CHAPTER 4-6 OF THE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS

CHAPTER 4: NORMAL SCIENCE AS PUZZLE SOLVING

A puzzle must have a solution in order for it to be a puzzle. Furthermore, the

existence of a strong network of commitments conceptual, theoretical,
instrumental, and methodological is a principal source of the metaphor that relates
normal science to puzzle-solving.

1. Puzzles have rules.

2. Puzzles have predetermined solutions.

Scientists are motivated to try to solve the problems (puzzles) of normal science
because of:

1. The challenge of the puzzle.

2. The conviction that, if only he is skillful enough.

Corpuscular theory of Descartes which states the universe was composed of

microscopic corpuscles and that all natural phenomena could be explained in terms of
corpuscular shape, size, motion, and interaction.

Metaphysical: it told scientists what sort of entities the universe did and did
not contain - there was only shaped matter in motion.
Methodological: it told scientists what ultimate laws and fundamental
explanations must be like laws must specify corpuscular motion and
interaction, and explanation must reduce any given natural phenomenon to
corpuscular action under these laws.

Paradigm has rules determining what the acceptable solution is.

CHAPTER 5: THE PRIORITY OF PARADIGMS

Paradigms are universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide
model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners
Examples of Paradigms

Physics gravity, quantum Cosmology heliocentrism,

mechanics geocentrism
Biology evolution of man Geology plate tectonics
Main idea of The Priority of Paradigm. Paradigms of a scientific community are
relatively easier to determine than the rules used by scientists who share a paradigm.
The existence of a paradigm need not imply that any full set of rules exist.
Why rules are not easily determined for every paradigm:
1. Science is always changing 3. Tacit Knowledge
2. Different interpretations
Paradigm can serve many branches of science, but that the paradigm functions a bit
differently in each one of these. Therefore, when a revolution occurs, the changes need
not affect every branch of science, and may not affect each branch in the same way.

CHAPTER 6: ANOMALY AND THE EMERGENCE OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY

The Scientific SRevolution. Normal scientific research produces new theories to

replace older theories. Anomaly is a new fact discovered that cannot be explained by
an old paradigm. Paradigm change is brought about by the fundamental novelties of
fact and theory

Distinction between Discovery and Invention

A. Discovery novelty of fact
Commences with the
awareness of anomaly
Exploration of the area
of anomaly
Concludes when paradigm
theory has been adjusted
so the anomalous has
become the expected
B. Invention novelty of theory
Discoveries by theory are
parts of normal science
and result in no new sort
of fact
Only when experiment
and tentative theory are
linked to a match does
discovery emerge and
theory become a paradigm

The Discovery of Oxygen

C.W. Scheele Joseph Priestly
Prepared a relatively pure - Collected the gas released
sample of the gas by heated red oxide of
mercury
- obtained gas as nitrous
oxide
C. Lavoisier
- called the gas as oxygen
Oxygen as atomic
principle of acidity;
- Oxygen theory of
combustion

The Discovery of X-rays a discovery through accident

Roentgen sees a screen glowing unexpectedly during an experiment with a
cathode ray tube. X-rays: screen glowed when it is not expected to
The Leyden Jar theory-induced discovery
A severe shock was experienced but later realized that the hand holding the jar
was the conductor
Learned then that the jar required an outer and inner conducting coating, and
the fluid is not really stored in the jar at all