Audio Masterclass Music Production and Sound Engineering Course

Module 05: Compression

Module 05

Compression
In this module you will learn about dynamic range control and compression. You will also learn about
the artistic use of the compressor.

Learning outcomes
To understand the requirement for dynamic range control.
To understand the controls of the compressor.
To be able to use the compressor for dynamic range control.
To understand the use of the compressor for subjective signal enhancement.

Assessment
Formative assessment is achieved through the short-answer check questions at the end of this
module.

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Module Contents
Learning outcomes 1
Assessment 1
Compression 3
Connecting the compressor 7
The basic action of the compressor 9
Compression ratio 10
Gain reduction 11
Setting the threshold control 12
Fixed-threshold compressors 13
Setting the gain make-up 13
Setting the release control 14
Setting the attack control 16
The stereo link button 16
Noise and the compressor 18
Breathing and pumping 18
Side chain 20
De-essing 20
Artistic considerations of compression 21
Check questions 24

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Module 05: Compression

Compression
The compressor is a magical and mysterious
component of the recording studio. But it is practical
too. Compression was invented decades ago to solve a
particular problem. It can still solve that problem now,
but at the same time it can add allure and sparkle to
music, whether instruments or voices. This text will
prepare you to operate the compressor effectively,
and also use it to the full to improve and enhance
your sounds.

Gyraf Gyratec X vacuum

Firstly, we need to understand why the compressor tube compressor
was invented, and to do that we need to examine the
sounds around us in the real world.

Imagine its autumn season, or fall as it is known

in some parts of the world. A leaf drops from a tree
branch and gently floats down to join its fellow golden-
brown leaves that are already covering the ground.
You watch it fall in completely silent surroundings,
and you can just, but only just, hear the tiny sound it
makes when it lands.

You have just experienced the quietest sound it is

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possible to hear. If the sound had been any quieter,

you would not have heard it at all, even in those
perfectly silent surroundings.

There is a special phrase for this the threshold of

hearing. It is the level where sound is just audible.

Of course, whether or not you hear the falling leaf

also depends on how far you are away from it. So we
must measure sound from the listeners perspective.
In almost all circumstances we take into account not
only how much sound is produced, but the effect of
distance and surroundings leading to a measurement
of how much sound is heard.

We have other more technical ways of describing the

threshold of hearing

A sound that is just on the threshold of hearing is

said to be at 0 dB SPL. dB stands for decibels. SPL
stands for sound pressure level.

Also, we can say that the sound pressure that

corresponds to the threshold of hearing is 20
micronewtons per square meter. That is the same as
20 micropascals. One newton per square meter is the
same as one pascal.

Thirdly, we can say that the threshold of hearing

corresponds to a sound power of 1 picowatt per square
meter. One picowatt is a millionth of a millionth of a
watt. Thats pretty small and yet we can hear it!

If you dont feel comfortable with sound pressure

and sound power, micropascals and picowatts, then
concentrate on decibels. They are more relevant and
easier to understand.

Lets return to dB SPL. As has been said, the threshold

of hearing is 0 dB SPL. The scale goes all the way up
to the threshold of pain where the sound is so loud
it actually hurts. This occurs at around 120 dB SPL.
There are of course even louder sounds. Naturally
they are best avoided by human beings.

It is quite common to come across decibel scales that

show the SPL for a range of sound sources. Often a jet
engine is quoted as producing a level of 120 dB SPL.

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Of course this depends totally on distance. A plane in

the sky produces a much lower level as heard on the
ground. Very close up to a jet engine would be much
more than 120 dB SPL.

Here we have therefore the range of sound levels it is

possible to hear in real life from 0 dB SPL to 120 dB
SPL. To make an accurate recording, the equipment
used should be capable of handling this range of
levels.

Time to introduce another technical term dynamic

range. We say that human hearing has a dynamic
range of 120 dB between the quietest audible sound
and the loudest sound that can he heard without
pain.

But there is a problem. Firstly, even with the latest

cutting-edge technology it is difficult to achieve a
dynamic range of 120 dB. So the human ear is in
fact better in this respect than our latest and most
wonderful equipment!

Secondly, when we enjoy recordings, broadcasts and

movies, we subjectively prefer the range of sound
levels to be controlled. Yes, in a movie an explosion
should be considerably louder than background
woodland atmosphere, for instance, but not 120 dB
louder.

Thirdly, background noise is present in almost all

places where recordings, broadcasts and movie
soundtracks are heard. A domestic living room might
have a background noise level of 30 to 40 dB SPL.
Even the quietest recording studios struggle to achieve
background noise levels lower than 15 dB SPL or so.

So, because of background noise in the listening

environment it is impossible to hear very quiet sounds
in a recording.

There is a problem at the other end of the scale.

If you played back a recording in your living room
at such a level that the peaks reached 120 dB SPL,
your music would almost certainly be heard by your
neighbors, unless you live in a desert. Even if they
share your taste in music, this intrusion will certainly
be unwelcome.

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In practice therefore there is a window between

about 40 dB SPL and 90 dB SPL that all sounds on
a recording, from the quietest to the loudest, should
stay within when played on loudspeakers

And this, quite simply, is why we need compression.

We like compression for other purposes, but we need
it to control dynamic range.

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Connecting the compressor

There are a number of ways in which a compressor
can be used

To compress an individual signal as it is being

recorded.
To compress an individual signal as it is being
mixed.
To compress the entire stereo mix during the
mixing process.

It is also possible to compress groups of instruments

together the drums of a drum set for instance.
However, this is an advanced topic that will not be
covered here.

To use a hardware compressor in conjunction

with a microphone preamplifier and a digital
audio workstation (DAW)...

Connect the microphone to the input of the

preamplifier.
Connect the output of the preamplifier to the
input of the compressor.
Connect the output of the compressor to a line
input of the DAW, or to the line input of the
audio interface if it is a software DAW.

To use a hardware compressor in conjunction

with a mixing console, using the mixing consoles
internal microphone preamplifier.

Connect the microphone to the microphone

input of one channel of the console.
Connect the channel insert send of that
channel to the input of the compressor.
Connect the output of the compressor to the
channel insert return of the same channel.

Note that in some consoles the channel insert point

comes before the EQ. In other consoles it comes after
the EQ. In some consoles, this is switchable.

To use a hardware compressor in conjunction

with a mixing console to compress the entire

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stereo mix, if the console has mix insert points.

Connect the mix insert point left channel send

to the left input of the compressor.
Connect the mix insert point right channel send
to the right input of the compressor.
Connect the left output of the compressor to
the mix insert point left channel return.
Connect the right output of the compressor to
the mix insert point right channel return.
Activate the stereo link function of the
compressor (to be discussed later).

To use a hardware compressor in conjunction

with a mixing console to compress the entire
stereo mix, if the console does not have mix
insert points.

Connect the mix output left to the left input of

the compressor.
Connect the mix output right to the right input
of the compressor.
Connect the left output of the compressor to
the left input of the stereo recorder.
Connect the right output of the compressor to
the right input of the stereo recorder.
Activate the stereo link function of the
compressor (to be discussed later).

To use a compressor plug-in with a software

DAW to compress individual channels.

Note that many software DAWs by default apply plug-

ins to the monitoring and mixing processes. They do
not record the output of plug-ins.

Insert a compressor plug-in into an insert point

on the channel strip.

To use a compressor plug-in with a software

DAW to compress the entire stereo mix.

If there is no mix (master) strip visible, make it

visible or create one.
Insert a compressor plug-in into an insert point
on the mix (master) strip.

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The basic action of the

compressor
Compressors, as normally found, work by reducing
the level of loud sections of the signal. It would be
possible to design a compressor that worked by
increasing the level of the quiet sections of the signal,
but that is very rare indeed.

So the quiet sections of the signal are left unchanged.

Only when the signal rises above a certain threshold
does compression start.

To explain that again... Sections of the signal that are

lower in level than the threshold level that is set are
not changed. Sections of the signal that are higher in
level than the threshold have their level reduced.

If you compare the uncompressed and compressed

signals at this point, during quiet sections they will Gain make-up control
sound the same; during loud sections the compressed (Avalon Vt 747sp)
version will be quieter.

In practice, it is not useful to leave the signal like this.

It is better to raise the level of the entire signal so
that the peak levels are the same as they were before
compression.

This is called make-up gain, or gain make-up.

After gain make up, loud sections are as loud as they

were before compression; quiet sections are louder
than they were before compression.

In some compressors, compression starts immediately

when the threshold level is exceeded. In others,
compression comes in gradually. This is called the knee
of the compressor. A hard knee is where compression
starts immediately. A soft knee is where it comes in
gradually. Some compressors have a variable knee
control.

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Compression ratio
When the signal is above the threshold level, its level
is reduced. The compression ratio sets the amount of
reduction.

We would typically talk about a compression ratio of,

say, 2:1. This means that when the input signal rises
by 2 dB, the output signal rises by only 1 dB. If the
input signal rises by 10 dB, then the output signal
rises by only 5 dB.

A compression ratio of 1:1 would mean no compression,

nothing would be changed.

2:1 is actually a mild compression ratio, although useful

in some contexts. 10:1 is quite a fierce compression
ratio. Although it might be useful in some contexts, it
will be clearly audible that compression is happening.
Compression ratio control
If the compression ratio is set to 20:1, then if the
(Avalon Vt 747sp)
input signal rises by 20 dB, the output signal rises by
only 1 dB.

When the compression ratio is 20:1 or greater, the

effect is known as limiting. There are devices called
limiters that have exactly this purpose. They allow the
signal to rise up to a certain level, but then it can rise
no further.

Limiters are used in broadcasting to ensure that there

is no distortion in the transmitter. They are used in live
sound to protect the loudspeakers. They are also used
in recording as part of the mastering process. They
are generally not otherwise used in the recording or
mixing processes.

It is useful to have some idea of where to start with

compression. A ratio of 4:1 is generally good to
start off with as the effect of the compression will be
clearly audible. If a stronger effect is required, then
the ratio can be increased. If it is desired to make
the compression less obvious, then the ratio can be
decreased.

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Module 05: Compression

Gain reduction
All good compressors have a gain reduction meter.
It should really be called a level reduction meter, but
the phrase is now stuck. This text will refer to the gain
reduction meter of the compressor, and the process
of level reduction. The so-called gain reduction meter
will show the amount of level reduction.

Although a compressor can be set purely by ear, it

is useful to have visual confirmation of how much
compression is taking place.

The gain reduction meter will show from moment to

moment how much the level of the signal is being
reduced.
Gain reduction meter
When the signal is below the threshold level, the gain (Focusrite Compounder)
reduction meter will show 0 dB.

When the signal rises above the threshold, the gain

reduction meter will show by how many decibels it is
being reduced, from moment to moment.

Some compressors have an LED bargraph meter.

Others have needle-type meters. The bargraph meter
is likely to be more accurate and quicker to respond.

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Setting the threshold control

[Please note that some compressors have a fixed
threshold and therefore do not have a threshold
control. Instead they have a gain control. This will be
explained in the next section.]

As advised earlier, it is a good starting point to set the

compression ratio to 4:1. Set the attack and release
controls (to be explained later) close to their minimum
values.

Now apply a music signal that has both quiet

sections and loud sections to the compressor. Set the
threshold so that at in the very quietest sections the
gain reduction meter shows 0 dB, which means no
Threshold control
compression. Adjust the threshold so that when the
(ART Pro VLA)
signal goes any louder than this, compression starts
to take place.

From this point, setting the threshold and ratio controls

is entirely up to your judgement. However, it is worth
noting that there is rarely any merit in setting the
threshold to be lower than the point you have arrived
at by now. All that will happen is that after any period
of silence in the signal, the compression will crash in
suddenly and unpleasantly.

Try the controls one at a time.

Raising the threshold will cause less

compression to take place and the gain
reduction meter will show less reduction in
level.
Decreasing the compression ratio will cause
less compression to take place and the gain
reduction meter will show less reduction in
level.
Increasing the compression ratio will cause
more compression to take place and the gain
reduction meter will show more reduction in
level.

It is incredibly useful to listen to what you achieve

while watching the gain reduction meter. It is good to
practise on as wide a range of signals as you can.

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Fixed-threshold compressors
Some compressors have a fixed threshold and
therefore do not have a threshold control. Instead
there is a gain control, sometimes labelled level or
input.

When using such a compressor, you would turn up the

gain until you could hear the amount of compression
you want. The effect is exactly the same as a standard
compressor, only the operational method is different.

The gain reduction meter of such a compressor

works in exactly the same way as that of a standard
compressor.

Setting the gain make-up

It is usual to set the gain make-up control so that
the peak levels of the compressed signal are the same
as the peak levels of the uncompressed signal.

It will now be possible to press the in/out button

to compare the compressed and the uncompressed
signals easily.

It is worth bearing in mind that compression does not

always improve a sound, so making a comparison like
this will be a useful check.

It may be apparent that there is some noise present

during quiet sections of the signal. This is an inevitable
result of the compression process. At this point, you
Gain make-up control, here
should ignore any noise other than assessing whether
labelled output (ART Pro
it is excessive. If so, back off the ratio or threshold
VLA)
controls and apply less compression. This topic is
discussed later.

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Setting the release control

The release control is very much more important
than it might appear. It is in fact the heart and soul of
the compressor.

The release control sets the length of time it takes the

compressor to respond when the signal changes from
loud to quiet. That is important. Please read again.

A compressor works by changing the level of a signal

dynamically. When the signal is quiet it does nothing.
When the signal is loud it brings it down in level.

Imagine now a fader on a mixing console and you are

listening to a signal passing through that fader.

At first, set it to 0 dB, which will keep the level of the

signal exactly the same as it was when it entered the
fader. Listen to the signal for a while.

Now reduce the level by 10 dB. In other words, set

the fader to 10 dB. Release control
(Avalon Vt 747sp)
The signal is now quieter. The loud parts of the signal
are quieter by 10 dB and the quiet parts of the signal
are quieter by 10 dB too.

THIS IS NOT COMPRESSION!

Lowering the signal level using a fader is not

compression because all the various levels of the
signal have been reduced by the same amount.

Compression only takes place when the loud sections

of the signal are reduced in level more than the quiet
sections.

Lets go back to the fader

Now, listen to the signal carefully. When it is loud,

reduce the level. When it is quiet, bring the level back
up again.

Yes, this is compression. Manual compression.

Now lets turn to the compressor. Set all of the

controls as previously instructed, so that you see a
maximum reduction in level of around 10 dB on the
gain reduction meter.

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Now set the release time to its maximum value.

As the signal level changes, you will now notice that

the gain reduction meter is showing a pretty constant
10 dB reduction in level. It hardly moves.

This is exactly the same as lowering the fader by 10

dB and leaving it there.

THIS IS NOT COMPRESSION!

This point is vitally important and key to understanding

how a compressor works.

For actual compression to take place, the gain

reduction meter has to move. If it is not moving, then
there is no compression.

Now experiment with the release control. As you

lower the value of the release time, you will notice the
gain reduction meter hopping about more and more
quickly.

You will also notice that the compression effect

becomes more pronounced.

This is why the release control is so important. Once

all the other controls have been set properly, the
release control governs the effective amount of
compression.

The other controls have to be set properly of course.

But once that is done it is the release control that
wields the power.

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Setting the attack control

The attack control sets the length of time it takes the
compressor to respond when the signal level changes
from low to high.

In general, the attack control can be set to close to

its shortest duration and left there. Often it is found
that the very shortest settings produce a rather
harsh sound, but you should judge that for your own
individual compressor.

The stereo link button

In a two-channel compressor, the stereo link button
connects the two channels in such a way that they
apply the same amount of level reduction to the left
and right sides of a stereo signal.

To put this simply, whenever you compress a stereo

signal, you must press the stereo link button.

The explanation of why is a little more complex.

Lets take as an example a recording of a piano and

a kick drum. An unusual combination perhaps, but it
will illustrate the point.

The piano is recorded centrally in the stereo image,

so it is at an equal level in both channels. The drum
however is recorded only in the left channel.

Both channels are compressed with the same settings,

but with the stereo link function off.

The threshold is set so that the piano is always below

the threshold. The drum however is at a high level
and easily exceeds the threshold.
Stereo link button
So while the piano plays and the drum is silent, (dbx 166XL)
everything is normal and the piano is heard as it
should.

But at the instant the drum plays, suddenly the

threshold in the left channel is breached. (Remember
that the drum is only in the left channel).

Level reduction is applied to that channel during the

instant the drum places. But it is not only applied to
the drum, it is applied to the piano as well, in the left

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channel. The piano in the right channel is unaltered.

Now, since the level of the piano has suddenly gone

quiet in the left channel, the right channel dominates,
and the piano suddenly swings to the right of the
stereo image. Then it swings back again as soon as
the drum stops resonating.

The effect of not switching in the stereo link when

compressing a stereo signal is instability of the stereo
image.

There is never a useful purpose for this, so the

stereo link function must always be activated when
compressing a stereo signal.

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Noise and the compressor

All signals contain a certain amount of low-level
background noise. It is an inevitable consequence of
compression that this noise level will be increased.

So if you can hear noise in a compressed signal, it

is not the fault of the compressor (as long as it is a
professional model), it is entirely due to the process
of compression itself.

There is no way of compressing a signal without

increasing the noise, and as a consequence decreasing
the signal to noise ratio of the signal.

Noise can be controlled by using an additional noise

gate, or an expander.

Breathing and pumping

One consequence of compression increasing the noise
level of a signal is breathing.

This is where the noise audibly rises and falls in level

as the signal changes in level.

Breathing corresponds very closely to the amount

of reduction of level as shown on the gain reduction
meter.

When the gain reduction meter is low, the noise level

will be high. When the gain reduction meter is high,
the noise level will be low.

If you reduce the release time so that the level

reduction changes more quickly, then the breathing
effect will be more rapid and more noticeable.

Breathing is most strongly noticeable on speech where

there is background noise, such as air conditioning
noise.

It is recommended that you record some speech

with intentional background noise so that you can
observe the breathing effect clearly. Once you have
that characteristic sound in your mind, you will hear it
when it is not so pronounced.

In practice, for music signals breathing is normally

not a problem.

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Pumping is closely related to breathing and applies

more when the entire stereo mix is compressed than
it does to individual tracks.

Imagine a song in a slow tempo with a very strong

back beat. The entire stereo mix is compressed.

During the few tens of millisecond when the beat is

actually present, the compressor brings down the
level of the signal. In between, if the release control
is set to a low value, the level will rise up again.

So the level of the music continually and rhythmically

swells up between the beats.

Find a music track that has a strong beat and compress

it with a short release time. This will show the pumping
effect very clearly.

Pumping is not always undesirable. Often it can add

excitement to a mix. Some compression experts
sometimes go to some trouble actually to increase
the degree of pumping!

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Side chain
In addition to the normal signal input, a compressor
has a side chain input.

In normal use, the amount of compression is related to

the dynamics of the input signal. The side chain allows
the signal passing through the unit to be controlled by
the dynamics of another separate signal:

De-essing
De-essing is an important compression technique
using the side chain. Many singers have high level
sibilants - sss sounds - which detract from the
quality of their performance. Equalizing the signal will
reduce the sibilants, but also make the overall vocal
sound dull. The sibilants can be selectively removed
by compressing only when there is an excessive level
of high frequencies.

The microphone channel is routed to a group with the

compressor patched into the group insert points. The
microphone channel is also paralleled into another
channel via the line input. The signal in the second
channel is equalized so that high frequencies in the
sibilant range are boosted. This channel is fed via an
auxiliary output to the compressor side chain input.

Now, the compressor will react whenever there is

a sibilant, reducing the gain for the duration of the
sibilant and cleaning up the vocal sound.

This technique can also be used to compensate for

a boomy bass, or other situations where a band of
frequencies is occasionally obtrusive.

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Artistic considerations of
compression
At this point you have all the information necessary
for successful compression to control dynamic range.

Many types of signal will benefit from this, purely to

decrease the difference between the quiet sections of
playing and the loud.

Compression to control dynamic range is useful for

vocals, acoustic instruments, bass guitar and complete
stereo mixes.

Compression is generally not useful for heavily

distorted electric guitar, as the distortion effect in
itself reduces the dynamic range of the signal.

Compression may or may not be useful for electronically

and digitally synthesized sounds. It is up to the
engineer to judge in individual cases.

But there is another point to compression as well as

controlling dynamic range it simply makes things
sound nicer!

So for instance you could have a singer with a well-

controlled voice who didnt vary much in level, so
there is no real need to use a compressor to control
the dynamic range. But put his or her voice through
a compressor and it will sound, almost magically,
better.

There are two reasons for this

One is that if you compress with a short release setting,

the tiny details of the vocal are brought up in level.
Subjectively, this seems to make an improvement in
itself.

Also however, compressors are often designed using

techniques that produce distortion in the signal.
Vacuum tube compressors, for example, add subjective
warmth to the signal.

And somehow a vacuum tube compressor provides a

better quality of warmth than, say, a vacuum tube
preamplifier.

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Judging the subjective sound quality of compressors is

an important sound engineering skill that takes much
experience to master.

The subjective sound quality of a compressor is largely

determined by the method used to implement the
compression process.

There are six commonly-used methods of achieving

compression...

Diode bridge
Variable-mu vacuum tube
FET
Optical
VCA (voltage controlled amplifier)
Digital

The diode bridge is perhaps the most primitive

method of achieving compression. The diode is an
electronic component that allows current to flow in
one direction only. The bridge refers to a method of
connecting the diodes so that an alternating current
- the audio signal - can flow. By varying a DC current
that also flows through the bridge, its resistance can
be controlled, and therefore the level of the signal.

The diode bridge does produce some distortion, but

this is often interpreted as a pleasant warmth.

The property mu of a vacuum tube can be loosely

thought of as gain. There is a special type of vacuum
tube that allows the mu to be altered - hence variable
mu. Since the gain of the tube can be altered, then
this would seem to form an ideal control element for
a compressor.

Indeed this is so. The drawback however is that

virtually all electronic circuits use negative feedback to
reduce distortion. However, using negative feedback
also determines what the gain of the circuit is. Hence it
is not useful in conjunction with a variable-mu tube.

Despite this, the distortion characteristics of variable-

mu compressors are usually found to be subjectively
pleasant.

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The FET (field-effect transistor) is a special type of

transistor that is inherently linear, i.e. it produces
very little distortion. In fact, an FET can be configured
as a variable resistor, so a circuit with variable gain is
straightforward to implement.

An FET compressor is capable of low-distortion

performance, hence a clean rather than warm
sound.

Certain substances have the property where their

electrical resistance changes in response to light.
Optical (or opto) compressors take advantage of
this by illuminating such an optical element. The
resistance of the element changes in proportion to the
brightness of illumination.

Optical compressors are also capable of low-distortion

performance and have a clean sound.

The VCA, or voltage-controlled amplifier, is a complex

device that is specifically designed such that its gain
can be changed via a DC voltage input.

The VCA is designed to be linear, hence the distortion

can be very low, providing a very clean performance.

Digital compressors achieve their purpose by

calculation, hence they can be totally accurate and
totally clean. There is no need for a digital compressor
to introduce any distortion in the signal at all, other
than that which is inherent in the compression
process.

However, digital compressors in the form of plug-ins

are often designed to imitate the characteristic sounds
Neve 33609 diode-bridge
of analogue compressors in all of their various types.
compressor, as modelled by
Universal Audio

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Check Questions
What is meant by the threshold of hearing?
How does the perceived sound level depend on the distance of the listener from the sound
source?
What does SPL stand for?
What is the level of the threshold of hearing in dB SPL?
Approximately what is the threshold of pain in dB SPL?
What is meant by dynamic range?
What is the dynamic range of the human ear?
Why, in a normal listening setting, might it be difficult to hear low-level sounds in a recording?
Why is it often problematical to play a recording so that the peaks are at 120 dB SPL?
Can a compressor be used to control the dynamic range of an individual signal as it is being
recorded?
Can a compressor be used to control the dynamic range of an individual signal as it is being
mixed?
Can a compressor be used to control the dynamic range of a mixed stereo signal?
Briefly, how would a hardware compressor be connected when recording from microphone to a
digital audio workstation?
Briefly, how would a hardware compressor be connected to a mixing console to compress a
single signal?
Briefly, how would a hardware compressor be connected to a mixing console to compress the
stereo mix?
Briefly, how would a compressor plug-in be connected to compress a single signal?
Briefly, how would a compressor plug-in be connected to compress the stereo mix?
Does a compressor change the level of loud sections of the signal, or of quiet sections?
Briefly describe why gain make-up is required after compression.
What is meant by the knee of the compressor
Describe what is meant by a compression ratio of 2:1
What is meant by limiting?
What is the purpose of the gain reduction meter?
If the threshold level is raised, will there be less compression or more?
If the compression ratio is increased, will there be more compression or less?
What additional control is provided by a compressor that has a fixed threshold level?
If the release control is set to a shorter duration, will there be more subjective compression
effect or less?
What is the function of the stereo link switch or button?
Why does compression raise the level of the noise in the signal?

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 Audio Masterclass Music Production and Sound Engineering Course
Module 05: Compression

What is breathing?
What is pumping?
Briefly explain why a compressor may sometimes be used for reasons other than dynamic
range control.

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