Pavement Design - Foundation http://www.dur.ac.uk/~des0www4/cal/roads/pavdes/pavfound.

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Pavement Design - Foundation Design

The Purpose of the foundation is to transfer the loading from the road to the soil or subgrade. The
foundation for the purpose of these pages is defined as the sub-base and any associated strengthening
materials used. The procedure described in this page is that in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges,
Volume 7 (Available on-line at http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/ha/dmrb
/index.htm).

The Map below is a clickable image.

The map alongside can be used as a guide to

the process of Foundation Design.

Clicking on the desired area of the map will

take you to the desired section. When you
have finished a particular section, if you
wish to return to the map then use the back
button on the browser or click on the map
link.

It is highly recommended that you follow

the logical progression of the map

Figure 1
Foundation Design Process
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Introduction
The main purpose of the foundation is to distribute the applied loads to the underlying subgrade, without
causing distress to either the foundations, the overlying layers or the subgrade.

The critical condition for a pavement foundation is whilst carrying the construction traffic as, whilst the
repetitions are low, the stresses are applied direct to the foundation. Standard foundation design is thus to
design for the construction traffic. That is the method described below.

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Assessment Methods

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The first step in the design of the foundations depends on the situation that is causing the design.

If the road is new then the first step is the assessment of the subgrade on which the road is to be built. This
is described in the next section and is essential to the design. If this is not carried out correctly then the
information on which the designs are based may be incorrect.

If the road is a not a new road then the first step is the assessment of the existing foundations. This is
described later on in the chapter and is the same procedure as the compliance testing for a new road.

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Subgrade Strength
The strength of the subgrade (soil below the pavement) is asssesed using a test known as the California
Bearing Ratio test. This was developed in California in the 1930's and makes no attemp to determine any
of the standard soil properties such as density. It is merely a value and it is integral to the process of road
design. Nearly all design charts for the road foundations are based on the CBR value for the subgrade.

California Bearing Ratio

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is a measure of the supporting value of the subgrade. It is not unique
and other tests such as the R-Value test and the Triaxial are used occasionally. It is however by far the
most commonly used in Pavement Design. The CBR test should be used with soil at the calculated
equilibrium moisture content (see below) although in the United States it is usual for samples to be soaked
for 4 days prior to testing.

To determine the CBR for a soil the designer has two options, they can either use the California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) test if equipment is available or they can use the table below to estimate the CBR.

CBR (%)
Depth of formation below water
Type Plasticity index
table
of soil (%)
More than
600mm or less
600mm
Heavy clay 70 2 1*
60 2 1.5*
50 2.5 2
40 3 2
Silty clay 30 5 3
Sandy clay 20 6 4
10 7 5
Silt - 2 1*
Sand (poorly graded) non-plastic 20 10
Sand (well graded) non-plastic 40 15
Well graded sandy gravel non-plastic 60 20
Table 1
Estimation of CBR values

The CBR should be carried out in accordance with BS 13772

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The test involves the equipment shown below. The plunger is then seated into the soil using a force of 50N
for an expected CBR below 30% or 250N for greater than 30%. The plunger is then penetrated into the
soil at a constant rate of 1mm/min and the forces recorded at penetration intervals of 0.25mm. The total
penetration should not exceed 7.5mm. These results are then compared to a standard curve for a value of
100% CBR. The forces on the standard curve are 13.2kN at 2.5mm penetration and 20.0kN at 5.0mm
penetration. The CBR is then a simple ratio of the corresponding values and where a difference between
the value at 2.5mm and 5mm occurs, the higher value is taken. Annular weights are sometimes used to
represent a surcharge.

Figure 2
California Bearing Ratio Equipment

The first factor affecting the performance of the subgrade is the moisture content. Unfortunately this is
normally extremely variable as water can come from many sources such as rainfall, capillary action,
seasonal movement of the water table and ingress.

The importance of the moisture content is demonstrated by the variation of the CBR values as shown
below. This is a plot of a typical soil sample values of CBR against moisture content. Thus the soil sample
should have the moisture content re assessed after the test is performed and compared to the desired
value.

Figure 2 shows how the CBR value of a soil varies with the moisture content.

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Figure 3
California Bearing Ratio Vs Moisture content

Croney and Bulman1 used thermodynamic principles to define three categories into which the subgrade
moisture conditions can be placed. These allow the relevant value of moisture content to be used when
assessing the soils under laboratory conditions.

1. Under conditions of rainfall and evaporation such that the water table forms within 5m of the
surface. Edge effects are small and the situation is achieved by a combination of drainage and
capillary effects. This allowed the estimation of the water content for different water table levels.
This is typical of a temperate climate with moderate evaporation or on the flood pains of rivers. The
United Kingdom generally falls into this category.
2. The water table is greater than 5m but for several months of the year rainfall exceeds moisture loss
by evaporation and transpiration. The moisture content is thus cyclical and depends on the
permeability of the soil. This is typical of a hot climate with high seasonal rainfall.
3. Dry climates where the rainfall has little effect on the water table and the moisture content may be
assumed to be close to that in the surrounding uncovered soil.

This is however a subjective method and not widely used. In America, the standard practice is to assume a
saturated sample and test as such. As can be seen from Figure 3, this has a tendancy to underestimate the
CBR and thus to overdesign the foundation.

Standard practice in the United Kingdom is to assess the soil at the optimum moisture content.This is done
using the procedure below.

Plot the dry density of the soil against moisture content.

This will give you the optimum moisture content, that is the peak of the curve.
Plot the CBR against moisture content graph
The CBR value carried forward to the design is that at the optimum moisture content.

An example of this can be found in the problems page below.

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Capping & Sub-base Design

Once the CBR value has been determined, it is then possible to design the actual capping and Sub-base
layers. Capping is used to protect weak subgrades by using a relatively cheap material between the
subgrade and sub-base

It is not practical to build on a layer whose CBR value is less than 15%. It is therefore necessary to
improve this value either by capping or increasing the thickness of the sub-base. The chart below shows
the two alternatives, each of which are equally effective and which is used depends on cost and
construction restrictions.

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Figure 3
Capping and Sub-base Thickness Design

In exceptional circumstances where the CBR value falls below 2%, a value below which the subgrade
would deform under construction traffic, there are several options open to the designer:

The material can be removed and replaced with a more suitable material. The thickness replaced is
typically between 0.5m and 1.0m. Irrespective of the quality of the new material a CBR value of
just under 2% should be assumed for the subgrade.
For cohesive soils, it may be possible to treat the soils using lime. The sub-base and capping is again
designed assuming a subgrade CBR of just under 2%.
For a reasonably permeable soil the drainage system may be lowered and the results monitored. The
main foundation should then be designed assuming the achievable conditions.

For subgrades with CBR values of 15% and above the sub-base should have a standard thickness of
150mm, a value determined as the minimum practical for spreading and compaction.

For subgrades with CBR values in excess of 30% and a low water table or hard rock subgrades then the
sub-base may be omitted.

When designing a road of some length, it is not advisable to frequently vary the foundation thickness but
rather select an appropriate value for each significant change in the subgrade properties.

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Drainage and Frost Protection

It is vitally important to keep moisture out of the sub-base, capping and subgrade both during the
construction and during the life of the pavement. This is achieved by excluding incoming water and
providing a drainage path for water already in the foundation.

This is achieved by placing a granular aggregate drain or drainage blanket. Where a drain is used, it should

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be below the bottom of the capping. The finished design should always slope towards the drain. There are
circumstances where drains are not necessary and reference should be made to the Design Manual for
Roads and Bridges if this is a possibility

All materials used should be non frost-susceptible. More information on the susceptibility to frost can
come from the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges and from the Meteorological Office.

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Compliance Testing
Of you are designing the repairs to an existing road then this is the start point for you design. If you are
designing the foundation for a new road then you will need to test the foundation to show that it will
perform as desired. The tests used all comply with BS 1377 and reference should be made to this manual
before any tests are carried out.

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In Situ Testing
The following tests should be used in determining the compliance of the foundation to the required
standard or for testing the existing road surface. Failure of these tests may indicate either that the
specified method of construction was not followed, that the materials used were sub-standard, that
damage has occurred or that abnormal conditions were encountered and not allowed for.

Moisture Condition Value (MCV)- This test involves compaction of soil or fine aggregates using a
hand held device. The compactive effort can be compared to that needed at the optimum moisture
content. This enables a comparison with the actual moisture content of the soil.
Density Testing - This can be either sand replacement or Nuclear Density. They are both time
consuming but allow comparisons with actual density and Laboratory values to be made.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) - This is explained in more detail in the section above.
Clegg Hammer - This is sometimes referred to as a dynamic CBR and is an extremely rapid test. A
comparison has been made to the CBR values and as such is useful in finding weak spots in the
paving or foundation.
Cone Penetrometers - Again enable rapid assessment of approximate CBR values to within 5 to
6%.
Plate Bearing Test - This equipment enables the user to determine the Elastic Modulus of the
pavement or foundation. It's use is discussed in the Specification of Highway Works document3.

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Problems
An example of a foundation design problem can be found on the Thickness Design page, a link to which is
at the bottom of this page.

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References
1) D. Croney and J. M. Buliman, "The Influence of Climate factors on the Structural Design of Flexible Pavements", Proceedings
Third International Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, University of Michigan, 1972.

2) BS 1377: 1975 Methods of Tests for Soils for Civil Engineering purposes

3)Specification For Highway Works, MCHW.

Go to the Introduction Page.

Go to the Thickness Design Page

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e-mail: D.G.Toll@Durham.ac.uk.

Last Updated: 28 February 1997

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