f 2.0 is set on the strain indicator, which is balanced
at roo m temperature . A t th e tes t temperatur e th e followin g dat a ar e recorded :
Indicated strai n = 267 5 uin/i n

Thermal outpu t = —85 0 |iin/in
AGF(%) = 0.7 5 percen t
Solution. Usin g Eq . (11.15) ,
= 325 5 uin/i n
Note that the reference temperatur e gage factor. G FR, wil l be the manufacturer' s
gage factor , G T, providing th e referenc e temperatur e fo r thi s tes t i s 75°F.
The precedin g metho d i s the easies t t o use , since th e correctio n ca n b e

made i n on e step . Othe r way s may b e employed.
1. Th e manufacturer' s gag e facto r ca n b e se t o n th e strai n indicato r an d

the instrumen t balanced . Thi s woul d requir e th e indicate d strai n an d
the thermal output to be corrected separately for gage factor variation.
2. Se t an y arbitrar y gag e factor , or th e tes t temperatur e gag e factor , o n
the instrumen t an d balanc e i t at th e referenc e temperature.
3. Se t th e tes t temperatur e gag e facto r o n th e strai n indicator . Brin g
the tes t structur e t o th e tes t temperatur e an d balanc e th e indicato r
before applyin g th e load . Th e drawbac k here , o f course , i s bein g
sure th e structur e is stress fre e whe n balancing th e instrument .
11.4. Strain gage-test material mismatch (2)

Self-temperature-compensated strai n gage s ar e manufacture d fo r material s
that hav e coefficient s o f thermal expansio n rangin g fro m 0 t o 1 8 parts pe r
million pe r degre e Fahrenhei t (ppm/°F) . Thes e value s cove r a rang e o f
commonly used engineerin g materials. Gages use d o n plastics , however, are
Table T1.2. Thermal expansio n coefficient s o f commo n

materials
Expansion coefficient
Material (per F ) (per C )
Aluminum, 2024-T4 , 7075-T 6 12.9 23.2

Beryllium coppe r 2 5 9.3 16.7
Brass, 30-7 0 11.1 20.0
Bronze, phospho r (10%) 10.2 18.4
Copper 9.3 16.7
Iron, gra y cas t 6.0 10.8
Magnesium, AZ-31 B 14.5 26.1
Molybdenum 2.2 4.0
Monel 7.5 13.5
Steel, 1008 , 101 8 6.7 12.1
Steel, 434 0 6.3 11.3
Steel, 30 4 stainles s 9.6 17.3
Steel, 31 6 stainles s 8.9 16.0
Tin, pur e 13.0 23.4
Titanium, pur e 4.8 8.6
manufactured wit h coefficient s o f 30 , 40 , an d 5 0 ppm/°F. I f a strai n gag e

compensated fo r steel , fo r instance , i s use d o n a secon d materia l wit h a
different coefficien t o f therma l expansion , the n th e therma l outpu t curv e
furnished wit h th e gage wil l no longe r b e directly applicable. Th e amoun t o f
deviation wil l depend o n th e differenc e i n the therma l expansio n coefficient s
of th e tw o materials . Tabl e 11. 2 i s a partia l listin g o f therma l expansio n
coefficients fo r som e common engineerin g materials .
If a strai n gag e i s use d o n a materia l fo r whic h i t i s no t compensated ,
and i f the differenc e i n therma l expansio n coefficient s i s not to o large , the n
over a limite d temperatur e rang e nea r th e referenc e temperatur e th e erro r
produced i n using the given thermal output curve may b e acceptable. A s the
difference betwee n th e therma l expansio n coefficient s become s larger , som e
steps shoul d b e taken t o determin e th e therma l outpu t fo r th e gag e whe n i t
is used o n materia l fo r which it i s not compensated . Thi s i s particularly tru e
for plastics , no t onl y becaus e o f th e wid e variety , but als o becaus e o f th e
difference betwee n manufacturer s fo r supposedl y th e sam e typ e o f plastic .
When suc h gage s ar e t o b e use d o n a specifi c application , i t migh t b e
advisable t o determin e th e therma l outpu t curv e fo r tha t particula r strai n
gage-plastic combination. Thi s can be done i n accordance wit h the procedur e
discussed earlier .
When a strai n gag e i s applied t o a material fo r whic h i t is mismatched ,
an approximat e correctio n ca n b e mad e b y usin g Eq . (11.6) , whic h i s th e
expression fo r therma l output . I f th e strai n gag e i s applie d t o th e firs t
material, then th e therma l outpu t is
where th e subscrip t 1 refers t o th e firs t materia l tested . I f a simila r gag e is

applied t o a secon d material , then th e therma l outpu t is
where th e subscrip t 2 refer s t o th e secon d material .

In Eqs . (a ) an d (b) , th e las t ter m o n th e right-han d sid e i s th e same ,
since i t refer s t o th e strai n gage . Thus ,
If the thermal output, £ T01, i s known, then the thermal output, er02 , can be
approximated b y usin g Eq. (c) . This gives
Equation (11.16 ) give s a firs t approximatio n fo r th e therma l outpu t

when the strain gage is applied to a second material. This amounts to rotating
the give n therma l outpu t curv e abou t th e referenc e temperature . I f a m2 i s
larger than <x ml , the rotatio n wil l be counterclockwise ; if am2 i s less than <x ml ,
the rotatio n wil l b e clockwise.
Figure 11. 6 shows the therma l outpu t an d gag e facto r variation curves
for a strai n gag e manufacture d fro m foi l lo t numbe r A12BJ03 , Table 11.1 .
Tests gage s o f thi s foi l lo t wer e bonde d t o bot h 101 8 stee l an d 2024-T 4
aluminum t o produc e th e curves shown. The therma l outpu t curve for steel
shows large changes with temperature, bot h abov e an d belo w the referenc e
temperature. The thermal outpu t curv e for aluminum, on th e other hand , is
much flatter . I t i s eviden t tha t gage s mad e o f thi s foi l an d bonde d t o
aluminum woul d give good result s in th e low-temperatur e region .
Example 11.3. Usin g Fig . 11.6 , assum e tha t onl y th e therma l outpu t dat a
available i s fo r 101 8 steel . Mak e a firs t approximation , usin g Eq . (11.16) , fo r
the therma l outpu t fo r 2024-T 4 aluminum . Compar e i t wit h th e actua l curv e
for aluminu m in Fig . 11.6 .
Solution. Fro m Tabl e 11.2 , th e therma l expansio n coefficien t fo r 101 8 stee l i s

6.7 ppm/°F and 12. 9 ppm/°F for 2024-T 4 aluminum. Using Eq . (11.16) ,
FIG. 11.6. Therma l outpu t an d gag e facto r variatio n vs . temperature.
where e, Tol i s the therma l output fo r 101 8 steel and e. T02 i s the calculate d valu e
of th e therma l outpu t fo r 2024-T 4 aluminum . Determin e e rol a t variou s
temperatures fro m th e curv e fo r 101 8 steel, o r comput e i t b y usin g th e
polynomial coefficient s give n i n Tabl e 11.1 . Carrying ou t th e calculations , th e
results ove r a temperatur e rang e fro m — 100°F t o SOO T are tabulated .
r, °F £TOl, fan/in ETm, fan/in

-100 1398 313
-50 1135 360
0 747 282
50 266 111
100 -278 -123
150 -856 -391
200 -1439 -664
250 -2003 -918
300 -2524 -1129
350 -2979 -1274
400 -3364 -1349
450 -3608 -1283
500 -3747 -1112
FIG. 11.7. Therma l outpu t an d gag e facto r variatio n vs . temperature.
The results are plotted i n Fig. 11.7 . Fo r th e values of the thermal expansio n
coefficients used , a first approximation o f the therma l output , s T02, shows tha t
the approximate d value s are positiv e an d slightl y higher tha n th e tes t value s at
temperatures below 75°F , while the approximated value s are negative an d belo w
the test values for temperatures abov e 75°F . The error i n the approximate value s
ranges betwee n 1 5 and 2 0 percen t u p t o 300°F , the n increase s considerabl y
above tha t temperature . I n lie u o f other information , however , thi s correctio n
for th e therma l outpu t woul d no t b e unreasonable , particularl y i f the strain s
imposed b y mechanica l an d therma l stresse s wer e large . I t doe s illustrate ,
though, the need for an actual test if more exact values of the strain ar e required .
11.5. Compensating gage

It wa s pointed out i n Chapte r 5 that two identica l gages placed i n adjacent
arms o f a half-bridg e circuit an d bonde d t o th e sam e materia l woul d giv e
temperature compensation if both gages were subjected to th e same tempera-
ture. This also applies to a full-bridge circui t if all four gages , bonded t o th e
same material, were always at the same temperature during the test. Further-
more, i n either of these circuits the lea d wire s mus t be route d together an d
be at th e sam e temperature.
FIG. 11.8 . Temperature-compensate d circui t usin g a dumm y gage.
A commo n arrangemen t fo r temperatur e compensation i s the us e o f a

dummy gage, identical to the active gage, in a half-bridge circuit. The dummy
gage must be bonded to a stress-free piece of material identical to the material
on whic h the activ e gag e i s bonded an d place d a s clos e t o th e activ e gage
as possibl e s o tha t i t experience s th e sam e temperature . Th e lea d wire s of
both the active gage and dumm y gage should be routed together. This circuit
is show n in Fig . 11.8.
If th e bridg e i s initially balanced, then , fro m Eq . (5.1),
where R ! = activ e stain gag e

R2 = dummy strain gag e
If ther e i s a chang e i n temperatur e only , AR 1 = AR 2, sinc e th e activ e an d
dummy gage s ar e identical , are mounte d o n th e sam e typ e o f material, an d
are maintaine d a t identica l temperatures . Therefore ,
This shows that th e bridge remains balanced, irrespectiv e of the temperature

change, sinc e th e influenc e o f temperatur e ha s bee n eliminated , an d an y
unbalance o f the bridg e wil l be due solely to mechanica l strai n o n th e active
gage.
An alternativ e method woul d employ th e dummy gage an d activ e gage
in quarter-bridge circuits . The dummy gage would be placed adjacen t t o th e
active gag e an d record s kep t o f bot h gag e outputs . Th e therma l outpu t
recorded fro m th e dumm y gage woul d b e subtracte d fro m th e activ e gag e
strain. This would , of course, double th e require d strai n gag e channels .
If th e ful l bridg e i s considered, an d i t i s assumed fo r simplicit y tha t al l
resistances ar e identica l strai n gage s o f resistanc e R an d mounte d o n th e
same material , the n th e circui t outpu t give n by Eq . (5.6 ) is, taking n = 0,
If eac h of the resistanc e change s is compose d of load-induced chang e plu s

temperature-induced change , and all gages have undergone the same tempera-
ture change, the n Eq . (11.19 ) can b e writte n as
where subscrip t L = load-induced resistanc e change

subscript T = temperature-induced resistanc e chang e
Since
This shows that we have temperature compensation fo r an initially balanced

bridge a s lon g a s adjacan t arm s ar e mad e u p o f strai n gage s o f th e sam e
type, bonded t o th e sam e material , an d kep t a t th e sam e temperature .
Although the basic idea for temperature compensation is simple enough,
nevertheless, like many other aspect s o f strain gage work , attention to detai l
is essential if optimum results are to b e achieved. One must always remember
that th e observation s fro m what , i n othe r respects , i s a practicall y perfec t
test ca n b e made quite valueless by faulty temperatur e compensation. Som e
points t o b e kept i n mind ar e th e following :
1. Th e magnitud e o f th e erro r include d i n th e indicate d observatio n
depends upo n
(a) Change s i n temperatur e betwee n active and dumm y gages.
(b) Th e gage s an d materia l upo n whic h the y are mounted .
(c) Th e operatin g temperatur e level .
2. Th e piec e o f materia l upo n whic h th e dumm y i s mounte d ma y b e
unintentionally subjecte d t o mechanica l strain.
3. Th e therma l connectio n betwee n th e bloc k carryin g th e dumm y gag e
and the material upon which the active gage is mounted may not be very
good s o tha t a temperatur e differentia l i s set up.
4. Ther e wil l b e a differenc e betwee n gage s o f th e sam e lot , particularl y
at th e highe r temperatures .
There ar e condition s unde r whic h temperatur e compensatio n ca n b e
attained b y havin g th e dumm y gag e pla y a n active , rathe r tha n a passive,
FIG. 11.9. Cantileve r beam s wit h strai n gage s aligne d paralle l t o th e longitudina l axi s an d
temperature-compensated.
role i n th e measuremen t o f stress-induce d strains , an d a t th e sam e tim e

increase th e outpu t signal . On e suc h arrangemen t i s show n i n Fig . 11.9 ,
which consists o f a thin cantilever beam. Since top and botto m surfac e strains
at a given section ar e equal i n magnitude bu t o f opposite sig n when the loa d
F i s applied, either a half-bridg e circuit consisting of gages 1 and 2 (or 3 an d
4) i n adjacen t arms , o r a full-bridg e circuit, a s shown , ca n b e used . Thi s
requires, o f course, tha t n o therma l gradien t exist s in th e bea m an d tha t al l
gages ar e a t th e sam e temperature . Th e outpu t signa l i s either tw o o r fou r
times tha t o f a singl e gage , dependin g o n th e circuit , and wil l giv e strain s
due onl y t o th e bendin g cause d b y load F .
Figure 11.1 0 show s a tensio n membe r wit h fou r gages . Unde r th e
requirement tha t all gages ar e at the same temperature , the full-bridge circuit
shown wil l b e temperature-compensated , an d th e outpu t signa l wil l b e
2(1 + v ) times the average longitudina l strain. This circui t wil l rea d onl y th e
FIG. 11.10. Tensio n membe r wit h strai n gages .

TEMPERATURE EFFECT S O N STRAI N GAGE S 357
FIG. 11.11. Strai n gage s arranged fo r measurin g torque.
effect o f the axia l load F and wil l cancel bending strains . On th e othe r hand ,
if only gages 1 and 2 were used in adjacen t arm s o f a half-bridg e circuit, the
circuit woul d be temperature-compensated bu t th e relationship betwee n the
strains, g j and e 2, would no t b e known unles s the load , F , was a pur e axial
load.
A thir d exampl e i s illustrate d i n Fig . 11.11 . I f gage s a , b, c, and d ar e
arranged i n a full-bridg e circui t wit h gage s a an d b i n adjacen t arm s an d
gages c an d d i n arm s opposit e a an d b , respectively , then th e bridg e (al l
gages mus t b e a t th e sam e temperature) , wil l b e temperature-compensate d
and th e outpu t wil l b e a functio n of the torqu e only.
As a final example, an instrument was used in which a full-bridge circuit
had t o b e wire d t o externa l bindin g post s tha t wer e arrange d i n a fairl y
compact rectangl e o n th e instrument' s to p surfac e an d adjacen t t o th e
balancing control . Tw o activ e gage s wer e arrange d i n opposit e arms , an d
since testin g took plac e a t roo m temperature , tw o precisio n resistor s wer e
placed i n th e othe r tw o arm s a t th e bindin g posts . Whe n balancin g th e
instrument, driftin g was observed an d balanc e coul d no t b e obtained . Thi s
continued fo r som e tim e unti l th e operato r realize d tha t hi s arm , whe n
adjusting th e instrument , wa s directl y above on e o f the precisio n resistors ,
causing its temperature t o change. Replacing the two precision resistor s with
two dumm y gages bonde d t o a piec e o f the tes t materia l an d movin g them
away fro m th e instrumen t solve d th e problem .
Problems
11.1. A strain gage , whos e thermal outpu t curve is shown in Fig . 11.5 , is bonded t o
a machin e element made o f mild steel. The strai n indicato r i s balanced a t 75° F
using a gag e facto r o f 2.0 , the n th e machin e elemen t i s heate d t o th e tes t
temperature of 200°F and a load i s applied. If G F = 2.05 from th e gage packag e
data an d th e strai n indicato r shows , afte r loading , a n indicate d strai n o f
K', = —246 5 u,in/in, determine the actua l strain, correcting fo r bot h th e therma l
output an d th e gag e facto r variation.
11.2. Th e machin e element in Proble m 11. 1 has it s temperature raised t o 250° F an d
a ne w loa d i s applied. Afte r a readin g i s taken th e temperatur e i s then raise d
to 400° F and th e loadin g i s again changed . For th e followin g data , correc t th e
strains a s i n Proble m 11. 1 and determin e th e differenc e i n strai n between th e
two temperatures :
r=250°F K - = -187 5 uin/i n
T = 400°F f, \ = - 362 8 uln/in
11.3. A strai n gag e o f th e sam e typ e a s use d i n Proble m 11. 1 is bonde d t o a tes t
specimen an d th e indicato r i s balanced a t roo m temperature . A gage facto r of
3.0 was inadvertently set on th e strai n indicato r rathe r tha n 2.0 . When th e tes t
specimen was brought to its test temperature of 300°F and loaded , the indicated
strain wa s e.' t = 193 6 uin/in. Determine th e actua l strain.
11.4. Plo t th e therma l outpu t curve s for th e foil s give n in Tabl e 11.1 .
11.5. A strai n gag e wit h foi l lo t numbe r A12BJ0 1 is t o b e use d o n a magnesiu m
member. Determin e th e approximat e therma l outpu t curve , £7-02 , usin g th e
thermal outpu t curv e for steel fo r values of erol .
11.6. A strain gag e wit h foi l lo t numbe r A11BP1 1 is to b e use d o n a plasti c whose
thermal expansion coefficien t i s 40 ppm/°F. Determine the approximate thermal
output curve.
11.7. A rectangula r rosett e ha s a nomina l gag e facto r o f 2.1 2 for al l sections . Th e
thermal outpu t curv e associate d wit h thi s rosett e wa s obtaine d o n 2024-T 4
aluminum. Th e rosett e i s bonde d t o a stee l tes t membe r an d a gag e facto r of
2.0 is set o n th e instrument , which is then balance d a t 75°C . The tes t membe r
is loade d an d brough t t o a temperatur e o f 300°F . A t thi s temperatur e th e
thermal outpu t (fo r aluminum ) i s t. TO = — 950 uin/in an d th e gag e facto r
variation i s 1 percent. Gag e a i s aligne d alon g a chose n coordinat e axi s an d
all angles ar e measure d fro m thi s axis . The followin g strains were recorded:
< = 87 5 uin/in a t 0 = 0°
4 = - 196 0 uin/in at 0 = 45°
s'c = - 157 5 uin/in at 9 = 90°
(a) Determin e th e principa l strain s fo r the uncorrecte d readings .
(b) Determin e th e principa l strain s for th e correcte d readings .
11.8. A rectangula r rosett e ha s a nomina l gag e facto r o f 2.14 5 for al l sections . Th e
thermal outpu t curv e associated wit h this rosett e wa s obtaine d o n 101 8 steel .
The rosett e i s applied t o a stee l test member , a gag e facto r o f 2.0 is set o n th e
strain indicator , an d th e instrumen t i s balance d a t 75°F . Th e tes t membe r i s
loaded an d brough t t o a temperatur e o f — 50°F, wher e the therma l outpu t i s
— 500 uin/in and th e gag e variatio n facto r is —0. 5 percent . Gage a i s aligned
along a chosen coordinat e axi s and al l angles are measured fro m thi s axis. The
following strain s wer e recorded:
s'a= -68 5 nin/i n at 9 = 0°
4= -182 5 uin/i n at 6 = 45°
e'c= 133 5 uin/in a t 0 = 90°
(b) Determin e th e principa l strain s fo r the correcte d readings .
11.9. A delta rosette, bonde d t o aluminu m and havin g a nominal gage factor of 2.08
for al l sections, is loaded t o it s tes t temperatur e of 350°F. A t thi s temperature
the therma l outpu t i s S TO = — 90 uin/in an d th e gag e variatio n facto r i s 1. 2
percent. The strain indicato r was initially balanced with G F = 2.0 at 75°F. Gag e
a i s aligne d alon g a chose n referenc e axi s an d al l angle s ar e measure d fro m
this axis . The followin g strain s were recorded :
£'„= -53 5 uin/i n at 0 = 0°
4 = -84 5 uin/i n at 9 = 120°
s'c= 18 0 uin/in at 0 = 240 °
(b) Determin e the principa l strains for th e correcte d readings .
REFERENCES
1. Murray , Willia m M . an d Pete r K . Stein , Strain Gage Techniques, Lectures an d

laboratory exercises presented at MIT, Cambridge, MA: July 8-19,1963, pp. 95-96.
2. "Temperature-Induce d Apparen t Strai n an d Gag e Facto r Variatio n i n Strai n
Gages," TN-504, Measurement s Group, Inc., P.O. 27777 , Raleigh, NC 27611,1983.
3. "Catalo g 500: Part B—Strai n Gage Technica l Data, " Measurements Group, Inc.,
P.O. Bo x 27777, Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1988 .
4. "SR- 4 Strain Gage Handbook," BLH Electronics, Inc., 75 Shawmut Road, Canton,
MA 02021 , 1980 .
5. 798 6 Annual Book a t ASTM Standards, 191 6 Race St. , Philadelphia , P A 19103 ,
"Performance Characteristic s o f Bonde d Resistanc e Strai n Gages, " Vol . 03.01 ,
Designation: E251-86 , pp. 413-428. Copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission.
12
TRANSDUCERS
12.1. Introduction
When on e o r mor e strai n gage s ar e use d t o measur e som e quantit y whos e
magnitude ca n b e determine d b y th e indicatio n o f strai n o n som e load -
bearing member, the whol e unit i s frequently describe d a s a transducer . Th e
load-bearing membe r ma y hav e one , two , three , o r mor e strai n gage s
mounted o n it , dependin g o n th e quantit y t o b e measured , th e precisio n
desired, an d th e influenc e o f extraneou s effects , som e o f whic h ca n b e
eliminated o r reduce d t o negligibl e proportions .
In general , th e load-bearin g element s fo r transducer s ma y b e divide d
into a fe w categories whic h depend upo n wha t i s to b e measured , a s wel l a s
being dependent o n spac e requirements . These includ e direct stres s (tensio n
or compression ) fo r th e measuremen t o f larg e forces , member s i n bendin g
for determinin g mediu m o r smal l forces , th e indicatio n o f torsion , th e
measurement o f fluid pressure, etc. Ther e ar e man y variation s o f apparatu s
to accomplis h thes e end s an d considerabl e overlappin g o f th e differen t
procedures, an d som e o f th e device s tha t hav e bee n develope d fo r specia l
conditions ar e exceptionall y ingenious. A revie w o f some o f the mor e usua l
types o f transducer i s presented i n thi s chapter .
Let u s no w examin e a simpl e case involvin g fou r strai n gage s (on e fo r
each ar m o f th e Wheatston e bridge ) a s indicate d i n Fig . 12.1 . Her e
/?! = R 2 = R 3 = R 4 = R a and , i f idealized bridg e condition s ar e assume d
and th e bridge is initially balanced , E = 0 and /^ ^= R 2R4- Fo r thi s case ,
then, th e bridg e rati o is
From Eq . (5.39) , th e bridg e output , A£ 0, ca n b e writte n as,
Since th e uni t change s i n resistanc e wil l b e smal l compare d t o unity , th e

TRANSDUCERS 361
FIG. 12.1. Wheatston e bridge .
nonlinearity ter m i s determined b y usin g Eq . (5.42) . Thus ,
Equation (12.1) , the general expressio n fo r the output fro m th e initially

balanced Wheatston e bridge , tell s on e tha t th e bridg e outpu t i s directl y
proportional t o th e applie d voltage , V , an d fo r smal l uni t change s i n
resistance i s nearly proportional t o th e following :
1. Th e algebrai c differenc e betwee n th e uni t change s o f resistanc e i n
adjacent arm s o f the bridge .
2. Th e algebrai c su m o f th e uni t resistanc e change s i n opposit e arm s
of th e bridge .
In additio n
3. I f tw o o r mor e gage s happe n t o b e connecte d i n serie s i n on e ar m o f
the bridge , th e averag e valu e o f th e correspondin g strain s wil l b e
reflected i n th e bridg e output .
This mean s tha t i f the gage s ar e appropriatel y located , a bridg e outpu t wil l
be produced representin g th e addition, subtraction, or th e average o f strains
at certai n particula r locations .
The full bridge

Since Eq . (12.1 ) fo r A£ 0, th e outpu t o f a n initiall y balance d Wheatston e
bridge, contains a n equa l numbe r o f terms wit h positiv e and negativ e signs,
this suggests that if one were designing a transducer fo r full-bridge operation ,
strain gage s wit h positiv e and negativ e gage factors might be considere d i n
order t o achiev e th e maximu m output , o r indication , pe r uni t load . A s it
may no t b e possible, or desirable , to us e gages wit h gag e factor s of opposite
sign, it i s fortunate that th e sam e result can b e achieve d b y usin g lik e gage s
and mountin g them alternately in regions o f tension an d compressio n o f the
load-carrying elemen t o f th e transducer . This i s commo n practice , whic h
works bes t whe n th e strain s i n tensio n an d compressio n ar e o f equa l
magnitude.
Equation (12.1 ) also tell s u s tha t i f all gage s ar e alik e an d th e gage s i n
adjacent arm s o f th e bridg e ar e subjecte d t o strain s o f opposit e sign , th e
indication A£ 0 wil l b e large r tha n tha t fro m a hal f bridge . I n th e sam e
manner, i f the strain s o n th e gage s ar e o f the sam e sign , th e bridg e outpu t
will b e les s tha n tha t fro m a hal f bridg e whos e gage s i n opposit e arm s ar e
subjected t o the two largest strains. In the worst case, there may be no bridg e
output al l (AE 0 = 0).
The half bridge

There are certain situations in which i t will be more convenient to us e a hal f
bridge instea d o f a ful l bridge . I n thi s case tw o activ e gage s ar e employe d
instead o f four. Th e tw o gages represente d b y R 3 an d R 4 i n Fig . 12. 1 can b e
replaced b y any tw o equal fixed resistors (for initial bridge balance) , o r they
may b e left out . In tha t even t one must b e sure that th e applie d voltag e doe s
not sen d a curren t throug h th e gage s i n exces s o f th e norma l carryin g
capacity, which is usuall y about 3 0 milliamperes.
With tw o fixe d resistor s fo r R 3 an d R 4, AR 3 = A.R 4 = 0 . I n thi s cas e
Eq. (12.1 ) reduces t o
Equation (12.3 ) is the same a s Eq . (4.26) for the potentiometri c circui t when
o = l . Th e nonlinearit y factor i s given by
The hal f bridg e i s particularl y usefu l fo r bendin g member s wit h a

symmetrical cros s sectio n i n whic h th e tensil e an d compressiv e strain s o n
opposite surface s ar e o f equa l magnitude . Fo r thi s cas e n = 0 an d th e
half-bridge outpu t become s
TRANSDUCERS 36 3
The quarter bridge

When on e want s t o measur e strai n a t a singl e point , o r i n rar e cases , t o
produce a transduce r wit h a singl e activ e gage , th e singl e activ e gage an d
three fixe d resistor s ca n b e use d i n th e Wheatston e bridge . I n orde r t o
accomplish bridg e balanc e a t zer o load , on e o f the thre e resistor s mus t b e
equal to that o f the gage. The other two, then, can have any resistance values,
but the y must b e equa l t o eac h othe r i f a four-ar m bridg e is being used .
A convenien t way to provid e the thre e fixed resistors, although not th e
only one , i s t o moun t thre e strai n gages , identica l t o th e activ e one, o n a
piece o f materia l simila r t o tha t upo n whic h th e activ e gag e ha s bee n
mounted. This arrangemen t give s an equal-ar m Wheatston e bridg e suitable
for bot h static and dynami c measurements. If the material carrying the three
inactive, o r dummy , gage s ha s th e sam e therma l characteristic s a s th e
material carrying the active gage, the system will be temperature-compensated .
If dynami c measurement s onl y ar e t o b e mad e an d temperatur e
compensation i s of no concern , i t woul d b e preferabl e to us e th e potentio -
metric circuit and chang e the ballast rati o fro m 1 to about 10 . This increase s
the circui t efficienc y fro m 5 0 percent t o abou t 9 0 percent.
12.2. Axial-force transducers

Tension-compression load cell
This typ e o f transducer, generally called a load cell , is one o f the earlies t t o
be used . B y proper en d connection s eithe r tensil e o r compressiv e loads , o r
both, ma y b e measured . Th e centra l sectio n wher e th e strai n gage s ar e
bonded i s made long enough s o that the strains at th e gage location are no t
affected b y th e en d conditions . Thi s sectio n i s designe d s o tha t maximu m
possible strains are reached, yet the member remains within the elastic regio n
and wel l belo w the yiel d point o f the materia l i n orde r t o reduc e hysteresis.
The cross section of the load cell at the strain gag e location can have differen t
geometries, with cylindrical, square, or tubular cross sections being common.
Figure 12.2 shows a cylindrical load cel l for both tensile and compressiv e
loads. Fou r gage s ar e shown ; gages 1 and 3 are 180 ° apar t an d aligne d i n
the longitudina l direction , whil e gage s 2 and 4 ar e 180 ° apar t an d aligne d
in th e transvers e direction . Th e gage s ar e arrange d int o a ful l bridg e a s
illustrated, wit h E J = e 3 = E and e 2 = e 4 = — vs. Thi s bridg e arrangemen t
cancels bendin g strain s an d i s temperature-compensate d a s lon g a s n o
temperature gradient s exis t in th e member .
Instead o f using Eqs. (12.1) and (12.2 ) in determining the bridge output,
AE0, an d th e nonlinearit y factor , ( 1 — n), w e wil l retur n t o Eqs . (5.39 ) an d
(5.40) for each case. The bridge output, A£0, for this bridge arrangement is
FIG. 12.2 . Loa d cel l fo r tensil e an d compressiv e loads .
The nonlinearit y factor , ( 1 — n), i s
These result s correspon d t o th e result s obtaine d i n Exampl e 5.2 , where this

bridge arrangemen t wa s examined .
Equation (12.6 ) shows tha t th e bridg e give s an outpu t o f 2(1 + v ) times
as grea t a s tha t o f a singl e longitudina l gage , considerin g th e nonlinearit y
factor t o b e unity . Substituting the nonlinearit y factor, ( 1 — n), given b y Eq .
(12.7) int o Eq . (12.6) , th e resultin g bridg e outpu t i s
The indicate d strain , £ t, in term s o f th e actua l strain , E , is

TRANSDUCERS 36 5
Solving Eq . (12.9 ) for e gives
The ratio , £/e ;, is
When usin g thes e equations , not e tha t th e strain s mus t b e entere d a s

£ x 10~ 6 in/in.
These equations sho w that the bridge output is nonlinear, since all gages
do no t se e th e sam e strai n magnitudes . Th e transvers e strains , becaus e of
the Poisson effect, ar e about 30 percent of the longitudinal strains. Equation
(12.10) show s tha t th e actua l strai n wil l b e larger tha n th e indicate d strai n
for a tensil e force , whil e th e convers e i s tru e fo r a compressiv e force . Th e
bridge nonlinearit y a t a strai n leve l o f 100 0 uin/in , fo r eithe r tensio n o r
compression strains , i s about 0.0 7 percent .
Another nonlinearit y facto r i s present i n th e geometr y o f the loa d cel l
in tha t th e area changes unde r load . Thi s can b e approximated fo r a roun d
cross section by considering the change in diameter due to the Poisson effect .
The diameter , d , at an y loa d withi n the elasti c region , is
where d 0 is the diameter a t no load. The bridge an d geometr y nonlinearities,

however, ar e offsetting , wit h th e bridg e nonlinearit y being th e highe r o f the
two.
It may be desirable, a t times , to hav e only gages 1 and 3 active. In tha t
case, precisio n resistor s coul d b e use d i n arm s 2 and 4 to complet e th e ful l
bridge; however, a more convenien t wa y would be to bon d tw o strain gages
to materia l simila r t o th e transduce r an d us e the m a s dumm y gages . Thi s
would giv e temperatur e compensatio n provide d al l gage s remaine d a t th e
same temperature. The bridg e output, A£ 0, woul d be double tha t o f a single
gage an d woul d be nonlinear .
Ring-type load cell

The provin g ring ha s bee n i n use for years as a standar d fo r the calibratio n
of tensile-testing machines . Th e diametra l deflectio n of the rin g is a measure
of the applie d load, where the deflection is measured by means of a precisio n
micrometer. Th e thicknes s o f th e cros s section , whic h i s th e differenc e
between th e inne r an d oute r radii , i s small compare d t o th e mea n radius .
Rather than measur e diametra l deflection , strain gages may b e bonde d
FIG. 12.3. Ring-typ e loa d cell .
to th e ring , as shown in Fig. 12.3 , arranged int o a ful l bridge , and th e bridg e
output use d a s a measur e o f the applie d load . A n axia l forc e an d bendin g
moment ac t a t th e sectio n containin g th e strai n gages , a s illustrate d in th e
free-body diagra m o f th e uppe r hal f o f th e loa d cell . Sinc e eac h gag e i s
subjected t o the same axial strain du e to the axial force, F/2, thes e strains are
canceled an d th e bridge responds onl y to the strains induced b y the bendin g
moment, M 0. Fo r th e tensil e load, F , gage s 1 and 3 wil l b e i n compressio n
due t o bending , an d gage s 2 an d 4 wil l b e i n tension . Th e convers e wil l b e
true for a compressive load. Furthermore, thi s bridge arrangemen t give s ful l
temperature compensation .
The strai n at th e gages may b e estimated from th e bendin g stresses. The
moment, M 0, is
Since th e cros s sectio n i s rectangular, the strai n du e t o M 0 i s

TRANSDUCERS 367
FIG. 12.4. Curve d beam cross section.
This reduce s t o
where h « R .
If th e differenc e betwee n th e inne r an d oute r radi i increases , th e loa d
cell wil l n o longe r b e considere d a thi n ring . I n thi s case , a bette r estimat e
of the bending strain s du e to M 0 ma y be obtained fro m curve d beam theor y
(1). In the curved beam, the centroidal axis and neutra l axis do not coincide ,
with th e neutra l axi s shifte d inwar d toward s th e cente r o f curvature . Th e
geometry, show n in Fig . 12.4 , ha s th e followin g notation :
Rj = radius o f inner fiber
Rn = radius o f neutral axi s
R = radiu s of centroidal axi s
R0 = radius o f outer fiber
e = distance betwee n the centroida l an d neutra l axe s
h = section thickness , R 0 — Rt
w = section widt h
yt = distanc e fro m th e neutra l axi s to th e inner fiber
y0 = distanc e fro m th e neutral axi s to th e oute r fiber
The bending moment , M 0, now become s

Since e = R — Rn, th e radius , /?„, must be computed . It i s
The stresse s a t th e inne r an d oute r fibers are
where A i s the cross-sectional area. For th e sens e of M 0 show n i n Fig . 12.3 ,

o-; will be a tensile stress and a 0 wil l be a compressive stress. The correspond -
ing strain s ar e
For a tensile force, F , acting o n th e loa d cell , we see that £ t = e 3 = — £0 and

s2 = e 4 = E ; and s o th e bridg e outpu t i s nonlinear. Fo r th e developmen t of
these equations , th e reade r i s referred to Referenc e 1 .
The expressions for the strains at th e gag e locations ar e estimates, since
the bosses where the load i s applied have a stiffening effect . The y can b e used
for design , but calibratio n i s essential.
12.3. Simple cantilever beam

A devic e ofte n use d a s a transduce r i s th e cantileve r beam . Amon g it s
applications, i t ma y b e use d t o measur e force , t o serv e as a comparator , o r
to determine deflections in areas not readil y accessible to othe r instruments.
Single active gage

The most basi c application uses a single active gage and thre e fixed resistors
in th e Wheatston e bridge . Th e bea m ca n b e mad e fro m a piec e o f unifor m
bar stoc k o f rectangula r cros s section , wit h th e strai n gag e mounte d nea r
the fixed end o n th e longitudina l center lin e of the uppe r surface . Th e force ,
F, ca n the n b e measure d afte r a suitabl e calibration o f the bea m ha s bee n
performed. Thi s devic e is subject t o th e followin g limitations:
TRANSDUCERS 36 9
1. Th e outpu t will be low because only one ar m o f the Wheatston e bridg e

is active.
2. Th e lin e of action o f the applie d force , F , must alway s remain paralle l
to itsel f (includin g calibration ) an d a t th e sam e distance , L , fro m th e
center o f the gage .
3. Unles s a self-temperature-compensated strain gage is used to match the
thermal properties o f the beam, the apparatus can only be used precisely
at th e temperatur e o f calibration, otherwis e seriou s error s ma y occur .
4. N o compensatio n i s provide d fo r force s (i f any) , othe r tha n F ,
which ma y produc e latera l bending , torsion, o r direc t axia l thrust.
The bridg e outpu t i s given as
The nonlinearit y facto r is
The indicate d strain , e t, in term s o f the actua l strain , £ , is
Solving Eq . (12.24 ) for e produce s
The rati o o f the actua l strai n t o th e indicate d strai n is
Longitudinal and transverse gages on the same side

There may be some cases for which two gages mus t be mounted on the sam e
side o f the beam . Her e on e ca n tak e advantag e o f the Poisso n effect , whic h
produces a latera l strai n o f opposit e sig n fro m th e axia l strain . Thi s
arrangement use s one gage mounted in a longitudinal direction an d a secon d
gage bonde d i n the transvers e direction. Thi s arrangemen t ca n b e used a s a

half bridg e whe n th e gage s ar e connecte d i n adjacen t arms . Wit h th e tw o
gages a t th e sam e temperature , th e bridg e outpu t wil l b e automaticall y
temperature-compensated. However , al l othe r characteristic s o f th e singl e
gage applicatio n als o appl y t o this . Depending upo n th e valu e o f Poisson's
ratio for the ba r material , the output for this bridge wil l be about 3 0 percent
greater tha n tha t o f a singl e gage.
For thi s bridge, the longitudinal strain is £a = s and th e transverse strain
is £„ = — ve. With the gage s placed i n bridge arms 1 and 2 , the uni t resistance
changes ar e
From Eq . (7.21),
Using th e value s of R l/R1, R 2/R2, an d F a from Eqs . (a), (b), and (7.21) ,
the bridg e output , E 0, i s
The nonlinearit y factor, (1 — n), can b e writte n as

TRANSDUCERS 37 1
If K i s ignored ( K = 0), then A£ 0 an d ( 1 — ri) revert t o
Two longitudinal gages on opposite surfaces

Provided tha t th e tw o side s o f th e bea m ar e fre e fro m an y obstruction , a
considerable advantag e i n outpu t ca n b e obtaine d b y mountin g th e gage s
back t o bac k o n opposit e surfaces . Becaus e the y are subjecte d t o strain s of
equal magnitude but o f opposite sign , the y ca n b e placed i n adjacen t arm s
of a hal f bridge . Sinc e s i = s an d & 2= — e, the bridg e output , A£ 0, wil l b e
linear an d i s
This arrangemen t i s compensate d fo r temperatur e change s provide d

both gage s ar e maintaine d a t lik e temperatures . I t i s also compensate d fo r
direct axia l thrust , which wil l produc e th e sam e resistanc e changes i n bot h
gages, althoug h axia l thrus t wil l produc e bridg e nonlinearity . For metalli c
gages, the variatio n o f this nature in ( 1 — n) will usuall y be smal l enoug h t o
be neglected .
Full bridge, two gages back to back on opposite surfaces

Four gage s mounted back t o bac k i n pairs o n opposit e surface s of the bea m
and arrange d a s a ful l bridg e wil l giv e th e larges t bridg e output . Sinc e
e = e
i 3 =£ an d E 2 =£ 4 = ~ £> the bridge output , A£ 0, wil l b e linear an d i s
Provided al l gage s ar e maintaine d a t th e sam e temperature , thi s

arrangement gives temperature compensation. A s in the two-arm bridge, the
strains cause d b y axia l thrus t wil l b e nullified , althoug h thes e strain s wil l
produce bridg e nonlinearity .
There ar e severa l comments i n orde r concernin g th e cantileve r beam .
1. I f the line of action o f the force remains parallel t o itself , th e momen t a t
the gage section decreases becaus e o f the shortening of the moment ar m
due t o th e curvatur e of the beam .
2. Th e strai n alon g th e lengt h o f the strai n gag e i s not constant . Thi s ca n

be alleviated b y designin g a constant-stres s bea m o f uniform thickness
and a triangularly shaped width , or unifor m widt h and a parabolicall y
shaped thickness . Th e loa d i n eac h cas e i s applie d a t th e narrowes t
point o f the beam . Fo r a tapere d widt h beam , se e Fig. 7.5 .
12.4. Bending beam load cells

A variet y of load cell s ca n b e constructe d b y usin g different configuration s
of beams. Whethe r or no t al l make satisfactory load-measuring devices must
be determine d b y a combinatio n o f analysi s and testing . Severa l differen t
types, amon g th e man y available , wil l b e discusse d here .
Fixed-end beam
One may consider a beam wit h fixed ends an d cente r loading , show n in Fig .
12.5, for use as a load cell . One placemen t o f the strai n gage s an d th e bridg e
arrangement ar e shown , with gage s 1 and 3 being in compression an d gage s
2 an d 4 bein g i n tensio n fo r th e loadin g illustrated . Becaus e th e bea m i s
symmetrical, th e reaction s a t eac h built-i n end ar e identical . Furthermore ,
the support s ar e ver y stif f compare d t o th e beam . Expression s fo r th e
moments an d reactiv e forces a t th e fixed ends ma y b e developed o r foun d
in a tex t o n mechanic s o f materials.
Since th e end s o f the bea m ar e constraine d fro m movin g laterally, this
influence wil l no t b e accounte d fo r i n th e expression s fo r th e en d reactions .
Because of this constraint, a horizontal force is produced tha t affect s bendin g
FIG. 12.5. Bea m with fixe d ends.

TRANSDUCERS 373
moments i n th e bea m an d therefor e the deflectio n curve . While th e strain s

produced b y this force ar e canceled by the bridge arrangement, nevertheless,
they wil l produc e nonlinearit y in th e bridg e output .
Two fixed-end beams

A beam-typ e loa d cel l tha t overcome s th e lac k o f latera l movemen t o f th e
fixed end s i s show n i n Fig . 12.6 . Durin g loading , eithe r i n tensio n o r
compression, the ends are free t o move laterally and thus eliminate horizontal
forces o n th e beams . Th e centra l sectio n wher e the loa d i s applied an d th e
two en d support s ar e ver y stif f compare d t o th e thinne d bea m sections , an d
so practically all of the deflectio n is produced i n the thi n sections . Thi s loa d
cell, however, has twice the deflection of the single beam shown in Fig. 12.5.
FIG. 12.6 . Dual-bea m load cell.
One arrangemen t o f four strai n gage s for a ful l bridg e i s shown. Gages
1 and 4 are subjected to strain s of like sign, and gage s 2 and 3 are subjecte d
to strain s o f like sign. If the loa d i s compressive, for instance , gages 1 and 4
will hav e tensile strain s an d gage s 2 and 3 will hav e compressiv e strains.
When designin g this load cell , one wants to estimat e th e strai n leve l at
the gag e locations . I n orde r t o accomplis h this , a free-bod y diagram o f the
upper bea m i s show n i n Fig . 12.7 . Section s A- B an d C- D hav e th e sam e
moments o f inertia, whil e section B-C ha s a much larger momen t o f inertia
in orde r t o reduc e th e deflectio n i n thi s section. Althoug h section B- C wil l
deflect slightl y (dependen t o n th e valu e o f its momen t o f inertia compare d
to section A-B), mos t o f the deflection wil l occur in sections A-B an d C-D.
Since the beam i s symmetrical, the reactions a t both end s are equal; however,
the beam i s statically indeterminate t o th e first degree, since M0 is unknown.
Knowing th e slop e o f the deflectio n curv e i s horizontal a t poin t A an d a t
the center under th e load, M 0 in terms of the beam dimension s and th e load,
F, can b e computed. Th e moment-are a method , fo r instance, ma y easil y be
used.
If th e gage s ca n b e located s o th e strain s a t gage s 1 and 4 are equa l i n
FIG. 12.7 . Free-bod y diagram o f the uppe r beam.
magnitude but opposit e in sign to gages 2 and 3 , the bridge output, A£0, wil l
be linear . Becaus e o f th e latera l movemen t o f th e ends , though , ther e ma y
be som e nonlinearit y effec t becaus e o f th e sligh t chang e i n geometry . Also,
if al l gage s ar e subjecte d t o th e sam e temperature , th e bridg e wil l b e
temperature-compensated.
S-shaped dual beam

The S-shaped, dual beam load cell uses two beams attached t o sections whose
stiffness i s muc h large r tha n tha t o f th e beams . I t i s use d fo r direc t tensil e
or compressiv e loads , a s show n i n Fig . 12.8 . For bes t results , th e loa d cel l
should b e machined fro m a solid bloc k o f material. Eccentri c loading error s
are minimize d an d th e gage s ar e easil y protected .
Figure 12. 9 shows the loadin g (fo r a tensil e force) acting o n on e o f th e
beams, along wit h the deflection curve, for estimating the strains in the beam .
FIG. 12.8. S-shaped , dual-bea m load cell .

TRANSDUCERS 375
FIG. 12.9. Fixed-en d beam wit h en d displacement.
From symmetry, the reactions a t each en d of the beam ar e identical. Durin g

loading, th e right-han d sid e o f th e beam , relativ e t o th e left , move s u p
through a distance , y , thereb y producin g th e reaction s shown . Th e shea r
force, R 0, an d th e movement , M 0, ca n b e determine d i n term s o f th e
deflection, y , an d th e bea m dimensions . Onc e again , th e moment-are a
method lend s itsel f to th e determinatio n o f the reactions . Th e value s of R 0
and M 0 i n term s o f the bea m deflectio n and bea m dimension s ar e
For th e gage placements shown , gages 1 and 3 are in tension an d gages

2 and 4 are i n compression fo r a tensil e load, whil e the convers e applies fo r
a compressiv e load . Furthermore , as lon g as all gages are subjecte d to the
same temperature , th e bridg e wil l b e temperature-compensated . Th e non -
linearity of the bridge will depend on the values of the strains at each gage.
There are a number of other beam-bending load cells in use or that could
be constructe d fo r laborator y use . A n examinatio n o f a manufacturer' s
catalog will show beam-bending loa d cells are used for applications involvin g
loads fro m les s tha n 1-l b a t th e lo w end t o abou t 100 0 Ib at th e uppe r end .
For load s i n exces s of 100 0 Ib, other design s ar e generall y utilized . Fo r a n
excellent discussio n o f strain-gage-based transducers , se e Referenc e 2 .
12.5. Shear beam load cell

The shea r bea m loa d cell , usually designed fo r hig h loads , i s in th e for m o f
a cantilever beam wit h a cross sectio n larg e enough tha t th e beam deflection
FIG. 12.10. Shea r bea m loa d cell .
is kep t t o a minimum . Sinc e th e bendin g stresse s o n th e oute r surfac e

would b e quit e lo w unde r thes e conditions , a reces s i s machine d o n eac h
side s o th e cros s sectio n forme d resemble s a n I-beam . Here , mos t o f th e
bending moment i s resisted b y the flanges , whil e the vertica l shear i s carried
by th e web . Th e shearin g stres s i s maximu m a t th e neutra l axis , an d s o
the dimension s o f th e I-bea m sectio n ca n b e chose n s o tha t th e strain s
will produc e a desire d bridg e output . Suc h a loa d cel l i s show n i n Fig .
12.10.
Because ther e i s pur e shea r a t th e neutra l axis , th e principa l stresses ,
and therefor e th e principa l strains , are a t ±45 ° fro m th e neutra l axis . Two
pairs o f strain gages, bonde d bac k t o bac k on opposit e surface s o f the recess,
can b e centere d acros s th e neutra l axi s a t +45° . Althoug h th e gage s ar e
subjected t o a slight amount o f bending strain becaus e the y extend o n either
side o f th e neutra l axis , thi s effec t tend s t o b e self-canceling . A bette r
arrangement, for instance, would use a two-elemen t 90° gage, generally used
for torqu e measurements , o n eac h surface . Choosin g a torqu e gag e wit h
electrically independen t element s whos e grid s ar e +45 ° t o th e gag e longi -
tudinal axi s allow s th e gag e t o b e bonde d s o tha t it s longitudina l axi s
coincides wit h the neutra l axi s of the beam . I n thi s manner, th e element s of
the gag e wil l experienc e bendin g strain s o f th e sam e magnitud e bu t o f
opposite sign . Whe n th e gage s ar e arrange d int o a ful l bridge , th e bendin g
strains wil l cancel . Furthermore , thi s arrangemen t wil l als o cance l an y
bending du e t o sid e loading .
As lon g a s th e loa d i s t o th e righ t sid e o f th e recess , a s show n i n Fig .
12.10, th e bridg e outpu t i s relativel y insensitiv e t o th e poin t o f loa d
application. Althoug h i t i s desirable to kee p th e bea m a s shor t a s possible ,
TRANSDUCERS 377
FIG. 12.11. Folde d shea r beam.
the load mus t be far enough fro m th e reces s tha t its localized effect s wil l no t
influence th e bridg e output .
The shearing stres s at th e neutral axis, and thereb y th e shearing strain ,
must b e determined i n order t o estimat e the bridge output , A£ 0, fo r a given
load. Th e equatio n fo r shea r stres s in th e web , which can b e found in texts
on mechanic s o f materials, is
where V = vertical shea r forc e o n th e sectio n

/ = momen t o f inertia abou t th e neutral axis
t = web thickness
Q = first moment o f the are a abov e th e neutra l axis
The principa l stresses , a t 45 ° on eithe r sid e o f the neutra l axis , are equa l i n
magnitude bu t opposit e i n sign , giving a 1 = — cr2 = T . The principa l strain s
are
The shea r bea m loa d cel l may als o b e constructe d s o that it s profil e i s
S-shaped, as shown in Fig. 12.11 . Thi s configuratio n is also referre d to a s a
folded shear bea m b y some manufacturers . The lin e of action o f the applie d
force goe s throug h th e cente r o f th e strai n gag e bridge , thu s eliminatin g
bending a t tha t section .
12.6. The torque meter

Although many different type s of torque meters have been devised , probabl y
the mos t commo n consist s o f a shaf t o f circular cross sectio n wit h fou r lik e
strain gage s mounte d a t 45 ° to th e axi s of the shaft . Car e mus t b e take n i n
assuring th e gages ar e mounte d a t precisel y 45°, and tha t companio n gage s
subjected t o tensio n (o r compression ) ar e bonde d exactl y opposit e eac h
other. A typica l torque meter i s shown i n Fig . 12.12 .
In constructing a torque meter, one should b e aware of its characteristics ,
which ar e state d a s follows :
1. Th e uni t is automatically compensated fo r changes i n temperature. Thi s
is due to th e fact tha t a uniform temperatur e change will produce equa l
resistance change s i n all four arm s o f the bridge , thereb y producing n o
change i n th e conditio n o f balance.
2. Theoretically , th e instrumen t wil l no t respon d t o th e effect s o f axial
thrust, i f suc h shoul d exist . Thi s i s becaus e axia l thrus t wil l produc e
equal resistanc e change s i n al l fou r arm s o f th e Wheatston e bridge ;
therefore, ther e wil l b e n o chang e i n th e conditio n o f balance .
3. Ther e wil l be no respons e t o bending , if such shoul d occur , because th e
resistance change in the two front gage s wil l be equal i n magnitude bu t
opposite in sign to the resistance changes in the two gages at the back.
4. Th e outpu t o f th e bridg e wil l b e linea r wit h respec t t o th e torque , T ,
because th e nonlinearit y factor i s ( 1 — n) = 1 ; that is , n = 0 .
Due t o th e location o f the gages , torque produce s resistance changes in
FIG. 12.12. Torqu e meter .

TRANSDUCERS 37 9
each bridge arm. Since the gages are alike , th e bridge rati o i s a = 1 , and th e
resistance changes ar e
Using these resistance changes, the bridge output, A£0, given by Eq. (12.1) is
This reduces t
Also, substitutin g thes e resistanc e change s int o Eq . (12.2 ) show s tha t th e

nonlinearity term , n, is zero, givin g a linear bridg e output .
The cas e ca n b e examined where there i s not onl y torque bu t a n axia l
load actin g o n th e meter . Unde r thes e conditions , th e resistanc e chang e i n
each gag e i s
The subscript s T an d A refe r t o torqu e an d axia l thrust , respectively . The

bridge output no w becomes
Simplifying, thi s reduces t o
Equation (12.38) shows that the bridge output does not chang e because
of th e axia l load , providin g th e nonlinearlit y factor, ( 1 — n), i s unity . Th e
nonlinearity factor, however, must be examined to se e if it affect s th e bridg e
output. Rathe r tha n us e the approximat e expressio n for the nonlinea r ter m
given b y Eq . (12.2) , Eq. (5.40 ) wil l b e used . I f th e resistanc e change s give n
by Eqs . (a) , (b) , (c) , an d (d ) ar e substitute d into Eq . (5.40) , it wil l b e found
the nonlinearit y factor reduce s t o
Equation (12.39 ) show s tha t th e nonlinearit y term wil l hav e a n effect ,

although minor , whe n a n axia l force is combined wit h torsion . Thi s mean s
that th e nonlinearit y ter m wil l hav e a differen t valu e fo r eac h differen t
combination o f axial thrust an d torque .
If th e torqu e mete r i s use d i n a stationar y application , th e lea d wire s
from th e strain gage bridge may b e readily connected t o a suitable indicator.
For limite d angular motio n a t a low rate o f rotation, th e lea d wire s may b e
of suc h a lengt h tha t windu p i s permitted . If , however , the torqu e mete r
rotates, the n som e arrangemen t mus t b e mad e t o brin g th e signa l t o th e
instrumentation, eithe r throug h sli p rings , radiotelemetry , o r som e othe r
method.
12.7. The strain gage torque wrench

Mechanical torqu e wrenche s have been in use for many years, with the mos t
common havin g a pointe r attache d t o th e hea d en d an d extendin g ove r a
scale, calibrate d t o rea d torque , attache d a t th e handl e end . Th e handl e i s
pin-connected t o th e wrenc h bod y s o tha t th e forc e i s transmitte d t o th e
body through the pin, thereby keeping the force at a fixed point. Rather than
use a pointe r an d scale , strai n gage s coul d b e bonde d t o th e wrenc h bod y
near th e hea d end , th e syste m calibrated, and th e torqu e rea d o n a suitabl e
strain indicator . Th e force , however , woul d stil l hav e t o b e applie d a t a
fixed point . Ca n one , then , arrang e strai n gage s s o tha t th e indicato r
reading i s a measur e o f th e torqu e an d independen t o f th e poin t o f forc e
application?
Meier (3) investigated this problem and arrive d at a bridge arrangement
so tha t th e bridg e outpu t wa s linearl y relate d t o th e torqu e a t th e
wrench-head cente r line , yet wa s independen t o f the poin t o f force applica -
tion. Figur e 12.1 3 shows th e wrench , th e strai n gag e placement , an d th e
bending momen t diagram .
The bending moment is maximum at section 3 where the torque is being
applied. Since it is impractical to measure bending at this section, the bending
moment, M 3, can be related t o the bending moments, M 1 an d M 2, at section s
1 an d 2 , respectively. Any force s an d moment s applie d t o th e wrenc h must
be t o th e lef t o f section 1 , with non e applie d betwee n sections 1 and 2 . Th e
TRANSDUCERS 381
FIG. 12.13. Gag e arrangement on torque wrench for direct torque measurement. (From ref. 3.)
moments o f the thre e sections ar e
If Eqs . (b ) an d (c ) are solve d for th e force , F , then
From Eq . (d) , M 3 is
Taking L 2 = 2L 1(
Since th e bendin g moments , M i an d M 2, ca n b e expresse d i n term s of

382 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANC E STRAIN GAGE
strain,
where Z i s the section modulus for bending and E is the modulus of elasticity.
Substituting th e value s of Mj an d M 2, given by Eqs . (e ) and (f) , respectively,
into Eq . (12.41 ) produce s
The eight strain gages bonded t o th e wrench can b e arranged int o a ful l
bridge t o produc e th e operation indicate d i n parentheses i n Eq. (12.42). For
the bendin g momen t diagra m shown , gage s a , b , an d c wil l experienc e a
compressive strai n o f — e2, whil e gage d wil l hav e a compressiv e strai n o f
— Ej. Gage s e , f , an d g wil l hav e tensile strains o f e 2, whil e gage h wil l hav e
a tensil e strain o f e l. Th e bridg e output, A£ 0, fo r th e give n strain s is
Comparing Eqs . (12.42 ) and (12.43) , it ca n b e see n tha t th e bridg e outpu t i s

proportional t o th e torque , M 3.
The torque wrenc h can easily be calibrated usin g known weights. Meier
found th e calibratio n curv e o f indicator readin g agains t th e torque , M 3, t o
be ver y consisten t an d straigh t ove r a wid e rang e o f level arms an d applie d
weights. Whil e th e uni t ha s bee n describe d a s a torqu e wrench , i t ca n b e
applied t o othe r situation s requirin g a torqu e arm . On e application , fo r
instance, would be the determination of reaction torqu e for a cradle-mounted
piece of equipment, using the device described a s the arm fo r the measurement
of torqu e abou t th e cradl e axis .
12.8. Pressure measurement

The measurement of pressure is often require d during the course of a project .
There ar e man y device s available usin g pressur e forc e t o ac t o n a n elasti c
mechanical element, thereby causing i t to deflect . Among thes e elements ar e
the Bourdon tube with different configurations , diaphragms, bellows, straight
tubes, and flattene d tubes . These elements are use d in conjunction with some
sort o f measuring system , so thei r deflection is a n indicatio n o f pressure. I f
the pressure-measurin g devic e i s t o b e constructe d rathe r tha n purchased ,
there ar e severa l options , dependin g o n projec t requirements .
TRANSDUCERS 383
FIG. 12.14. Thin-walle d pressur e transducer.
Thin-walled cylindrical tube

For stati c o r slowl y varying pressures, a simpl e an d effectiv e metho d i s t o
construct a thin-walle d cylindrica l tube , wit h tw o gage s mounte d i n th e
circumferential (hoop ) direction . A ful l bridg e ca n b e use d b y placin g these
two activ e gage s i n opposit e bridg e arms , the n completin g th e bridg e b y
bonding two dummy gages o n an unstrained piec e of similar material place d
adjacent t o th e cylinder, or b y extending the soli d uppe r en d o f the cylinder
and bondin g th e dumm y gage s to thi s unstraine d portion . If all gage s ar e
maintained a t th e sam e temperature , th e bridg e wil l b e temperature -
compensated. A typical transducer o f this type is shown in Fig . 12.14 .
The circumferentia l strain, E H, and th e longitudina l strain , e L, ar e
where p = internal pressur e

d= inner diamete r
t= wall thicknes s
E= modulus of elasticity
v= Poisso n rati o
With only the circumferential strai n gages activ e and i n opposite bridg e arms,
the bridg e output , A£ 0, i s
The nonlinearit y factor ,
Although th e circumferentia l stres s i s twic e the longitudina l stress , th e

same i s not tru e fo r th e strains . Usin g Eqs. (12.44 ) and (12.45) , the rati o of
strains i s
For stee l with v = 0.3 , E H = 4.25s L. If all gages wer e bonded t o th e cylinder ,
two circumferentia l and tw o longitudinal , and arrange d int o a full y activ e
bridge, th e bridg e outpu t woul d b e reduce d b y approximatel y 2 4 percent .
This typ e o f pressure transduce r i s best use d a t relativel y high pressur e
for a compac t design . A s Eq . (12.44 ) indicates , th e diameter , d , mus t b e
increased and/o r the wall thickness, t, decreased i n order to obtain reasonabl e
strain reading s fo r lowe r pressures . Onc e th e transduce r dimension s hav e
been chosen , however , i t ca n b e constructe d an d calibrate d b y usin g a
deadweight tester , fo r instance . Th e frequenc y respons e ca n b e improved b y
reducing th e interna l volum e throug h th e insertio n o f a soli d plug , thu s
reducing th e flow caused b y pressure variation .
Diaphragm pressure transducer

A second type o f pressure transducer uses a diaphragm. The diaphragm may
be made fro m a thi n sheet o f flat material clampe d betwee n tw o element s of
the transduce r body , o r i t ca n b e machine d a s a n integra l par t o f th e
transducer body . Th e informatio n outlined her e ma y b e use d t o arriv e a t a
preliminary design , bu t th e fina l outpu t o f th e instrumen t wil l hav e t o b e
obtained b y calibration. I n determining the characteristics of the diaphragm ,
the followin g restrictions apply:
1. Th e diaphrag m i s rigidly clamped a t it s oute r edge .
2. Th e diaphrag m i s fla t an d o f unifor m thickness.
3. Th e deflectio n of th e cente r wil l no t excee d one-hal f o f th e diaphrag m
thickness.
4. Th e natura l frequenc y o f th e diaphrag m mus t b e hig h enoug h t o
respond adequatel y to fluctuating pressure .
TRANSDUCERS 385
FIG. 12.15. Clampe d circula r plat e with strai n distribution .
In determinin g th e characteristic s o f the diaphragm , th e analysi s fo r a

uniformly loade d thi n circula r plat e clampe d a t th e edg e ca n b e use d (4) .
The plate an d it s loading ar e show n in Fig . 12.15 . The pressur e act s o n th e
upper surfac e and th e strai n gage s ar e bonded t o th e unde r surface .
The tangentia l bendin g moment , M t, an d th e radia l bendin g moment ,
Mr, a t an y radiu s ar e
The corresponding stresse s ar e
The strain s follo w a s

The strain s give n b y Eqs . (12.53 ) and (12.54 ) ar e als o plotte d i n Fig . 12.15 .
At r = 0 the tangentia l and radia l strain s ar e identica l an d expresse d a s
At r = R th e tangentia l strain is zero and th e radial strain becomes
Equations (12.55 ) an d (12.56 ) show wher e the gage s shoul d b e placed .

A pai r o f stacked orthogona l gage s coul d b e use d a t th e center , whil e tw o
radial gage s coul d b e place d a s clos e t o th e boundar y a s possible , the n
arranged int o a ful l bridge . Althoug h th e bridg e woul d b e temperatur e
compensated, a n examinatio n o f Eq . (5.40) , usin g thes e strains , show s tha t
the nonlinearit y factor i s not zero .
Special gages , Fig . 12.16 , have bee n designe d fo r us e wit h diaphragm s
(5). This gage takes advantage o f the strai n distribution show n i n Fig. 12.15 .
Since the tangential strai n decreases mor e slowl y with increasing radiu s tha n
does the radia l strain , the centra l elemen t is designed t o measur e tangential
strain. Th e oute r element s ar e the n arrange d i n a radia l directio n t o tak e
advantage o f the radia l strai n a t th e boundary , where it i s maximum. If th e
strain i s average d ove r th e regio n covere d b y eac h element , an d usin g
Gr = 2.0 , the bridg e outpu t i s approximately
The deflectio n a t an y radiu s is
The maximu m deflection , at th e cente r o f the plate , is
In order t o have the transducer respon d satisfactoril y to pressure pulses ,

the natura l frequenc y o f the diaphrag m mus t b e a t leas t thre e t o five times
higher tha n th e forcin g frequenc y (5) . The undampe d natura l frequenc y o f
TRANSDUCERS 38 7
FIG. 12.16. Diaphrag m strai n gag e fo r a pressur e transducer . (Courtes y o f Measurement s

Group, Inc. )
the diaphrag m i s
where g = gravitational constant, 386. 4 in/sec 2

y = specifi c weight o f diaphragm material , lb/in 3
Comments
The transducer s describe d i n thi s chapter hav e th e inten t o f do-it-yourself ,
where suc h a n instrumen t wil l b e use d wit h existin g strain-measurin g
instrumentation. They are , therefore, not designe d t o stan d alone . Wit h th e
do-it-yourself transducer , desirable adjustments ca n be made a t th e instru -
ment (suc h a s gag e facto r adjustment) t o brin g i t withi n the desire d limits.
For mor e precis e compensatio n procedures , th e reade r i s referre d t o th e
paper b y Dorse y (6 ) or t o Referenc e 2.
Problems
In all problems use steel with v = 0.3 and E = 30 x 106 psi.
12.1. Th e load cel l shown i n Fig. 12. 2 is used t o measur e loads between + 750001b .
The loa d cel l ha s a diamete r o f 1.5 0 in, G F = 2.15 , and R g = 12 0 ohms. Wit h
the loa d a t bot h extremes , determin e the following :
(a) Th e bridg e nonlinearity.

(b) Th e geometri c nonlinearity.
12.2. I n Proble m 12. 1 the bridg e is rearranged so that gages 1 and 3 are activ e gages ,
with R2 = R 4 = R g being dummy gages bonded t o a similar piece of unstrained
material. Fo r th e sam e loadin g conditions , determine th e following :
(a) Th e nonlinearit y factor.

(b) Th e bridg e output , A£ 0, i f the suppl y voltage i s 1 0 volts.
12.3. A compressive force , F , acts on a ring-type load cell . By considering the strain s
based o n a curved beam, <•: , = c 3 = E O and r, 2 = c 4 = — f,,., writ e th e expression
for th e nonlinearit y factor , 1 — n.
12.4. A ring-typ e loa d cel l i s subjecte d t o a tensil e loa d o f F = lOOOOlb . It s
dimensions are R0 = 3.0 in, K, = 1. 5 in, and w = 0.7 5 in. Determine the following:
(a) Th e percentag e differenc e i n M 0 betwee n Eqs . (12.13 ) an d (12.16) .

(b) Th e strain s a t eac h gag e usin g thin-rin g equations.
(c) Th e strain s at eac h gag e base d o n curved-bea m equations.
12.5. Th e cantileve r bea m i n Fig . 12.1 7 is t o hav e a constan t strai n o f I200uin/i n

along its tapered lengt h when the load i s applied at th e verte x of the equilateral
triangle forme d b y it s tw o sides . Determin e w.
FIG. 12.17 .
12.6. Desig n a loa d cel l havin g th e geometr y show n i n Fig . 12.6 . Th e widt h
is limite d t o 0.62 5 in, th e rati o I BC/IAB i s 25 , th e tota l deflectio n i s no t
to excee d 0.01 5 in , an d th e maximu m loa d i s 50 0 Ib. Fo r th e fina l gag e
location, compute th e bridg e nonlinearit y at th e maximu m load .
TRANSDUCERS 38 9
12.7. Desig n a loa d cel l having the configuratio n shown i n Fig . 12.8 . Th e widt h is
limited t o 1 in, and th e maximu m deflection must no t excee d 0.01 2 in a t th e
rated loa d o f 700 Ib. Determine the gage locations and thei r strains . Calculat e
the bridg e nonlinearit y at th e maximu m load .
12.8. Desig n a shea r bea m loa d cel l havin g th e configuratio n show n i n Fig .
12.10. Th e maximu m loa d o f 5000 0 Ib i s t o produc e A£ 0/K o f approxim -
ately 2 mV/V.
12.9. Usin g Eq . (5.40) , deriv e Eq . (12.39).
12.10. A torqu e mete r ha s a diamete r o f 1.2 5 in an d use s fou r 350-oh m gages ,
with G F = 2.10, t o for m a ful l bridge . I f A £ 0 / K = 2 m V / V a t maximu m
torque, determin e the valu e of the torque .
12.11. I f the transvers e sensitivity of the gage s i n Proble m 12.1 0 is 0.9 percent, what
will b e th e percentag e chang e i n torqu e i f th e transvers e sensitivit y i s
considered?
12.12. Desig n a torqu e wrench, shown i n Fig . 12.13 , to th e followin g specifications:
(a) Th e maximu m torque i s 200 ft-lb.
(b) Th e overal l length of the wrenc h must no t excee d 1 8 in.
(c) Th e maximu m strain a t sectio n 2 shall be 100 0 uin/i n at ful l torque .
12.13. A thin-walle d cylindrica l pressur e transduce r ha s a n interna l diamete r o f
1.25 i n an d a wal l thicknes s o f 0.0 5 in. Tw o circumferentia l gage s wit h
Rg = 35 0 ohms an d G F = 2.10 ar e bonded t o th e cylinder . If the hoo p strain,
EH, i s limite d t o 100 0 uin/in , determin e th e maximu m interna l pressur e an d
the correspondin g valu e of A£0 /K
12.14. Mak e a preliminary design o f a diaphrag m pressur e transduce r t o measur e a
peak pressur e o f 7 5 psi a t a frequenc y o f 10 0 cycles/sec. Th e desire d bridg e
output, A£ 0 /K, is 1.5 mV/V at the peak pressure . Us e GF - 2.0 .
REFERENCES
1. Cook , Rober t D . an d Warre n C . Young , Advanced Mechanics o f Materials, Ne w

York, Macmillan , 1985 , Chap. 10.
2. Strain Gage Based Transducers, Their Design an d Construction. Measurement s
Group, Inc. , P.O . Bo x 27777, Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1988.
3. Meier , J. H. , "Some Phases o f the Techniqu e of Recording Performanc e Data o n
Large Machines, " SESA Proceedings, Vol. X, No. 1 , 1952, pp. 35-52 .
4. Timoshenko , S. , Strength o f Materials, 3 d edition , Par t II , Ne w York , Va n
Nostrand Reinhold , 1958 , Chap. 4.
5. "Desig n Consideration s for Diaphragm Pressur e Transducers, " TN-510 , Measure -
ments Group , Inc. , P.O. Bo x 27777, Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1982 .
6. Dorsey , James, "Homegrow n Strain-gag e Transducers, " Experimental Mechanics,
Vol. 17 , No. 7 , July 1977 , pp. 255-260 .
13
STRAIN GAGE SELECT10N AND APPLICATION
13.1. General considerations

On first observation, the strain gage appears to be a rather simple instrument
that ca n b e applie d wit h minimu m effort . Thi s ma y b e so , perhaps , i f th e
gage i s to b e bonde d t o a fairl y larg e plan e are a wit h ample workin g room
and usin g a quick-setting cement. The novice soon learns , however, that even
the supposedl y simpl e tas k o f satisfactorily soldering lead wire s to th e gage's
solder tab s i s not easy . Whe n h e moves o n t o bondin g gage s i n a confined
space and the n attaching lead wires, his appreciation o f the talent of a skilled
technician rise s rapidly .
When selectin g a strai n gage , o r gages , fo r a project , th e condition s
under whic h th e gag e wil l operat e mus t b e considered . Whe n al l o f th e
variables that go into gage construction are examined (backing material, foil ,
gage length , configuration , etc.) , thousand s o f type s ar e available . A study
of manufacturer's catalogs shows that gage s ar e divide d int o relate d groups ,
or series , o f th e sam e basi c construction . Sinc e gage s belongin g t o a serie s
have simila r characteristic s an d capabilities , th e tas k o f choosing a gag e i s
therefore reduced .
The firs t ste p i n choosin g a strai n gag e installatio n i s t o lis t a s man y
conditions a s possible affectin g th e system. Some of these are the following:
1. I s th e strai n t o b e measured i n elasti c or plasti c region? I f the strai n i s
in the plastic region, for instance, then a post-yield gage will be chosen.
2. I f th e stres s fiel d i s uniaxial , a single-elemen t gag e aligne d alon g th e
principal stres s directio n wil l suffice . I f th e fiel d i s biaxia l an d th e
principal strain directions are known, a two-element rectangular rosett e
can b e used . I f th e principa l strai n direction s ar e unknown , a three -
element rosett e wil l b e required .
3. Wha t is the duratio n o f the test ? Will it b e measured i n minutes, hours,
or years ? The concer n her e i s the shiftin g o f the zer o referenc e point .
4. Ho w difficul t wil l th e installatio n o f gages be ?
5. Wil l th e test s b e stati c o r dynamic ? I f the y ar e purel y dynamic , the n
consideration ha s t o b e give n t o a foi l tha t exhibit s goo d fatigu e
properties.
6. Th e temperatur e rang e ove r which the gage wil l operate an d th e choice
of it s self-temperature-compensatio n numbe r mus t b e considered .
STRAIN GAG E SELECTIO N AND APPLICATIO N 39 1
7. Ar e strain gradients perpendicula r t o th e tes t surface or i n the plan e of

the tes t surface ?
8. Th e choice of an adhesive is important an d canno t b e over emphasized.
Depending o n the specia l requirements of a give n test, othe r condition s ca n

be adde d t o thi s list . Th e cos t o f the strai n gages , however , may hav e low
priority, sinc e th e gag e cos t i s generally smal l whe n compared t o th e tota l
cost o f a test .
After th e condition s tha t affec t th e syste m ar e listed , a manufacturer's
catalog ca n b e consulte d i n orde r t o choos e a specifi c gage. Her e wil l b e
found a designation code giving the features of the gage. They are as follows:
1. Gag e series an d typ e o f strain-sensing allo y

2. Backin g o r carrie r materia l o f the strain-sensin g alloy
3. Self-temperatur e compensation numbe r
4. Th e activ e gage length
5. Gri d an d ta b geometr y
6. Gag e resistanc e
7. Options , i f desired
13.2. Strain gage alloys (1, 2)

Constantan
One o f the most common strai n gage foils i s a copper-nickel alloy generally
known as constantan. I t finds wide use in static strain measurements as well
as bein g employe d i n transducers . I t als o show s goo d fatigu e lif e whe n
applied t o alternatin g strains , providin g th e strai n level s ar e kep t belo w
±1500 uin/in. I t ha s a lo w an d controllabl e temperatur e coefficien t o f
resistance as well as good strain sensitivity, which gives a nominal gage factor
of 2.0 . Furthermore , th e gag e facto r i s relativel y insensitive to strai n leve l
and temperature .
Constantan can be processed fo r self-temperature compensation s o that
it matche s th e therma l expansio n characteristic s o f a numbe r o f commo n
engineering materials wit h thermal expansion coefficient s rangin g from zer o
to 5 0 ppm/°F. W e have seen how mismatchin g of the coefficient s of thermal
expansion o f th e gag e an d tes t materia l rotate s th e therma l outpu t curv e
around th e referenc e temperatur e i n orde r t o obtai n th e mos t favorabl e
results in a desired temperature range. An examination of strain gage catalogs
shows that satisfactory gage resistance is obtainable even for very small gages
made o f this material .
If very large strains, on th e order o f 5 percent, are t o be measured, the n
an anneale d constanta n foi l is used . If gage length s of |inc h or larger ar
used, strains in excess of 20 percent ca n b e measured. Annealed constantan ,
however, i s not recommende d fo r cycli c strains, sinc e permanen t resistanc e
change occur s a s a functio n o f number o f strain cycles.
392 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICA L RESISTANCE STRAI N GAGE
Constantan ha s severa l disadvantages . I f the tes t temperatur e i s abov e

150°F (66°C) , i t show s referenc e poin t drift , whic h i s undesirabl e fo r test s
conducted ove r a lon g perio d o f time. The therma l output i s also ver y hig h
at temperature s belo w -SO T (-45°C ) an d abov e 400 T (205°C) .
Isoelastic
Isoelastic, mos t generall y use d fo r dynamic strain measurement , i s a nickel -
chromium-iron allo y wit h molybdenu m added . It s hig h gag e facto r o f
approximately 3.2 improves the signal-to-noise ratio in dynamic testing. This,
coupled wit h superio r fatigu e life , make s i t particularl y usefu l fo r dynami c
strain measurement .
The therma l outpu t o f isoelastic is about 8 0 uin/in/T an d i t canno t b e
self-temperature compensated , thereb y makin g i t generall y unsuitabl e fo r
measuring static strains. This feature makes it undesirable for any long-rang e
measurements i f a stabl e referenc e poin t mus t b e maintained. Furthermore ,
its respons e become s nonlinea r at strain s o n th e orde r o f 0.5 percent; hence ,
it i s confine d t o strai n measuremen t i n th e elasti c region . I n specia l cases ,
where a high-outpu t response i s desired, i t ma y b e use d wit h a full-bridg e
circuit, thereb y obtainin g circui t temperatur e compensation .
Karma
Karma, a nickel-chromiu m allo y wit h smal l percentage s o f iro n an d
aluminum, i s anothe r desirabl e material , sinc e gage s mad e o f thi s materia l
show minima l referenc e point drif t wit h tim e an d temperature . Becaus e o f
this stability , it is a fine choice fo r long-time stati c measurement s at o r nea r
room temperature . I t i s recommende d fo r stati c strai n measurement s fro m
-452T (-270°C ) t o SOO T (260°C) , bu t encapsulate d gage s ca n b e use d
to 750 T (400°C ) fo r shor t tim e periods . Th e materia l als o exhibit s goo d
fatigue lif e wit h minimum reference point drif t eve n after bein g cycle d a large
number o f times . Becaus e o f it s hig h resistivity , smalle r gage s fo r a give n
resistance can b e manufactured.
Karma ca n b e self-temperature compensated ove r a broa d temperatur e
range, bu t i t i s mor e limite d tha n constanta n i n th e numbe r o f therma l
expansion coefficient s fo r whic h i t ma y b e compensated . A n advantage ,
however, i s a flatte r therma l outpu t curve . Another featur e is a gag e facto r
that goe s negativ e wit h increasin g temperature , thu s compensatin g fo r
the temperature-induce d chang e i n th e modulu s o f elasticit y o f th e tes t
material.
Karma ha s severa l disadvantages. I t i s difficul t t o solder , an d fo r thi s
reason gage s wit h copper-clad tab s are available . Gage s o f this material ar e
also mor e difficul t t o manufacture , making them mor e expensiv e than gage s
using constantan .
STRAIN GAG E SELECTIO N AN D APPLICATIO N 39 3
Platinum-tungsten
A platinum-tungste n allo y ha s bee n develope d fo r high-temperatur e use . I t
has unusua l stability and fatigu e lif e a t temperature s abov e 750° F (400°C) ,
does no t underg o an y metallurgica l change s t o abou t 1650° F (900°C) , an d
so it s resistanc e remain s essentiall y unchange d wit h time . I t ha s a high -
temperature coefficient o f resistance that i s not adjustable , although repeat -
able; thus , it cannot b e self-temperature compensated. I f temperature comp -
ensation i s desired, i t shoul d b e don e throug h circui t compensation .
This materia l i s use d fo r dynami c strai n measurement s t o 1500° F
(815°C) an d fo r stati c strai n measurement s t o 1200° F (650°C) . I t ha s a
higher strai n sensitivit y tha n copper-nicke l o r nickel-chromiu m alloys ,
but i t i s nonlinear . Th e strai n rang e i s generall y limited t o approximatel y
+ 0.3 percent.
13.3. Grid backing materials (1-4 )

The strain-sensin g elemen t (eithe r foi l o r wire ) o f a strai n gag e i s mounte d
on a backing (carrier) material. The backing material serves several purposes.
1. I t protect s th e strain-sensin g gri d fro m damag e durin g handlin g an d
installation.
2. I t provide s a bondin g surfac e t o th e tes t piece .
3. I t transmit s strai n fro m th e tes t piec e t o th e strain-sensin g alloy . It s
stiffness mus t be low enough s o it can follow th e strains in the test piece
without affectin g it . On th e othe r hand, it must be stif f whe n compare d
to th e strain-sensin g allo y s o tha t th e conducto r materia l follow s th e
strains withou t irregular distortion .
4. I t provide s electrical insulation between the strain-sensing element an d
the tes t piece .
Paper carriers
One o f th e firs t backin g materials , an d on e stil l used , i s a nitrocellulos e
paper. Strai n gage s usin g thi s readil y availabl e backin g materia l easil y
conform t o th e surfac e o f a tes t specimen . Th e gage s ar e usuall y bonde d
to a tes t piec e wit h a nitrocellulos e cemen t tha t impregnate s th e paper' s
pores an d cure s b y evaporation. Gage s bonde d i n thi s manne r ca n operat e
between - 100° F and 180° F (-7 3 t o 82°C), although the y can be used for
short period s of time beyond th e upper temperatur e limit. At room tempera -
ture, this combination o f paper an d adhesive , when properly applied , ca n be
subjected t o strain s in exces s of 1 0 percent befor e breaking down .
Polyimide resins
Polyimide resin s ca n b e provide d i n bot h cas t fil m an d glass-reinforce d
laminated construction . I t i s a general-purpos e materia l use d fo r bot h
static an d dynami c strains . Th e cas t fil m type s are tough , flexible , an d ca n

be elongate d u p t o 2 0 percent . Becaus e o f thei r flexibility , the y ca n b e
contoured t o fi t smal l radii . Thi s materia l ca n b e use d a t temperature s
ranging from cryogeni c to 400°F (205°C). For highe r temperatures, however,
the resi n ca n b e reinforce d with glass an d th e gag e encapsulate d fo r us e t o
700°F (370°C), although th e temperatur e can b e increased t o 750° F (400°C )
for short-duratio n tests.
Epoxy resins
Epoxy resin s reinforced with glass fibers were developed i n order t o improve
temperature capabilities . Thi s material has a n operatin g temperatur e range ,
for bot h stati c an d dynami c strain measurements , fro m cryogeni c t o abou t
550°F (290°C), with an uppe r limit of 750°F (400°C) fo r short-duration tests.
This backin g als o ha s improve d dimensiona l stabilit y fo r us e i n precisio n
transducers. The glass reinforcement, however , reduce s the maximum strai n
to abou t 1 percent bu t result s in a n extremel y thin carrier . Sinc e it i s mor e
brittle tha n polyimide , it requires more car e i n handling in orde r t o preven t
damage.
Metallic carriers
Metallic carrier s hav e bee n discusse d i n Chapte r 1 under weldabl e gages .
Weldable wir e gage s ar e covere d i n Sectio n 1.5 , while weldable foi l gage s
are discusse d i n Sectio n 1.6 .
13.4. Gage length, geometry, and resistance (1, 2)

Gage length
When referrin g t o gag e length , it i s th e activ e o r strain-measurin g portio n
that is referred to, not th e overall or matrix length. A major purpose o f using
strain gage s i s to determin e strains at critica l points o n a structure. Because
these point s are ofte n wher e stress concentrations exist , thereby resultin g in
strain gradient s whic h ma y b e quit e steep , consideratio n mus t b e give n t o
the strai n gradien t alon g th e gag e length . Stee p strai n gradient s ma y als o
occur i n dynami c measurements , suc h a s occu r whe n th e propagatio n o f
stress wave s i n a materia l i s being studied . Sinc e a strai n gag e average s th e
strain alon g it s activ e length , choosin g a gag e lengt h considerabl y longe r
than th e pea k strai n regio n result s i n a strai n readin g o n th e lo w side ;
therefore, a gag e lengt h consisten t wit h th e pea k strai n regio n shoul d b e
chosen. For nonhomogeneou s materials , however, a gage length long enough
to spa n th e representativ e structure of the materia l should b e used i n orde r
to averag e the strai n ove r voids , etc.
When possible , gage s wit h lengths from ^ in t o ^ in ar e preferable , since
they ar e easie r to apply , offe r th e larges t numbe r o f geometries and options ,
and ar e less expensive. For gage s o f identical resistance an d applie d voltage ,

the large r gag e wil l dissipat e hea t mor e easil y becaus e o f th e lowe r hea t
generated pe r uni t area . Thi s i s particularl y importan t whe n th e gag e i s
bonded t o a materia l wit h poo r heat-transfe r qualities.
Gage geometry
When choosin g a strain gage for a particular test, several elements ente r into
the decision . Amon g thes e ar e th e shap e o f th e strain-sensin g grid , th e
number o f grid s an d thei r orientatio n relativ e t o eac h other , solde r ta b
arrangement, an d spac e availabl e fo r mounting . I f th e principa l stres s i s
known to be uniaxial and it s direction is also known, then a single grid gage
may b e used. This conditio n generall y does not exis t and singl e gages should
be use d onl y whe n on e i s absolutely sur e one ha s a uniaxia l stress state .
For th e biaxial stress state a three-element rosette is used if the principal
stress direction s ar e unknown . Th e grid s o f th e rosett e ma y hav e an y
orientation relativ e t o eac h other , bu t rosette s hav e bee n standardize d o n
the delt a an d th e rectangula r configuration . Thi s make s dat a reductio n
simpler, particularl y for the rectangula r rosette . Whe n bondin g a rosett e t o
a tes t specimen , any orientatio n ca n b e used , but usuall y one rosett e le g is
aligned alon g som e chose n axi s of the specimen .
If mounting space is confined, stacked rosette s are preferred, particularly
when ther e is a high strain gradien t i n the plan e o f the mountin g surface. I n
this case they give a closer approximation of the strain at the point, but hea t
dissipation ma y b e a problem . The y ar e stiffe r tha n th e plan e rosett e an d
conform les s easily to curved surfaces. O n th e othe r hand , plan e rosettes ar e
preferred whe n th e strai n gradien t i s normal t o th e surface , sinc e al l grid s
are a s clos e t o th e specime n surfac e a s possible .
When th e principa l stres s direction s ar e known , the n a two-elemen t
rosette ma y b e used . Th e principa l stres s direction s ma y b e apparen t fro m
the geometr y o f the tes t specimen , suc h a s a thin-walle d tub e wit h interna l
pressure, fo r instance . Generally , th e principa l direction s ar e determine d
through th e us e o f a brittl e lacque r coa t o r a photoelasti c coating . I t i s
obvious tha t i f the principa l axe s ar e known , considerable saving s in tim e
and labo r ca n b e attaine d i n wirin g a numbe r o f two-element gage s rathe r
than three-elemen t gages .
Special-purpose gages , suc h a s gage s fo r residua l stres s measurement ,
crack detection, or diaphragm gage s for pressure transducers, are available.
When a high strain gradient transverse to the gage axis exists, a gage with
a narro w grid widt h should b e chosen i n orde r t o giv e a bette r strai n average .
The reduce d gag e area , though , will reduc e th e abilit y to dissipat e heat.
Gage resistance
An examinatio n o f manufacturer's catalogs show s that strai n gage s may b e
obtained wit h resistances up to 100 0 ohms. The two most common resistanc e
values, however , are 12 0 and 35 0 ohms. A s w e sa w i n Chapte r 5 , lead-line

resistance desensitize s th e circuit . I f lead-lin e resistanc e o r othe r parasiti c
resistances ar e present , the n choosin g a higher-resistanc e gag e wil l reduc e
the circui t desensitization . Thi s i s illustrate d in Exampl e 5.4 . Fo r th e sam e
applied voltage , a higher-resistanc e gag e reduce s th e hea t generated . A
120-ohm gage , fo r instance , generate s nearl y thre e time s th e wattag e o f a
350-ohm gage. Conversely, if the wattag e remains the same , a highe r voltage
may b e use d o n th e highe r resistance gag e i n orde r t o increas e th e output.
Self-temperature compensation
Choosing a gag e fo r the prope r self-temperatur e compensation numbe r i s a
matter o f examining a strain gage catalog i n order to determine the available
thermal expansio n coefficients . Whe n th e desire d numbe r i s chosen , i t i s a
matter o f addin g i t i n th e prope r plac e i n a manufacturer' s strai n gag e
designation code . Self-temperatur e compensatio n an d it s us e hav e bee n
covered i n Chapte r 11 .
Options
Both standar d option s an d specia l option s ar e available . Amon g thes e ar e
attached lea d wires , gag e encapsulation , solde r dots , an d etche d integra l
terminals, t o nam e a few . For a complet e descriptio n o f options , bot h
standard an d special , consul t a manufacturer' s catalog .
13.5. Adhesive s (1, 2 , 4)

Successful us e o f strai n gage s i s ver y muc h dependen t upo n satisfactoril y
bonding th e gag e t o th e tes t specimen . Th e chose n adhesiv e mus t hav e
sufficient shea r strengt h i n order t o transmi t strain s i n th e tes t specime n t o
the strain-sensing grid, yet it must be compatible wit h both the gage backin g
material an d th e tes t materia l s o tha t neithe r i s damaged . Further , th e
adhesive shoul d hav e long-term stabilit y s o tha t i t doe s no t decompos e o r
show appreciabl e cree p ove r th e test' s lifetime .
The manufacturer' s instruction s i n th e us e o f th e adhesiv e mus t b e
followed carefully , particularl y i f the adhesiv e call s fo r mixin g a resi n an d
hardener. Th e adhesiv e mus t b e capabl e o f forming a thi n glu e line fre e o f
voids, wit h minimum curing time being a desirabl e feature . I t als o help s t o
electrically isolat e th e gri d fro m th e tes t material . Whe n checkin g th e
resisance betwee n th e gri d an d tes t specimen , th e recommende d resistanc e
is 1000 0 megohms minimum , but preferabl y higher . An adhesiv e should b e
capable o f high elongation a s well as have the abilit y t o operat e ove r a wide
temperature range .
A large number of adhesives are available, each with detailed techniques
for it s application . Manufacturer s wil l suppl y th e use r wit h instructions .
One thin g that i s crucial to satisfactor y strai n gage performance , regardless
of th e adhesiv e used , i s cleanliness. Th e tes t surfac e mus t b e fre e o f grease,

rust, or other contaminants s o that the bare base material i s exposed. Durin g
the preparation proces s the hands must be kept clea n and car e taken no t t o
touch th e surface . Afte r th e surfac e i s prepared th e gage s shoul d b e applie d
without undu e delay.
Although ther e ar e numerou s adhesive s available , onl y th e mor e
commonly use d one s wil l b e discussed . Detaile d informatio n o n specifi c
adhesives and their methods of application ca n be obtained fro m informatio n
bulletins supplie d b y manufacturers.
Nitrocellulose
Nitrocellulose adhesive s (suc h a s Duco ) wer e onc e widel y use d whe n
paper-backed gage s wer e prevalent . Thi s typ e o f adhesiv e set s b y solven t
evaporation; thus , it s us e toda y i s limite d t o paper-backe d gage s o r gage s
with a porou s backing . A minimu m pressur e ha s t o b e applie d durin g th e
curing process, which is usually in excess of 24 hours, depending on humidity
and temperarure . Applicatio n o f hea t wil l accelerat e th e curin g process ,
however. The curing process ma y be monitored b y periodically checking the
gage resistance to ground, since the resistance increases as the adhesive sets.
Gages bonde d wit h nitrocellulos e adhesive s may b e use d u p t o 180° F
(82°C). The y ar e hygroscopi c (i.e. , the y absor b moistur e fro m th e air ) an d
must be protected wit h a moisture-resistant coating once the adhesive is fully
cured to ensure electrical and dimensiona l stability. Because adhesives of this
type ar e vulnerabl e t o ketoni c solutions , the y ar e easil y remove d withou t
surface damag e b y usin g a ketoni c solution.
Cyanoacrylate
Cyanoacrylate adhesive s ar e widel y use d a s general-purpos e cement s tha t
are fas t curin g and simpl e to use , since no mixin g is required. While the lif e
of an unopene d containe r o f Cyanoacrylate is approximately 9 months when
stored a t roo m temperature , th e lif e ca n b e extende d b y refrigeratio n a t
40°F (4°C) . Whe n remove d fro m th e refrigerator , the adhesiv e shoul d b e
allowed t o com e t o roo m temperatur e befor e openin g i n orde r t o preven t
condensation an d possibl e damag e t o th e material . Onc e th e containe r ha s
been opene d i t shoul d b e stored i n a cool , dar k are a rathe r tha n returning
it t o th e refrigerator.
In preparin g a gag e fo r bonding , th e gag e backin g materia l i s treate d
with a catalyst , sparingl y used , an d allowe d t o dr y fo r approximatel y 1
minute. A thi n coa t o f adhesiv e i s pu t on , th e gag e i s place d o n th e tes t
specimen, and thum b pressure i s applied t o th e gage . Polymerizatio n take s
place i n th e adhesiv e fil m i n approximatel y 1 minute. The bonde d gag e i s
ready fo r us e by th e tim e lead wire s are attached .
The glue line is sensitive to moisture and must be protected b y a coating.
A properl y protecte d gage , however , ca n b e use d i n we t atmosphere s fo r
short-duration tests . Thes e adhesive s ar e excellen t fo r short-ter m test s bu t

are seldo m use d fo r test s extendin g ove r lon g tim e periods , sinc e th e bon d
is subjec t t o embrittlemen t wit h age. Gages bonde d wit h thes e cement s ca n
be use d t o measur e strain s o f the orde r o f 1 5 percent an d ca n operat e ove r
a temperatur e rang e o f -25 ° t o 150° F (-3 2 t o 65°C).
Epoxies
Epoxy adhesives, in use for many years, come in a wide selection o f two types;
namely, on e wher e polymerizatio n take s plac e a t roo m temperatur e an d
another tha t require s the application o f external heat fo r correct polymeriza -
tion. Wit h epoxies , ther e i s n o solven t evaporatio n involved , ver y littl e
shrinkage, an d a goo d permanen t bon d i s forme d wit h a wid e variet y of
materials. Epoxie s als o exhibi t excellent moistur e an d chemica l resistance ,
and can be used over a temperature range from cryogeni c to 600°F (315°C).
One typ e o f epoxy, using an amin e catalyst , cures a t roo m temperatur e
through th e exothermi c reactio n produce d whe n th e adhesiv e components ,
hardener an d resin , are mixe d together. Anothe r typ e o f epoxy, activated b y
an acid anhydride catalyst, requires external heat fo r polymerization t o occu r
properly. A temperatur e o f a t leas t 250° F (120°C ) mus t b e maintaine d fo r
several hours . Bot h type s requir e a clampin g pressur e durin g th e curin g
process. Furthermore , i f either typ e i s t o b e use d a t a temperatur e highe r
than th e curin g temperature , the n a post-cur e temperatur e abov e th e
expected maximu m test temperature should b e maintained for several hours .
For th e room-temperature-curin g epoxy , th e post-cur e temperatur e shoul d
be 70 degF to 8 5 degF (40 to 47 degC) abov e th e maximum test temperature.
For th e hot-cur e epoxy , th e post-cur e temperatur e shoul d b e 8 5 deg F t o
115 degF (4 7 to 6 4 degC) abov e th e maximu m tes t temperature .
Other adhesives
Other availabl e adhesive s ar e generall y use d fo r mor e specialize d applica -
tions. Among these are phenolic, polyimide, and cerami c adhesives . Phenoli c
adhesives ar e littl e used becaus e the y require complicated, lon g curin g cycles
and hig h clampin g pressure . Polyimid e adhesive s ar e difficul t t o wor k wit h
and th e solvents in them are not easily removed. Remaining solvents degrad e
the adhesive properties. Cerami c adhesive s are applied t o free-filamen t gage s
and thermocouple s fo r temperature s tha t excee d th e limit s o f organi c
materials. Again, for special applications, consul t th e manufacturers and their
application departments .
13.6. Bonding a strain gage to a specimen

Bonding a strai n gag e appear s t o b e a simpl e process , bu t clos e attentio n
must b e pai d t o eac h step . Thi s involve s surfac e preparatio n o f th e tes t
specimen, cementing th e gage to that surface, soldering lead wires , and finall y
applying a protectiv e coa t t o th e installation . Cleanlines s canno t b e over -

emphasized; th e hand s shoul d b e washe d frequentl y durin g th e proces s o r
cleaned wit h neutralizer , n o materia l shoul d b e reused , an d th e wor k are a
must b e kept clean .
Surface preparation
1. Usin g a degreasin g agent , suc h a s trichloroethylen e o r carbo n tetra -
chloride, clean the test surface, being sure to have adequate ventilation.
2. San d th e degrease d surfac e i n orde r t o remov e al l scale , dirt , o r dus t
particles.
3. Clea n th e surfac e wit h a spong e o r tissu e saturate d wit h th e cleanin g
solvent.
4. Usin g a metal conditioner, wet lap the area with silicon-carbide paper.
5. Usin g a clea n tissue , wipe the are a dr y wit h one stroke . D o no t reus e
the tissue . Repeat severa l times.
6. Usin g a ballpoin t pe n o r 4- H pencil , locat e an d mar k referenc e line s
for gag e alignment. Do not use a scribe: make certain you d o not scratch
the surface.
1. Usin g a cotton-ti p swab , di p i t int o meta l conditione r an d scru b th e
surface. Wip e dr y wit h on e strok e usin g a clea n tissue . Usin g a clea n
swab an d tissue , repea t severa l time s unti l th e cotton-ti p show s n o
foreign material .
8. Di p a cotto n swa b int o neutralize r an d scru b th e surface . Wip e clea n
with one stroke usin g a clean tissue . Repeat severa l times to ensure the
surface i s neutralized.
9. Instal l th e gag e a s soo n a s possible .
Bonding the gage

Since bonding technique s wil l differ dependin g o n th e adhesive , th e metho d
for a cyanoacrylat e adhesiv e wil l b e described , sinc e i t i s a widel y use d
cement.
1. Remov e the gag e fro m it s packe t an d plac e it , bondin g sid e down , o n
a clea n surface . Position a separat e termina l stri p relativ e t o th e gag e
tabs.
2. Usin g a piec e o f cellophane tape , plac e i t ove r th e gag e an d termina l
strip. Pul l th e tap e fro m th e surfac e at a shallo w angle , bein g certai n
the gag e an d termina l stri p ar e firmly attached .
3. Plac e the gag e o n th e tes t specimen , alignin g the referenc e tabs o n th e
gage wit h th e marke d referenc e syste m o n th e tes t surface . Th e tap e
and gag e ar e no w i n th e desire d position .
4. Lif t on e end of the tape from th e test surface until the gage and termina l
strip ar e just clear . Th e remainde r o f the tap e i s stil l attache d t o th e
specimen.
400 TH E BONDE D ELECTRICAL RESISTANC E STRAI N GAGE
5. Pul l the fre e en d o f the tap e bac k unti l the bondin g surface s o f the gag e
and termina l stri p ar e exposed . Brus h catalys t sparingl y ont o th e
bonding surfaces . Allow t o dr y fo r 1 minute.
6. Appl y one o r tw o drop s o f adhesiv e at th e boundar y lin e o f th e tap e
and tes t surface . Pull th e fre e en d o f the tap e tau t and toward s th e test
specimen, makin g a shallo w angle . A t th e sam e time , usin g a clea n
tissue, wipe over the tap e fro m th e boundar y line towards the fre e en d
so that th e cement spread s unde r the gage an d termina l strip , bonding
them t o th e surface . Appl y thum b pressur e t o th e gag e an d termina l
strip fo r approximatel y 1 minute.
7. Afte r severa l minutes, grasp one end of the tape and slowl y and carefull y
pull back on itself until it is removed. The gag e is now read y for soldering.
Completing the installation

Now tha t th e gage is successfully bonde d t o th e test specimen, there remains
the tas k o f attaching th e lea d wire s and the n applyin g a protectiv e coat t o
the entir e installation . The procedur e i s outlined i n th e following:
1. I f the gage has an open grid, cover the grid area with a piece of masking
tape, leavin g the solde r tab s exposed .
2. A 30-40-wat t solderin g iron wit h a smooth , tinne d ti p i s required.
3. Us e a fine rosin-core solde r whos e melting temperature i s compatibl e
with th e tes t environment.
4. Wit h the soldering iron at the proper temperature, lay the solder across
the gage tab an d appl y the iron firmly for a second. Lif t th e solder an d
iron a t th e sam e time , leaving behind a shin y mound o f solder o n th e
tab.
5. Lightl y tin th e termina l strips .
6. Separat e th e individua l leads o f the composit e lea d wir e and remov e
about inc h t o f inc h insulation from each . O n eac h individua l lead,
separate on e strand, twist the remaining strands togethe r and ti n for a
short distanc e a t th e insulation . Snip of f the remainin g end, leavin g
about inc h of the tinne d bundle. The singl e strand wil l b e use d a s a
jumper wir e from th e termina l stri p to th e gag e tab .
7. Solde r th e tinne d lea d wire s to th e termina l strip.
8. Usin g the singl e strand o f each lead , solde r t o th e gag e solderin g tab ,
arranging it so there is some slack between the terminal strip and gag e
tab. (Fin e insulate d wir e may b e use d i n plac e o f the singl e strand. )
9. Clea n al l solde r joints wit h rosi n solvent , remove th e maskin g tape ,
and clea n th e gag e wit h rosin solvent .
10. Secur e the lea d wire s so the y cannot accidentl y be pulle d loose .
11. Chec k th e resistanc e betwee n the gag e an d th e specimen . It shoul d be
at leas t 1000 0 megohms.
12. Appl y a protectiv e coatin g t o th e gage , termina l strips , an d a shor t
distance ont o th e lea d wir e insulation.
REFERENCES
1. "Catalo g 500: Part B—Strai n Gage Technical Data, " Measurements Group, Inc. ,
P.O. Bo x 27777 , Raleigh, NC 27611 , 1988 .
2. "SR- 4 Strain Gage Handbook," BL H Electronics, Inc., 75 Shawmut Road, Canton,
MA 02021 , 1980 .
3. "Weldabl e and Embedable Integral Lead Strain Gages," Applications and Installa-
tion Manual , Eato n Corp. , Ailtec h Strain Gag e Products , 172 8 Maplelaw n Rd.,
Troy, M I 48084 , 1985 .
4. Vaughn , John, Application o f B & K Equipment to Strain Measurements, Brue l &
Kjaer, Naerum , Denmark , 1975 , Chaps. 3 and 4 .
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS
2.2. a , = 2 0 500 psi; a2 = 450 0 psi; 6 = 45°.

2.4.
= <j 2 =950 0 psi ; Mohr' s circl e i s a point .
2.6. a i = -<r 2 = 750 0 psi; 0 = 45°.
2.7.
= -700 0 psi;= -2300 0 psi; 0 = 135°.
2.9. (a ) Poin t A := -<r 2 =625 8 psi; Point B := 2651 0 psi; a 2 = - 147 7 psi.
(b) Poin t X : ma x = 625 8 psi; Point B : ma x =13944 psi.
2.11. Lef t bearin g reactions : F y = 30 6 Ib; F z = 21 7 Ib.
Right bearin g reactions : F y = 31 0 Ib; F z = -569 Ib ; T max = 861 4 psi.
2.12. ma x = 3309 6 psi; raa x = 1679 9 psi.
2.14.
= 1 1 701 psi; 2 = -470 1 psi; 0 = 18.8° .
2.16. K ! =181 8 nin/in; £ 2 = 19 7 nin/in; 0 = 161.8° .
2.18. £ , = 75 3 nin/in; £ 2 = -18 3 nin/in ; 0 = 102.3° .
2.20. £ , = -£ 2 = 25 0 nin/in; 0 = -45° .
2.22. fi j = 40 0 nin/in; £ 2 = -80 0 nin/in ; (9 = 90°.
2.24. £ , = 125 8 nin/in: £ 2 = -18 8 nin/in ; 0 = 139.2° .
2.25. (a ) E I = 2654 nin/in; s 2 = - 115 4 nin/in; y max = 190 4 nradians .
(b) Rectangula r rosette : e a = 250 0 nin/in; e b = 150 0 nin/in; E C =—100 0 nin/in.
Delta rosette : e 0 = 250 0 nin/in; £ b = 52 5 nin/in; E C =—77 5 nin/in.
2.26. fi , = 124 4 nin/in; «2 = -84 4 nin/in ; f = 101.7° .
2.28. £ j = 102 7 nin/in; K, = -202 7 nin/in ; 0 = 65.5° ccw from gag e b .
2.30. <T ! = 3 2 664 psi; <2 = 1552 1 psi .
2.32. a i = 1381 0 psi; a 2 = -5 6 66 7 psi.
2.34. <7 3 = 1 0 385 psi.
2.36. (b ) E , = 179 1 nin/in ; £ 2 = —69 3 nin/in; £ 3 = —47 1 nin/in .
(d) CT, = 5220 3 psi; <r2 =-514 5 psi; 0 = 17.4° .
2.38. s a = 0 nin/in; £ 6 = 6 8 nin/in; e c = 95 1 nin/in.
3.2. / = 0.02 0 15 amps; n = 0.0074 .
3.4. / = 0.02 8 amps; n = -0.12 .
3.5. R p = 5880 ohms .
4.5. r \ = 9 0 percent ; e . =0.10204 1 in/in ; No .
4.8. (a ) £ „ =-84 4 nin/in ; £ b = 195 0 nin/in; e. c = 384 4 nin/in; e. d =105 0 nin/in.
(b) A £ = 0.0312 5 volts.
(c) « = 0.000 625.
4.9. (a ) £ 9 = 185 5 nin/in; s b = -75 7 nin/in .
(b) AR g = 0.4630 ohms; AR b = -0.188 9 ohms.
(c) E = 0.033 96 volts.
ANSWERS T O SELECTE D PROBLEM S 40 3
5.2. A£ 0 /K = (G Fe)/(4 + 2G Fe); E/E, = 2/(2 - G F£;).

5.4. A£ 0 /K= (G F £)/2;£/£;= 1.
5.6. A£ 0 /F = G F(1 + v)e/2 ; e/g; = 1.
5.8. <7 t =3 2 490 psi; <r 2 =- 1 9 560 psi; F = 34 0 923 Ib.
5.11. P, = 1 5 000 psi.
5.12. F x = 220 9 Ib ( + x); F , = 11 5 Ib ( + y); F z = 104. 7 Ib (-z) .
EI = —18 0 nin/in; s 2 = 24 0 |iin/in; e 3 = 30 0 nin/in; £ 4 = — 120 nin/in.
5.14. (a ) F ! = 5301 4 Ib; F2 = 6202 7 Ib.
(b) M I = 1590 4 in-lb (cw); M 2 = 1491 0 in-lb (ccw).
5.16. Increas e = 11.7 5 percent.
5.18. (a ) A£ m0 = 3.8 3 mV; (b) A£ m0 = 52.2 2 mV.
5.21. (b ) A£ m0 = 14.8 5 mV; A£m0 = 14.2 8 mV; A£m0 = 11.7 2 mV.
5.23. W= 2.94\b.
5.25. E ! =2000 nin/in; e 2 = 120 0 nin/in; £ 3 = -50 0 nin/in ; £4 = 93 7 nin/in.
6.2. K p =468.7 6 ohms.
6.3. R p = 1114. 1 ohms; K s = 14.4 8 ohms.
6.5. R s = 40 ohms.
6.7. K p = 327. 8 ohms; R s = 69.3 ohms.
6.9. K s = 77. 4 ohms.
6.11. R p = 690 ohms; R s = 30.96 ohms.
7.1. (a ) e H — 680 nin/in ; «L = 16 0 nin/in.
(b) E' H = 69 3 nin/in ; E' L =18 6 nin/in.
(c) r\ H = 1.91 percent ; ?; L = 16.2 5 percent.
7.3. e' a =101 5 nin/in.
7.5. G F = 0.939 .
8.2. e. H/e.L = 4.25.
8.4. ff l = 6 3 718 psi; a 2 = -457 6 psi; t max = 3 4 147 psi; 9 = 129.3°.
8.6. a , = 1 0 890 psi; <r 2 =- 1 9 290 psi; T max = 1 5 090 psi; 9 = 98.3°.
8.8. CT! = -1 1 61 1 psi; a2 = -3 8 70 3 psi; T mal = 1 9 352 psi; 0= 120° .
8.10. a l = 447 4 psi; <r2 =-1 8 18 8 psi; Tmax = 1 1 331 psi; 9 = 101.8°.
8.12. <T ! = -1 4 12 0 psi; a2 = -2 9 16 6 psi; im ax = 1 4 583 psi; 0 = 65.6° .
8.14. B a = —29 5 |iin/in; E b =75 2 nin/in; e c = —7 5 nin/in; £,, =55 0 nin/in.
9.2. e ^ =14 6 nin/in; 4 = 53 3 nin/in.
9.4. £ „ =95 1 nin/in; e fc =14 1 nin/in; £ c = 43 1 nin/in.
9.6. e, a = 11 7 nin/in; s b = —87 0 nin/in; e c = 85 8 nin/in.
9.8. £ „ =e b = e c = 782 nin/in.
9.10. £ „ =80 7 nin/in; £ 6 = 40 1 nin/in; s c = -21 9 nin/in .
9.12. £ „ =£, . = 80 7 nin/in; s b = - 8 nin/in .
9.14. (b ) £ „ =17 1 nin/in; eb = 157 1 nin/in; ec = 78 4 nin/in.
(c) £ j = 161 2 nin/in; £ 2 = —65 6 nin/in.
(d) <T J =4665 5 psi; a2 = -568 4 psi; 6 = 52.8° .
(e) T max = 26170psi .
10.2. (a ) <t > = 26.6° ; (b) 0 = 28.7° ; (c ) 0 = 30.2° .
10.4. CTH =-^= ——— [3(1 - v ) + (1 +v) cos 2
1 — v 8t( l — v)
10.6. y xy = 276 (iradians .

11.1. £ = -230 0 nin/in.
11.3. E =288 5 nin/in.
11.7. (a ) E ! = 167 3 |j.in/in ; £ 2 = —237 3 nin/in.
(b) K ! =375 4 nin/in; e 2 = ~2 6 )j.in/in .
11.9. (a ) ei = 207 nin/in ; « 2 = - 100 7 jiin/in.
(b) E I = 28 3 nin/in; e, 2 = —87 1 |j.in/in .
12.1. (a ) Tension : nonlinearit y factor = 0.9989 . Compression : nonlinearity factor
1.0011.
(b) Tension : nonlinearit y facto r = 1.008 . Compression : nonlinearit y factor
0.9992.
12.3.
12.5. w= 1 . 6 i n .
12.10. r= 2106in-lb .
12.11. Percen t differenc e = 0.86.
12.13. A £ 0 / K = 1.05mV/V .
INDEX
Adhesives, 396- 8 dynamic strains , 118-1 9

cyanoacrylate, 397- 9 gages i n series , 112-1 4
epoxies, 398 linearity consideration s
nitrocellulose, 39 7 fixed ballast resistance , 123- 4
Axial strai n sensitivity , 236 variable ballast resistance, 121- 3
measurements, stati c vs. dynamic,
114-15
Backing material , 393- 4 nonlinearity, 102 , 108- 9
Baker, M . A. , 9 signal measurement , 147- 9
Ballast circuit , se e Potentiometric circui t static strain , 118
Ballast resistor , 100- 1 temperature effects , 129-4 1
Biaxial stress , 45 ballast an d gag e leads, 133- 5
Biermasz, A. J. , 1 6 voltage limitation , 110
Bonded wir e strain gage, 24- 7 Coatings
Bridge inpu t resistance, 151-2, 173- 5 brittle lacquer , 3 , 36- 8
Bridge outpu t resistance , 151-2 , 176- 7 photoelastic, 3 8
Bridge ratio , 155 , 159-61 Compensating strai n gage, 27-8, 353-7 ,
Brittle lacque r coatings , 3 , 36- 8 363
Constantan, 14 , 339-41, 391- 2
Crack measurin g gage, 34- 5
Calibration Cyanoacrylate cement, 397-8
potentiometric circuit , 141- 4
strain gag e us e under othe r conditions ,
246-8 Data analysis , 253-6
Wheatstone bridge , 193- 5 Delta rosett e
Circuits, elementary analysis, 267- 9
constant current , 94- 6 Mohr's circle, 269-73
advantages, 96- 7 principal stres s directions , 26 9
constant voltage , 91- 4 T-delta, 278-81
nonlinearity, 93- 4 transverse sensitivity , 301- 6
Circuits, potentiometri c Desensitization o f circuits
advantages an d limitations , 105- 6 full bridge , 227-31
applications, 104- 5 half bridge , 218-2 5
ballast resistor , 100- 1 kinds, 20 7
calibration, 141- 4 meter resistance , 175- 9
characteristics, 102- 3 power suppl y resistance , 173- 5
circuit analysis , 106- 9 reasons for varying, 205-6
circuit efficiency , 111-1 2 single gage , 207-1 7
circuit equations , 101- 2 combination, serie s an d
components, 10 0 parallel, 211-1 6
406 INDEX
Desensitization o f circuits (contd.) Lateral effect , 234-5 1

single gag e (contd.) basic equations , 236-42
resistance i n parallel , 209-1 1 transverse sensitivit y factor, K, 238-4 0
resistance i n series, 207- 9 Lead-line resistance , 180-9 1
temperature effects, 21 6 full bridge , 180- 1
Dorsey, J. , 8 , 387 half bridge—fou r wire, 181- 4
Dummy gage, see Compensating strai n gage half bridge—thre e wire , 184- 6
quarter bridge—thre e wire , 187- 8
quarter bridge—tw o wire, 188-90
Embedment gage , 3 6 Load cell
Epoxy cement , 398 axial force , 363- 5
Equiangular rosette, see Delta rosett e bending beam , 372- 5
ring type , 365-8
shear beam , 375- 7
Four-element rosett e
rectangular, 275- 8 Maslen, K . R. , 10
T-delta, 278-8 1 Material, backing, 393- 4
Friction gage , 35- 6 epoxy resins , 394
metallic, 39 4
paper carrier , 393
Gage factor polyimide resins , 393-4
determination, 242-3 Material, strai n gag e
manufacturers, 26 , 236 constantan, 14 , 339-41, 391- 2
relation wit h axia l an d norma l strains , isoelastic, 39 2
240-2 karma, 392
variation wit h temperature , 340-3 platinum tungsten , 39 3
Gages properties desired , 10
crack measuring , 34- 5 McClintock, F . A. , 281
embedment, 3 6 Measurements, fundamenta l laws, 97- 8
friction, 35- 6 Meier, J. H. , 10 , 278, 380, 38 2
semiconductor, 32- 3 Meter resistance , 175- 9
temperature, 33- 4 Mohr's circl e
delta rosette . 269-7 3
rectangular rosette , 261- 5
Mines, F . F. , 318 strain, 68-70
Hydrostatic strai n component , 6 9 stress, 54- 7
Hydrostatic stres s component , 5 6 Multiple circuits . 195- 7
Nitrocellulose cement , 397

Indicated vs . actual strain, 165-8 , 206
Nonlinearity o f circuits
Invariants
elementary. 93- 4
strain, 81
potentiometric, 102 , 108- 9
stress, 8 1
Wheatstone bridge , 150-1 , 163- 4
Isoelastic, 240 , 392
Normal strai n sensitivity , 236
Jones, E. , 1 0 Perry, C . C., 330- 1

Photoelastic coating , 38
Plane shearing stress, determination, 327-30
Karma, 39 2 Plane strain , 62- 5
Kelvin, Lord , 5 Plane stress , se e Biaxial stres s
Kern, R . E., 320 , 32 2 Platinum tungsten , 393
INDEX 407
Poisson's ratio , 17 , 73 T-delta, 278-81

Potentiometric circui t transverse sensitivity
advantages an d limitations , 105- 6 delta, 301- 6
applications, 104- 5 rectangular, three-element , 296-300
ballast resistor , 100- 1 two differen t orthogona l gages , 294- 6
calibration, 141- 4 two identica l orthogona l gages , 291- 4
characteristics, 102- 3
circuit analysis , 106- 9
circuit efficiency , 111-1 2 Sanchez, J . C, 12 6
circuit equations , 101- 2 Semiconductor gages , 32-3
components, 10 0 Semiconductor materials , 8- 9
dynamic strains, 118-1 9 Sensitivity variation
gages i n series , 112-1 4 full bridge , 227-3 1
linearity consideration s half bridge , 218-25
fixed ballast resistance , 123- 4 reasons, 205- 6
variable ballast resistance , 121- 3 single gage, 207-16
measurements, static vs. dynamic, 114-1 8 Shear gage , 330-4
nonlinearity, 102 , 108-9 Shear strain , Mohr' s circl e sign convention,
signal measurement , 147-9 68-9
static strains , 11 8 Shear stres s
temperature effects , 129-4 1 biaxial stres s state, 51- 2
ballast an d gag e leads , 133- 5 determination o f plane, 327-30
voltage limitation, 11 0 Mohr's circl e sig n convention, 54- 6
Pressure transduce r Shoub, H. , 14 , 22
diaphragm, 384- 7 Stein, P . K. , 157
thin-walled cylinder , 383- 4 Strain
Principal strains , 64- 5 apparent, se e Thermal outpu t
Principal stresses , 48-53 , 260-5, 269-73 basic concepts , 61- 2
correcting fo r thermal outpu t an d gag e
factor variation , 348- 9
Rectangular rosett e elastic, in metals, 7- 8
analysis, 258-61 indicated vs . actual, 165-8 , 206
four element , 275- 8 invariants, 81
Mohr's circle, 261-5 Mohr's circle , 68-70
principal stres s directions , 260- 1 nonlinearity, 102 , 108-9, 163- 4
transverse sensitivity , 296—300 plastic, i n metals, 8
Resistance, basi c equation s fo r uni t change , principal, 64- 5
236-8 shear, sign , 63- 4
Resistor, ballast , 100-1 , 119-26 small vs. large, 20- 4
Rosettes temperature-induced, 337-4 0
delta thermal outpu t correction , 344- 7
analysis, 267-9 transformation equations , 63- 5
Mohr's circle, 269-73 Strain gag e
principal stres s directions , 26 9 alloys, 391- 3
transverse sensitivity , 301-6 basic principle , 5
geometry, 256-8 bonding, 398-40 0
graphical solutions , 281- 7 characteristics, 4- 5
rectangular compensating, 27-8, 353-7, 363
analysis, 258-61 foil, 29-3 1
four element , 275-8 gage length, 394-5
Mohr's circle, 261-5 general considerations , 390- 1
principal stress directions, 261 geometry, 39 5
transverse sensitivity , 296-300 lateral effect , 234-51
stress equations , summary , 280-8 1 orthogonally crosse d pair , 248-51
408 INDEX
Strain gag e (contd.) Torque meter , 378-8 0

properties desired , 1 0 Torque wrench , 380-2
resistance, 395- 6 Transducers
self-temperature compensated , 131-2 , axial force , 363- 5
343-5 bending beam , 372- 5
self-temperature compensation , 39 6 cantilever beam , 368-7 2
temperature effects , 33 7 full bridge , 361- 2
test materia l mismatch , 349 5 1 half bridge , 36 2
use under conditions differin g fro m pressure measurement
calibration, 246-8 diaphragm. 384-7
weldable thin-walled cylinder , 383-4
foil, 3 1 quarter bridge . 36 3
wire, 27- 9 ring-type, 365- 8
wire, 2 4 9 shear beam . 375- 7
Strain sensitivity torque meter , 378-8 0
analysis, 14-2 4 torque wrench , 380-2
general case , 14-1 7 Transformation equation s
small vs . large strain , 17-2 4 strain, 63- 5
uniform straigh t wire , 17-2 0 stress. 45-5 3
axial an d normal , 236- 8 summary, strain , 65
gage facto r relation , 240- 2 summary, stress , 52- 3
definition, 5-8 , 23 6 Transverse sensitivity
material properties , desired , 1 0 definition, 238-4 0
numerical values , 11-1 3 delta rosette , 301- 6
reasons fo r varying , 205-6 determination. 244-6
Strain transformatio n equations, 63- 5 rectangular rosette , 296-30 0
Stress two differen t orthogona l gages , 294- 6
basic concepts , 43- 4 two identica l orthogona l gages , 291- 4
biaxial, 4 5 typical values , 239-40
circuit, indicatio n o f normal stress , 32 0
fields, 253-6
invariants, 81 Unbonded wir e strai n gage , 2 4
Mohr's circle , 54- 7
principal, 48-53 , 260-5 , 269-73
using a singl e gage, 326- 7 Weibull, W. , 12 , 14 , 20, 2 2
sign convention , 45 Weldable strai n gag e
transformation equations , 45-5 3 foil, 3 1
Stress gage wire, 27- 9
normal, 310-1 2 Weymouth, L . J. . 14 1
single roun d wire , L configuration, Wheatstone bridg e
312-14 bridge inpu t resistance , 151-2 , 173- 5
two orthogona l gages , 314-1 6 bridge outpu t resistance , 151-2 , 176- 7
V-type, 321- 5 bridge ratio , 155 , 159-6 1
Stress-strain gage , 316-2 0 calibration, 193- 5
Stress-strain relations , 72- 7 derivation o f elementary bridg e
Stress transformatio n equations , 45-5 3 equations, 157-65 , 169-7 2
elementary bridg e equations , 149-5 2
general bridg e equations , 172- 9
Temperature gages , 33- 4 lead-line resistance , 180-9 1
Temperature-induced strain , 337-4 0 meter current , 152-3 , 179
Thermal expansio n coefficients , 350 meter resistance , 175- 9
Thermal output , 338 , 34 4 nonlinearity. 150-1 , 163- 4
correction, 344- 7 null balanc e referenc e bridge, 15 4
Thevenin's theorem , 17 3 null balanc e svstem , 153
INDEX 40 9
reference system , 153- 4 unbalanc e system , 153

resistance i n serie s wit h bridge , 172- 5 Williams , S. B., 320, 33 5
summary o f properties, 155- 7 Wnuk , S. P., Jr., 14 1
unbalance referenc e bridge, 15 4 Wright , W. V. , 126

The Bonded Electrical Resistance Strain Gage An Introduction 019507209X

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The Bonded Electrical Resistance Strain Gage An Introduction 019507209X

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The Bonde d Electrica l Resistanc e

New Yor k Oxfor d

Oxford Ne w Yor k Toront o

Copyright ; 199 2 b y Oxfor d Universit y Press , Inc .

Published b y Oxfor d Universit y Press , Inc. ,

Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a

Experimental stres s analysi s i s a n importan t too l i n th e overal l desig n an d

were ou r students . I wan t especiall y t o than k Marth a Watso n Spaldin g of

1. Fundamenta l Concept s fo r Strai n Gages , 3

2. Stress-Strai n Analysi s and Stress-Strai n Relations , 42

4. Th e Potentiometri c Circuit, 100

5. Wheatston e Bridge , 146

6. Sensitivit y Variation , 205

1. Latera l Effect s i n Strai n Gages , 23 4

8. Strai n Gag e Rosette s and Dat a Analysis , 253

8.5 Analytical Solution for the Equiangular or Delta Rosette, 267

9. Strai n Gag e Rosette s an d Transvers e Sensitivit y Effect , 29 1

10. Stres s Gages , 310

11. Temperatur e Effect s o n Strai n Gages , 337

13. Strai n Gag e Selectio n and Application , 390

Answers t o Selecte d Problems, 402

1.2. Characteristics desired in a strain gage

available toda y ar e ver y dependabl e whe n used unde r th e conditions

No on e ha s ye t developed a strai n gag e possessin g al l o f these desire d

1.3. General considerations

Definition of strain sensitivity

FIG. 1.1 . Schemati c diagra m o f straine d conducto r (tensil e effec t shown) .

conductor o f unifor m cros s section , thi s is expressed a s

unit change i n resistanc e

In symbols , thi s can b e writte n a s

where S , = strai n sensitivit y (factor) of the conducto r an d i s

Examination o f Eq . (1.1 ) an d th e definition s of the symbol s wil l rais e a

In Eq . (1.2) the denominator, e = dL/L, i s what is sometimes called th e

Elastic strains in metals

2. Th e strai n sensitivity, S,, can b e determined fro m th e slop e o f the curve

Plastic strains in metals

where R = chang e i n resistanc e fro m R O (T O > (ohms )

Equation (1.4 ) indicate s th e followin g characteristic s regardin g th e

1. Th e strain sensitivity factor , which corresponds to the slope of the curve

Hence, fo r this special condition show n i n Fig. 1.2 , GF' correspond s t o

Over a limite d rang e o f strain , fo r exampl e abou t 60 0 microstrai n ( 1

FIG. 1.2. Schemati c diagra m fo r R/R n(Ta vs al constan t temperature , T 0. (Resistance =

Desired properties of strain-sensitive materials

One canno t expec t t o fin d al l th e desirabl e characteristic s i n an y

Properties of some metals

1. Th e same linear relatio n betwee n R/R 0 and L/L 0 i n both th e elastic

For th e relation s indicate d i n Item s (3 ) and (4) , the chang e i n slop e a s

Numerical values of the strain sensitivity factor

1. Differen t value s o f strain sensitivit y for har d an d anneale d condition s

2. Difference s i n sensitivit y fo r differen t lot s o f nominall y th e sam e

Table 1.1. Typica l strai n sensitivit y factor s

Stress in Ib/in equivalent to influence

Manganin 0.47 -400

Table 1.2. Compositio n o f alloys

Advance an d Cope l 45% Ni; 55 % Cu

Table 1.3. Weibull' s observation s fro m stati c tes t

Initial diameter = 0.45 mm; initial length = 125 mm

Source: referenc e 13 . Reprinte d b y permission , r 194 8 Mac -

strain sensitivit y facto r i s found t o b e

1.4. Analysis of strain sensitivity in metals

The expressio n fo r th e resistanc e in th e X directio n ca n b e writte n a s

where R = resistance i n length L (ohms )

Fie. 1.6. Meta l conductor referre d t o X , Y , and Z axes .