The Predictive Capability of Failure Mode Concept-Based Strength Criteria For Multi-Directional Laminates-Part B

Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 487516
www.elsevier.com/locate/compscitech
The predictive capability of failure mode concept-based strength

criteria for multi-directional laminatespart B
R.G. Cuntze*
Main Department Analysis, MAN Technologie AG, Franz-Josef-Strau-Str. 5, D-86153 Augsburg, Germany
Received 1 February 2003; accepted 1 June 2003
Abstract
This paper represents the authors contribution to Part B of the worldwide failure exercise. An assessment is made of the
correlation between the predictions, published in Part A, and experimental results provided for 14 test cases involving bi-axial
initial and nal failure envelopes and stress strain curves of various unidirectional and multidirectional laminates. The theory,
implemented into a computer code, employs 3D failure criteria for UD laminae together with non-linear modelling of laminae
and laminate. The criteria are based on the authors Failure Mode Concept (FMC). Some simplications of the failure cri-
teria have been made and an improvement in the computer code so that large strains to failure may be captured. Special
emphasis has been put on the dierence between an isolated and an embedded UD lamina. The correlation between the
predictions and the test data is very satisfactory for the UD laminae, and is generally satisfactory for the laminates, especially
where Fibre Failure (FF) is the dominant mode, which is the case for well-designed (according to netting theory) lami-
nates. Discrepancy between predictions and test data was largest for the 55 angleply glass/epoxy laminates and also in
areas of large deformations (involving post failure progression beyond the occurrence of the various Inter Fibre Failure
(IFF) modes). Further steps, including testing and modelling, are identied for achieving a better understanding of failure
prediction.
# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: B. Non-linear behaviour; C. Failure criteria UD laminae; Failure of laminates
1. Introduction exercise. This paper represents the authors submission

for Part B.
Recently, and as a part of a world-wide failure exer- In order to ensure that the paper is self-contained, the
cise aimed at highlighting the current capability of fail- author rst provides some of the background to the FMC-
ure prediction, Cuntze presented a methodology [1] based criteria and the associated non-linear modelling of
based on the so-called Failure Mode Concept (FMC), UD laminae and multi-directional laminates. The corre-
for the prediction of failure in composite laminates. The lation between Part A predictions and test data is then
exercise was carried out in two stages, referred to as described. Based on the available test data, the paper then
Part A and Part B. The predictions, representing the describes the modications which were introduced in
Part A contribution, were made for 14 test cases and the order to obtain a better t between the predictions and
results were published in Ref [1]. No experimental data the experimental results. Areas of potential problems in
was used. In the second part (Part B), the author was the test data and in the methodology are highlighted.
requested to submit a paper describing the correlation
between those Part A predictions and a set of experi-
mental results, provided by the organisers of the failure 2. Part A theory: comparison with experiment
2.1. FMC-based failure conditions for UD laminae
* Tel.: +49-821-505-2593; fax: +49-821-505-2630. Cuntzes method of applying the FMC methodology
E-mail address: ralf_cuntze@mt.man.de (R.G. Cuntze). is to propose a set of ve equations describing ve pure
0266-3538/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0266-3538(03)00225-2
488 R.G. Cuntze / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 487516
Nomenclature I 1, I 2, I 3, I 4, I 5 Invariants of the

transversally-isotropic
as, bs Ramberg/Osgood UD-material [see Eq. (10)]
:
parameters in the softening m Mode interaction
regime coecient (rounding-o
b? ; b?jj ; b?jj Curve parameters, see Eqs. exponent)
(2) and (17) R ; R Mean strength and,
E1 (=E||), E2 (=E3=E ) Elastic moduli of a strength design
unidirectional (UD) allowable (not the other
lamina in the x1, x2, and x3 way round)
directions Rp0.2 Stress value at 0.2% plastic
E1(tan), E3(sec) Tangent and secant elastic strain=yield strength
moduli Rjjt X t ; Rjjc X c UD tensile and
E1f Fibre elastic modulus in x1 compressive (basic)
direction strengths parallel to the
E(res) Resultant stress eort bre direction
of all interacting R?t Y t ; R?c Y c UD tensile and
failure modes. compressive strengths
Corresponds to Pucks transverse to the bre
exposure factor fE direction
mode mode
E (mode)eq =R Stress eort of a R?jj S Shear strength of a UD
UD-lamina in a failure lamina transverse/parallel
mode, e.g. eqjj
=Rjjc Eff jj to the bre direction
jj
corresponds to 1=fRes (for vf Fibre volume fraction
a linear behaviour), see x1, x2, x3 Coordinate system of a
Eqs. (6) and (24) UD lamina (x1=bre
maxE (mode) Stress eort of the direction, x2=direction
maximum stressed failure transverse to the bre,
mode x3=thickness direction)
etjj ; ecjj Tensile and compressive "1, "2, "3 Normal (direct) strains of
failure strains of a UD- a UD lamina
lamina in x1 direction 12=
"2/"1 Major Poissons ratio in
Fjj ; Fjj ; F? ; F? ; F?jj Failure functions for two failure exercise
bre failure modes (FF) (corresponds to || in Ref.
and three inter-bre failure [28])
(IFF) modes, see Eqs. (1), 1, 2, 3 Normal (direct) stresses in
(16) and (30) a UD lamina
mode
fRes =1/E (mode) =Reserve factor (or 2c ; 1t Compressive stress
stretching factor) dened transverse to and tensile
here as the ratio of the stress along the bre
relevant strength value to direction
the relevant equivalent ||, Stresses parallel and
stress value of a given transverse to the bre
mode of failure direction
t ? res
f?
Res R ? = f
eq Res Resultant reserve factor. In mode
eq Equivalent stresses of a
general for linear and non- mode
jj jj ? ? ?jj
linear cases the ratio of (eq ; eq ; eq ; eq ; eq )
maximum load achieved in include both, load induced
test or analysis divided by and residual stresses, see
the design load Eq. (5)
G21, G21(sec) Shear and secant shear 1f Stress in the bres in x1
moduli, respectively, of a direction
UD lamina in the 2, 1 ^ Mean (average) stress of
direction the laminate
R.G. Cuntze / Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 487516 489
12= 21, Shear stresses of a Abbreviations and indices, signs

13= 31, 23= 32 UD lamina in the
elastic symmetry CLT Classical Laminate Theory
directions. The rst F Failure function
subscript locates the FRP Fibre-reinforced plastic
direction normal to Jfp Joint failure probability
the plane on which MS Margin of Safety
the shear stress is c, t Compression, tension
acting; the second (German guideline VDI
subscript indicates the 2014, [5])
direction of the shear f, m Fibre, matrix
force n Repetitions in stack
||, Shear stressing Res Reserve
transverse/parallel (res) Resultant
and transverse/ s Symmetric lay-up, softening
transverse to the bre Statistical mean
direction , indicate the failure induced
12= 21; 13= 31; Shear strains of a UD by Mohrs normal or shear
23= 32 layer stress.
failure modes in each lamina (ply) and then combine 2.2. Non-linear analysis of laminates composed of UD
these equations in a suitable manner to predict failure in laminae
a lamina. Each failure mode is described by a distinct
equation containing terms, generally, showing an inter- 2.2.1. Input
action between the various active stresses (stress tensor A maximum of ve non-linear stressstrain curves are
components). The total number of modes [1] is ve; two normally required to carry out a full nonlinear analysis.
Fibre Failure (FF) modes and three Inter Fibre Failure However, for most conventional FRP materials, two
(IFF) modes, see Section 2.3.1, Eqs 16 and Figs. 1 and non-linear curves 2c "2 and 21 21 are normally
2. observed and have to be applied.
The interaction between the FF and IFF modes as well
as between the various IFF modes is considered prob-
abilistically. In order to account for this interaction
between failure modes (referred to here as a Mixed
Failure Domain MiFD), a rounding-o process in the
interaction domains is employed, utilizing a suitable
probabilistics-based series spring model approach [2].
The method requires data for the pure failure mode
domains, only and two curve parameters. Hence, data in
the MiFDs, where the stress state inuences various
modes, is not requested.
Fig. 2. (a) UD lamina: stress and strength notations of 3D state of

stress. t=tension, c=compression; (b) laminate and k0 th lamina sub-
Fig. 1. Failure criticality. jected to a plane state of stress (mid-plane z=0).
The author believes that the non-linear behaviour of

laminates composed of brittle laminae, similar to those
used in the failure exercise, originates from damage
development around inherent defects or aws in the
constituent matrix (a ductile matrix tensile specimen
would show necking and so-called crazing, which
appears in the case of glass bre composites as
whitening in a tensile test [3]) and at the interface
between the bres and the matrix. These defects grow
to micro-cracks and later to cracks under increased
stressing.
2.2.2. Procedure for progressive failure analysis of

laminates Fig. 4. Transversally compression stress-strain curve 2c "2 ; UD-
lamina (softening parameters are assumed). GFRP: E-glass/MY750/
The non-linear analysis procedure, used in the pre- HY917/DY063 c ?c
b?c
[8]. E?0 =16.2 GPa; as
3:45%; s 0:47%,
sent paper, is based on ply-by-ply analysis and uses ?c T
n 6:6. R 1280; 800; 40; 145; 73 . The symbol eq ?
a secant modulus approach for carrying out the shall exemplarily indicate that uni-axial and equivalent curve are the
computation. For performing the stress analysis the same.
required non-linear stressstrain curves should
describe both material hardening and material soft-
ening behaviour [1], see also Figs. 3 and 4. The
hardening behaviour is a load-controlled process, An example of the hardening and softening curve
which describes the response of the lamina up to the used in the calculations is shown in Fig. 4. In this
point of maximum stress (=strength, e.g. R ?k ) and this gure, the eective-curve 2c "2 is assumed valid if a
point corresponds to initial failure of IFF modes. The catastrophic failure of the delamination-initiated
softening behaviour is a strain-controlled process, which wedge type is prevented by the laminate. In cases
describes the lamina response beyond that point and where oblique cracks do exist, the author believes
this is associated with progressive failure. However, the that all these oblique micro-cracks remain closed
author believes that some minor damage (e.g. matrix under the compression but may show some com-
yielding) may still take place even during the hardening pliance, caused by a possible movement of UD
response. material in the thickness direction.
The softening curve of a lamina in the laminate, when A triggering approach is used to describe the eects of
loaded beyond initial failure, is referred to as the eec- the stress state in the MiFDs. This approach increases
tive stressstrain curve. This curve, e.g. beyond R t? in the equivalent stress (which considers all inuencing
Fig. 3, is normally unknown and has to be determined. stresses) of each aected mode in the case of hardening
(the secant modulus becomes smaller) and decreases the
equivalent stress in the case of softening (the secant
modulus becomes smaller, too), see Section 3.2.4 for
more details.
2.3. Brief review of theoretical assumptions and remarks

on the analysis
2.3.1. Failure conditions applied in non-linear analysis

According to the Failure Mode Concept (FMC)
theory [1], the characterisation of the strength of
transversally-isotropic composites requires the
measurement of ve independent basic lamina
strengths: R?t , R?c (tensile and compressive strengths
parallel to the bres), R?t , R?c (tensile and compres-
sive strengths transversal to the bre direction) and
R?k (shear strength transverse/parallel to the bres),
see Figs. 1 and 2. The lamina is dened here to be
Fig. 3. The dierences in the stressstrain behaviour of isolated and
embedded UD-laminae. For the (b)- and (c)-curve Eq. (22) is applied.
the material or the building block that a laminate is
The softening parameters for (b) and (c) are dierent. Due to embed- made of. The following failure conditions, derived from
ding, point+higher than &). the complete FMC-based invariant formulations, were
employed in the non-linear analysis carried out in Part n o T

modes k k ? ? ?k
A [1] equiv: eq ; eq ; eq ; eq ; eq
p
I2 I4
"1 Ekt
1 with k
eq "1 Ekt ; eq
k
?

1 ; eq ; 4
FF 1; FF 2 : 1; 1 2
k t
Eff Rk Eff k Rkc 1=3
3 2
?k
eq I33=2 b?k I2 I3
I5 ;
2 21 b?k 22 21
IFF 1; IFF 2 : 1; 1
Eff ? R?t
Eff ?k R?k 3

b
12 3
IFF 2 : IFF 3 : ? 2 b? I4 b?k I3
Eff ? R?c ?
r
eq
2 2
2 2
b? 2
3 b?k 21
b?
1 I2 b?
1 I2 4b? I4 4b?k I3
1
Eff ? R?c 2
5
1
The invariants I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 are as dened in Eq.
where the three curve parameters b? , b?k and b?k are (10).
given as (see Figs. 4 and 5) In the case of a non-linear analysis, the stress eort
2 E has to be employed instead of the here linearly
?k
1
21 =R?k (stress level not load level) dened reserve factor fRes .
b?k ?k2 3
; The stress eorts read
22c 21 =R?k
!
k k ? ? ?k T
1 2c 3c =R c? 2 mode
eq eq eq eq eq
b? c c c c2 ; Eff ; ; ; ; 6
2
c
3

=R
=R ?
c2
2

3 ?
R t R c R t R c R ?k
k k ? ?
c 2
and b?k 1
b?
1 2?k =R ?k
b? 2?k
c
=R ?k Due to Eq. (3) the actual stress eort of a given mode,
Eff mode , is the ratio of the equivalent stress, eq, to the
corresponding mode strength, R. The procedure of
As will be shown later, see Section 2.2.2.1, the last determining the resultant stress eort, Eff res , in each
res
parameter b?jj will be not used in the analysis because it lamina of the laminate is similar to that of fRes shown
is an empirical tting factor whose value depends in Eq (23a).
greatly on the nature and accuracy of bi-axial test data
for a lamina under combined transverse and shear 2.3.3. Residual stresses
stresses. Residual stresses are taken into account by adding
In order to predict failure in the pure domains, i.e. in their values to the stresses due to load
one of the above conditions, a stress eort Eff mode , is f g f g L f g R 7
computed by inserting the lamina stresses
1 ; 2 ; 0; 0; 0; 21 into Eq. (1). This will either lead to The residual stresses in the laminae of the laminate
no failure, if Eff mode < 1; or to failure if Eff mode decay with decreasing stiness, caused by the matrix
equals to 1, see also Eq. (23) for additional details of degradation, which accompanies increasing non-linear-
how to detect failure in the interaction zones. Beyond ity. In other words: In parallel to the decay of the sti-
initial failure (IFF failure) the value of E remains ness the non-linear analysis releases matrix-dominated
constant and equal to 1. Both, the equivalent stress eq stresses. This applies for mechanical as well as for
and the strength R are reduced according to the eective thermal stresses.
stressstrain curve. The equivalent stress is related to Chemical shrinking and thermal curing stresses do
the eort according to not aect the shear stresses. Micro-mechanical curing
stresses (residual stresses of the second kind at lament/
Eff R eq f g 3 matrix level) could not be assessed and are not con-
sidered. They are usually assumed be respected in the
Final Failure (structural level) occurs after the lami- values for the UD-strengths
nate, and the structure, has experienced a stiness
reduction and has degraded to a level where it is no 2.4. Comparison between Part A theoretical predictions
longer capable of carrying additional load. and experimental results
2.3.2. Non-linear analysis in mode interaction zones The experimental results provided in Part B [4] data-
The general relationships describing the equivalent pack contained more information than was given in
stresses are Part A for the blind predictions. Therefore some
parameter sets required further adjustment in order to observed by other researchers. For instance, other test
improve the t between the predictions of Part A and results, carried out recently in German R&D projects [7]
the test data. In order to distinguish between the origi- on GFRP and CFRP materials, resulted in a shallower
nal and modied predictions, all gure numbers with curve, see Ref. [1].
sux A refer to the blind predictions (i.e. Part A pre- A prediction, based solely on the information pro-
diction), and gure numbers with sux AB refer to vided in Part A for uni-axial cases, is not complete as
predictions with modied parameters. As will be seen one needs to estimate b?k from biaxial test data. There-
later, gure numbers with sux B refer to modied fore, a conservative value (giving predictions to be in
predictions introduced in this paper. the safe side), b?k =0.13, was taken. After receiving the
For completeness, the captions of all of the gures test data, Fig. 5A curve was revised in Fig. 5A,B by
will show the associated data set used. Those para- taking a new value, b?k =0.3. This 0.3 value is regarded
meters, not relevant for the actual graphs, will be put by the author to represent the most extreme value or the
into brackets. In addition, Test Case (TC) numbers, upper limit, and may not be really reached in test.
taken from Ref. [5], will be added in order to facilitate Although values of the other constant b?k 5 0 are
cross-referencing. expected to produce a better t with test data in the
compression quadrant it was dropped from the analysis
2.4.1. Stressstrain curves of the UD-lamina for two reasons: (a) to minimise reliance on test data
Typical stressstrain curves for a lamina made of E- and (b) to provide a maximum degree of simplicity in
glass/epoxy are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. These show the analysis. Consequently, the value of this parameter
both the behaviour prior (hardening curve) and after was set to zero, b?k 0. The shape of the curve repre-
failure (assumed softening). senting the test data is still not satisfactorily captured by
the IFF conditions inclusively parameter set.
2.4.2. Bi-axial failure envelopes of the UD-lamina In an attempt to capture the highest value of the shear
2.4.2.1. Behaviour of E-GFRP/LY556 lamina under strength observed under
70 Mpa compressive stress,
(t21,s2) and (t21,s3) stresses (Test Case 1). The results the author has increased the value of b?k from 0.13 to
in Fig. 5B with A for this Test Case (TC1) show the 0.56. The results are shown in Fig. 5B with A. Although
predicted Part A curve representing IFF-modes of fail- the t between the predicted and measured data is very
ure and the stresses associated with these modes. Curve good, the author believes that changing the value of that
( 31, 2) is obviously dierent to that of ( 21, 2) which parameter from 0.13 to 0.56 is a purely curve tting
indicates that 31 does not have the same action plane as exercise and the recommended value should be 0.13.
2t (known from the PuckHashin [6] model). The test
data scatter is fairly large in the compression domain. 2.4.2.2. Behaviour of T300/914C CFRP lamina under
The measured shear strength values in the compression (t21,s1) stresses (Test Case 2). Fig. 6 shows the
quadrant were generally much larger than the predicted experimental ( 21, 1) results obtained from tests on
values. The measured shear strength reached a value of unidirectional carbon-bre reinforced epoxy tubes
99 Mpa at
70 Mpa compressive stress. This peak value superimposed on predicted results from Part A. In this
appears to be unfamiliar or unique, as it has not been case, the loading of the axially wound tube is torsion
Fig. 5. (B) and (A) Biaxial failure stress envelope ( 21, 2) and ( 31, 2) . UD-lamina (no curing
stress). GFRP: E-glass/LY556 epoxy. Eqs. (1), (23). Test data
:
[4] of tube +. b?k 0:30; b?k 0; m 2:5; b?k -calibration in &, see Part A [6]. R 1140; 570; 36; 138; 63T . Not active parameter are
given in parenthesis (Part A: b? 1:5, Part B: b? 1.09). Softening not applicable for isolated lamina. (B) with (A) (TC1).
Eqs. (1), (16), (23), Eq. (23) applied
:
in all gures (1 ||, 2 ?). *Part A blind data set: b?k 0:13; b?k 0:4; m 3:1, maxtau not active; R 1140; 570; 35; 114; 72T .
:
*Best t Part B data set: b?k 0:56; b?k 0; m 2:1, maxtau=105 MPa, R 1140; 570; 38; 135; 62T . *Variations of tting:
: 1140; 570; 38; 135; 62T .
b
?k 0:13; b?k 0:4; m 3:1. maxtau=90 MPa. R maxtau=70 MPa.
R 1140; 570; 38; 135; 62T .
Fig. 7. (TC3) Biaxial failure stress envelope ( 2, 1). UD-lamina. E-

glass/MY750 epoxy [8]. Eqs. (1), Part A or (16), Part B. Hoop wound
:
tube data [4] +, m 3:1. R 1280; 800; 40; 145; 73T ,
1= hoop, 2= axial (not active: b? 1:5, b?jj 0:13, b?jj 0:4).
Fig. 6. (TC2). Eqs. (1), (16). Bi-axial failure stress envelope 21 ; 2 in
MPa. UD-lamina T300/BSL914C n o epoxy [8]. Axially wound Tube.
:
Eqs. (1), (16). m=3.1 R 1500; 900; 27; 200; 80T . Cor-
rected test data due to computed shear deformation : &^. Trans- data, in the compression quadrant, where the shear
formation
of
x 1 ; y 2 ; yx 21 to real lamina stresses strength was reduced from 94 to 76 MPa as a result of
jj ; ? ; ?k . (Assumed, not active curve parameters b?k 0:13, introducing an angle of
2 .
b?k 0:4, b? 1:5).
The angles chosen above are arbitrarily so that the
selected test data could be made to t the predicted
curve. It can be concluded that taking into account a
and axial loading. The test results ( 21, 1) achieved by small change in the winding angle could result in a large
dierent test specimens showed a wide scatter and dierence in the actual shear strength.
jumping in the positive domain.
As this tube is heavily shearing under torsional load- 2.4.2.3. Behaviour of GFRP E/MY750 lamina under
the data
ing given might not be the lamina stresses (s2,s1) stresses (Test Case 3). The test data were
?k ; k ; ? but other
stresses belonging
to the structure obtained from tests on 85 tubes. The eect of the
coordinate system xy ; x ; y . In other words, the actual winding angle of 85 instead of 90 will slightly
winding angle of the lamina will change with the load- reduce the strength values and was not considered as the
ing and this change in winding angle may have some results could increase the discrepancy between the mea-
eects on the lamina stresses. Therefore, an attempt is sured and predicted data.
made to highlight how one could re-evaluate the In general, the correlation between predicted (Part B
experimental data (in MPa). In order to bring the test parameter set) and available measured data is reason-
data to t the predicted curve, a value is given to the able for the limited range of test data provided. How-
shear angle . By applying a simple transformation, the ever, the data were not sucient for a full validation of
stresses provided can be transformed from the structure the present theory. Another missing feature in the test
coordinate system into the real or material (k-?) coor- data is that the amount of scatter of each strength value
dinate system of the lamina. was not given and only the mean values were provided.
Two examples are shown in Fig. 6; one for a single
test data point in the tension side (with an angle of +3 ) 2.4.3. Initial and nal biaxial failure envelopes of the
and for another one in the compression side (with an laminates (tube specimens)
angle of
2 ). For the tension case, the transformation 2.4.3.1. Behaviour of [+55/
55/55/
55] E-glass/
is given as follows: MY750 GFRP filament wound tubes (Test Case 9).
Fig. 8 Fig. 8A shows the predicted and experimental
k x cos 2 2yx cos sin; ? x sin 2 initial and the nal failure envelope of this GFRP-
2yx cos sin ; ?k

0:5 x sin 2 yx cos 2; laminate. In the tensiontension quadrant some experi-
e:g: x 1 ; y 2 ; yx 21 1000; 0; 123; mental data is larger than the predicted curve. At frac-
3 ) k ; ? ; ?k 1010;
10; 70: ture, the material in the hoop (y) direction is essentially
stronger than that in the axial direction. An explanation
This shows that, as a result of assuming an angle of for this eect will be investigated in Sub-section 5.2.
3 , the shear stress of 123 MPa can be reduced to 70 In the bi-axial compression domain (third quadrant),
MPa. The latter value ts the predicted curve quite well. the theoretical prediction gave values lower than those
A similar set of calculations was carried on one test measured in the thick tubes. The author believes that
Fig. 10A is concerned with the prediction of the

biaxial failure envelope for this laminate
of a lament
wound tube subjected to a ^ x ; ^ y state of stress. The
highest discrepancy is shown in the third quadrant. The
author is unable to provide an explanation for the dis-
crepancies observed in extreme parts of the rst and
third quadrant. However, because the predicted failure
in the third quadrant is Fk and as the prediction is so far
from test results, it is assumed that instability of the
compressed tube might have taken place. Further justi-
cations and improvements are discussed in Sub-section
5.2.
2.4.4. Stressstrain curves of the laminates

The stressstrain curves in Part A were obtained from
Eq. (1) and the data listed in Table A3 and 6 in Part A
[8]. The loading is assumed to be monotonic. A tem-
perature drop from curing is considered in the reworked
Part As graphs, however, the strain o-sets in these
graphs are shifted to the origin. Some curves in these
gures are bre-dominated. In such cases of well-
designed laminates, the bre mesh controls the defor-
mation. In contrast, other curves are matrix-dominated.
No allowance was made in test evaluation for the
bulging (barrelling) behaviour of tubes. A bulge is gen-
erated if there is a widening of the middle section of a
tube in relation to the cross section at the reinforced
ends. If the gauge length is small, then the behaviour at
the middle cross section would be aected by the end
constraint.
Just one gure was taken from Part A where the dif-
Fig. 8. (A) (TC9) Initial and nal failure envelope ^ y ^ x . Filament ference to the corresponding Part B gure was obvious.
wound tube, [+55/
55/55/
55]-laminate, E-glass/MY750
epoxy3. Eq. The exact temperature drop used in the Part B predic-
:
(1): m 3:1, b?k 0:13; b?k 0:4, b? 1:5 . ^ y =average hoop
stress of the laminate, x=0 direction. Limit of usage (lou) at =4%. tions is indicated in these gures. As temperature drop
(therefore, softening curve not utilized). (B) (TC9) Initial and nal failure in Part A and B the dierence stress free temperature
envelope ^ y ^ x . [+55/
55/55/
55]-laminate, E-glass/MY 750 epoxy minus room temperature as eective temperature dif-
[8].
Filament wound tube test T data [4]: !T=
68 C, ference was applied in order to consider the eect of
:
R 1280; 800; 40; 145; 73 , m=3.1, b?jj 0:13 [new F? : curing stresses (are thermal residual stresses of the 1st
Eq. (16)!newb? =1.09]. Bulging reported in experiment. Limit of usage
(lou) at =10% (softening curve applicable). Dashed curve: nal failure kind). Moisture may be assumed here to have a balan-
of a full wedge failure-insensitive stack. ^ corrected value from ^ cing eect of 30 C.
the presence of external radial pressure has led to the 2.4.4.1. Test Case 7: Behaviour of [0/+45/
45/90]s
discrepancy between the predicted and measured data. AS4/3501-6 CFRP tubes under s^ y stress. Fig. 11A shows
Section 5.2 gives examples of how the pressure may the stressstrain curves of a laminate whose behaviour is
aect the behaviour of tubes. bre-dominated. The curves are fairly linear up to near
fracture with a fracture load predicted to be less than
2.4.3.2. Behaviour of [90/+30/
30/30/
30/90]
E-glass/ 10% below the measured value. The behaviour near the
LY556 GFRP tubes under t^xy ; s^ x stresses (Test Case nal failure, where some softening in the predicted
5). Fig. 9A shows the comparison between the predicted
curve occurs, is thought to be due to problems asso-
and measured data for this laminate under ^ xy ; ^ x ciated with the computer code. The predicted stiness
state of stress. The deciencies are essentially located in was lower than the measured one.
the negative quadrant. Test experimental results are not There was another problem in the results of Part A.
well predicted by the model. The results of further For "^ y curve, the stiness loss by the initial IFF degra-
modication of the theory are presented in Section 5.2. dation was not subtracted but added which was cor-
Behaviour of [90/+30/
30/30/
30/90]
E-glass/LY556 rected here. However, this does not make the curves in
GFRP tubes under ^ x ; ^ y stresses (Test Case 4). total steeper.
Fig. 9. (a) (TC5) Initial and nal bi-axial failure envelope ^ xy ^ x . [90/+30/
30/30/
30/90]-laminate.
E-glass/LY556
: epoxy [8]. ^ x is parallel to 0 -

direction. Eq. (1). Filament wound tube test data [4] !T=
68 C; ?jj 0:13; b?jj 0:4 b? 1:5 , m 3:1. (b) With improvement. (TC5)
Initial and nal bi-axial
n o failure envelope ^ xy ^ x . [90/+30/
30]n
laminate. E-glass/LY556 epoxy [8]. ^ x is parallel to 0 -direction. Test data [4]:
:
!T=
68 C. R 1140; 570; 35; 114; 72T . b?jj 0:13; m 3:1 (newb? 1:09). Eq. (16). Dashed line: increase due to

R c? 114 ) 138MPa.
2.5. General comments on correlation between theoret- required that takes into accountlarge strain and large
ical and experimental results displacements as well as the actual state of stress, which
includes softening or degradation.
2.5.1. Design of laminates and tubes
The use of CLT-based analysis, as applied to at 2.5.2. Constraint eect on an embedded lamina (in situ
plates, does not take into account some eects asso- behaviour)
ciated with the use of tubes as test pieces. In case of If applying test data from tensile coupons of isolated
anti-symmetrical laminates an un-constrained laminate lamina to a lamina embedded in a laminate, one has to
plate will twist under the action of in-plane direct stres- consider that tensile coupon tests deliver test results of
ses whereas a tube will not twist but experience in-plane the weakest link type (series model). However, an
shear straining. This will produce some eects on embedded lamina or even a lamina constrained on only
deformation and fracture behaviour on the dierent one-side, belongs to the class of the so-called redundant
classes of laminates addressed. type behaviour, (parallel spring model) [2]. In the latter
It was reported in Ref. [4] that The tubes were case, and due to it being strain-controlled, the materials
designed by utilising linear elastic thin shell theory. aws in a thin lamina cannot grow freely up to micro-
Non-linear analysis of the 55 and the 45 tubes has crack size in the thickness direction (this is called thin
indicated that the gauge length was too short for the 45 layer eect), because the neighbouring laminae act as
tubes. Hence, the so-called boundary constraints will micro-crack-stoppers [9]. In addition, the strain energy
inuence the strains at the centre of the tube. release rate responsible for the development of damage
In order to achieve a high level of verication of the in the 90 plies from aws into micro-cracks increases
current non-linear theory, a nite element code is [10] with increasing ply thickness. Therefore, the actual
Fig. 10. (a) (TC4) Initial and nal bi-axial failure envelope
^ y ^ x . [90/30/
30/30/
30/90]-laminate. E-glass/LY556 epoxy [8]. Filament wound tube,
:
liner. Eq. (1). b?jj 0:13; b?jj 0:4, m 3:1. b? 1:5 R 1140; 570; 35; 114; 72T . B. (TC4) Initial and nal biaxial failure
envelopes
n o ^ y ^ x . [90/+30/
30]n-laminate (n varies between 1 and 4). E-glass/LY556 epoxy3. !T=
68 C. Tube Test data [4]:
:
R 1140; 570; 35; 114; 72T . Eq. (16). b?jj 0:13; m 3:1, (newb? 1:09).
Fig. 11. (a) (TC7) Stressstrain curves. Eq. (1). ^ y : ^ x =1:0. [0/+45/
45/90]s-laminate AS4/3501-6 epoxy. Hand lay-up cylinder.
R 1950; 1480; 48; 200; 79T . (B) with (A). (TC7) Stressstrain curves for ^ y : ^ x =1:0. (radial loading induced by pint+ axial com-
pression). ^ y = hoop [0/+45/
45/90]s-laminate. AS4/3501-6/ epoxy3. R 1950; 1480; 48; 200; 79T . !T=
125 C. Test data [4]. Final
Part A point *.
thickness of a lamina in a laminate is a driving para- probable that the initial yielding which is reected in the
meter for the initiation or onset of micro-cracks. This shear 21 ; 21 as well as in the transverse compressive
phenomenon is not considered in the present work. 2 ; "2 stressstrain behaviour of a lamina is dominated
primarily by the matrix behaviour. The yield strength of
2.5.3. Application of an eective stressstrain curve the constituent matrix plays a role at relatively low
Due to the in situ strength eect, the author regards strains of the lamina (model: smeared material).
the peak value of the eective stressstrain curve of an A practical approach to establish an initial yield con-
embedded lamina to be slightly higher than the strength dition is to assume the existence of a 3D yield failure
value R of an isolated lamina, due to the change from condition in terms of macro-mechanical quantities such
the weakest link behaviour to the real redundant as the lamina stresses. It is furthermore assumed that a
behaviour (see Figs. 3 and 4) of a laminate. However, perfect bond exists between bre and matrix.
due to a lack of knowledge and for the sake of simpli- The proposed yield failure condition is derived as fol-
city, this peak value is lowered down to the mean lows: It has been established by Beltrami [11] that, at
strength R in the analytical description of softening. initiation of yield, the strain energy (W) in a cubic ele-
Due to mapping reasons, 0.99 R ?k was taken instead of ment of a material consists of two portions; one describ-
R ?k as the calibration point for the softening curve (see ing the strain energy due to a change in volume and
also Sub-section 3.2.6). another due to change in shape. The energy is given by

2.5.4. Application of mean properties W f gf"gdf"g WVol Wshape with
8
Normally, the data used in any stress analysis are f g 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 23 ; 13 ; 12 T :
obtained from experiments and a certain amount of
scatter is inevitable. Consequently, and from a statistical Using generalised Hookes law, for a transversally-
point of view, there will be at least three values repre- isotropic (UD) body, the above expression takes the
senting minimum, average and maximum properties. In following form, where sik are the compliance coe-
the non-linear analysis, the mean values, determined cients[12],
from tests on unidirectional laminae, have to be used to 2
WUD s11 12 s22 22 s33 32 s44 23
2
s55 12 2
13
carry out the stress and deformation analysis. The
results correspond to the mean or average structural 2 s12 1 2 1 3 s23 2 3
behaviour. This is regarded as the best approximation of I12 I 2 1
?? ?k I1 I2 I3 I4 1 ?
the structures physical behaviour. Therefore, the 2

2Ek 4E? Ek 2Gk? 4E?
execution of a non-linear stress analysis of the structure
volume volume volume shape shape
shall utilize a mean(,")-curve, whereby the associated
secant moduli will be mean values, too, as performed in 9
the work at hand. The application of a minimum(,")-
curve, which is sometimes required, will lead to lower and the associated volume or shape change of the UD
stresses. material element are indicated. The ve invariants
applied are:
2 2
I1 1 ; I2 2 3 ; I3 31 21 ;
3. New ideas and renements to Part Atheory
I4 2
3 2 423
2
; 10
3.1. FMC-based set of lamina failure conditions 2 2

I5 2
3 31
21
423 31 21
In principle, when describing the various types of The procedure how to apply Eq. (10) may be taken
failures of a transversally-isotropic lamina, according to from the simpler well-known isotropic results, see Ref
the authors proposed extension of the FMC model, [4]. There, including Hookes law for isotropic material,
failure conditions that have to be provided include: (a) it follows:
yielding (which represents one physical mechanism),
1
2 iso2 2 2 iso
and (b) fracture (which is described by ve physical W I1 3J2 =2E
3 3
mechanisms). The following section describes a proce-
dure for dening yield failure in a unidirectional Volume shape
lamina. with IIiso f I II III ;
11
and
3.1.1. Yield condition of the UD lamina q
Mises
In conventional FRP materials the matrix is much eq 3J2iso ; 6J2iso f
more ductile (having typically 6% fracture strain) than
the bres (with typical fracture strains of 1.53%). It is I
II 2 II
III 2 III
I 2 ;
E: Youngs modulus, :=Poissons ratio. The rst term sing which is seldom the normal direction. Of course,
in Eq. (11) describes the volume change of the cubic the loading of the laminate may be a proportional
material element (dilatation) and the second the change one. (i.e. all loads increased in proportion to one
of its shape (distortion). Both quantities inside the another), however, the stressing in the laminae of
bracket in Eq. (11) are used to formulate the laminate may not be proportional due to non-
2 linearity.
1
2I1iso2 2 23J2iso eq
F c1 c22 It has been observed that the fracture stresses of hoop
3R 2 3R 2 R 2 12 wound tubes under combined 21 ; 2 stresses depend
volume shape on the load path performed in the test (see Ref. [16]).
This is obvious from the bi-axial failure envelopes for
a failure function, where c1 is a shape determining the UD composites as dierent failure modes may be
curve parameter, c2 is the size governing parameter of passed on dierent ways to the combined fracture
the failure body, and R is an appropriately chosen stress point allowing for dierent degradation on these
strength value that delivers a very practical normal- paths through the yield zone. The state of combined
ization. For the fracture condition (nal failure), R is stresses at the onset of yielding may be obtained from
optimally taken as fracture tensile strength of the Eq. (13). Furthermore, a yield limit displays for which
material, R tm , whereas for the case
of yield conditions, states of stress linked to a stress level creep might have
the stress at 0.2% plastic strain R p0:2 is employed. It an impact on test results.
should be noted that upon reaching the full-plastic
domain, an appropriate value for the Poissons ratio 3.1.2. Fracture conditions of a UD lamina
should be given. It has been suggested that at yield limit, In the application of the FMC, the decision as to
the following is valid R tp0:2 ) 0:5. In order to Which stress invariants are to be chosen? is based
formulate a relatively simple yield failure condition the on whether there are volume and/or shape changes of
second term in Eq. (11), which represents the shape the material element, whereas the choice of linear or
change, is chosen as the basic invariant. This means in higher terms is determined by curve tting con-
the isotropic case, J2 is the appropriate choice, which siderations.
leads to the (Henckyvon MisesHuber model), called For the sake of simplicity, the equation describing
2
for short, Mises model 3J2iso eq . Due to normal- the IFF3 mode of failure has been modied. The aim is

ization: If eq reaches Rp0:2 , then the size parameter c2 to obtain a homogeneous equation that can be easily
equals 1. The result is a single yield failure surface, used. This simplication is achieved by setting b?k 0
p
which represents initial yielding under an arbitrary and by replacing I4 by I4 . The new equation reads as
combination of the three principal stresses or of the six follows
structural stresses. p

I2 I4
Similarly, for the transversally-isotropic material, it F? b?
1 b? 1: 14

R?c
Rc?
can be assumed that only those terms describing the
shape change of the UD material can contribute to a
failure function. Based on this, the approach gives It is be noted that in Eq. (14) the value of b? is dif-
I3 I4 ferent from the former one in the Part A set, because F?
2
2 2 c 13 is a new function. Now, the reserve factor is simpler
R ?kp0:2 R c?p0:2 (linearly) to compute
h pi
f? R c = ? R c = b
1 I2 b I4 ; 15a
with the size parameter c and the two yield strengths Res ? eq ? ? ?
associated with the main two non-linear stress-strain
curves 2c "2 and 21 21 . This single (global) an-iso- as well as the stress eort
tropic yield surface, depicted in Fig. 20a for 21 ; 2
? c
stresses and in Fig. 20b for 2 ; 3 stresses is conned Eff?
Res eq =R ? 15b
by the ve partial fracture surfaces. In a yield condition
the strength R alters whereas in a fracture condition R is
constant. in non-linear analysis. The visualisation of Eq. (14) is
The subsequent yield surface is indicated by a vector presented in Fig. A1 depicting a linearly running frac-
normal to the actual global yield surface determined by ture curve.
its associated ow rule (normality criterion) that is not
expressed here. 3.1.3. Listing of fracture conditions employed
The normality criterion is replaced by the concept Based on the simplications outlined, the following
of proportional stressing, which means, the failure revised set of failure conditions, Ff g 1; was derived
surface increases in the direction of the actual stres- and used in Part B
I1 (F? :=wedge failure, local 3 ) may also serve as criteria

FF 1: Fk 1; for the onset of delamination generated by the inter-
R tk
laminar stresses 3 ; 32 ; 31 .

I1
FF 2 : Fk 1;
R ck 3.2. Renement of non-linear analysis procedure
p
I2 I4
IFF 1 : F? 1; ; 16
2R t ? 3.2.1. Mapping
I2 I3
I5
IFF 2 : F?k I33=2 =R 3?k b?k 1;
R 3?k 3.2.1.1. Hardening. The degree of non-linearity essen-
p tially depends on the non-linear behaviour of the matrix
I2 b I 4
IFF 3 : F? b?
1 ? 1: material that manifests itself in the values of E?c and
R c ? R c ? GII? For the non-linear stress analysis the secant moduli
applied are derived from the Ramberg/Osgood equation
Two curve parameters b?k ; b? are needed and these n
" =Eo 0:002 =Rp0:2 19
are determined from multi-axial test data or could be
estimated by experience. In the above equations, the
term I1 in the top equation describing Fk is given as: It describes the non-linear stressstrain data very well
I1 1 vf 1f vf "1 E1f "1 Ek with 1f for the materials analysed here (E(o) is the initial mod-
tensile fibre stress: Homogenisation of the UD lamina ulus). The so-called Ramberg/Osgood exponent
as a smeared material comes to its limit if a constituent
n n "pl Rm =n Rm =Rp0:2 20
stress governs the failure. This is the case for Fk , where
the macro-mechanical stress 1 has to be replaced by the is estimated from the strength point Rm ; "pl Rm in
actual bre stress 1f. Fig. A3. Then, the secant moduli E? , GII? may be
The two curve parameters b?k ; b? have to be deter- obtained from Eq. (19) as (isotropic notation was used
mined either from a single test at a given stress ratio here for the sake of simplicity)
(several measurements in this calibration point) or more n
1
accurately from curve tting to the shape of various test Esec Eo = 1 0:002 Eo =Rp0:2 =Rp0:2 21
data in the associated pure domain using a suitable
regression analysis. Data from the calibration points 3.2.1.2. Softening. Beyond Initial Failure (IFF), an
(marked by & symbol in Fig. A1 and 5A,B) are inser- appropriate progressive failure analysis has to be
ted into the IFF conditions for F?k and F? [Part A set, employed. Occasionally, this process is termed as, Suc-
Eq. (16)], and the parameters are given by cessive Degradation Modelling of Post Initial failure.
2 Fig. 4 depicts the hardening and the softening curve for
?k
1
21 =R?k a unidirectional lamina. Due to a lack of experimental
?k ; 17a
b?k c ?k2 3
from 2c ; 21 data, the shape of softening curve (being strain con-
2 =R
2 21 ?k
trolled) has to be assumed as modelling of Post Initial
Failure behaviour of a laminate requires that some
knowledge of the reduction or the degradation in the
1 2c 3c =R c? elastic properties of the embedded lamina [curve (c) in
b?
q
2 17b
2c 3c =R c? 2c
3c =R c? Fig. 4].
A rapid collapse (often named ply discount method)
of E?t is unrealistic and could lead to convergence pro-
These equations are used in Part B. The value of the blems in the computation algorithms In order to over-
parameter b? diers to that of Eq. (2). Both parameters come these problems, both E?c and Gk? are assumed to
b?k and b? depend on the material behaviour and on decrease gradually rather than being suddenly annihi-
the IFF formulation applied. Practical safe bounds for lated. A simple exponential function was used to map
glass/epoxy (GFRP), carbon/epoxy (CFRP) and Aramid/ this softening and this is given by
epoxy (AFRP) are 0:05 < b?k < 0:15; 1:0 < b? < 1:15
(instead of 1.5 used in Part A quadratic equation). A s Rm =1 expas "=bs 22a
value b?k 0 means no bulge eect and b? 1 means
no friction in the ??-plane. In the absence of having in which sux s denotes softening. The two curve
actual calibrated data for these parameters, the author parameters as ; bs are usually estimated from the data of
recommends the use of their lower limits in a pre- at least two calibration points in achieving a reasonable
dimensioning of a component. t, e.g.
With regard to the 3D nature of the IFF conditions,
both IFF1 (F? :=transverse tensile failure and IFF3) Rm ; "Rm and Rm 0:1; "Rm 0:1 22b
or another suitable set. Rm corresponds generally to the 3.2.3. Determination of mode eorts (allowing for
strength of the isolated lamina under uni-axial loading. interaction of the lamina stresses)
Eq. (22) models the softening part of the stressstrain In the following set of formulae the eort of each
curve of a lamina which is embedded in a laminate, and mode is provided, according to the general equation
mode mode
thus, it includes the eect of the altering micro-crack Eff mode eq =R ; together with the so-called
density up to a critical damage state (CDS), Refs equivalent stress. An equivalent stress includes all load
[11,24]. Curve (c) is therefore termed an eective curve. stresses and residual stresses that are acting together in
Appendix C visualizes hardening (19) and softening a given mode. The following set of equations is
function (22). employed in Part B (proportional stressing)
Eff k "1 Ekt =R tk eq
k t
=Rk ; 24a
3.2.2. Interaction of failure modes
Mechanical and probabilistic interactions cannot be
clearly distinguished and therefore, the author models
the failure mode interactions by a simple probabilistic Eff k
1 =R ck
eq
k c
=Rk ; 24b
series system model. This so-called logical model of the
failure system acts as a rounding-o procedure linked h pi
res
to the determination of the desired values for fRes or ? t
Eff ? I2 I4 =2R t? eq =R? 24c
res
Eff
res
The (resultant) Reserve Factor fRes takes into
account the interactions between all the various modes. h i1=3
It may be estimated by the rounding-o equation, Eff ?k I33=2 b?k I2 I3
I5 =R ?k
describing the series spring model, Ref [2], ?k
eq =R?k ; 24d
m:
res modes
1=fRes f fRes . . . . . . . . . if linear state of stress h pi

? m: ?k m: ? m: Eff ? ? c
b?
1 I2 b? I4 =R c? eq =R? : 24e
1=fRes 1=fRes 1=fRes
m: k m: mode
1=fk Res 1=fRes Note: If an EffRes becomes negative, caused by the
numerically advantageous automatic insertion (regard-
23a
less of the sign of the stress) of the FEM stress output
: P
m
5
f g 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 23 ; 13 ; 12 T into all ve failure condi-
and Eff res Eff modes . . . . . . . . . if non-linear
1 tions, a value of 0 shall replace the negative value. A
m: m: m: negative value results, for example, if a positive s1 is
k t k c ? t
eq =Rk eq =Rk eq =R? inserted into Eq. (24b). The situation of an imaginary
m: m: Eff mode , which is only possible for Eff ?== , is bypassed
?k
eq?
=R?c eq =R?k ; by a query (see Appendix B).
23b
3.2.4. Degradation triggering
:
where m is the mode interaction coecient (rounding- In the laminae of a laminate, multi-axial states of
o exponent, the size of which is high in case of low stress are acting which in the interaction domains have
:
scatter and vice versa). As a simplifying assumption, m an impact on more than one of the ve failure modes.
is given here the same value, regardless of interaction Adjacent failure modes are commonly aected. One has
:
zone! The value of m is obtained by best tting the to pay attention to a proper interaction of the interact-
course of test data, respecting the fact that in the ing modes in the stress and strain analysis in the fol-
interaction zones, micro-mechanical and probabilistic lowing manner: In order to take into account the
eects co-exist and cannot be discriminated. It is a interaction of the failure modes the secant moduli E2(sec)
compromise applying this value in all interaction and G21(sec) are taken from the 2("2)-curve or the
:
domains. The authors experience suggests that, m 3:1 21( 21)-curve not just at the stresses 2 or 21 resulting
is appropriate. from the stress and strain analysis for the actual level
If a unidirectional fracture stress (i.e. the strength load. Their values are taken at a little higher stress in the
value R t? ) is inserted into the equation above, then a hardening branch with increasing stress and at a little
point on a 2D- or 3D-failure curve or failure surface lower stress in the softening branch with decreasing
res
(initial or nal), described by fRes 1, is achieved. stress. This stress correction is controlled by the so-
It is worth mentioning that a maximum of four failure called triggering approach. Therefore, a corresponding
modes could be interacting under three dimensional degradation (displayed by a stiness reduction) has to
state of stress. be considered:
for increasing stress (Hardening) ! > 0 In the non-linear computations for a small load
>mode mode increment, sometimes just one iteration step is needed in
corrected stress eq eq TrF 25a
a secant modulus procedure in order to roughly con-
sider stress-redistribution, that means, load from the
for decreasing stress (Softening) ! < 0 weakening matrix (matrix-dominated modes) is trans-
<mode mode ferred to a bre (bre mode).
corrected stress eq eq =TrF 25b
In the revised MATHCAD-based code CLT FRP
Non-linear, generated for the Failure Exercise, the self-
correcting secant modulus method, described in Part A
The controlling parameter is the ratio of the resultant [1] was applied to describe the successive degradation.
stress eort E (res) to the maximum mode eort max-
:
E (mode). In Part B a revised (mth root) trigger-factor 3.2.6. Determination of the degrading elasticity
is utilized properties of the lamina
p: By employing the equivalent stress reached in each failure
TrF m Eff res =maxEff mode 26 mode the associated secant modulus of each mode was
determined for the hardening and the softening regime.
modes
that replaces the previous concept which resulted in a Considering a consistent stress concept
for all eq
mode
sudden decrease in the stiness. In the equations above an explicit dependency Esec eq has to be provided.
the stress eort of the maximum stressed mode governs For reasons of achieving such an explicit formulation two
the triggering, although TrF is dedicated to all IFF separate formulae are discriminated which are linked in
modes aected in order to really regard the combined the strength point. This automatically respects that the
degradation eect. By this triggering approach slightly chosen non-linear calculation procedure demands the
lower secant moduli E2(sec) and G21(sec) are provided for dependencies of the secant moduli on the corresponding
the next calculation loop; lower than those that would equivalent stress. These dependencies are (see Fig. 4)
result without the correction by the triggering approach.
In other words: As adjacent failure modes mutually Pre-IFF analysis of lamina: ! > 0 (increasing
degrade their elastic stinesses, in order to apply correct stress, hardening)
secant
k k
moduli, equivalent
? ?

k? T
stresses eq modesfg
Et?sec Et?o Ec?sec
eq ; eq ; eq ; eq ; eq corrected by TrF, have to be
inserted into the equations for the secant moduli. Ec?o = 1 0:002 E?o c ?c
=Rp0:2
Fig. 19 visualizes Cuntzes triggering approach. In
nc?
1
this theory for the actual load the degradation of E2(sec) ? ?c
and G21(sec) is performed with the same trigger factor eq =Rp0:2
27
TrF. In contrast to Pucks theory, if one of the corrected
?k
equivalent mode stresses has reached its strength level, a Gk?sec Gk?o = 1 0:002 Gk?o =Rp0:2
relatively rapid decrease of the modes average (smeared n?k
1
over the micro-cracks) equivalent stress will follow. The ?k
eq ?k
=Rp0:2
triggering approach is already active before the onset of
IFF. In Section 5 the diminishing eect of triggering
with increasing large strains will be considered. Post-IFF analysis of lamina: ! < 0 (decreasing
stress, softening)
3.2.5. Non-linear analysis
The approach may be called a self-correcting secant Et?sec eq? ?
=" eq
modulus procedure. The laminates stiness matrix is " ! #
R?t
eq
?
a?t
? ?t s
recomputed after each step. Then, the stresses 2 and 21 eq =bs = n ?

?t 28
in the laminae of the laminate are computed by using eq bs
secant moduli from the 2("2)- and 21( 21)-stressstrain
curves and from them the equivalent stresses are deter- The branches with increasing stresses (hardening) of
mined. The solution procedure of the non-linear analy- these stressstrain curves are found by the usual experi-
sis aims to establish static equilibrium at each load step ments with uni-axial 2-stress or pure 21-stress, respec-
after material properties have been changed. For each tively. Branches with rapidly decreasing stresses (called
iteration the procedure is repeated until convergence softening) are assumed, see Fig. 4. For the other modes
(equilibrium) is reached or a nal failure occurs. A cor- the same formula is valid, however, the mode para-
rection of the bre angle in accordance with the change meters are dierent.
of the specimens geometry as consequence of large After reaching E (res)=1, this value 1 is kept as con-
strain behaviour has been considered. stant during the degradation process. This causes a
stress redistribution towards the bres as long as the in which rint is the internal radius of the un-deformed
bre net allows such behaviour. tube and t the laminate thickness. For ^ ax , in case of
large displacements corrections were sometimes repor-
3.2.7. Laminate failure ted (widening and/or barrelling) due to the fact that rint
Most engineers assume that FF in at least one lamina at the centre of the gauge length becomes greater than
of a laminate means nal failure of the laminate. the radius at the ends of the tube.
Therefore, the biaxial failure envelopes for nal failure Whether the stress rate above might have caused some
of laminates predicted by the various authors do not creeping in the highly loaded matrix-dominated cases is
dier that much, as long as the laminates are well- not made clear.
designed and have three or more bre directions. The Note: In order to accurately predict the behaviour of
strengths of these laminates are bre dominated. the tubular specimens, it is necessary to take into
Also, the predicted stressstrain curves of such lami- account material and geometrical non-linearities in both
nates look very similar because the bres that are much experimental and theoretical evaluation.
stier than the matrix carry the main portion of the The pressure loading produces a compressive stress
loads. Dierent degradation procedures after the onset 3
p on the loaded surface whereas the other
of inter-bre failure (IFF) do therefore not inuence the surface is free of radial stress. Despite of the fact
predicted strains very much. This is especially true for that with increasing degradation the highest hoop
CFRP laminates. stress in a vessel propagates beyond the IFF from the
internal surface to the external surface, the most
severe stress state will occur at the internal surface
4. Some comments on nature and eect of failures because there is no benecial bi-axial compression,
predicted however, there may be some stabilizing by the cur-
vature. The author envisages a dierence between the
4.1. Comments on evaluation of experimental data behaviour of a metal and a FRP that consists of a rela-
tively weak matrix and embedded sti laments. In
A correct analysis of boundary conditions and stress contrast to metal where the failure is a strength failure
state of the test specimen is mandatory before evaluat- and the metal may yield on the inside towards the centre
ing and applying the data. In this sense tubes instead of (no barrier), for FRP, failure is caused by micro-buck-
the at coupon specimens will help to avoid problems ling of the laments and this depends on the magnitude
associated with the free edge eect. A wide range of of the curvature and on the quality of the embedment
bi-axial stresses can be achieved. Real tri-axial stress generating a spatial helical support. Such a constraint
states require rened specimens (see VDI report [7]9, p. demands a higher energy and that increases the stability
107). level. (Similarly: Under the same external pressure an
The tubular specimens may be subjected to internal internal liner in a bre-reinforced shell will not buckle
and external pressure, to torsion and axial forces. like an isolated liner shell). An estimation of the mag-
However, the testing of tubular specimens is not free of nitude of this eect cannot be given by the author so
problems such as bulging, caused by end constraints, or far.
buckling of the cylinder. Further, tubes may exhibit The dierences between uni-axially and bi-axially
non-linear changes in geometry during loading. compression-loaded surfaces will have to be analysed.
In Ref [4] it was stated: Pressures and forces were From Fig. A1, it can be concluded that uni-axial lateral
usually increased continuously until fracture occurred. pressure is more severe than having 2c bi-axially acting
During the tests, the pressure was increased at a steady together with 3c . In general, the pressure-stabilized sur-
rate (2 MPa/min) and the axial load was increased con- face lamina will not fracture rst.
tinuously to maintain a constant predetermined stress
ratio of the laminates mean stresses ^ hoop =^ ax within the
gauge length until fracture. During loading the eects of 5. Application of rened theory
bulging were not considered. Fibre volume fraction vf in
the laminates is approximately the same as for the UD Basically, the modications or improvement intro-
laminae. Unless otherwise stated the given stresses duced in this paper are concerned with the following:
applied in the test (dots) were calculated from measured
pressure p and axial load F based upon un-deformed Improvement of the nonlinear analysis of the
initial geometry, applying formula computer code
Simplications of the failure conditions
^ hoop p rint =t and Oering of some thoughts as to how to account
29 for the eect of radial pressure on failure
^ ax p rint =2t F=2 rint t Test data evaluation.
In the results presented in Ref. [1], the author did not take Fig. 8B results. The load transfer or redistribution from
into account the softening curves and hence the computa- the degrading (softening, F? ) to the bres (Fk ) could not
tion were terminated at prematurely. However, in the be managed by the actually utilized code for higher load-
results presented here the calculations continued to cover ings. Computation stopped in the wedge mode, of course.
the softening regime in the lamina stressstrain curves. This (c) In order to demonstrate the strengthening eect of
turns out to have a signicant eect on the predicted results. the normal pressure pext on the biaxial strength, a sim-
From the rened theory, which includes failure condi- ple example is given which may explain the higher
tions and some convergence ideas in the non-linear analysis experimental results in the negative quadrant (biaxial
coding, the following impacts can be reported: The eect of compression quadrant). For a stress ratio of (
2/
1), the
the new F? is marginal. So, only the coding is of impor- theoretical predicted laminate failure stresses are
tance. Any dierence between the revised graphs and the ^ hoop =
436 MPa, ^ ax =
218 MPa), taken at initial
Part A graphs is essentially attributed to the improve- failure. The corresponding lamina stresses are collected
ments arising from a more stable numerical procedure. in the stress vector: ( 1, 2, 3(=
pext), 0,0, 21)T
=(
524,
123,
pext,0, 0, 43)T, where 3 is added to get
5.1. Bi-axial failure envelopes of the UD-lamina an estimated 3D state of stress. Assuming that the
thickness to radius ratio of the tube is t/r=0.2 and using
Fig. A1 depicts the fracture curve F? . It just outlines thin shell theory, the failure pressure is estimated as
for this wedge failure mode (IFF3) the dierence of the pext ^ hoop t=r=
436 MPa 0:2=
91.8 MPa=918
new linear F? to the former quadratic F? . The curve bar. From this data set and utilizing
2 3 is now fully linear in comparison to the former R c? 145MPa; newb? 1:09, Eq. (16), an increase of
one, the quadratic behaviour of the former function was fracture loading can be estimated by a simplifying linear
pronounced in the rst stress quadrant, only. Practi- analysis computation.
cally, there is no impact on the mapping capabilities, no Without pressure on the outside of the tube, the
res
change in the gures will take place. reserve factors f? Res 1:17; fRes 1:0 are computed.
With pressure, a remarkable increase is achieved for

5.2. Initial and nal bi-axial failure envelopes for the
R c? p
laminates f?
Res 4 =9.9. Regarding the
? 2 3 ? 2
3 2
b
1 b
other mode reserve factors

5.2.1. Test Case 9, GFRP E/MY750 [+55/
55/+55/
55], wound tube f

R =1
800=
524 1:53, f 2:71, the
kc
Res
c
k Res
?k
Fig. 8B incorporates the initial and the nal failure resulting : reserve factor, computed from
m : : kc m:
envelope of this angle ply GFRP-laminate. There are res ?k m m
1=fRes 1=fRes 1=f?cRes 1=fRes , becomes
three areas worth discussing: (a) behaviour under biax-
res
ial tension, (b) behaviour under biaxial compression and fRes =1.45, that is much larger than 1! This increase
(c) pressure eects. indicates considerable reserves. The value above
(a) The predicted curve in the bi-axial tension, espe- demonstrates that, taking into account the radial pres-
cially near the horizontal axis, is much lower than what sure (via 3D analysis), the predicted failure stresses are
the measured values [4] indicate. The largest discrepancy much higher than those obtained using 2D analysis (in
is probably on the ^ y axis, which the author has no this it is not possible to take pressure eects into
explanation for. Here, the know-how from the investi- account). For the estimated 918 bar, the increased
gations on the (2:1) stressstrain curves (see Section multi-axial strength is depicted in Fig. 8B by a lled
5.3.1 and Figs. 13B and 14B) is to be included: The test rhombus sign. It can be seen that the consideration of
data have to be shifted a little into the ^ x direction. The 3=
pex leads to an increase in the biaxial compression
simulation discussed in Section 5.3.1, conrms bulging strength. Bulging could not be regarded in the CLT
and stress redistribution to the bres, which are then analysis, however the simple netting analysis indirectly
loaded above R tk ! It indicates that after reaching F?k (a considers it when taking the strains at failure.
non-critical condition for this laminate lay-up and The calculation above assumed wedge failure might have
loading) F? is achieved and then the numerical analysis taken place. In reality, for this pressure vessel stack wedge
fails. The failure envelope is closed. failure is not acting that catastrophically. Considering this,
(b) The high test values (about one third higher than a further increase of the correction into the regime (
800/
the theoretical predictions) in the bi-axial compression
400) can be estimated for the external surface.
domain could be partly explained by a higher R ck , eec-
tive in the externally pressurized tube. A description of 5.2.2. Behaviour of [0/+45/
45/90]s AS4/3501-6
the (^ y : ^ x )=(
2:
1) test including boundary con- CFRP, hand lay-up, lined tube
straints executed within this test campaign would have Fig. 12 displays a symmetrical failure envelope for a
given much more insight in the interpretation of the CFRP laminate subjected to (^ x ; ^ y ) states of stress.
Fig. 12. (B) (TC6) Initial and nal failure envelope ^ y ^ x . [0/45/
45/90]s-laminate, AS4/3501-6 [8]. ^ y :=average
hoop stress of the laminate,
:
x:=0 direction. !T=
125 C. Hand lay-up cylinder. Test data [4]: b?jj 0:13, m 3:1, R 1950; 1480; 48; 200; 79T .
(newb? =1.09). Rounding by joint failure probability (estimated) of adjacent laminae. (B) with (A). (TC6) Initial and nal failure envelope ^ y ^ x in
MPa. [0/45/
45/90]s-laminate, AS4/3501-6 [8].
Coincidence with the experiment is poor in some places. analysis is required. On the positive ^ x axis the mean
The large scatter in the test data provided, especially the value of about 550 MPa is now met whereas on the
large scatter on the ^ cx axis (Fax loading), makes corre- negative abscissa a gap remains.
lation doubtful. Buckling in test will probably be The UD lamina strength data provided by the orga-
responsible for the large discrepancy in the compression nisers for this material seems to be low compared with
domain (^ cy , pext,-Fax) not allowing the material to those for the E-glass/MY750 (GFRP) material. There is
exhibit the predicted mode of failure F? . Hence, the some doubt about the accuracy of these low values.
available test results have only allowed for a partial Utilizing TC1 allows for increasing R c? 114139 MPa
validation of the theory and further tests are needed to and a second run delivers an improved matching of test
conrm other aspects of the present theory. The failure data (dashed curve in Fig. 9B) in the compression
envelope in Fig. 12 is slightly dierent to that in Part A domain. An idea for a R ck R ? possible and helpful higher
due to the improvements with the programme, see R ck value was not found.
Fig. 12B with A. Further work is needed to obtain a robust post failure
According to joint failure probability of the laminae prediction in all domains.
the sharp corners are smoothed articially, but to be
honest, such a laminate smoothing process requires a 5.2.4. Test Case 4, bi-axial failure envelope for [90/
high eort [16] and is not yet matured to an engineering +30/
30]n E-glass/LY556 GFRP tubes subjected to
tool. Shortcomings, not allowing for rapid improve- combined pressure with axial load
ments in this situation, are the normally poor knowl- Fig. 10B shows a comparison between the experi-
edge about the uncertain design parameters (stochastic mental results and the modied theoretical predictions
model of the strengths, loads) as well as the non-linear for Test Case 4. Two curves are shown for the predicted
stress situation, need to be tackled. results; one curve for the case of no wedge failure and
the other for the case of a wedge failure. The dotted line
5.2.3. Test Case 5, [90/+30/
30/30/
30/90], E-glass/ would be valid if the wedge failure was not critical,
LY556 GFRP tubes in torsion with axial load which, the author believes, is not the case for this lay-up
The lay-up used is not quasi-isotropic because the The discrepancies between the predicted and measured
proportion of 90 plies is not 1/3 but 17.2%. The dif- results are essentially located in the negative quadrant.
ferences between Part A and Fig. 9B with improvement The few tests carried out (third quadrant) under exter-
predictions are caused by the code improvements (which nal pressure and axial compression are reported [4] to be
are still not fully robust for large non-linearity). Large governed by buckling. As mentioned in Section 5.2.3,
bulging considering deformation cannot be considered the compression strengths R ck as well as R c? seem to be
in the simple 2D plate analysis, a non-linear cylinder too low. The improved Part B computation did not
about 50% lower than that on the negative ^ x -

axis, because the pure axial (x) loading of the
cylinder is less buckling-critical according to the
higher stiness in axial direction than external
pressure combined with axial tension load (fail-
ure caused by F? 90 ). Minor inuencing factors
are: The external 90 layer (^ cy , pext, Fax) becomes
stabilized by biaxial lateral compression
(2c ; 3c
pext ). The laments of the internal 90
layer are a little stabilized by the curvature of the
shell.
2. An increase of R ck would help to t the test data
on the ^ x -axis. The author believes coupon
buckling led to the low value of R ck 570MPa. Its
eect on decreasing failure stress is the same in
Fig. 10B (Fk 90 ) as in 9B (Fk 30 ; Fk 90 ).
3. An increase of R c? 114138 MPa (see TC 5)
does the same in the fourth quadrant as may be
seen from the dashed line in Fig. 10B.
Fig. 13. (B) with (A) (TC10) Stressstrain curves for ^ y : ^ x =1:0 4. A non-linear buckling analysis which considers
(radial loading by pint+axial compression load). Tube [+55/ the actual imperfections could help in reducing
55/55/
55]-lami-nate, E-glass/MY750 [8]; Test data [4]:
!T=
68 n C.
: :
>m 3:1; (newb? 1:09). Eq.
the discrepancy between theory and experi-
o b?jj 0:13;
(16).
R 1280; 800; 40; 145; 73T , maxg=10%. ments, because the failure criticality of all
^ y =shoop. Final Part A point *. aected modes is dependent on the imperfection
geometry.
With regard to the sharp corners of the failure envel-

ope, the author advocates rounding these corners by the
use of joint failure probability method. This method is
not currently available due to computational diculties.
5.3. Stressstrain curves of the laminates
For the 45 tubes, bulging is reported in Ref. [4] and

the same can be assumed for the 55 tubes. When strain
gauges are attached to the surface of the specimens, they
provide a measurement to the deformed shape. Hence,
if bulging takes place, then the strains measured will be
those of the specimens with an enlarged diameter. The
dierence between the non-linear plane CLT prediction
and test data can be reduced in some cases if the mea-
sured data is properly represented, e.g. the actual
change in geometry is represented and the computed
Fig. 14. (B) with (A). (TC11) Stressstrain curves for ^ y : ^ x =2:1
(pint), [+55/
55/55/
55]-laminate. E-glass/MY750 [8]. !T=
68 C.
stresses are based on the actual dimensions, see also
Test
n o data [8]. Corrected maximum test values. Table 1. An attempt is made in the present paper to
R 1280; 800; 40; 145; 73T . Final Part A point * consider some of these aspects.
^ y = hoop.
5.3.1. Test Case 10: [55/
55/55/
55] E-glass/MY750
reduce the discrepancies. Final failure, for the case of no GFRP tubes under hoop loading of tube s^ y : s^ x =1:0
wedge failure, has been essentially shifted (dotted line) Details of the experimental results are presented in
in the third quadrant but this is not of importance. Ref. [4]. Fig. 13 shows a comparison between the pre-
However, there might be some explanations for the dicted and measured stress strain curves. The predicted
discrepancies: curve shows stier characteristics that the measured one
in the hoop direction. The author believes that this is
1. Due to the non-quasi-isotropy the achieved due to neglecting the bulging in the measured data. In
maximum load on the negative hoop axis (^ y ) is other words, the measured hoop stress should have been
Table 1 Then, the lamina strains and associated secant moduli

Dierent meanings of theoretical and experimental data are estimated from the (assumed) softening curve.
Theory Experiment Eventually, via CLT computation the associated lamina
CLT (plane) tube eect stresses are derived and assessed. From these analyses a
surprising fact seems to have been detected: Failure
^ x ; ^ y Actual laminate, Basis: small strains
strain "tk and stress kt determined in the tube are much
mean stresses
"^x ; "^y Large strains Large strains higher than fracture strain " fracture
k and weakest link
No tube eect ! Tube eect ! strength R tk from the coupon test! Reason: A tube in
no large deform. large deformation contrast is a relatively redundant structure. Fibres turn
No tube eect! Tube eect ! into the hoop direction. They seek the optimum orien-
bulging missing bulging included
tation and take more and more load. The stresses ?

Creep??
and ?k from this analysis were practically zero, as sup-
posed. Netting theory (matrix stiness zero), as a fur-
ther analysis, however does not help here because the
computed from ^ hoop print Dr=t rather than using laminate is not designed by it. These results have to be
Eq. (29). investigated. The simple analysis above indicates that
The theory was unable to predict the nal strength of test data evaluation is a challenge and has to be per-
the laminates. The rst IFF predicted by the theory is formed very carefully by us.
caused by shear fracture F?k (an initial failure) and After the occurrence of the wedge mode of failure the
then, in the wedge failure mode F? followed by limit of wedge degradation goes on and on. The numerical
usage (l.o.u.). The predicted nal point seems to coin- analysis eventually was not capable of performing fur-
cide with the stress at leakage. ther stress redistribution during degradation. The ana-
The improvement made in this paper in relation to lysis of the MATHCAD code used might be made more
that of Part A came as a result of allowing the compu- stable by a better non-linear code with an improved
tations to carry on to cover the softening regime in the softening curve for ?k and ?c based on an improved
lamina stressstrain curves. In Part A, the limit of usage understanding. These softening curve will have a steeper
l.o.u. value =4% was applied. This corresponds to a nal decay, which better allows for stress redistribution
nal failure of the laminate at a hoop strain of around to the bres. It is to be hoped that tests in Germany will
"=2%, where the computation stopped as a result of a provide us with softening curves of a lamina in laminate
numerical instability. in the next future, driven by the works cited in Refs.
One idea to improve the prediction was to more cor- [17,18].
rectly respect in computation the actual bre angle that
increases with increasing deformation. This has been 5.3.2. Test Case 11, Stressstrain curves for [55/
55/
done but not suciently well. Some other aspects are: 55/
55] E-glass/MY750 GFRP pressure vessel loading
(1) An improved large deformation/large strain correc- under s^ y : s^ x =2:1
tion (including > 10%) will follow the test curve The measured fracture strength in Fig. 14 is about
longer. (2) In this application F? is not a catastrophic 25% lower than the predicted one. Even in this case of a
failure mode, because the wedge cannot harm any well-designed laminate, non-linear behaviour exists
existing load-carrying hoop layer lying above. (3) Leak- above initial failure. The author believes that bre
age cannot be predicted by the current theory. splitting
occurs in the laminate. The axial
strain curve
In order to better understand the failure behaviour a "^x ^ y intersects the hoop curve "^y ^ y leading to very
check utilizing the measured failure strains is per- high strains.
formed: From measurement both strains on the external From theory a conclusion can be drawn: The curves
surface are known. They respect large strains (the real also intersect but after intersection become parallel,
strains) and large deformation. The test stresses given because, respecting stiness of the matrix it follows
do not respect this [Eq. (29)]. Therefore, an attempt is "^y 5 "^ x , if not, netting theory is applicable (multiple
made to close the gap between the non-linear plane matrix cracking plus netting theory-designed laminate)
CLT prediction, the measured strain data, and the given and causes "^ y "^ x which means parallelism. Further-
stresses, whichdue to this factare not consistent more, in netting theory, which should be increasingly
w.r.t. the analytical stresses. First the failure strains are valid after IFF has occurred, the ratio of "x ="y 1 is
taken from the test curve. Secondly, a short analysis predicted, but that is not found in the experimental
delivers the change of the bre direction by a geome- results.
trical estimation using the measured fracture strains The reason for the discrepancy in the nal strength
55 , "^fracture
hoop 0:09 9%; "^fracture
ax
0:11, prediction is believed to be as follows: As uniform
55 =180 ) final arctantan 1 "^fracture
hoop =1 increase in diameter of the cylindrical specimen cannot
"^ fracture
ax 1:05 and final 60 . explain the dierence between the theoretical and
experimental curves, the eect must have come from

bulging. The axial strain ^ ax eax (at the gauge position)
curve is aected by the end constraints more than the
hoop strain. The boundaries are so close to the loca-
tions of the strain gauges that the readings of the strain
gauges are aected by the end conditions. Fracture by
bulging-based bending seems to be the main reason for
the dierence. The CLT plate analysis cannot directly
treat any bulge eect of the cylinder that might have
taken place and a nite element analysis may be able to
take this into account.
A simple analysis is carried out below to consider the
eect of scissoring (change in winding angle) on the
strength of the laminate. According to the short ana-
lysis applied in the discussion of Fig. 13 the measured
laminate fracture strains are taken, again. From them Fig. 15. (B) with (A). (TC8) Stressstrain curves for ^ y : ^ x =2:1
fracture (pint). [0/+45/
45/90]s-laminate. Tube test data [4]. AS4/3501-6
"^ outer 4:2%; 2:4%; 0T the nal angle at frac- epoxy. !T=
125 C. Final Part A point * R 1950;

T
ture final 54:6 (conrms netting theory was used in 1480; 48; 200; 79 . No curve parameters active.
the design) is determined by CLT via the initial angle

55 , 55 =180, and final arctantan 1 sured value. The predicted value in the revised curves is
"^ fracture fracture
hoop =1 "^ ax ) .,Then the lamina strains also higher than that reported in Part A [1]. The reason
fracture for this is the improvement in the computer code. The
" 3:1;
1:6 are computed, further the secant
correlation between the measured and predicted data is
moduli (degrading, softening regime) and eventually, good for this type of laminates.
fracture fracture
the stresses ^ fracture
outer A "^outer and the
fracture
1
fracture 5.3.4. Stress strain curves for {45/
45/45/
45] E-glass/
lamina stresses outer T ^ outer . This deli- MY750 GFRP lined tubes under biaxial stress (stress
vers for the deformed laminate ^ y =936 MPa, kt =1395 ratio s^ y : s^ x =1:
1) (Test Case 14)
In this test case shear loading was generated by
MPa. Simple netting analysis yields ^ y =882 MPa,
internal pressure and over-compressed in the axial
kt =1395 MPa. Both sets of stresses are not too far
direction. The tube had an,internal radius rint=50 mm
from one another. This forces the author to propose a
and a wall thickness t=5.9 mm. Thick cylinder theory
correction. The revised data is lled into Fig. 14 and
was used in evaluation of the test results. Strains were
marked by a lled rhombus in the graph. This conrms
measured at the inside and outside surface of the tube.
that the real test stresses are higher for a distinct strain However, the stresses, obtained from thick cylinder the-
level than those given in the test graph.
ory, are given for the inside surface. Bulging was
Each interpretation of test results is helpful if it reported.
improves understanding. Here, netting theory is applic- Fig. 16B with A indicates a numerical instability
able for the failure strain state and therefore, gives some beyond reaching failure F? of this maximally sheared
insight about the stress state in this benign acting laminate, after initially being too sti in comparison to the
redundant laminate. test. Beyond this, a relatively poor mapping of the test
Note: This mass optimised, two bre direction lami- data is recognized above 60% of the fracture load.
nate shows high sensitivity to little changes of the bre According to Part B information and to the fact that
winding angle . That means small deviations in wind- the mutually strain-controlling layers are redundant the
ing angle cause large changes in stressstrain behaviour. author increased the Part A value of 4% to the men-
At nal fracture, netting theory-designed laminates can tioned 10%.
be simply examined by netting theory. Following the plane CLT analysis the comparison of
predictions and experimental results for this highly
5.3.3. Stressstrain curves for [0/+45/
45/90]s AS4/ matrix-dominated laminate is a little disappointing
3501-6 CFRP pressure vessel loading under s^ y : s^ x =2:1 because the analysis stops before reaching the fracture
(Test Case 8) strain domain.
Fig. 15 shows a bre-dominated behaviour, indicated Some reasoning is provided including the eect of the
by the almost straight curve up to fracture. The fracture large deformations. The simple nal angle estimation
load was predicted by about 10% higher than the mea- yields
Fig. 17. (B) with (A). (TC12) Stressstrain curves for ^ y : ^ x =0:1,
Fig. 16. (B) with (A). (TC14) Stressstrain curves for ^ y : ^ x =1:
1 (axial tension). [0/90]s-laminate. Coupon. E-glass/MY750 [8].
(shear by pint+axial compression) .+45/
45/45/
45]-laminate. E- !T=68 C. Test data [4]. Final Part A point *.
glass/MY750 [8]. !T=
68 C. Tube test data [4]. Bulging reported in
experiment. ^ y =shoop. Final Part A point *. and hence there is a lack of information on how the
matrix cracking density could aect the FF1 mode of
45 ; 45 =180; "^ fracture
hoop 0:10; failure.
"^ fracture
ax
0:11 and final 51 Due to the error in stiness additionunfortunately
in the Part A gure for "^ y the stiness loss by the IFF
that helps again to get information for the interpreta- degradation was not subtracted but added and this led
tion of the test data. The increasing angle stabilizes the to increasing stinessthe initial failure stresses in Part
laminate structure as far as thein this case not that A were a little dierent from those in Fig. 17.
catastrophically actingwedge failure tolerates it.
Regarding large strain/large deformation together with 5.3.6. Stressstrain curves for {45/
45/45/
45] GFRP
a correct softening curve the test curve will become stif- E/MY750 tubes under biaxial stress (stress ratio
fer in the upper region. Again it is obvious that bulging s^ y : s^ x =1:1) (Test Case 13)
must have occurred. The experimental results were described in Ref. [4].
The author strongly supports the idea of carrying out Among the mean features of these results are the fol-
more tests to clarify remaining problems and also lowing: (a) In the derivation of the experimental results
executing a more thorough analysis which takes into no allowance was made for large deformation. (b) The
account the following additional issues: stiness reduc- readings from the individual strain gauges varied up to
tion, crack density formation, softening curve and bre 22%. Reasons for the divergence of the hoop and the
failure. axial strain for this symmetric lay-up are not clear. (c)
The utilized softening curve does not allow for further The strength of the tubesdetermined from several
stress-redistribution to the bres that seem, due to testswas 502 MPa, higher than shown in the experi-
redundancy eects, still to act above the weakest link mental results, graph (Fig. 18). (d) Extensive data on
value R tk ! crack spacing was recorded and bulging was reported.
The results for this test case tube subjected to internal
5.3.5. Stressstrain curves for [0/90]s E-glass/MY750 pressure with axial tension showed that the predicted
GFRP coupon test uniaxial stress (stress ratio=0:1) fracture strength was larger than the measured. Also,
(Test Case 12) the observed shape of the stressstrain curve was not
In Fig. 17 the predicted and measured curves of a fully captured by the model. It is expected that bulging
cross-ply coupon specimen are depicted. The measure together with the relatively large deformation, will cause
curves show some higher stiness. The correlation this dierence. Possible explanations for some of the
between the measured and predicted nal strength is discrepancies are presented.
good, with the predicted value 10% higher than the The curves should lie on top of one another due to the
measured one. As well as the edge eect as the double symmetric geometry and loading. Dierent curves for "^ x
centre layer is governed by the fracture toughness that and "^ y indicate that bulging took place during loading.
aects the initial failure prediction, and the onset of the ^ Netting theory can be applied to assess the test data
corresponding IFF modes. The nal failure (fracture) is for this well-designed laminate. From the measured
controlled principally by the bre strength (mode FF1) strains "fracture
x 2:18%, "fracture
y 2:48% and assuming
strength values is derivable down to a value ^ y =547

MPa=660x(1062/1280) MPa, with 1280 MPa the given
tensile strength. This matches very well.
The test results show a leakage at around 210 MPa
stress [8]. This structural failure mode cannot be pre-
dicted, because leakage is determined by the stochastic
IFF-based micro-crack system of the laminate shell.
5.3.7. Stressstrain curves for [0/+45/

45/90]s AS4/
3501-6 CFRP tubes under bi-axial stress (stress ratio
s^ y : s^ x =1:0) (Test Case 7)
For this radially loaded tube, subjected to hoop ten-
sion induced by internal pressure plus axial compres-
sion, Fig. 11B shows bre-dominated behaviour with an
almost straight curve up to fracture with a fracture load
predicted less than 10% too high. The predicted stiness
was lower than the measured one. The result is satis-
factory.
Fig. 18. (B) with (A). (TC13) Stressstrain curves for ^ y : ^ x =1:1 (pint Again, the initial failure stresses are a little dierent to
+ axial tension) [+45/
45/45/
45]-laminate. E-glass/MY750 [8]. those in Part A due to the corrected stiness error.
!T=
68 C. Tube test data [4]. Bulging reported in experiment. ^
o value after two corrections. ^ y = hoop. Final Part A
maximumn test 5.4. Application to stressstrain curves of distinct
point *. R 1280; 800; 40; 145; 73T .
laminates
? ?k 0 (due to zero matrix stiness), the follow- As highlighted in Section 2.5.1 above and in Ref. [4],
ing values are derived: ^ x ^ y =530 MPa and kt =1062 there are dierences between the behaviour of tubular
MPa. And from this, a reduction of the maximum the- specimens and coupon specimens. Below are some other
oretical fracture load according to the fracture issues related to this subject.
5.4.1. The symmetric

laminate
GFRP E/MY750 [+45/

45/
45/+45], s^ y : s^ x 1 : 1
In comparison (see Figs. 18a, 20a) to the following
anti-symmetric case the inner lamina consists of two
equal layers. This has an eect on micro-cracking which
eventually has a deteriorating impact on FF as still
mentioned in Sub-section 2.3.2. The applied theory
cannot predict any dierence between the magnitude of
the failure stresses for this and the following case. Ply-
by-ply FEA is necessary.
anti-symmetric
5.4.2. The laminate [+45/
45/+45/

45], s^ y : s^ x 1 : 1
Due to the sequence of winding angles some twisting
is to be expected for a at specimen composed of this
stack (VDI 2014 guideline).
In case of winding a positive winding angle normally
follows a negative one and vice versa, if the winding
process is not interrupted and the winding direction
back-changed (increases winding costs). Then the bre
directions alternate and an anti-symmetric stack is
manufactured with often many lay-up repetitions.
However, in contrast to a at plate specimen (experi-
ences twisting under in-plane normal loading) a cir-
Fig. 19. Schematic illustration of Cuntzes assumptions about the
cumferentially closed, wound tube specimen will just turn
stresses 2 and 21 before and after IFF-initiation. Over-pronounced under any internal state of residual stresses the front
results of the triggering approach. sections to another, Furthermore it should be mentioned
the organisers [4]. The author believes that some impor-

tant steps are rst needed to complete the current non-
linear analysis proposed in this work prior to the imple-
mentation of such analysis into a FE code.
6. Concluding comments and recommendations
6.1. Designers need for design according to failure

modes
There are a number of fundamental issues worth

highlighting here regarding failure and design with
composites:
According to some standards, e.g. Ref. [19], in

any static design, a designer has in general to
dimension a laminate against two main types of
failure, namely, inter-bre-failure (IFF) of the
laminae and bre-failure (FF). Occasionally, it
may be required to prove that IFF does not
occur when a laminate is subjected to the so-
called Design Limit Load (DLL) level. In
practice, this corresponds to the Yield Proof of
Design for isotropic materials. This means for
composites No IFF below DYL=DLL* jyield.
For Ultimate Proof of Design, then the rule is
this: No FF below DUL=DLL* jult. Here,
further analysis is needed beyond that required to
detect IFF modes. An IFF mode normally indi-
cates the onset of failure in a laminate whereas the
appearance of an FF mode in a single lamina
usually marks the laminate nal failure. In the
case of brittle FRP composites, failure coincides
Fig. 20. (a) Yielding zone (shadowed) in the 21 ; 2 domain; (b) yield-
ing zone in the 3 ; 2 domain (rounding-o intentionally not applied). with fracture. Fracture is dened in this article as
a separation of material. The material is assumed
that the wound anti-symmetric tubes in contrast to the to be initially free of damage such as technical
symmetrically stacked ones have no double central layer cracks (size in the order of a mm) and delami-
thickness. A double layer has a detrimental impact on nations but not free of tiny defects/aws (size in
onset of IFF fracture [10] but that fracture mechanics the order of microns) prior to loading.
aspect is not predicted by the authors current theory. For the higher Proof of Design at Design Ulti-
mate Load (DUL), in cases of well-designed
5.5. Application of rened theory to the 55 -tube test laminates, initial failure prediction is not impor-
specimen tant and does not have a large impact. If the
common design strain of " 0:4% is required as
It is worth mentioning that the organisers [8] provided a damage tolerance considering limit value, then
a description of the geometries, lay-up, and loading this value is dealt with within the DUL Proof of
conguration for a 55 tubular specimen and asked Design [19].
those participants who possess numerical methods to The IFF modes incorporate cohesive fracture of
provide a solution for the state of stresses. This extra the matrix and adhesive fracture bre-matrix
test case was aimed at investigating how boundary con- interface. Both fracture types are often termed
ditions could aect the response of such laminates. matrix failure.
Currently, MAN Technologie uses MARC nite element Loading a composite by a k stress will always
code for carrying out detailed stress analysis of composite induce a matrix stress acting in the bre direc-
structures. It is possible to implement a suitable sub-rou- tion. The matrix stress is normally obtained from
tine for performing the analysis for the extra case posed by use of micro-mechanics equations, see for
instance the Appendix A in Ref. [9]. However, as actual modes of failure. One typical shortcoming of the
long as the fracture strain of the matrix is much global t approach is that a reduction in one of the uni-
larger than that of the bre (e.g. bre 2%, matrix axial strength values could increase the multi-axial
6%) one may neglect matrix stresses in the bre strength in an un-related quadrant of the failure envelope.
direction of a 0 layer because their magnitude Homogenisation of the UD-material comes to its limit
does not practically aect the failure of the bres. if a constituent stress governs the failure. This is the case
The explosive eect of the so-called wedge shape for Fk , where the macro-mechanical stress 1 has to be
failure (see Fig. A1) of a lamina in a laminate, replaced by the actual bre stress 1f. A bre stress may
which is an IFF mode caused by high transverse be zero but the stress in the lamina along the bre
stress c [1,9,13,15]. The occurrence of this mode direction, 1, may still have a values. Therefore, 1f has
may lead directly to nal failure, as for example to be estimated as 1f="1 E1f.
in the case of Pucks torsion spring [1]. It can also For the prediction of the level of nal failure of the
lead indirectly to a nal failure of a laminate via laminate, the initial failure (IFF of laminae) stresses
the development of through thickness stresses may not be crucial, especially if wedge failure (caused by
and, local delamination and hence to buckling of F? < 1), followed by delamination, does not occur or
the adjacent laminae. This IFF, where parts of a has no detrimental eect on load carrying capacity.
lamina move in the thickness direction may also Wedge failure was not regarded as catastrophic for the
initiate a catastrophic failure like FF (Fig. 1). [+55/-55/55/-55] tube under, ^ hoop =^ ax 1=0 . How-
As a general rule in designing composites, it is a ever, a catastrophic wedging o behaviour could take
good practice to design a laminate to be stable as place,if an extra hoop layer was wound onto the tube.
a truss (netting theory applicable) and stack the In cases where either the scatter in the test data is not
laminae at angles to generate a laminate robust known or the test data are unavailable, one may resort
against possible load changes. This will lead to a to the use of the simplest set of parameters, given as
so-called well-designed laminate. Hence, in b? 1; b?k 0. This will usually give a good approx-
composite structures composed of sti bres and imation of nal failure prediction of a laminate. For
well-designed, using netting theory, the bre net these parameters, the following set of failure conditions,
will control the strain behaviour. derived from Eq. (16), is recommended as an engineer-
ing approach
I1
6.2. Comments on the FMC-based conditions FF1 : Fk 1 ; withI1 "1 Ek
R t
k
The fracture conditions are now robust for automatic

I1
FF2 : Fk 1;
use in design after the F?k convergence problem has R ck
been solved by a query. The use of Eqs. (30) will avoid p
I2 I4 30
this problem. IFF1 : F? 1
The UD fracture conditions employed in the theory 2R t ?
are proven to work in certain areas. However, multi- IFF 2 : F?k I33=2 =R 3?k 1
axial test data required for a full verication of the p
I4
shape of the IFF failure body are still missing. It is to be IFF3 : F? 1:
hoped that the two dissertations of Knops [17] and R c ?
Fischer [18] will close some of the remaining gaps.
The complete failure surface consists of piecewise It should be noted here that behaviour of a unidirec-
smooth regimes (partial failure surfaces). Each regime tional lamina under biaxial-compression, in a plane
represents one failure mode and is governed by one single perpendicular to the bre direction, is important for
basic strength. designing structures such as submarine hulls. Test data
The interaction (rounding-o) between adjacent fail- reported in Refs. [9,17] have shown an interesting trend
ure modes is automatically considered when calculating of substantial enhancement in the biaxial strength under
the resultant stress eort Eff res as a function of the combined 1 and 2 stresses and this trend will
mode stress eort Eff modes . The interaction coecient undoubtedly aect the values of the curve tting para-
:
m can be given a convenient conservative value. As sui- meters use for such applications.
:
table low value for m an odd number 3.1 is taken, for
numerical reasons. 6.3. Comments on the progressive failure analysis
The mode t avoids the shortcomings [2033] of the
global t which is normally used to t the shape of test
data covering the whole biaxial failure envelope by a An accurate failure prediction involves the
single mathematical function (curve), regardless of the application of (a) a physically-sound non-linear
stress analysis to cover large shear strains, (b) a d. Regarding the theoretical and experimental
geometrically non-linear analysis to account for investigations carried out in Germany on the
large deformation, and (c) a better understanding lamina material level in recent years [7] (and still
of the post failure behaviour via establishing the going on) the understanding has improved greatly
softening curves. and seems to be a good basis to tackle laminates
The lamina is the basic building brick (or basic made up of UD-laminae or fabric laminae [27].
computational element) for the prediction of For other textile pre-forms (3D, stitched etc.)
laminate behaviour. The load, not the stress, was engineering models have to be developed. The work
increased monotonically from zero to fracture. in this eld has been initiated. First steps indicate
Triggering loses its inuence when approaching that the transferability to fabrics (rhombically
the large strain regime beyond the occurrence of orthotropic) composites should work [27].
an IFF mode. e. Industry also has to cope with damage and the
The high internal redundancy of a multi-layered Proof of Design (justication) of damaged
laminate is better modelled by a probabilistic structures or laminates. Practical criteria for the
code. The laminate acts as a so-called failure assessment of damage size and criticality of
system of the stochastically failing laminae. delamination are needed. Suciently well work-
Probabilistic tools should be applied, as has been ing NDI methods for damage detection are
done by the author [22,14], in order to improve desired in order to avoid unstable (sudden)
the deterministic procedures and also to smooth delamination fracture. A Design guideline for
(due to joint failure probability) the sharp cor- improving damage tolerance analysis has to be
ners of a laminates failure envelope, which now provided. The treatment of fatigue and stable
represents the sum of all single lamina failure damage growth has to be enhanced and may be
envelopes, only. Such a non-deterministic better enhanced on failure mode basis.
approach [10,14,16,22] should be employed to f. There is still a need for generating reliable multi-
support the understanding of the subsequent axial test data (not all section planes of the multi-
failure behaviour, see also Ref. [23]. axial fracture body are veried as one may con-
clude from Figs. 57). This could be achieved
through a coordinated and collaborative research
6.4. Industrial needs and future steps programme between leading research institu-
tions.
g. Other areas include the development of prob-
a. Industry seeks to replace the expensive Make abilistic models and the encouragement of an
and Test design method by veried and bench- improved worldwide standardization where
marked predictive tools that engineers could use manufacturers, technical associations and
with condence. In other words, a practical authorities are all involved.
progressive failure analysis procedure has to be h. As the area in situ behaviour of the embedded
provided to designers. However, the limitations laminae has not attracted much attention, fur-
of the predictive tools failure conditions should ther work is highly recommended.
be clearly indicated. To this end, the organisers i. For stress concentrations in the laminate such as
of the failure exercise (Hinton, Kadour and bolt holes a suitable engineering approach for the
Soden) have provided as assessment of the strength assessment has to be provided and
maturity of the current methods, Refs [24,25]. methods used for metals could be examined for
b. The 2D/3D-strength analysis, using the fracture ideas. This area lies outside the current failure
conditions dened in this paper, is not yet fully exercise.
validated/veried. Similarly, 3D-stress analysis of j. In the case of stress intensity (where delamination
laminated shells obtained by commercial FEA has occurred) a practicable fracture mechanics
codes (MARC, NASTRAN etc) is not adequate, tool has to be established to assess unstable
it is still too time-consuming and pre-processing delamination growth. Appropriate test specimens
does not provide sucient information regarding and test evaluation have to be discussed.
the design driving modes [26] as well as the k. Loading path eects on IFF have not been con-
reserve factors [26] demanded (see Fig. A1A3, sidered in the present work and require a thor-
Ref [1]) for the Proof of Design. Hence, further ough investigation. Deterministic failure path
improvement is needed. and probabilistic failure path of a laminate may
c. Verication of engineering approaches, based on not coincide with each other due to the possibi-
qualied FEA-output level when analysing the lity of having dierent scatter ranges of the
test specimen, is necessary. design parameters [22].
l. A prediction of leakage as a mode of failure is rent capability of the theory used, (b) the accu-
not currently possible as one may need to cali- racy of the assumptions made in the
brate the IFF behaviour by carrying out a su- interpretation of the test data, and (c) lack of test
cient number of tests with the aim of measuring data and the accuracy of the data input provided.
critical values for micro-crack density and, as a 3. Although, a few examples were given in this
characteristic quantity, a limiting strain. It paper on how to deal with a 3D state of stress,
depends on the grade of leak tightness that is the full potential of the FMC-based IFF condi-
required in the actual case. Design to avoid tions has not been fully explored.
leakage covers a very wide range. Designing 4. The comparisons between theoretical predictions
vessels and containers for cryogenic uids like and the experimental data helped to identify
LH2, LOx and gases like Helium requires the use certain areas where further theoretical and
of liners as a barrier between the gas and the experimental work is required for a nal ver-
inner surface of the containers. In case of uids, ication of theory.
such as water, a rubber-sealing layer suces if 5. Discrepancy between the predicted and measured
the pressure is not too high. Further eorts are results was observed to be high in areas where the
needed to investigate the occurrence of this fail- high shear strains were encountered. This is
ure mode in the actual pressure vessels. because the computer software code developed in
m. An-isotropic yielding (see Fig. 20a,b) needs to be the present work for non-linear analysis requires
studied in order to get a better understanding of further work to eliminate any convergence pro-
the behaviour of composite beyond yielding. The blems. However, high shear strains do not occur
benet may be more academic, but it could shed in well-designed laminates.
some light on load path dependencies in static
and fatigue loading.
n. Determination Curing stresses (rst kind) Acknowledgements
requires information on thermal shrinking (CTE
and temperature dierence) as well as on che- The author gratefully thanks Mr Andreas Freund (now
mical shrinking of the matrix after the gel state in with ATENA) for performing all non-linear analyses and
the solid state (data were not provided [7] in the for valuable discussions. He is also indebted to all
original data-pack and the author did not request reviewers and the organisers of the failure exercise.
such data). The author recommends further work
on dealing with residual thermal stresses, because
there is lack of understanding of their magnitude Appendix A. Example for the FMC procedure with
and their possible decay with time. In addition, Visualisation
curing stresses of the second kind determines the
UD strength but has not been evaluated here. Fig. A1 refers to the ( 2, 3)-plane as one of the var-
This non-consideration implies that within the ious failure planes . In the upper part it visualizes the
transfer of UD data to the structure it is assumed evaluation of test data and in the bottom part the
that the curing stresses of the second kind are rounding-o (by the spring model) in the multi-fold
approximately the same in lamina specimens and (MfFD) and mixed failure domains (MiFD) as well as the
in laminated structures. shrunk design space (mean strength R of mapping is
replaced by a strength design allowable R) to be used by
the designer in dimensioning and in the proof of
6.5. Comparison between theory and experiments design.
In addition to the FMC-based Mode Fit the Global
Fit (e.g. Tsai/Wus single failure surface criterion [7]
1. Two categories of laminate congurations have describes a global failure surface) is pointed out. The
been investigated: (1) laminates made of plies Global Fit interacts between the UD-stresses and the
where the bres are oriented in three or four direc- independent failure modes in one equation, achieving a
tions, and (2) laminates containing plies oriented in description of the global (complete) failure surface. This
two directions. Correlation between theoretical procedure is simple, however error-prone in some
prediction and experiment is expected to be the domains, due to its physical shortcomings.
more imperfect the less the strength of a laminate
can be predicted accurately by netting analysis. A1. Visualisation of the FMC procedure to be added to
2. The predicted initial and nal failure envelopes text
did not match the test results in a number of
instances. This can be attributed to (a) the cur- 1. Failure conditions
p
I2 I4
F? 1 IFF1 and IFF3
2R t? p
I2 I4
F? b?
1 b? 1 with

R c
Rc? ?
I2 2 3 ; I4 2
3 2 423
2
;

1 2c 3c =R c?
b? q
2 1:09
2c 3c =R c? 2c
3c =R c?

from calibration point & (see gure) 2c ; 3c =(
40
MPa,
191 MPa) and mean values R t? 40 MPa;
R c? 144 MPa. Test data for this quasi-isotropic plane
2 ; 3 are assumed from isotropic knowledge.
Note: Inherent to the FMC is a Mode Fit. This t
needs less data then the usually applied Global Fit
(such as with Tsai/Wu) and maps the MfFD, addition-
ally! Appropriate ctitious data set.
b? 5 1 means angle 5 45 (45 =zero friction).
2. Rounding-o in MiFD, MfFD
!m: m: : :
1 1 1 m 1 m
res

fRes f?2
Res f?
Res f ?3
Means R t? ; R c? ) Design Allowables R?t ; R?c , b?

remains because it is a physical property.
t
The mode reserve factors read (2D case) f?2
Res R? =2 ,
?3 t ? c
fRes R? =3 , fRes R? = 2b? 2
2
3 .
In the frame of an automatic numerical process a

mode
negative becoming fRes is set 10
Automatic rounding without aecting adjacent
modes.
Appendix B. Determination of max I33/2 (Query F?k

for the case discrimination)
A numerical problem exists with F?k if b?k I2 I3

I5
becomes
I33=2 in Eq. (24d). Then, visualized in the 2D
space by the 21(s2)-curve in Fig. B1, this curve turns
asymptotically and an intersection with a proportional
stress beam from the origin to determine f?k Res is not
achieved anymore. The reserve factor becomes indenite
and the eort imaginary. To generally bypass this diculty
one has to put a query in the program and replace, if
applicable, the formulation of the asymptotically
becoming curve by a limiting value max I33=2 . This is a
horizontal line in the 2D case of Fig. B1. Hence, the Fig. A1. 2D case f g 0; 2 ; 3 ; 0; 0; 0T . MiFD=Mixed Failure
limit for the applicability of F?k for the given 3D state Domain, MfFD=Multi-fold Failure Domain. Both MiFD and MfFD
of stress (marked by a tilde sign) is rounding-o is considered in the lower gure.
Fig. B1. Illustration of the cut-o in order to guarantee an intersection and to avoid imaginary or indenite numbers. Eqs. (1), (16), IFF2. 0:01
is good guess [in case of Eq. (30d) no inter-section problem is existing anymore].

I33=2 =I2 I3
I5
b?k . In order to have a safe distance C arcot 2 b?k 180=. Hence, the sub-case of
the parameter b?k is increased by a very small factor . ?k
R
maxI3 is maxtau p with cot7 2b?k .
Setting into the failure condition
F?k 1, Eq. (16), the 3
1
2b?k =cotC
new ratio maxI33=2 = I~2 I~3
I~5
b?k it can be And the reserve factors become
deduced from maxI33=2 b?k maxI33=2 =
b?k R 3?k Rc ?k
?
f?
Res ; fRes maxtau
j21 j . For the stress eort it is
a bound
2
analogous.
2=3 2
maxI3 R?k with 1:01

1 B1
:::::: 3D case Appendix C
Visualisation of hardening and softening

1=3

maxtau R ?k maxI3 maxtau2 ;

1 B2
::::::the 2D 2D
In case case
the procedure can be visualized (see Table C1
Denition of the various lamina types
Fig. B1) by viewing at some distinct angles in the
21 ; 2 graph. These are, employing the limiting beam I: Tensile coupon, isolated lamina, load-controlled! weakes link
21 21

2 2 b?k , the radiant cot7max
and the angle type test results
2

7max arcot 2b?k 180=. To safely remain on the II: Tensile coupon, isolated lamina, strain-controlled (sti test frame)
III: Embedded (constraint) lamina, strain-controlled! redundant type
intersection side a reduction of the angle 7max is
test results
introduced by the factor by setting
Fig. C1. Measured shear stressshear strain curves. Mapping by Eqs. (19,22a). Strain-controlled demands for sti test frame. (bars-to indicate mean
or typical values are skipped in the windows here).
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The Predictive Capability of Failure Mode Concept-Based Strength Criteria For Multi-Directional Laminates-Part B

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Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004) 487516

The predictive capability of failure mode concept-based strength

Received 1 February 2003; accepted 1 June 2003

1. Introduction exercise. This paper represents the authors submission

2.1. FMC-based failure conditions for UD laminae

Nomenclature I 1, I 2, I 3, I 4, I 5 Invariants of the

12= 21, Shear stresses of a Abbreviations and indices, signs

Fig. 2. (a) UD lamina: stress and strength notations of 3D state of

The author believes that the non-linear behaviour of

2.2.2. Procedure for progressive failure analysis of

2.3. Brief review of theoretical assumptions and remarks

2.3.1. Failure conditions applied in non-linear analysis

employed in the non-linear analysis carried out in Part n o T

Fig. 7. (TC3) Biaxial failure stress envelope ( 2, 1). UD-lamina. E-

2yx cos  sin ; ?k

Fig. 10A is concerned with the prediction of the

2.4.4. Stressstrain curves of the laminates

I1 (F? :=wedge failure, local 3 ) may also serve as criteria

With pressure, a remarkable increase is achieved for

other mode reserve factors

55], wound tube f

about 50% lower than that on the negative ^ x -

With regard to the sharp corners of the failure envel-

5.3. Stressstrain curves of the laminates

For the 45 tubes, bulging is reported in Ref. [4] and

Table 1 Then, the lamina strains and associated secant moduli

experimental curves, the eect must have come from

the design) is determined by CLT via the initial angle

strength values is derivable down to a value ^ y =547

5.3.7. Stressstrain curves for [0/+45/

5.4.1. The symmetric

the organisers [4]. The author believes that some impor-

6. Concluding comments and recommendations

6.1. Designers need for design according to failure

There are a number of fundamental issues worth

 According to some standards, e.g. Ref. [19], in

The fracture conditions are now robust for automatic

2. Rounding-o in MiFD, MfFD

Means R t? ; R c? ) Design Allowables R?t ; R?c , b?

 In the frame of an automatic numerical process a

Appendix B. Determination of max I33/2 (Query F?k

A numerical problem exists with F?k if b?k I2 I3

Visualisation of hardening and softening

References tubes by built-in stresses. X. Int. Herman F. Mark-Symposium,

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2yx cos sin ; ?k

According to some standards, e.g. Ref. [19], in

Means R t? ; R c? ) Design Allowables R?t ; R?c , b?

In the frame of an automatic numerical process a