Definition of galloping.

Even though we already defined galloping in the introduction, it is a good thing to

do the same here, in order to clarify the ideas:

Galloping is a high amplitude periodic oscillation of both single and

bundle conductors due to aerodynamic instabilityhitting high voltage
overhead lines, with a single or a few loops of standing waves per span.
This instability is always caused by moderately strong, steady crosswind
acting upon an asymmetrically-iced conductor surface. The large
amplitudes are generally (but not always) in a vertical plane, and range
typically from 0.1 to 1.0 times the sag of the span. Frequencies
often vary between 0.15 Hz and 1.0 Hz, depending of the type of line
construction and the oscillation mode excited.

The occurrence of conductor galloping may affect several neighboring spans (6 or

8 spans for example).

Wind-induced conductor motions.

Probably no other large structure has so much of its mass in such a highly flexible
form, and so continuously exposed to the forces of wind, as does the modern
transmission lines. This makes the line susceptible to the development of sustained,
cyclic conductor motions. These motions may take the form of aeolian vibration,
conductor galloping, or wake-induced oscillations (also called subspan
oscillations). In all of them, incremental amounts of mechanical power are
repeatedly absorbed from the wind into the conductor.

Aeolian vibration is caused

by an alternating wind force
which arises from a pressure
difference associated with a
regular formation of vortices
behind a conductor. The main
characteristics of aeolian
vibration are high frequency
and low amplitude, mainly in
the vertical plane. Wake-
induced oscillation is
produced by forces from the
shielding effect of windward
subconductors on their
leeward counterparts. It is
peculiar to bundle conductors
Basic physical mechanisms.
Aeolian vibration.

Aeolian vibration is basically induced by so called Von Karmann vortex

shedding, inducing alternative up and down forces on a circular conductor placed
in a fluid (low turbulence, like in very flat terrain and straits crossings), as soon as
its speed overpasses the laminar flow (third and fourth cases on the next figure).

This phenomenon is particularly dangerous because of fatigue bending stress which occurs
near fixation points (suspension, anchoring, spacers). Range of frequencies is typically
from 5 to 100 Hz with amplitudes from a few mm to the diameter of the conductor. Most
dangerous range depend on both amplitude and number of cycles, that means near the low
frequencies. So that there exists a dangerous range of wind corresponding to these

frequencies, generally low.

Vortex sheding in wind tunnel (courtesy G.Diana, Polytecnico di Milano)

Vortex shedding by simulation (courtesy G. Diana, Politecnico di Milano)

Wake-induced oscillations.

Wake-induced vibrations only appear in bundle conductors for which some

subconductors are in the wake induced by windward subconductors. One can
distinguish four types of wake-induced motions: subspan mode, vertical galloping,
horizontal galloping and rolling.

The wake induces lower drag and creates lift forces on leeward subconductor
depending on vertical and horizontal separation as can be seen on the next figures.
These aerodynamic properties may induce some instabilities causing elliptical
shape movement of the leeward subconductor (generally, more complex
interaction between subconductors is taken into account). The connection inside
the bundle with the spacers forces the windward conductor to participate to the
movement. Usually, but not always, the two movements are out of phase causing
some contacts between the subconductors.

Numerical simulation of wake induced effects.

Galloping.

The origin of galloping is closely related to the lift force due to wind action on
a dissymetrical conductor profile.

On a cylindrical conductor profile, the sole

aerodynamic force is the drag force fD ,
parallel to the wind velocity, and that tends
to "push" the conductor away from the
wind. On a dissymetrical profile appears
a liftcomponent, fL ,perpendicular to the
wind velocity and that tends to liftthe
conductor, and a torque Mw that makes it
turn on itself (anti-clockwise positive).
The values of fD, fL and the moment
around the center of the conductor are
proportional to the square of the relative
wind speed vr, which is close to the wind Uo = wind speed -- vr = relative wind speed -- ice=
speed Uo and depends on the angle of initial ice position -- -- angle of attack -- =
attack of the wind on the profile. conductor rotation -- y/t = vertical speed

The values of the previous forces and moment are the following:

In these formulas, air is the density of the air (air ~= 1.2 kg/m), and the
dimensionless functions CD(CL(andCM(are the aerodynamic
coefficients of drag, lift and moment respectively. Their general shapes are shown
on the following figure (measured in wind tunnel):

On this figure, lift is refferenced positive upwards, the angle of attack is positive
anticlockwise, and = 0 when the wind is blowing in front of the maximum ice
deposit. Note that CD is symmetrical with respect to the vertical axis while
CLandCM are anti-symmetrical with respect to the same axis, which can be felt
easily.

But in fact, galloping onset is more precisely related to CD , CL and CM which

are on the following figure:

For some appropriate accretion angle, named ice, the aerodynamic coefficients
behave such that upwards velocity increases the vertical force, and inversely for a
downwards velocity. The drag damping effect can be so compensated and a self-
sustained oscillation appears.

A simple self-excitation condition exists; it was established by Den-Hartog and

expresses the existence of a negative "damping" (lift upwards being referenced
positively and angle of attack referenced anti-clockwise positive):

CD - CL < 0

Drag and lift derivative are computed for the value corresponding to the static
angular equilibrium position of the ice coating centre of gravity under wind steady
forces. In actual situation a small vertical damping fixes a critical wind speed,
generally close to 7 m/s (depending on mode shape).

But this simple formula does not take the torsion into account. Therefore, it is not
suitable for determining every cases of galloping. In first approximation, it is a
good indicator for single conductor lines. Bundle conductor lines are subject to
more complex galloping instabilities, for which torsion is a key
parameter. Many advanced theories on galloping exist, but they are far too
complicated for being discussed here ! The reader interested in learning more
about the mechanisms of galloping should refer to the bibliography. Interactions
with inertial coupling, ratio vertical to torsional frequency and drastic influence to
aerodynamic moment (CM) can be clearly pointed out.

For power cables, the dissymetry generally appears when the meteorological
conditions are favorable to formation of an ice-coating around the conductors
which grows preferentially on the side facing the wind or the precipitation.

The formation of the ice coating.

In fact, the term "ice-coating" is a general term to designate three phenomena that
lead to the formation of a coating around the cable: the "wet" snow, the freezing
rain and the frost.

Wet snow, frost and freezing rain create a sleeve on the conductor giving
additional mass to the cable. By their lone weight, these sleeves can break the
cable or even the towers ! Very often, the ice shape is not symmetric and can be
very thin.
 (C) EDF - Epure (C) EDF - Epure (C) EDF - Epure

But the formation of wet snow requires peculiar atmospheric conditions (positive
temperature during the snow fall), as explained on the next video : Ice formation
(courtesy EDF)

The phenomena that leads to galloping is due to an asymmetric ice shape. Let's see
how such a sleeve is created around a conductor:

Being given that the surface of the conductor

is not smooth, some particles of snow stick
to it, while others just bounce on it and
continue their way. The sticking particles
gradually form a deposit on the cable
(see ). But the torsional rigidity (ability of
the conductor to rotate under a given torque)
of a single conductor is really small ! So, the
conductor turns on itself (see ) and the
deposit gradually increases. And so on, until
a complete sleeve is being created around
the whole conductor (see and ). The
mass of such a sleeve can reach 5 to 10
kg/m, which is enormous (up to 2 to 20
times) compared to the mass of the cable
(usually from 0.5 to 3 kg/m).

The following video explains the difference

existing between the creation of an ice shape
and a complete sleeve : Ice shapes
(courtesy EDF)
 (C) EDF - Epure

But from the galloping point of view, the most dangerous deposits are the small
ones ( on the previous figure), when the conductor does not rotate much on
itself, therefore creating an asymmetric deposit of snow or ice. This happens when
the top of the first deposit breaks soon after its formation, or when the torsional
rigidity of the cable is big enough (case of bundle conductors for example).

The next video shows how a typical iced conductor, covered with eccentric ice and
placed in a wind tunnel, reacts under different wind speeds: Wind tunnel
simulation

Compare this case to its simulation using SAMCEF (MECANO) !

Nowadays, simulations give access to appropriate modelling.

http://www.tdee.ulg.ac.be/doc-26.html