Astrophysics

OPTION E
Solar System
Solar System
 Solar System

solar system is the name given to everything that orbits

the Sun, including the planets and their moons, asteroids
and comets.
slightly elliptical orbits
satellite to have a circular orbit at a given radius, it must
have a very specific velocity. If it goes faster, its orbit will
be elliptical or hyperbolic.
solar system was formed from a spinning cloud of dust
the distance between the planet and the Sun is not
constant; this means that its PE is not constant. As it
moves away, its PE will increase. Since energy must be
conserved, this means that the KE of the planet must
decrease, resulting in a change of speed.
 Define planet: (dont need to know)
A planet is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit
around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-
gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it
assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round)
shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood
around its orbit.
Asteroids & Meteoroids

Asteroid belt between Mars

and Jupiter
 Asteroids & Meteoroids

Asteroid: rocky body drifts in solar system

Meteoroid: is an asteroid that is on its way to hit
another planet
Small meteoroids may vaporize due to friction with
atmosphere (shooting stars)
Asteroids & Meteoroids
 Comets

icy/dusty object;

moving around the Sun on a

(highly) elliptical orbit;

when close to Sun likely to

display atmosphere (coma)/tail;

when far from Sun (ice re-

freezes and) atmosphere no
longer present;

Award [2] only if it is clearly

stated that the object is a part of
a Solar system.
Comets: rock + ice
tails point away from sun
Constellation
Constellation
 Constellations

Constellation: (important definition)

a collection/group of stars that form a recognizable pattern (as
viewed from Earth) / a group/pattern of stars not close
together (in space);
Constellations are the results of ancient civilisations
playing join the dots with the stars.
The stars are not related by anything physical except
maybe that they are all bright.
88 different regions (constellations)
 Constellations

The movement of the stars is due to the rotation of

the Earth, but what you see depends where on the
Earth you stand.
If in north pole: You would see the stars moving
round in the same way as you would see objects in
your room move if you sat on a spinning chair.
If you time this rotation, you would find that one
complete revolution always takes the same time, 23
hours 56 minutes. This is the time period for the
Earths rotation and it gives us our first
complication, as its not the same as our day.
movement
s, Sun, planets and Moon through the sky are
Constellations
at the Earth, Moon and planets are all moving relative to
hings we will take one at a time.

ars
is due to the
what you see depends Apparent motion of star
nd. If you stand at
dle of the winter you
ause the Sun doesnt
ars all the time. You Position at 12:00 Position at 12:00 Position at 11:56
Day 1 Day 2
g round in the same
cts in your room
ng chair. Stars on
ally, but if you look
he pole star in the
tation, you would
olution always takes
minutes. This is the
rotation and it gives
s its not the same as Day 1 Day 2
e length of a day is
tars. The effect is that
Figure 10.1 The position of an observer on the Earth is slightly dierent
are at 12:00 each from one day to the next, causing the stars to move slightly to the west
little bit further each day. East and west are confusing but if you find your country on the
in Figure 10.1. map then think how it would appear from there.

333
 Constellation

length of a day is based on the Sun not the stars.

Fixed background of stars appear to be rotating
around pole star
stars same distance away from each other, but since
location of pole star changes every night (will reutrn
same place one year later)
 at the same place every day, as the stars do. The time at which it appeared wo
be slightly different due to the Sunthat
the fact towemove in a north-south
are moving around the Sun directi
at the
Figure 10.2.
two Note
axes ofin this diagram thecausi
pol
Movement of sun
time as we rotate on our axis.
the Sun to move in a north-south
But the
of the direction
diagram;
rotation
thisdayand
from
are different,
theasother
to day, starsina
illustrated
Figure 10.2. Note in this diagram the pole star would be a long way above the
Figure 10.2 The axisofofthe diagram;
rotation this and the other stars are our fixed reference
of the positions.
axis of rotation
Earths rotation and its orbit around the around the Sun
he axis of rotation of the axis of rotation of Earth
Sun around
and its orbit are notthethe same. This is why during around the Sun
theiswinter
same. This in Europe it appears more
why during
towardsmore
rope it appears the south than in the summer.
uth than in the summer.
northern winter

axis of rotation of axis of rotation of

Earth Earth

southern winter
southern winter
 Movement of sun
southern winter

Precession
The Earth is not a perfect sphere; its squashed so that it is fatter round the equator
than at the poles. This means that when it is in one of the positions shown in
Figure 10.2, the force of gravity exerted by the Sun on the Earth will cause a
turning effect, pulling the axis of rotation slightly out of line. This effect is called
precession and it causes the axis to rotate as shown in Figure 10.3. This makes all
the stars, including the pole star, appear to move. However, since the period of
rotation is 26 000 years, it is not very noticeable.

Movement of the planets

The planets also orbit the Sun. This is very simple to understand when visualizing
the solar system from a great distance, but not so easy to picture when standing on
the Earth. From the Earth we see the planets wandering back and forth from one
night to the next, sometimes moving east and sometimes west; this is why they
were given the name planet, from the Greek for wanderer. Figure 10.4 illustrates
how this motion can be the result of planets orbiting the Sun.
To further complicate matters, the planet orbits are not in exactly the same plane
as the Earths, resulting in a north-south movement when viewed fromFigureEarth. 10.3 The precession of the
Earths axis.

29/6/10 13:17:46
 Stellar cluster

Stellar clusters : (IMPORTANT DEF)

stars that are gravitationally bound/forming an open
arrangement/close to each other (in space);
13 M12/4/PHYSI/SP3/ENG/TZ2/XX/M

Compare
Astrophysics constellations and stellar clusters:
(i) a constellation is a collection of stars that form a (recognizable) pattern
(as viewed from Earth);
the distances between the stars may be very large;
a stellar cluster is a group of stars held together by (mutual) gravitational
attraction/gravity/are physically relatively close;
there can be many thousands of stars in the cluster;
all stars in the cluster were created about the same time; [3 max]

(ii) the (total) power radiated/emitted/produced (by the star); [1]

26 29
Milky way galaxy

The galaxy is rotating: all stars orbiting

center of galaxy as a results of mutual
gravitational attraction (orbit ~ 250
million years)
 Universe

Clusters or super clusters: group of galaxies

Everything together is called universe
 Universe

Clusters or super clusters: group of galaxies

Everything together is called universe
 Energy source

Stars emit a lot of energy.. From where?

Fusion on H > He
 Energy source

Mass changes to energy mass of star reduces

 absolute magnitude is the apparent magnitude of a star at a distance of 10 pc
max
from Earth / how bright a star would appear if it were at a distance of 10 pc
(metres
from Earth; [2]

d
luminosity
(ii) 5lg 1.1 5.3 6.4 ;
10
d 190pc ; d parsec
Luminosity (important):
190 3.26 9.46 1015
;
the (total)
1.5power
1011 radiated/emitted/produced (by the star);
( 3.9 107 AU) [3]
Unit: W
L
(iii)Apparent brightness:
stellar/spectroscopic parallax; b [1]
2
(c) (i) the power per square meter received at the surface of Earth/observer;
4 d [1]
Unit:
Wm -2
(ii) use of L 4 bd 2 ;
The bAntares d 2 Antares is inversely prop to distancem
brightness
LAntares M
squared 5lg
2
;
LSun bSun d Sun
Two stars
LAntares LSun can 4.3 have the
10 11 3.9 2 same
1014 ; apparent brightness but
different
( 6.5 10 )luminosities
4
[3]

If same distance, the brightest is the most luminous

Option F: C
(a) Newtons model states that the universe is infinite (static) and uniform;
this means that stars are uniformly spaced;
 invented for measuring brightness, composition of the star.
it was estimated with the naked
eye on a scale from 1 to 6. The
brightest stars were 1 and the ones Luminosity (L)
L luminosity
that you could only just see were 6. The luminosity of a star is de

b 2
This would be dependent on how
good your eyesight was. the total amount

4 d The unit is the watt.

The luminosity depends upo
different size stars have the sa

d energy than the small one.

m M 5lg The Sun has a luminosity (L

10 sometimes quoted as a fractio

Apparent brightness (
If you look into the sky at nig
Figure 10.8 As the light travels away dim. The brightness depends
from the star, the energy is spread over depends upon how much ligh

Option F: Communications
a bigger area. it is. If you look at two identi
looks brighter because the lig
Figure 10.8. The definition of
the amount of en
4
d2
1
surface area

The unit is W m

n G
The apparent brig

sin C d

where d  th

I1 To calculate t
per unit secon
attenuation / dB 10 lg G
the direction
Absorption spectra

Absorption taking place in outer

layer of star

Tells us what elements are

present in outer layer
Doppler shift

Red shift

Blue shift
 measuring the position of the characteristic absorption lines of, for example,
hydrogen.

Doppler shift
Red shift longer L star moving away.
Blue shift shorter L star moving closer.

Figure 10.12 The spectra from 3 Normal spectrum

identical stars, one stationary and two
moving relative to the Earth.
Blue shift

Red shift

10.4 Types of star

Assessment statements
E.2.11 Identify the general regions of star types on a HertzsprungRussell (HR)
diagram.
E.2.9 Describe the different types of star.
E.2.10 Discuss the characteristics of spectroscopic and eclipsing binary stars.

The HertzsprungRussell diagram

If you know the temperature of a star and want to calculate its luminosity, you
would have to know how big it was, as a small hot star could give out the same
amount of energy per second as a big cool one. If you plotted the luminosity
 hydrogen as an example (see Figure 10.10). When the gas is hot, most of the
electrons will already be in the higher energy levels, so when they absorb radiation
they cannot make the biggest jump (from 13.58 to 0.00) this means that the
Star classification
higher energy photons will not be absorbed. This results in a weak absorption line
for that wavelength. Careful analysis of the relative strength of spectral lines is an
accurate way of determining star temperature.

Different stars give

Spectral classification different spectra
of stars
We have seen that the spectrum of a star is related to its temperature and chemical
Same type of spectra belong to same class
composition. It also determines its colour: if the peak is at the blue end, it will be Hint: Oh Be A Fine
(or guy or gorilla if you
blue, and if at the red end then it will be red. The Harvard classification classifies
Each class has different surface temp
stars according to their colour, with each class assigned a letter OBAFGKM, as
is a common way of re
unusual sequence.
shown in the table below.
7 spectral classes (Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me)
Class Temperature Colour

O 30 00060 000 Blue

B 10 00030 000 Bluewhite

A 7 50010 000 White

F 60007500 Yellowwhite

G 50006000 Yellow

K 35005000 Orange

M 20003500 Red
 EquationsOptions SL
Star classification
Core (SL and HL)
Core (SL and HL)
Stars perfect emitters (black bodies)
Luminosity related to: Option
brightness, surface temp,
E: Astrophysics
Option E: Astrophysics
temp in Stefan Boltzmann law, Wien's law to relate
max wavelength for maxL intensity
AT 4 gives max temp

4 2.90 10 3
L AT max (metres)
T (kelvin)
13
d parsec 2.90 10 p arc-second
max (metres)
b
TL (kelvin)
Star classification
 Types of stars single
Red giant
large in size,
red in colour,
relatively cold, - its a later stage of some stars
Source of energy: fusion of elements other than hydrogen
Red super giants are even larger (large surface area, large mass)
 Types of stars single

White dwarf stars:

small
white, relatively hot,
final stages of some stars,
no more fusion
when cooled down it will stop giving light becomes brown dwarf
 Types of stars single
Cepheid Variable
Unstable star (rare)
Change in brightness and luminosity due to the outer layers
undergoing periodic fluctuations in temp (IMPORTANT)
Gives link between period of brightness and and average luminosity
can use above data to calculate distance to galaxies (important)
 distance. The further away it is
the dimmer it becomes. Since the
luminosity of Cepheid variables
is known they can be used in the
same way so are termed standard
Types of stars single
candles.
Cepheid Variable
the stellar parallax method to find their distance. If we then measure their
apparent brightness (b) it is possible to calculate their luminosity (L) using
the equation
L
b  _____
4Pd 2
If the luminosity and period are plotted on a graph, we find that they are directly
related as shown in Figure 10.22.

Figure 10.22 The luminosityperiod 105

relationship for a Cepheid variable. Note
the logarithmic scales.

104

luminosity (L)
103

102
1 10 100 1000
period/days

This is very useful because it means that if we know the stars period, we can
use the graph to find its luminosity. Once we know the luminosity, we use the
equation above to find its distance from the Earth.
350

M10_IBPH_SB_HIGGLB_4426_U10.indd 350 2
 Binary stars

Two or more stars in orbit around their common

center of mass
Three categories
Visual can separate between stars using telescope
Spectroscopic

eclipsing
 Binary stars

Spectroscopic:
identified from the analysis of spectra

Over time wavelength shifts or splits in frequency

 Binary stars time to cross star
time

1
2 orbital time period

Spectroscopic (mark scheme explanation)

To see how the light curve is
related to the stars, visit
From the light curve it is possible to get information about the orbital period
www.heinemann.co.uk/hotlinks,
over time spectral lines regularly split into two lines and then
and the relative size of the stars. Spectral analysis of the light from each star
enter the express code 4426P and
passing through the atmosphere of the other can also give information about the
click on Weblink 10.4.
recombine; atmosphere of the two stars.

as one star approaches observer

Spectroscopic
To see how the spectrum is related
binary the other recedes;
to the stars, visit As the binary stars in Figure 10.16 orbit each other, they are sometimes moving
www.heinemann.co.uk/hotlinks, towards the Earth and sometimes away. This will cause a varying Doppler shift in
enter the express code 4426P and
the light received on the Earth as shown in Figure 10.16.
leading to Doppler shifts in opposite directions;
click on Weblink 10.5.

Direction to
the Earth

Normal Normal Normal

spectrum spectrum spectrum

Blue shift Normal Red shift

spectrum

Figure 10.16 The Doppler shift for a binary star at dierent positions. In this
example the yellow star is the only one considered since it is much brighter. If they
have equal brightness then both red shift and blue shift occur resulting in two lines.
 Binary stars

Eclipsing
Analysis of brightness of a star
The dip in brightness is due to on star getting in
front of other
H-R Diagram

Y-axis: luminosity OR
absolute magnitude
(scale is log)
X-axis: spectral class
(remember class is is in
decreasing temp) scale
not linear
Main sequence
Most stars fall in main
sequence
they are normal stable stars
only difference is their mass
Fuse hydrogen into helium
We know the stars are
predominantly made from
hydrogen from its absorption
spectra.
H-R Diagram
H-R Diagram
H-R Diagram
If we now measure the apparent brightness of the star we can use the inverse
square law to calculate its distance from the Earth.
Question using the H-R diagram
Worked example
The maximum wavelength of a distant star is measured to be 600 nm and its
apparent brightness is 1.0  1012 W m2 . What is its distance from the Earth?

Solution
First we can use Wiens law to find the stars temperature.
3
Lmax 2.90  10
 __________
T
3
Rearranging gives 2.90  10  4800 K
T  __________
9
600  10

Using the HR diagram we can deduce that if this is a main sequence star, its
luminosity is 1 L  3.84 1026 W

The apparent brightness (b) of a star is related to the luminosity by the equation

L
b  _____
2
If we now measure the apparent brightness of the star we can use the inverse
square law to
If wecalculate
now measureits
thedistance from ofthe
apparent brightness Earth.
the star we can use the inverse

Question using the H-R diagram

square law to calculate its distance from the Earth.

Worked example
Worked example
The maximum wavelength of a distant star is measured to be 600 nm and its
The maximum wavelength
apparent brightness is 1.0of
a distant
1012 W m2 .star
What is
is itsmeasured
distance from to
and its the be 600 nm
Earth?

apparent brightness
Solution
is 1.0  1012 W m2 . What is its distance from the Earth?
First we can use Wiens law to find the stars temperature.

Solution
3
2.90  10
Lmax  __________
T
First we can use Wiens law to find the__________
stars
2.90 temperature.
 103
Rearranging gives T  4800 K
600  109
3
Lmaxthat 2.90 
__________ 10
 if this is a main sequence star, its
Using the HR diagram we can deduce
luminosity is 1 L  3.84 1026 W
T
3 by the equation
Rearranging gives T 2.90
The apparent brightness (b) of a star is related 
to the
__________ 10
luminosity
9  4800 K
L
b  _____
600  10
4Pd 2

Using the HR diagram

where we from
d is the distance canthe
deduce
Earth. that if this is a main sequence star, its

luminosity Rearranging
is 1 L this3.84 gives 1026 W
____ _______________

d  ____
4Pb
3.84  1026
L  _______________
4P  1.0  1012
 5.5  1018m
The apparent brightness (b) of a star is related to the luminosity by the equation
 584 ly

L
b  _____
Exercises 2
 Important

Physics data booklet

Unit conversions

1 light year (ly) 9.46 1015 m

1 parsec (pc) 3.26 ly

1 astronomical unit (AU) 1.50 1011 m

180
1 radian (rad)

1 kilowatt-hour (kW h) 3.60 106 J

1 atm 1.01 105 N m 2

101kPa 760 mm Hg
Parallax method
 12 M10/4/PHYSI/SP3/ENG/TZ1/XX/M+
How to measure a parallel angle
Astrophysics
(i)

1
p
2

angular position of star measured; p is the parallax angle

relative to the background of fixed stars; NOT to be confused with pc (parsec)
in two positions six months apart;
1
p is of the angle of separation / p indicated on diagram; [4]
2
1 1
(ii) d 2.3866 pc 2.39 pc;
 Physics data booklet
Units
EquationsOptions SL
Unit for distances: AU / ly
Parallax angle: seconds !!!! Core (SL and HL)
second of arc ()

min of arc () Option E: Astrophysics

3600 = 1
L AT 4
1 parsec = the distance to a star that has an angle of 1
second of arc must be 3.08 x 1016 (metres)
m 2.90 10 3
max
Parsec (parallel angle of one second) T (kelvin)
1
d parsec
p arc-second

L
b 2
 Limitations of parallax method

Can measure stellar distances that are less than 100

parsec
For greater distances angle becomes too small to
measure accurately
 Magnitude scale apparent magnitude

Definition; (important) is a measure of how bright a

star appears from Earth.
old astronomers made scale (1-6) for star brightness
as seen by naked eye:
1- very bright
6- dim

Now with aid of telescopes, astronomers can classify

brightness more than a scale 6
Magnitude 1 star is 100 times brighter than
magnitude 6 star scale is logarithmic
Confusing: the brighter the star, the smaller the
apparent magnitude
Magnitude scale apparent magnitude

Since from mag 1 6

100 times brighter
And its 5 steps from 1 to 6 so

5
100 = 2.512
Therefore each step is 2.512
of brightness b2 and apparent magnitude
The apparent magnitudes of am variety of stars and plan
2
Magnitude scale apparent magnitude
therefore 2.512 times brighter than the previous (not twice as in the Gree
Object Apparent
b2
__
So the difference between a 1 and 6 is ( )  . ____
1
2.512
5 ___
1
100

 2.512m2 The apparent magnitudes of a variety ofSunstars and planets is given in the2t
bLimits
0 Full Moon
Object
1
Apparent magnitude
The dimmest star you can see with Venus (brightest) 26.8 
the naked eye is m  6. Sun
sses With a pair of binoculars m  10.
Limits
Venus
Full Moon (dimmest) 12.5 
AThe dimmest
large star you
telescope mcan
 see
20. with Venus (brightest) Sirius 4.4 
the naked eye is m  6.
bA large telescope used tom
__1 2.512
________
take a
With a pair of binoculars m  10.
1 Venus (dimmest)
Vega
2.7


photograph m  25.
A large telescope m  20.
m2 Sirius
2.512
1.47
b2 A large telescope used to take a
photograph m  25. Vega
Betelgeuse
0.04

Betelgeuse Polaris 0.41

b1
__ m2  m1 Polaris Pluto 1.99 1
 2.512
bThe2 brightest star is Sirius with
Magnitude O
Magnitude O
Pluto 15.1

From this list we can work out how much brighter diff
mThe 1.47. Vega
 brightest star is has
Siriusm y0
with
From this list we can work out how much brighter different stars are than
NOT
m  IN
1.47.DATA
Vega has m BOOKLET
y
with an apparent brightness of0 other.
with an apparent brightness of other.
2.32  108 W m
8 2
.
2.32  10 W m . 2
We
We have have
seen thatseen
if the that if the
apparent apparent
brightness of abrightness
star is b1 andof
its aapparen
star is
magnitude
is m1 thenisit m 1 times ______
be ______
1 times
magnitude 1 then
will it will be less bright than aless brigh
star of app
2.512 m1
2.512m1
 b1
__  2.512m2  m1
b2
QUESTIONS
Worked example
Polaris has apparent magnitude 1.99 and Betelgeuse 0.41. How much brighter is
Betelgeuse than Polaris?

Solution
bBetelgeuse
_______  2.5121.990.41 2.5121.58  4.3
bPolaris

So Betelgeuse is 4.3 times brighter then Polaris.

29/6/10 13:17:57
 Absolute magnitude
d parsec
p ar
Brightness depends on: L
Luminosity b 2
Distance from earth 4 d
Same apparent magnitude doesnt mean they have same
size d
m M 5lg
To compare: we use absolute magnitude 10
Definition: (important) is a measure of how bright a star
would appear from a distance of 10 pc
It is the apparent magnitude if observed Option F: Comm
from a distance
of 10 parsec they will be very bright as distance is small
Absolute mag will be more negative than apparent mag
1
n
 L
Absolute magnitude
b 2
4 d
d
m =apparent mag m M 5lg
M = absolute mag 10
d = distance away (unit: pc)
Option F: Communic

1
n
sin C

attenuation / dB 10 lg
 Important: when finding the ratio

Brightness and luminosity

The apparent magnitude of a star
is a measure of its brightness as
viewed from the Earth. m =apparent mag
M = absolute mag
The absolute magnitude is a
measure of luminosity.

m
Ratio of brightness = 2.512
M
Ratio of luminosity = 2.512
Since absolute magnitude is
directly related to the stars
 Spectroscopic parallax

Nothing to do with parallax

Luminosity of star can be estimated from spectra
Assumption: spectra from near star same as from far
star
Use H-R diagram to determine luminosity of near
star to determine luminosity of far star
Then we use equation:
Lots of uncertainty.. WHY?
Dust between star and observer: dust would absorb some light,
can scatter different frequencies of light this all leads to
hard identification of spectra
Limit for spectroscopic parallax: to measure stellar distances
up to Mpc
 Cepheid variables continued

Distances more than 10 Mpc .. Neither parallax or

spectroscopic can be used
Difficulty: cant know if close and dim, or far and
bright
We need a light source of known luminoisty in a
glaxay a standard candle Cepheid variable
Periodic: compressions and contractions
 Cepheid variables continued

To estimate distance
to galaxy:
Locate a cepheid
variable in galaxy
Measure variation of
brightness with time
Use luminosity-period
graph to estimate
average luminosity
Use brightness-
luminosity equation to
find distance
Question
 Olbers paradox

Newtons postulates of universe model:

universe is infinite in extent;
has no beginning/infinite age;
stars uniformly distributed in space / universe is homogeneous in
space;
universe is static / universe is homogeneous in time;
Olber discussed if Newton's model was correct, and there
was an infinite number of stationary stars, no matter
where we look in the sky we should see a star and the
night sky will always be bright!!!!
We know at night the sky is dark
Confusing???
This contradiction is known as Olbers paradox
 2.90 10 3
max (metres)
Paradox mathematical proof
T (kelvin)
1
d parsec
Assume: stars evenly distributed in p arc-second
d
infinite number of shells spreading out
like layers of onion L T
b
Each star has same L 4 d2
They will have apparent brightness
d
m M T
Imagine each layer has thickness 5lg
10
Volume of stars in shell = surface area x T
Volume = 4d2T
Option F: Communications
Star density = number of stars / volume
total number of star = star density x
1
volume n 2
N = density 4 d sin
T C
 Paradox mathematical proof

Two conclusions:
More d means more
N (directly prop)
N d2
The more d the less
the brightness
(inversely prop)

1
b
d2

How then can we depend on distance if it can both increase the number of stars
and make the brightness less????

Here is the parallax

 9.9 1027 (W) ;

(a) universe is infinite in extent;

(c) higher
has noSirius Paradox mathematical proof
temperature
beginning/infinite
on HR diagram means more massive;
age;on diagram so is more massive than Sun;
A is to left of Sun
stars uniformly distributed
Do not accept in space
bald answer / universe
for this mark. is homogeneous in space;
universe is static
Award / universe
[1 max] is homogeneous
if no reference in relative
is made to time; positions of Sirius and Sun on [
AwardHR [1 max]
diagram.for bald homogeneous.
Mark scheme answer for proof explanation:
(b) number of stars
(d) (stellar) in a thin shell a distance d from Earth is proportional to d 2;
parallax;
compare angular direction/position of star at times 1 six months apart (to yield
since angular
apparentchange
brightness
); of each star varies as 2
, the stars in each shell
d
relative to the background of fixed/distant
contribute a constant amount of brightness; stars;
since the Dof shells, the
use number of starsdiameter
of earth orbital is infinite/since
D/1AU tothere
yield isdistance
an infinite
to starnumber
d ;
brightness should be infinite;
Accept marking points in the form of a diagram.
(c) the universe has a finite age/a definite beginning;
so light from very distant stars has not yet reached us;
4 points
14. or
assume uniform density of stars;
number of stars in each shell is proportional to [radius of shell]2;
the number
apparent of stars from
brightness is finite;
shell is inversely proportional to [radius of shell]2;
the total energyfrom
light/radiation emitted
shellsisadds
finite;
up;
(intensity of shell is independent of radius and) total intensity is infinite / sky is never dark
or
(because infinite universe/infinite number of stars assumed); [
Universe is expanding;
 Paradox possible explanations to confusion

Universe not infinite or is non-uniform (we now know this

is not true)
Light is absorbed before it gets to us (not possible as it will
reach to certain amount of energy that it will have to
reradiate it)
Universe not static (we now know that universe is
expanding)
 (i) PA 10 000 K at 10; (labelled A)

(ii) PB 10 000 K at 103; (labelled B)

Big bang model
(g) white dwarf;
Allow ECF from diagram.

What is meant by big bang theory?

2. (a) space and time originated from a single point in a large explosion / an expanding
universe that originated from a single point / OWTTE;

(b) (i) temperature of the universe immediately after the Big Bang was very high;
We will discuss
as it expanded it cooled down;
Expansion of universe
the wavelength of the CMB corresponds to a temperature consistent with
this cooling down / OWTTE;
Universe in past ( we will explain above def. here)
red shift is due to expansion of universe; [3
Background microwave radiation
(ii) indicates that the universe is expanding;
 Big bang model

Expansion of universe
Means galaxy moving away

Light from galaxy will be red shifted

Proven to be true

Light from distance galaxies might not have reached or since

red shifted changed from visible to IR region (supports
paradox)
We are not center of universe! We just measure to our
prospective
 Big bang model

Universe in past
All galaxies were together
Everything was in same point
approx. 15 billion years ago
Point of creation (big bang
theory): a hot dense place
Creation of space and time
(according to relativity theory)
Temp and density of universe
now decreasing
Rate of expansion is decreasing
because of gravitational
attraction between all masses in
universe
 Big bang model

Background microwave radiation

Discovered by Penzias and Wilson

Gives evidence of big bang theory

Discovered microwave radiation coming from all directions

towards us
Radiation was same from all directions showing its not
coming from single source
Radiation was very similar to radiation coming from cold
blackbody object (3K)
 Big bang model

Background microwave radiation

This is in perfect agreement with predictions of big bang

Two ways to understand this:

Allobject give out EM radiation. Frequencies can be predicted by
blackbody radiation
Sometime after big bang radiation spread through space
travelling towards us. As time passes universe expands and
wavelength of radiation increased
 Option E: Astrophysics
Big bang model
L AT 4
2.90 10 3
Background microwave radiation max (metres)
T (kelvin)
1
d parsec
p arc-second

L
b
4 d2
d
m M 5lg
10

Option F: Communications

1
n
 IB question

State two characteristics of the cosmic microwave

background (CMB) radiation. [2]
electromagnetic radiation in the microwave region;

black body radiation (at a temperature of about 3 K);

(almost) isotropic/uniform radiation;

radiation that fills the universe/exists everywhere/has no

obvious point of origin;
 IB question

Explain how CMB radiation is evidence for the Big

Bang model of an expanding universe. [2]
CMB radiation was a prediction of the Big Bang model;

CMB temperature is consistent with a universe that has

cooled from an initial hot state;

CMB wavelength is consistent with a universe that has

expanded from an initial hot, dense state;

CMB isotropy/uniformity is consistent with its origin in the

very early universe;
 Future of universe

Universe is infinite
We can only talk about size of observable universe
Furthest we can see about 12 billion ly
if no forces hold galaxies together, expansion would
be constant (which we known not to be true as all
masses attract each other gravitational force is
attractive)
 value, it will continue to expand forever. You may think that a third poss
d universe: stops expanding that the universe stops expanding and becomes static. However, this is n
arts to contract. unless the parts are an infinite distance apart, otherwise gravity would al
Three possibilities of universe development
pull them back together; in other words it would keep expanding. These
possibilities are illustrated in the graph of Figure 10.32.
Open universe size of
e 10.32 Three dierent possible
continues to expand forever. universe Open
ios depending on the density of on
Force of gravity slows the
iverse. The black line shows the ans
i
expansion rate but never stops it. p Flat
the universe as predicted from f ex
e o

bble constant. Happens when density in tr
at
universe is low tan
ons
Closed universe C
Closed
Expansion stopped by
gravitational force and then
universe collapses back on itself now
1 time
al density Happens when universe density 0 H
tical density isis thehigh
density
Flat universe
ch the closed universe
mes open. It is very unlikely Calculating critical density
Mathematical
the
is is the way universe is, possibility between
open and We can calculate the critical density in a similar way to the way we calcu
ust one extra electron would closed. Force of gravity
t contract. slows down expansion rate but
escape velocity. If we consider a mass m on the edge of the expanding un
takes and infinite time toitget
then, as to outwards, its KE will be converted to PE. The mass will
moves
rest
Happens if universe is at right
density
 Three possibilities of universe development

Critical density
density at which universe will expand forever but rate of
expansion will approach zero
value of density determines whether or not universe
will expand forever, or at some point, begin to
contract;
at density less than critical density, universe will expand
forever; (open universe)
at density greater than critical density, universe will stop
expanding and contract; (closed universe)
Flat universe have critical density
 Density hard to measure

If we just measure amount of stars in galaxy and

measure its mass but this number turns out to be
very small
Only 10% of matter that exist we can see
Most of mass of galaxy is from dark matter
dark matter does not radiate/cannot be directly
measured/seen; -- therefore cant be measured
 Why too much dark matter?

some possiblities:
Matter could be found in MACHOs (Massive Astronomical
Compact Halo Objects) they can be low mass failed stars,
high-mass planets, or even black holes they produce little or
no light
Some fundamental particles (neutrinos) known to exist in
large numbers. Not known if masses are zero or just too small.
If they turn out to have mass then they can account for lots of
mass in universe
New particles we dont know about they are WIMPS (Weakly
Interacting Massive Particles many scientists are searching
for these
Current theories of gravity are not correct
 If we substitute these values into the energy equation we get
3H02
R0  ____
8PG

Current observations
This has a value of about 1026 kg m3 which is equivalent to 6 hydrogen atoms
per cubic metre.

Determining the density of the universe

The density of the universe can be measured by measuring the mass of all the stars
Current evidence point to that universe is open
in a given volume. However, if all the stars and gas clouds in a galaxy are measured,
the total mass is not big enough to give the gravitational attraction to hold it
Some evidence that rate rate of expansion might
Is it possible to make a theory
together. In fact its only about 4%. The rest of this mass is called dark matter.
about something you know
nothing about?
have increased
Dark matter
Dark matter sounds rather sinister but its just the term for any matter that does
With new evidence new theories are needed to
not interact with light. This could consist of neutrinos (if they have any mass) Some of the dark matter may be
contained in Massive Astronomical
or maybe some new particles (WIMPS or MACHOs). Just when we thought we Compact Halo Objects (MACHOs)
explain the weprocess
understood the universe find that there is 96% that we dont know about! or Weakly Interacting Massive
Particles (WIMPS).
Dark energy
By measuring the acceleration of distant galaxies it has been size of Todays prediction
found that the rate of expansion of the universe is increasing. universe
This has been explained in terms of dark energy which fills Open
all space and causes an outward pressure counteracting the Flat
inward force of gravity. This implies that the universe is open
as shown in Figure 10.34.

Closed

Figure 10.34 The fate of the universe now

based on an increasing acceleration.
1 time
H0
HL extension
Nucleosynthesis (HL)
Nucleosynthesis (HL)

Newly formed red giant star

Old high mass red giant star

Life cycle of star (HL)
 Pulsars VS Quasars (HL)

Pulsar (only radio waves) quasar (radio+light)

Around a neutron star from black holes