Historical survey.

The first wheel-

type tractors, powered by steam engines, appeared in Great Britain and France in 1830;they were use
d in transportation and for military purposes. They were used in agriculture in these countries beginnin
g in1850, and in the USA beginning in 1890. Valuable inventions relating to the crawler drive were ma
de in Russia by D. A.Zagriazhskii in 1837 and by A. P. Kostikov-
Almazov in about 1889. In 1888 the Russian mechanical engineer F. A. Blinovbuilt and tested a crawle
r tractor with two steam engines. In the period 189395, the self-
taught Russian inventor la. V.Mamin built a self-propelled wheeled cart with an internal-
combustion engine. In 1901 the Hart-Parr company in the USAproduced the first wheel-
type tractors with internal-
combustion engines. Beginning in 1912, crawler tractors were produced inthe USA by Holt; they were l
ater produced in Germany by Wanderer-Dorner.
The first tractors were produced in the USSR in 1923 (the Fordzon-
Putilovets). Mass production of tractors began in theUSSR in 1930, making possible the cessation of tr
actor imports in 1932 (see).
Classification. A distinction is made between farm tractors and industrial tractors. When combined wit
h the appropriateimplements, general-
purpose farm tractors are used for plowing, cultivating, sowing, harvesting, and other work. The mostp
owerful farm tractors are used in the development of virgin and fallow lands, in pulling stumps, and in r
emoving brush andplowing it under. Row-
crop tractors make possible the mechanization of interrow tillage, such as cultivation, hoeing, hilling,du
sting, and harvesting of such row crops as corn, sugar beets, and cotton. The particular features of ro
w-crop tractors aretheir ability to operate with toolbar-
mounted implements and to operate in the interrows of row crops, and their wide track(usually adjusta
ble), high clearance, and narrow wheels or crawler tracks.
The base models of industrial tractors are characterized by higher tractive force than farm tractors. Th
ey are used for earth-moving, road-
construction, and reclamation operations in a unit with various toolbar-mounted and trailer-
type implements.The first group includes bulldozer or snowplow blades and excavator

buckets, and the second includes scrapers and graders. Various modifications of the base models are
used, depending onthe operating conditions. For example, farm tractors have vineyard, swamp, hillsid
e, and garden models, and industrialtractors are available in reclamation, rafting, and skidding version
s. Tractors may have wheel or crawler propulsion.
Mechanisms and equipment. The power plant of a tractor consists of an engine and auxiliary equipm
ent (see). Thetransmission includes the clutch, the coupling, the gear box, and the main and final drive
s (seePOWER TRANSMISSION).Friction clutches are the most common, although hydrodynamic and electri
c clutches are sometimes used. The multispeedmechanical transmissions of farm tractors have six, ei
ght, 15, or more speeds, and those of industrial tractors have three tosix speeds. Constantmesh trans
missions or transmissions with a planetary reduction gear are becoming increasinglywidespread; they
are used on certain foreign tractors and on the Soviet T-150, T-150K, and K-
701 models. Torque isdelivered to the driving sprockets of crawler tractors through a main transmissio
n; usually a bevel reduction gear; in wheel-
type tractors a differential gear is used. The final drives, which are usually spur reduction gears, are lo
cated at the drivingwheels and serve to increase the overall gear ratio of the transmissions and to prov
ide the necessary ground clearance.Hydraulic and hydromechanical transmissions have been used on
some experimental models. The former consist of ahydraulic pump and hydraulic motors, and the latt
er, of a torque converter and mechanical gear box. To attain especially lowspeeds, the transmissions
are equipped with additional reduction gears.
The running gear of wheel-
type tractors consists of the suspension, axles, and steerable and driving wheels, with low-
pressure pneumatic tires. Half-
track drive, wide cage wheels, and additional grousers are sometimes used to increase off-
road capability. The running gear of crawler tractors consists of a suspension, the crawler tracks, the d
riving sprockets, thebogie wheels, the support rollers, and the idler wheels.
The body of a tractor is usually made in the form of frames of varying designs. The control equipment
consists of the steeringsystem and band or disk brakes. For wheel-
type tractors, a change in direction is usually accomplished by the front wheels.To improve maneuvera
bility, tractors are sometimes designed with four-
wheel turning, adjustment of torque on the drivingwheels, or relative rotation of the front and rear parts
of the tractor (articulated-frame design). Crawler tractors are turned by

Figure 2. Crawler tractor: (1) engine, (2) cab, (3) fuel tank, (4) levers of tool-
bar assembly, (5) power takeoff shaft, (6) hitch, (7) drivingsprocket, (8) main drive, (9) crawler track, (1
0) gear box, (11) bogie wheel, (12) clutch, (13) idler wheel
changing the speed of the driving sprockets for the right or left tracks using clutches and brakes; some
times a single-
stageplanetary mechanism is used with two pairs of brakes. Cabs are used on all Soviet tractors and
most foreign tractors tocreate comfortable working conditions for the operator. The electrical equipmen
t of a tractor consists of sources of electriccurrent (a storage battery and a generator mounted on the e
ngine) and equipment for starting the engine, for illuminating thepath and working machinery (impleme
nts), for ventilating the cab, and for providing sound and light signals. Longitudinalsections of wheel-
type and crawler tractors are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
Performance indicators. The main performance indicators of tractors are divided into technical-
economic, technical, andagro-technical. Among the technical-
economic indicators are unit productivity, the traction qualities, labor-
intensiveness ofmaintenance and servicing, and consumption of metal; among the technical indicators
are the longitudinal and transversestability, ease of control, and comfort and convenience for the oper
ator (the presence of a cab, control devices andinstruments, and the number of seats); among the agr
otechnical indicators are the specific pressure on the soil, ability tooperate in interrows (ground clearan
ce, outlines, and protective zones), maneuverability in a unit, smoothness of operation,and accuracy in
following a set direction.
Types. The number of tractor models produced in the USSR, as well as the indicators of each model, i
s determined by thestandardization
that is, by a system of machines built according to a previously developed technical plan based on arat
ional combination of the tractive indicators of the various types of tractors with a minimum number of b
ase models. A classin the standardization is the aggregate of tractor models, or specific designs, havin
g uniform classification parameters. Thebase model is the most common type of tractor in a given clas
s. A modification is a model belonging to the same class as thebase but having a different configuratio
n or additional equipment. The greatest tractive force developed by a tractor withlimited skidding has b
een adopted as the basic classification parameter in the USSR and member countries of the Councilfo
r Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).
The first standardization was proposed in 1923 but was not developed and realized until 1946. A seco
nd tractorstandardization, for 1961
65, was made up in 1956. Provision was made for an increase in operating speeds to 5
6 km/hrand a rise in service life to 2,5003,000 hr for engines and up to 5,000
6,000 hr for transmissions. Tractors corresponding tothe world level of technology were produced. The
y included the T-40, MTZ-50, T-16, DT-14, and K-700 wheel-type tractorsand the T-74, DT-
75, and DET-250 crawler tractors. The third tractor standardization, for 1965
70, consisted of 13 basemodels with tractive forces from 6 to 250 kilonewtons (0.625 tons-
force) and a series of modifications.
For a further improvement in the performance indicators, a fourth tractor standardization was develope
d for 197180 (Figure3). The base models to be produced under this standardization

Figure 3. Tractor standardization for 197180: (P) tractive force (tons-

force), (W) effective engine power (hp), (G)weight (tons)

Table 1. Base models of tractors produced in the USSR according to fourth standardization (19
75)

Class Model
(tons-force)
0.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rioni
0.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-25; T-16M
09. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-50
1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MTZ-80
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T.CJW
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-74-DT-75M; T-150; T-150K
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-4A
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K-701
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-130
15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DET-250

are shown in Table 1. In the fourth standardization, operating speeds are to rise to 35 km/hr, service lif
e before a majoroverhaul has been increased, and labor-
intensiveness of maintenance has been reduced. Because of the increased speed ofthe tractors, addit
ional elastic elements have been introduced in the suspension; the cabs are equipped with springs, ar
eairtight, and are equipped with ventilating and heating devices and air conditioners. Broad standardiz
ation of assemblies andparts is to be introduced within each class and between classes. Tractors with
electric and hydraulic drive are beingdeveloped. Equipment is to be introduced for the automation of tr
actor loading and the operation of a tractor-implement unitand for protection against emergencies.

3.3 SISTEMUL DE RULARE

La tractoarele agricole, care sunt vehicule de tractiune prin excelenta, mecanismul de

rulare sau deplasare constituie unul din ansamblurile cele mai importante.
Aceasta deoarece mecanismul de rulare asigura, atat functia de organ de deplasare, cat
si functiile de organ de aderenta si de adaptare a tractorului la diversele conditii de lucru.
De aceea, mecanismul de deplasare la tractoarele agricole are caracteristici deosebite
si este realizat intr-o mare varitate constructiva, adecvata tipului si destinatiei treactorului.

Tipuri de mecanisme de rulare.

La baza constructiei mecanismului de rulare al tractoarelor agricole stau doua tipuri de
organe de deplasare, cu roti si cu senile.
Potrivit caracteristicilor oraganelor de deplasare folosite si mecanismul de rulare poate
fi de tipul cu roti, cu senile si combinat (cu roti si senile denumit si mecanism de rulare cu
semisenile)
Tipul constructiei mecanismulu de rulare determina in mare masura si destinatia
tractorului.
In constructia tractoarelor moderne cea mai larga extindere si totodata cea mai
spectaculoasa o capata mecanismul de rulare cu roti.
Utilizarea pneurilor la tractoarele cu roti marcheaza trecerea la tractorul agricol modern.
Paralel cu dezvoltarea mecanismului de rulare pe roti s-au perfectionat si mecanismele
de rulare pe senile, ajungandu-se la senile cu zale compuse, la senile cu articulatii elastice si
in cele din urma la senile pneumatice.

Nu a luat o larga extindere mecanismul cu semisenile, datorita dezavantajelor pe care

le prezinta cum ar fi : constructie complexa, manevrabilitate redusa, domeniu de utilizare
limitat.
 Atat la mecanismul de deplasare cu roti cat si la mecanismul de deplasare cu senile
(fig. VI. 1) caracteristicile dimensionale care au determinat diversificarea lor constructiva sunt
ecartamentul, ampatamentul si distanta (sau lumina) la sol.
In figura VI.2 sunt prezentate exemple la care prin modificari ale ecartamentului si
luminii sunt realizate, la tractoarele din clase de puteri diferite sau din aceeasi clasa de putere
(in figura este dat exemplul tractoarelor romanesti din seria 445).
In acest mod sunt realizate tractoare universale, de uz general, specializate viticole sau
legumicole, pentru pante, etc.

Mecanismul de rulare cu roti

Caracteristica mecanismelor de rulare cu roi ale tractoarelor moderne este
utilizarea in exclusivitate a rotilor pe pneuri. Rotile metalice se foloseau numai la unele
Tractoare monoax, sau ca dispozitive de aderenta folosite suplimentar la rotile cu pneuri.
MODELE DE MECANISME DE RULARE CU ROTI :
Prin modificarea numarului de axe, de roti, de punti motoare etc. este realizat la
tractoarele pe roti un numar mare de modele de mecanisme de rulare.
Astfel se construiesc mecanisme de deplasare cu o axa, cu doua axe, mecanisme
de deplasare cu o roata, cu doua, trei, patru (si sase roti la tractoarele specializate), mecanisme
de deplasare cu o punte motoare si doua punti motoare, respectiv cu doua si patru punti
motoare etc.
 De asemenea, se construiesc mecanisme de deplasare cu ecartament, ampatament si
lumina, fixe sau reglabile.

Astfel, prin modificari aduse mecanismului de rulare se realizeaza numeroase

modele de tractoare cu caracteristici adecvat diverselor conditii de lucru din agricultura:
cu o buna aderenta pentru exectuarea lucrarilor grele ale solului, cu lumina marita pentru
lucrarile de intretinere a culturilor prasitoare, cu stabilitate mare pentru lucrarile pe terenuri in
panta, cu ecartament redus pentru lucrarile din vii si altele.

In figura VI.3 este prezentat un exemplu de realizare de diverse modele de

mecanisme de rulare, care determina tipul si domeniul de utilizare al tractoarelor (tractoare ale
firmei FIAT-OM seria 200 )

In constructia de tractoare este larg folosita aceasta metoda de diversificare a

modelelor de tractoare prin modificari aduse mecanismului de rulare.Numeroasae firme
constructoare de tractoare, realizeaza pentru diferitele clase de putere cate un tractor de baza
care reprezinta modelul standard si din care, prin modificari ale mecanismului de rulare, sunt
realizate modele derivate, adaptate diferitelor culturi