HPS Skripta PDF

ME in actuator technology
Course title: Principles designing hydraulic servoactuator systems
Code: 521
Teacher: Prof. Veljko Potkonjak

Abstract.
Principles of hydraulic systems.
Actuators. Hydraulic cylinder with piston. Rotary actuator. Mathematical models of

actuator dynamics.
Electrohydraulic servovalves principles and mathematics. Permanent-magnet torque

motor. Single-stage electrohydraulic servovalve. Two-stage electrohydraulic servovalve
with direct feedback. Two-stage electrohydraulic servovalve with force feedback.
Specification, selection and use of servovalves.
Mathematical modeling. Mathematical model of the complete system. Linearization of

the 5-th order model. Reduction of the system (to 3-rd order form). Linearization of the
3-rd order model.
Nonlinearities. Saturation. Deadband. Backlash and hysteresis. Friction. etc.
Closed-loop control of electrohydraulic system.
Simulation. Simulation model. Simulation in system design.
Literature:
H. E. Merit, Hydraulic Control Systems, John Wiley & Sons, New York
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems
ADVANTAGES:
- No heating problems ... the fluid carries away the
heat ...
- Lubrification ...
- No saturation ...
- Fast response ... fast start/stop ... high torque-to-
inertia ratio => high accelerations ...
- All working modes ... continuous, intermittent,
reversing, ...
- High stiffness ... little drop in speed as loads are
applied ...
- Open and closed loop control ...
- Other aspects ...
DISADVANTAGES:
- Power not so readily available ...
- High costs for small tolerances ...
- Upper temperature limit ... fire danger ; messy due
to leakage
- Fluid contamination ... dirt in fluid (contamination)
is chief source of hydraulic control failure ...
- Complex modeling ... very often the design is not
based on a sophisticated mathematical model ...
- Inappropriate for low power ...
2
2. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS (LIQUIDS, OIL)
NOT GAS!
2.1. Density
G ( weight )
( weight density ) ,
V (volume)
typically 0.03 lb / in 3 ........ N / m 3
m (mass )
(mass density ) ,
V (volume)
typically 0.78 10 4 lb sec 2 / in 4 ........kg / m 3
g ( g 9.81 m / s 2 ) (2.1)
2.2. Equation of State

Expression that relates density (or volume V), pressure P , and
temperature T .
Volume (and density) changes little. So, a linear approximation is

justified:

0 ( P P0 ) (T T0 ) (2.2)
P T T P
or
1
0 (1 ( P P0 ) (T T0 ) ) (2.3)

where
3
P P 1 1 V
0 V0 , (2.4), (2.5)
T V T 0 T P V0 T P
isotermal bulk modulus (compressibility). IMPORTANT!

- It relates to the stiffness of the liquid (a kind of a sping effect).
- It have in important influence to the precision of hydraulic
actuator.
- It is desired to be as high as possible.
- Presence of air (gas) in the liquid, even small, decreases sharply
the bulk modulus.
and depend on the temperature:

ln
T T
2.3. Viscosity
It expresses the internal friction of the liquid and its resistance

to shear.
Necessary for lubrification.
If too low leakage!
If too large power loss due to friction (lower efficiency)!
4
leakage
of liquid motion x ,
velocity x
F
D
L
resistive
leakage
friction
force
Cr radial clearance
Piston in a cylinder
Fig. 2.2
Friction force is proporional to the contact area A and to the velocity

x , and inversly proportional to the film thickness Cr :
x DL
FA x , absolute viscosity (coeff. of visc.) (2.7)
Cr Cr

v kinematic viscosity (2.8)

depends on the temperature:
= 0 e (T - T0) (2.9)
5
2.4. Thermal Properties
Specific heat is the amount of energy (heat) needed to raise the

temperature by 10.
Thermal conductivity is the measure of the rate of heat flow

through an area for a temperature gradient in the direction of
heat flow.
2.5. Effective Bulk Modulus
Interaction of the spring effect of a liquid and the masses of

mechanical parts gives a resonance in nearly all hydrauilic
components.
The bulk modulus can be lowered by intruducing

- mechanical compliance and/or
- air compliance.
For instance:
- the container can be flexible (mechanical
compliance), and/or
- bubbles or pocket of gas are present inside (gas
compliance).
(see Fig. 2.4)
6
gas pocket,
volume Vg
liquid, volume Vl
gas
Vg
liquid
Vc Vt
Fig. 2.4
The expression for the effective (total) bulk modulus e can be

found in the form:
1 1 1 Vg 1 1
( ) + (2.20)
e c l Vt g l
where:
c the bulk modulus for the container, l for the liquid, g for
the gas; Vg the volume of the gas, and Vt the total volume.
Since l g , (2.20) becomes:

1 1 1 Vg 1
( ) (2.21)
e c l Vt g
If there is no gas (so, only mechanical compliance), one obtains:

1 1 1
(2.22)
e c l
7
2.6. Chemical and Related Properties
- Lubricity
- Thermal stability
- Oxidative stability
- Hydrolytic stability
- Compatibility
- Foaming
- Flash point, fire point, autogenous ignition temperature
- Pour point
- handling properties (toxity, color, odor, ...)
2.7. Types of Hydraulic Fluids
Petroleum based fluids, and

Synthetic fluids
Characteristics
2.8. Selection of the Hydraulic Fluid
8
3. FLUID (LIQUID) FLOW FUNDAMENTALS
It is assumed that the general theory of fluid flow is elaborated in
the previous courses.
Among numerous problems, we highlight here the topic:
3.4. Flow Through Orifices Turbulent Flow

jet area A0
A2 , jet area is minimum
1 2 vena contracta the 3 Fig. 3.10.

jet area is minimimum
A2
Cc contraction coefficient (3.28)
A0
Let: u fluid velocity, P pressure . We apply:

2
- Bernullis equation u 2
u 2
( P1 P2 ) (3.29)
2 1

- Equation of incompressibility A1u1 A2u 2 A3u3 (3.30)
- Volumetric flow rate (the flow) Q A2u2
- Contaction coefficient (3.28) Cc A2 / A0
- velocity coefficient Cv 0.98 (sometimes adopted C v 1 )
(velocity is slightly smaller due to friction)
9
and we obtain
2
Q Cd A0 ( P1 P2 ) (3.33)

where
Cv Cc
Cd (3.34)
1 Cc2 ( A0 / A1 ) 2
is the discharge coefficient. Since Cv 1 and A0 A1 it follows
that
Cd Cc .
If A0 A1 , the theoretical value for the the discharge coefficient

for all sharp-edged orifices, regardless of the geometry, is
Cc /( 2) 0.611 0.6 .
10
4. HYDRAULIC PUMPS and MOTORS
Conversion of energy:
Pump: mechanical energy hydraulic energy
Motor (actuator): hydraulic energy mechanical energy

our primary interest
hydrodynamic machines
(turbines, etc.)
Hydraulic machines
positive displacement mach.!
limited travel machines
continuous travel machines
rotary machines
piston machines (translation)
11
Piston actuator (cylinder with a piston) limited travel mach.
fluid IN fluid OUT

Single rod
cylinder piston actuator
motion
piston
fluid IN : position fluid OUT :
pressure P1 pressure P2 Double rod
xp actuator
motion load
force
forward backward
chamber chamber piston parameters:
Mt mass of the
pressure force piston plus
refered masses
Fig. 4.1
Ap effective piston
area
12
The piston moves due to the pressure force created by the
different pressures on the two sides of the piston: P1 in the
forward chamber and P2 in the backward chamber.
When the piston moves to the right, the fluid enters the forward
chamber (fluid IN), and leaves the backward chamber (fluid
OUT).
Mathematical description:
Differential pressure PL (difference between the two

pressures):
PL P1 P2
Pressure force (generated force) is

Fg Ap PL
Load force or output force is FL
There is a spring effect associated with the piston: Kxp , where

K is the gradient (stiffness).
There is a viscous damping effect associated with the piston:

B p x p , where Bp is the viscous damping coefficient.
Dynamics of the motor (i.e. dynamics of the piston)

Newtons law gives:
Ap PL M t xp B p x p Kx p FL (A.1)
13
Vane rotary actuator limited travel mnachine
rotor fluid IN : fluid OUT :

parameters: pressure P1 pressure P2
It forward backward
moment chambre chambre
of inertia
Ap housing
effective (stator)
vane area
rotor
Pressure r
makes
a resultant
force and Rotation
consequently angle
a torque
Vane
Fig. 4.2 a
Pressure torque force (generated torque) is g Ap PL r
Load torque or output torque is L
There is a torsion spring effect associated with the rotor: K ,

where K is the gradient (torsion stiffness).
14
B , where B is the viscous damping coefficient.
Dynamics of the motor (i.e. dynamics of the rotor)

Newtons law for rotation gives:
Ap PL r I t B K L (A.2)
Double vane rotary actuator is shown in Fig. 4.2 (b) .
Spur gear rotary machine (actuator or pump) is shown in Fig. 4.3 .

It allows continuous rotation.
Figs. 4.4 4.12 show different types (examples) of hydraulic

machines.
In this course, we are primarily interested in
actuators. The ususl example will be a piston
actator or a vane rotary motor
The pumps are used just as a source of
hydraulic energy. OUTPUT:
mechanic
mechanic energy hydraulic energy energy
ELECTRIC PUMP HYDRO
MOTOR (source of hydro ACTUATOR:
(source of energy): converts
mechanic energy):
converts hydro
mechanical energy into
converts electric energy into
ener. into mechanical
hydraulic energy
mechanical ener. energy
15
5. HYDRAULIC CONTROL VAVES
Valves are are the interface between the the sorce of hydraulic
energy and the actuator.
Actuator (motor) is e.g. a cylinder with a piston or a vane
rotary motor.
Energy source is a pump (of any type).
Valve is a devices that uses mechanical motion to control the

delivery of power to the actuator.
Unit which creates the

mechanical motion
that controls
the valve
oil flow oil flow
Oil supply
(pressure VALVE Actuator
supplay)
source of control the

hydrauluic delivery of
energy energy
controlled source of energy

(controlled by means of mechanical motion)
16
5.1. Valve Configurations
sliding type (a, b, c, d in Fig. 5.1)

Config. classification seating type (e in Fig. 5.1)
flow deviding type ( f in Fig. 5.1)
Sliding valves are classified according to:

- number of ways - the number of input/output oil
lines;
- number of lands,
- type of center when spool is in neutral position.
(a) two-land-four-way spool valve:

mechanical motion
that controls the valve
spool stroke xv
supply
flow to
flow to actuator
source
return
Fig. 5.1 (a)
17
(b) three-land-four-way spool valve: mechanical motion
spool stroke xv
supply
flow to
flow to actuator
source
return
Fig. 5.1 (b)
(c) four-land-four-way spool valve:
mechanical motion
spool stroke xv
supply
flow to
flow to actuator
source
return
Fig. 5.1 (c)
18
(d) two-land-three-way spool valve: mechanical motion
spool stroke xv
supply
flow to
flow to
actuator
source
return
Fig. 5.1 (d)
(e) two-jet flapper valve:

supply
pivot
return
flow to
to source actuator
motion of flapper
the flapper
controls the
valve
Fig. 5.1 (e)
19
(f) jet pipe valve:
rotation of the
jet controls
the valve
supply
pivot
Fig. 5.1 (f)
Spool valves:
matching tolerances are required =>
- expensive and
- sensitive top oil contamination
Flapper valves:
leakage =>
- for low power or
- as a first stage in a two-stage systems.
Jet pipe valves:
- large null flow,
- characteristics are not easy to predict,
- slow response.
20
For further discussion spool valves.
Number of lands:
- two , in primitive valves;
- three or four , in a usual case
- up to six , for special valves.
Ratio between the land width and the port:
If land width < port : open center or underlapped valve
port
width
If land width = port : critical center or zero lapped valve
width port
If land width > port : closed center or overlapped valve
width
port
21
flow
Q
underlap region
critical
flow gain doubles center
near null closed
center
spool stroke xv
overlap region
Fig. 5.2
open center valve : large power loss ion neutral position; only
for some special systems
critical center valve : our choice; linear characteristics
closed center valve : deadband near null causes steady state error
and stability problems.
22
5.2. General Valve Analysis
General Flow Equations
Force Fi xv
spool stroke
To actuator:
- flow QL
- pressure P1
Supply: L2 4
- flow Qs P1
- pressure Ps L1 1
PL= P1 P2
Return: L1 2
- flow Qs P2
- pressure P0 0 L2
3 From actuator:
- flow QL
- pressure P2
Fig. 5.3.
Neglecting the compressibility, continuity request yields:
- to actuator: QL Q1 Q4 (5.1)
- from actuator: QL Q3 Q2 (5.2)
The differential pressure is

PL P1 P2 (5.3)
23
According to equation (3.33), the flows through the valving
orifices is:
2
Q1 Cd A 1 ( Ps P1 ) (5.4)

2
Q 2 Cd A 2 ( Ps P2 ) (5.5)

2
Q 3 Cd A 3 P2 (5.6)

2
Q 4 Cd A 4 P1 (5.7)

The orifices areas depend on the valve geometry and the valve
displacement (spool stroke) xv :
A 1 A1 ( xv ) , A 2 A 2 ( xv ) , A 3 A 3 ( xv ) , A 4 A 4 ( xv ) (5.8)
The set (5.1) (5.8) copntains 11 equations that can be combined

to give the load flow as a function of the spool stroke xv and
the diffeerential pressure PL:
QL QL ( xv , PL ) (5.9)
The plot of (5.9) is known as as the pressure-flow curves for the

valve and is a complete description of stady state valve
performance. All of the performance parameters, such as valve
coefficients, can be obtained from such curves.
In the vast majority of cases, the valving orifices are matched and
symmetrical. Matched orifices require
A1 A 3 , A 2 A 4 (5.10), (5.11)
24
and symmetrical orifices require
A1 ( xv ) A 2 ( xv ) , A3 ( xv ) A 4 ( xv ) (5.12), (5.13)
Therefore, in the neutral position of the spool, all four areas are
aqual:
A j (0) A0 , j 1, 2, 3, 4
So, only one orifice area need to be described. If the orifice area
is linear with the valve stroke (as is usually tha case), only one
defining parameter is needed:
w the width of the slot (hole) in the valve sleeve (cover) .
w For linear valves (like with rectangular ports), this is the
area gradient for each orifice (and so for the whole
valve).
For matched and symmetrical orifices, it holds that
Q1 Q 3 , Q 2 Q 4 (5.15), (5.16)
Substituting (5.4), (5.5) and (5.6) into (5.15) one obtains:
Ps P1 P2 (5.17)
Relation (5.16) may give the same result.
Equations (5.3) and (5.17) can be combined to produce:

Ps PL
P1 (5.18)
2
Ps PL
P2 (5.19)
2
25
From Fig. 5.3, it follows that the total supply flow can be written
as
Q s Q1 Q 2 (5.20)
and as
Q s Q1 Q 2 (5.21)
In summary, for a matched and symmatrical valve, relations

(5.15), (5.16) and (5.18), (5.19) applies and equations (5.1) and
(5.2) both become
1 1
Q L Cd A 1 ( Ps PL ) Cd A 2 ( Ps PL ) (5.22)

and similar treatment yields (using (5.20) and (5.21)):
1 1
Q s Cd A 1 ( Ps PL ) Cd A 2 ( Ps PL ) (5.23)

Linearization Valve Coefficients
Sometimes, a nonlinear form of the matyhematical model causes

problems and linearization is needed.
Equation (5.9), describing the load flow, can be expanded in the

Taylors series about a particular operating point 1:
( xv 1 , PL 1 ) QL 1
producing
Q Q
QL QL 1 L xv L PL
xv 1 PL 1
26
If the working mode is such that ( xv , PL ) are kept in the vicinity
of the operating point 1, i.e. close to ( xv 1 , PL 1 ) , then
( xv 1 , PL 1 ) will be small and it is jusrtified to keep only the
linear terms in the Taylors expansion. Thus:
Q Q
QL QL 1 QL L xv L PL (5.24)
xv 1 PL 1
The partial derivatives are obtained analytically or numerically.
Valve coefficients (!!!)

QL
- Flow gain : Kq 0 (5.25)
xv
QL
- Flow-pressure coef. cK 0 (5.26)
PL
PL Kq
- Pressure sensitivity K p (5.27), (5.28)
x v K c
Flow gain affects the open-loop gain constant and thus has
a direct influience on the system stability.
Flow-pressure coeficient directly affects the damping

ratio of valve-motor combination.
Pressure sensitivity of valves is quite large which shows

the ability of valve-motor combination to breakaway large
friction loads with little error.
27
Now, (5.24) becomes
QL K q xv K c PL (5.29)
The most important operating point is the origin:

xv 1 0, PL 1 0, QL 1 0 .
- In this case, K q is largest (thus, high system gain)

and K c is smallest (thus, low damping), and
accordingly this operating point is most critical from
a stability viewpoint.
- If we achieve stability for this point, the system will
be stable for all other operating points.
- Valve coefficinets calculated for thgis point are
called null valve coefficients.
For this operating point ( xv 1 0, PL 1 0, QL 1 0 ), it holds that:
xv xv xv 1 xv 1 ,
PL PL PL 1 PL ,
QL QL QL 1 QL ,
and accordingly, (5.29) becomes
QL K q xv K c PL (A.3)
28
5.3. Critical-Center Spool Valve Analysis
Pressure-Flow Curves
We are going to derive the exact form of the relation (5.9)
QL QL ( xv , PL )
for the case of a critical-center valve.
We assume the ideal valve geometry, and hence, leakage iz zero:

Q2 0, Q4 0, for xv 0 , (so, (5.1) becomes QL= Q1 )
and
Q1 0, Q3 0, for xv 0 , (so, (5.2) becomes QL= Q2 = Q4)
Substituting (5.18), (5.4) into (5.1), one obtains
2 Ps PL
QL C d A1 , for xv 0 (5.30)
2
For negativevalve displacements, (5.18), (5.7), substituting into

(5.2), yield
2 Ps PL
QL Cd A 2 , for xv 0 (5.31)
2
For symmetrical valve, eq. (5.12) holds and (5.30) and (5.31) can
be written as a single relation:
xv 1 x
QL QL ( xv , PL ) Cd A1 Ps v PL
xv xv (5.32)
29
If rectangular ports are used with an area gradient w, one
obtains
1 x
QL QL ( xv , PL ) Cd w xv Ps v PL
xv (5.33)
This is the pressure-flow curve mentioned earlier as eq. (5.9).

Family of curves, for different xv is shown in Fig. 5.4.
QL
xv increasing in
positive sense
Ps PL
Ps
xv increasing in
negative sense
Fig. 5.4
30
Valve Coefficients
We recall the linearized form (A.3),
QL K q xv K c PL (A.3)
and look for the coefficients.
Differentiation of (5.33) gives

QL 1
K C w ( Ps PL ) (5.35)

q d
xv
QL Cd w xv (1 / )( Ps PL )
Kc (5.36)
PL 2( Ps PL )
Kq 2( Ps PL )
Kp (5.37)
Kc xv
For the null operating point (being the most important) i.e. for
xv 0, PL 0, QL 0 , the null coefficients for the ideal critical-
center valve are:
Ps
K C w (5.38)
q 0 d

Kc0 0 (5.39)
K p0 (5.40)
The computed value for K q 0 is close to a realistic value (obtained

by tests). However, the computed values for K c 0 and K p 0 are far
from the values obtained by testing a realistic valve.
=> So, we have to consider leakage !!!
31
Leakage Characteristics of Practical Critical-Center Valves
just some comments
Ideal valve ideal geometry => no leakage
Real valve radial clearance => leakage
Example: Realistic pressure sensitivity curve for blocked lines

(so, only leakege flolw exists)
load pressure
difference PL
Ps
the slope is not

infinite, i.e.,
Kp
valve stroke xv
Fig. 5.5
Ps
32
Stroking Forces Dynamics of the Valve (Spool)
Analysis is based on the Figure 5.3.
Mathematical description:
Force Fi is imposed to control the spool motion (stroke) i.e.

to control the valve
There are flow forces that oppose the spool motion. These
forces are derived from eqs. (5.90) and (5.93) in Section 5.6.
and from (5.48) and (5.49) in Section 5.3. The result is:
There is a spring effect associated with the spool motion

(like a centerung spring). It is the steady-state flow force:
Kf xp, where K f 2C d Cv w cos ( Ps PL ) is the gradient
(like a stiffness).
There is a viscous damping effect associated with the spool

motion. It is the transient flow force: B f xv , where
B f ( L2 L1 )C d w ( Ps PL ) is the damping coefficient.
Mass Ms defines the inertia: M s xv .
Newtons law gives:
Fi M s xv B f x v K f xv (5.50)
33
5.4. Open-Center Spool Valve Analysis
HOMEWORK 1a - Ramadan
5.5. Three-Way Spool Valve Analysis

HOMEWORK 1b - Mohamad
5.6. Flow Forces on Spool Valves

HOMEWORK 1c - Ismail
5.7. Lateral Forces on Spool Valves

5.8. Spool Valve Design
NOT DISCUSSED FOR THE MOMENT
5.9. Flapper Valve Analysis and Design

Single-jet, Double-Jet, Flow Forces
HOMEWORK 1d - Abdulhalim
34
6. HYDRAULIC POWER ELEMENTS
6.1. Valve Controlled Rotary Motor
6.2. Valve Controlled Piston
Cylinder with
a Piston
Forward Return
line: xp line:
P1 , Q 1 Q 2 , P2
VALVE
Fig. A.1
Supply Ps
NOTE a difference regarding previous figures. The forward

flow (to the actuator: Q 1) is not equal to the return flow
(from the actuator: Q 2). Previously, it was equal: Q 1= Q 2= Q L
This is due to some effects that have been neglected in the

previous discussions and now we take care of them. These
effects are:
- Leakage,
- Compression.
35
Valve controlled flow Linear analysis
Starting from relation (A.3) ( QL K q xv K c PL ), one may

write experessions for Q 1 and Q 2 :
Q1 K q xv 2 K c P1 (6.1)
Q 2 K q xv 2 K c P2 (6.2)
- If the valve is matched and symmetrical, the pressures in the

lines will rise above and below Ps / 2 by equal amounts so
that the pressure drops across the two valve orifices are
identical. Hance the valve coefficients K q for forward and
return flows are the same.
- The flow-pressure coefficient K c is twice that for the whole
valve since K q was defined with respect to PL and the change
in PL is twice that which occurs across a port.
Adding tha above two equations, it follows that
Q L K q xv K c PL (6.3)
So, the same form was obtained like expression (A.3).

However, here, the load flow is the average :
Q1 Q2
QL . (6.4)
2
and it is not equal to the flow in each line ( QL Q1 Q2 ).
The load pressure (diffrerencial pressure) is still PL P1 P2 .
36
Valve controlled flow Non-linear analysis
Instead of (6.3) , the nonlinear expression for the flow (eq.

(5.33)), can be applied (like in later Section 6.7.)
1 x
QL QL ( xv , PL ) Cd w xv Ps v PL
xv (5.33)
Flow through the actuator continuity relations .
Let us turn to the actuator chambers and look at Fig. 6.6.
External leakage Internal leakage External leakage
Load.
- Force FL
- spring effect
P1 , V 1 P2 , V 2 - damping effect
Forward xp Return
line: line:
P1 , Q 1 PL = P1 P2 Q 2 , P2
Piston parameters:
Force Fi and Mt mass of the
VALVE piston plus
motion xv
refered masses
(to control the valve)
Ap effective piston
Fig. 6.6 Supply area
37
Analyzing the flow, we take care of
Piston motion. The corresponding flow is the rate of volume
change: dV/dt.
Leakage (internal and external). Flow due to leakage is
proportional to the pressure drop.
Compression (effective due to air and mech. compliance;
oil itself might be considered noncompressible or
compressible). Flow due to compression is derived starting
from eq. (2.4) the definition of the bulk modulus:
P dP / dt dV V dP
(2.4): V0 => V0 => 0
dt
V dV / dt dt
Applying the equation of continuity for chambers 1 and 2, one
obtains
dV1 V1 dP1
Q1 Cip ( P1 P2 ) C ep P1
dt e dt (6.27)
dV V dP
Cip ( P1 P2 ) C ep P2 Q2 2 2 2 (6.28)
dt e dt
where
V1 volume of the chamber 1 of the actuator plus related
volumes: connecting line, and the refered volume in the
valve)
V2 volume of the chamber 2 plus related volumes
Cip internal leakage coefficient
Cep external leakage coefficient
The volumes of the chambers may be writted as
V1 V01 Ap x p (6.29)
V2 V02 Ap x p (6.30)
38
where V01 and V02 are the initial volumes (for the null position
of the piston, xp= 0). The piston is usually centered, and then:
V01= V02 = V0 .
Now, from (29) and (6.30), the derivatives are
dV1 dx dV1 dx dV dV
Ap p ; Ap p ; 1 2 (A.4)
dt dt dt dt dt dt
The sum of the two volumes is contant and independent of piston

motion:
Vt V1 V2 V01 V02 2V0 (6.32)
Vt is the total volume of fluid under compression in both

chambers.
We now combine (6.29), (6.30), (A.4) and (6.27), (6.28) to

obtain
Q1 Q2
QL
2
dx C V d ( P1 P2 ) Ap x p d ( P1 P2 )
Ap p (Cip ep )( P1 P2 ) 0
dt 2 2 e dt 2 e dt
If Ap x p V0 , the last term may be neglected
So, we finaly come to

Vt
QL Ap x p Ctp PL PL (6.33)
4 e
where Ctp Cip Cep / 2 is the total leakage coefficient.
39
Mathematical description of the piston dynamics (this has been
already discussed in Ch. 4 we repeat here):
Differential pressure PL (difference between the two

pressures):
PL P1 P2
Pressure force (generated force) is
Fg Ap PL
Load force or output force is FL
There is a spring effect associated with the piston: Kxp , where

K is the gradient (stiffness).

B p x p , where Bp is the viscous damping coefficient.
Dynamics of the motor (i.e. dynamics of the piston)

Newtons law gives:
Ap PL M t xp B p x p Kx p FL (A.1)=(6.34)
40
6.A. Mathematical Model of the Valve-Controlled
Actuator
Actuator controlled by the valve stroke

As mentioned several times, the velve control the actuator by the
spool stroke xv .
(I) Dynamics of the piston motion is desribed by (6.34):
Ap PL M t xp B p x p Kx p FL (6.34)
(II) Load flow is described by continuity equation (6.33):

Vt
QL Ap x p Ctp PL PL (6.33)
4 e
(III) Valve control the flow by relation
- (6.3) in the case of linear analysis, or
- (5.33) in the case of non-linear analysis:
or
1 xv
QL QL ( xv , PL ) Cd w xv Ps PL
xv (5.33)
Eqs. (I)(III), i.e. - (6.34), (6.33) and (6.3) (for lin. case) or
` - (6.34), (6.33) and (5.33) (for non-lin. case),
define the mathematical model.
State variables are piston position, its velocity, and load
pressure: x p , x p , PL .
Control input is the valve spool stroke, xv .
Question: If the spool stroke controls the actuator, how to
generate the appropriate spool stroke ?
41
ANSWER: We use a force to move the spool !
=>
Actuator and valve controlled by the force imposed to the
spool
Figure 5.3 showed that the spool stroke is generated by the force
Fi imposed to the spool.
(IV) We relate the force Fi with the spool motion xv by

dynamic equation (5.50):
Fi M s xv B f x v K f xv (5.50)
Eqs. (I)(IV), i.e. - (6.34), (6.33), (6.3), (5.50) (linear case) or

` - (6.34), (6.33), (5.33), (5.50) (non-lin.),
define the mathematical model.
State variables are piston position and velocity, load
pressure, spool position (stroke) and velocity: x p , x p , PL ,
xv , xv ,
Control input is the force imposed to valve spool: Fi.
Question: If the force imposed to the spool controls the valve
and the actuator, how to generate the appropriate force ? ?
ANSWER requires a more detailed analysis of the valve. Some

kind of motor will be needed to create the force ! This will be
elasborated in Chapter 7.
42
Important notes about the load.
The model derived (eqs. (I) (IV)) includes the load force FL. It
is not a known force but it depends on the dynamics of the load.
In a general case, the load is a dynamic system (that may have its
own degrees of freedom). So, the load force FL represents the
interaction between the two systems (actuator and load see Fig.
A.2).
According to the law of action and reaction, the force that acts
from the actuator to the load (action) is equal and oposite to the
force that acts from the load to the actuator (reaction).
Actuator Load
reaction FL action FL Fig. A.2
So, the load force FL is unknown and has to be expressed from

the mathematical model of the load dynamics.
Hence, in order to complete the system of equations (i.e. to make
it solveble), it will be necessary to specify the load and formulate
its mathematical model.
Canonic form of the mathematical model
- For the analysis of system: dynamic characteristics, control

syntehis, stability analysis, and finally simulation, it is desired
to put thge mathematical model in the canonic form.
- Let z ( z1 , z 2 , ) be state vector and let u be the input
control signal.
43
The canonic form is then:
z f ( z, u ) for nonlinear systems, (A.5)
and
z D z E u for linear systems, (A.6)
where D and E are system matrices.
The model that we discuss includes the load force FL , and it

may introduce additional state variables. So, with the force FL
(A.5) and (A.6) become
z f ( z, u, FL ) for nonlin. case, (A.7)

and
z D z E u HFL for linear case. (A.8)
Actuator controlled by the valve stroke
The model involves (I) (III) .
The state variables and state vactor are:

z1 x p , z 2 x p , z3 PL , z ( x p , x p , PL ) (A.9)
Control input is the valve spool stroke,

u xv . (A.10)
44
Let us rewrite (I)-(III) acoording to notation (A.9) and (A.10):
(I) Ap z 3 M t z 2 B p z 2 Kz1 FL
Vt
(II) Q A z C z z3
4
L p 2 tp 3
e
(III) Q L K q u K c z 3 (for linear analysis), or
1 u
QL Cd w u Ps z3
u (for nonlinear analysis)
From (A.9), it follows that z1 x p z 2 .
By combining the above relations, for the linear case one

gets:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.11)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4e 4e 4e
z3 Ap z2 ( K c Ctp ) z3 K q u
Vt Vt Vt
i.e.. in a matrix form (A.8) it is:

0
z1 0 1 0 z1 0
z K
Bp Ap z 0 u 1 F
2 M Mt Mt 2 4 M
L
z3 t
t
4 e z3 K q V
e
4 e 0
0 Ap ( K c Ctp ) t

V
t

V t

E H
D
(A.12)
45
For the nonlinear case one gets the form (A.7):
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4e 4 4 1 u
z3 Ap z2 Ctp e z3 e Cd w u Ps z3
Vt Vt Vt u
(A.13)
How to handle the load ?

Let us explain this by examples !
EXAMPLE 1
Form the complete mathematical model for the system of Fig. A.3!
The control input is the valve stroke.
NOTE: The load does not introduce any new state variable.
Load
Actuator
Cylinder:
mass m
radius r
Rolling without
sliding
Fig. A.3
46
The actuator is modeled by (A.11) for a linear analysis or (A.13)
for a nonlinear analysis.
The model includes the load force FL .
We now look for the mathematical model of the load in order to
express the load force FL .
Load force i.e.

FL actuator output force
FL
Friction force (dry)
Ffr
Eqations of load dynamics:
m a FL F fr , for translation
I F fr r , for rotation (about the center)
where a is the acceleration, is the angular acceleration, and
I is the moment of inertia.
Note that there is no sliding and accordingly F fr N (thus
friction F fr is unknown).
1
Having in mind: a / r and I m r 2 , the above equations
2
yields:
2 1
FL ma , F fr ma .
3 3
47
The motion of the wheel center equals the the piston motion
xp, and so:
2
a xp z2 => FL m z2 .
3
One can see that FL does not introduce new state variables but
depends on the existing one.
For a linear analysis, load force is substituted into (A.11) (or,

may be it is simpler to substitute into (I)). In any case, one
gets:
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap
z2 z1 z2 z3
M t (2 / 3)m M t (2 / 3)m M t (2 / 3)m
4 4 4
z3 Ap e z2 ( K c Ctp ) e z3 K q e u
Vt Vt Vt
or in a matrix form

z1 0 1 0 z1 0
z K Bp Ap z 0 u
M (2 / 3)m
M t (2 / 3)m 4 e
2 2
M t (2 / 3)m
z3 t

4 e 4 e z3 K q V
0 Ap ( K c Ctp ) t

Vt Vt
E
D
which is the final form (A.6).
48
For a nonlinear analysis, load force is substituted into (A.13)
(or, into (I)), to get:
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap
z2 z1 z2 z3
M t (2 / 3)m M t (2 / 3)m M t (2 / 3)m
4e 4e 4e 1 u
z3 Ap z2 Ctp z3 Cd w u Ps z3
Vt Vt Vt u
which is the final form (A.5).
EXAMPLE 2
Form the linear mathematical model for the system of Fig. A.4 !
The control input is the valve stroke.
NOTE: The load introduces one additional degree of freedom

(x2r) and accordingly two additional state variabls ( x2 r , x 2 r ) .
Actuator Load
FL
Cylinder:
mass m1
radius r
NOTE: FL is
in reverse
direction x2r
(negative) xp= x1
Body: mass m2
Fig. A.4
49
The actuator is modeled by (A.11) for a linear analysis or
(A.13) for a nonlinear analysis.
The model includes the load force FL .
We now look for the mathematical model of the load in order to
express the load force FL .
FL
FL
xp= x1
m1 x2=
F1 =xp+ x2r
x2r
m 1g F1
m2
m2g
Eqations of load dynamics:

- for the wheel: translation and rotation
m1 a1 F1 FL m1 g
I1 F1 r
- for the body (translation only)
m2 a 2 m2 g F1
Accelerations are:
a1 xp , a 2 x2 a1 a2 r xp x2 r , a 2 r x2 r
50
1
Having in mind: a2 r / r and I1 m 1r 2 , the equations of
2
load dynamics, after some transformations, become
1
m1 xp m1 x2 r FL
2
1
m2 xp (m2 m1 ) x2 r m2 g
2
Besides the old state variables (comming from the actuator),
i.e. z1, z2, z3, we have introduced two new state variables
(due to the new degree of freedom of the load, x2r):
z 4 x2 r , z5 x 2 r .
In this case the above equations of dynamics become

1
m1 z2 m1 z5 FL
2
1
m2 z 2 (m2 m1 ) z5 m2 g
2
with
z 4 z 5 ,
or, after additional transformation,

(3 / 2)m1m2 (1 / 2)m12 (1 / 2)m1m2
FL z2 g
m2 (1 / 2)m1 m2 (1 / 2)m1
m2 m2
z5 g z 2 (*)
m2 (1 / 2)m1 m2 (1 / 2)m1
z 4 z 5
51
For a linear analysis, (A.11) is combined with the above three
relations. First, FL from the first relation is substituted into the
second equation from (A.11) (note that the sign of FL has
changed due to the oposite action of the force). Then, from this
modified second equation of (A.11), z2 is substituted into the
second relation of the above set (*). Now, this modified
second relation form (*), and the third relation from (*) are
supplemented to the set (A.11). In this way, five state
equations are obtained:
z1 z 2
z2 D21 z1 D22 z2 D23 z3 G2
z3 D32 z2 D33 z3 E3 u
z 4 z 5
z5 D51 z1 D52 z 2 D53 z 3 G5
where
K Bp
D21 2 D22 2
( 3 / 2 ) m1m2 (1 / 2 ) m1 ; ( 3 / 2 ) m1m 2 (1 / 2 ) m1
Mt Mt
m2 (1 / 2 ) m1 m 2 (1 / 2 ) m1
(1 / 2 ) m1m 2
Ap m 2 (1 / 2 ) m1
D23 2
G2 2
g
( 3 / 2 ) m1m 2 (1 / 2 ) m1 ; ( 3 / 2 ) m1m 2 (1 / 2 ) m1
Mt Mt
m 2 (1 / 2 ) m1 m 2 (1 / 2 ) m1
4 e 4 e 4 e
D32 Ap D ( K C ) E K
Vt ; Vt ;
33 c tp 3 q
Vt
52
m2 m2
D51 D21 ; D52 D22
m2 (1 / 2)m1 m2 (1 / 2)m1
m2 m2 m2
D53 D23 ; G5 g G2
m2 (1 / 2)m1 m2 (1 / 2)m1 m2 (1 / 2)m1
The obtained model describes the dynamics of the entire system.

The model is in a linear canonical form, like (A.6).
The matrix form is
z1 0 1 0 0 0 z1 0 0
z D D D 0 0 z 0 G
2 21 22 23
2 2
z3 0 D32 D33 0 0 z3 E3 u 0

z
4 0 0 0 0 1 z

4 0 0
z5 D51 D52 D53 0 0 z5 0 G5

D E
Actuator and valve controlled by the force on the spool
The model involves (I) (IV) .
The state variables and state vactor are:

z1 x p , z 2 x p , z3 PL , z 4 xv , z5 xv ,
z ( x p , x p , PL , xv , x v ) (A.14)
Control input is the force to valve spool,

u Fi . (A.15)
53
Let us rewrite (I)-(IV) acoording to notation (A.14) and
(A.15):
(I) Ap z 3 M t z 2 B p z 2 Kz1 FL
Vt
(II) Q A z C z z3
4
L p 2 tp 3
e
(III) Q L K q z 4 K c z3 (for linear analysis), or
1 z
QL Cd w z4 Ps 4 z3
z4 (for nonlinear analysis)
(IV) u M s z5 B f z5 K f z 4
From (A.14), it follows that

z1 x p z 2 and z4 xv z5
By combining the above relations, for the linear case one

gets:
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap 1
z2 z1 z2 z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 e 4 e 4e
z3 Ap z2 ( K c Ctp ) z3 K q z4 (A.16)
Vt Vt Vt
z4 z5
Kf Bf 1
z5 z 4 z5 u
Ms Ms Ms
54
i.e.. in a matrix form (A.8) it is
0 1 0 0 0 0
z1 K Bp Ap z1 0
z 0 0 0 1
2 M t M t M t
z
2 0
M
z3 0 4 e 4 e 4 e z u t
F
A ( K C ) K 0 3 0 L
p
V
c tp
V
q
V 0
z4 0 t t t
z4 0
0 0 0 1 1
z5 z5 M
0
s
H
D E
(A.17)
For the nonlinear case one gets the form (A.7):
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap 1
z2 z1 z2 z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4e 4 4 1 z
z3 Ap z2 Ctp e z3 e Cd w z4 Ps 4 z3
Vt Vt Vt z4
z4 z5
Kf Bf 1
z5 z 4 z5 u
Ms Ms Ms
(A.18)
How to handle the load ?

We could explain this by examples ! The examples would be
done completely analogously like Examples 1 and 2, so like
it was done for the spool-stroke controlled actuator.
55
6.3. Three-Way Valve Controlled Piston
6.4. Pump Controlled Motor
6.5. Valve Controlled Motor with Load Having Many

Degrees of Freedom
Let the load be in the form of n masses connected by means of

springs (stiffness) and dampers, as shown in Fig. 6.8. A
combination of a spring and a damper will be called simply
spring (a real spring actually involves stiffness and damping).
x1 x2 xn
xp k1 k2 kn
QL QL b1 b2 bn
m1 m2 mn
Fi
xv Valve FL load
Fig. 6.8
m1, m2, ... , mn masses

k1, k2, ... , kn stiffnesses
b1, b2, ... , bn damping constants
56
Position coordinates (degrees of freedom) for the entire system:
- xp , xv (for the acruator and valve) plus
- x1, x2, ... , xn (for the load)
Dynamics of the actuator and the valve is described by
eqs. (I) (IV) .
This model includes the load force FL.
Dynamics of the load can be described by the following set of n

equations:
m1x1 [k1 ( x p x1 ) b1 ( x p x1 )] [k2 ( x1 x2 ) b2 ( x1 x2 )]

force in spring 1 ( FL ) force in spring 2
m2 x2 [k2 ( x1 x2 ) b2 ( x1 x2 )] [k3 ( x2 x3 ) b3 ( x2 x3 )]

force in spring 2 force in spring 3
...
...
...
mn xn [kn ( xn 1 xn ) bn ( xn 1 xn )]

force in spring n
(A.19)
The complete mathematical model (actuator plus load) includes:

- eqs. (I) (IV) , fot the acatuator and valve, plus
- set of n equations (A.19).
Force FL in (I)(IV) can be eliminated since it is the force in

spring 1 and it is
FL k1 ( x p x1 ) b1 ( x p x1 ) ,
as given in the first equation of the set (A.19).
57
The load has intruduced additional degrees of freedom and
accordingly additional state variables. The entire set of state
variables (vector z) is :
z = ( x p , x p , PL , xv , xv , (from the actuator)
x1 , x1 , x2 , x2 , , xn , xn (from the load)).
The model can be put in a canonical form.
6.6. Pressure Transients in Power Elements

6.7. Non-linear Analysis of Valve Controlled Actuators

We, in our course (and this text), discussed
nonlinear analysis in Section 6.2. Equation (5.33),
used in Sec. 6.2., concides with (6.93) being
crucial in the current section 6.7.
58
7. ELECTROHYDRAULIC SERVOVALVES
As we have mentioned, the valve and the actuator were controlled
by
- spoll stroke xv , or
- force Fi imposed on the valve spool.
In any case, there is a question:
Question: How to generate the appropriate stroke or force ? ?
ANSWER: Some kind of motor is needed to create the force (or

torque) and consequently the stroke ! It is called the torque
motor.
So, servovalve means the valve (one or two stages)

plus the torque motor .
7.1. Types of Electrohydraulic Servovalves
Single-stage servovalve
Spool of the
Torque motor
valve
Force/torque
The torque motor is directly connected to the spool valve.
Torque motors have limited power capabilities. This

- limits the torque/force that can be generated,
- limits the flow capacity of the valve, and
- may lead to stability problems in some applications.
59
Two-stage servovalve
Stage 1
Stage 2
Torque motor Valve of
Spool valve
different type
amplified
force/torque
force/torque
Stage 1 is a hydraulic preamplifier. It augments the

force/torque generated by the motor to the level that can
overcome all the problems: flow forces, stiction, acceleration,
vibrations, etc.
Stage 1 can be:

- spool valve,
- jet pipe valve, and
- flapper valve.
Stage 2, the main spool, is alvays a spool valve.
Types of feedback between the two stages (most common types):

- direct feedback ,
- force feedback , and
- spring centered spool.
With direct feedback, the main spool follows the first stage in
a one-to-one relation. We talk about hydraulic follower.
With force feedback, there is a deformable element, a spring,

between the two stages.
60
7.2. Permanemnt Magnet Torque Motor
61
62
7. ELECTROHYDRAULIC SERVOVALVES
As we have mentioned, the valve and the actuator were controlled
by
- spoll stroke xv , or
- force Fi imposed on the valve spool.
In any case, there is a question:
Question: How to generate the appropriate stroke or force ? ?
ANSWER: Some kind of motor is needed to create the force (or

torque) and consequently the stroke ! It is called the torque
motor.
So, servovalve means the valve (one or two stages)

plus the torque motor .
7.1. Types of Electrohydraulic Servovalves
Single-stage servovalve
Spool of the
Torque motor
valve
Force/torque
The torque motor is directly connected to the spool valve.
Torque motors have limited power capabilities. This

- limits the torque/force that can be generated,
- limits the flow capacity of the valve, and
- may lead to stability problems in some applications.
Two-stage servovalve
Stage 1
Stage 2
Torque motor Valve of
Spool valve
different type
amplified
force/torque
force/torque
Stage 1 is a hydraulic preamplifier. It augments the

force/torque generated by the motor to the level that can
overcome all the problems: flow forces, stiction, acceleration,
vibrations, etc.
Stage 1 can be:

- spool valve,
- jet pipe valve, and
- flapper valve.
Stage 2, the main valve, is always a spool valve.
Types of feedback between the two stages (most common types):

- direct feedback ,
- force feedback , and
- spring centered spool.
With direct feedback, the main spool follows the first stage in
a one-to-one relation. We talk about hydraulic follower.
With force feedback, there is a deformable element, a spring,

between the two stages.
7.2. Permanent-Magnet Torque Motor
Fig. A.5
Fig. 7.2
The torque motor generates the torque (that can be converted

into force). This force will control the valve.
The torque motor is controlled by the current i that flows

through the armature (coil). We cannot impose the current
directly. We use a source of voltage u to generate the current.
So, the voltage u is finally the true control input !!

Dynamics of the electrical circuit.
The circuit has some resistance and some inductivity. The
relation between the voltage and the current is the Ohms law:
u R i K b Lc di / dt (A.20)
where: R is the armature resistance,

Kb is the constant of counter electromotive force
(induced by the magnetic field acting on a moving coil),
and
Lc is the coil inductivity.
Dynamics of the armature rotation.
The magnetic field acts on the coil with current. Lorentzs
force appears that makes the torque. Additional torque is due
to the armature angular displacement from the null position
(angle ). So, the total developed torque is
Td K t i K m (A.21) = (7.29)
where Kt is the torque constant, and
Km is the magnetic spring constant.
The developed torque has to solve some opposing effects. In
the opposite direction, there are:
- inertial effects, - viscous friction,
- spring effect of the pivot, - the load.
So, the Newtons law for the armature rotation gives
Td K t i K m J a Ba K a TL
i.e.
K t i J a Ba ( K a K m ) TL (A.22)=(7.31)
where Ja is the moment of inertia of the armature and related

masses,
Ba is the viscous friction coefficient (damping), usually
negligible,
Ka is the torsion spring constant of the armature pivot, and
TL is the load torque to the armature, i.e., the output motor
torque.
Equation (A.20) and (A.22) describe the motor dynamics.
Torque TL is imposed to the valve in order to control it !!

7.3. Single-Stage Electrohydraulic Servovalves
Torque
motor
Rigid bar
Pivot
connection
Valve
(single)
Spool
Force developed by the
QL motor and directly
imposed on the spool: Fi
0Actuator
Fig. A.6
Fig. 7.11
distance
r
Rigid bar
Torque TL

and angle Pivot
connection
Spool
Force developed by the

Fig. A.7
motor and directly
spool stroke xv imposed on the spool: Fi
We consider small stroke and small angle ( sin tan )

Now, the relation between the angle and the stroke is
xv / r (A.23)
The motor output torque ( TL ) develops a force which is directly

imposed to the spool of the valve (force Fi ). It holds that
TL r Fi (A.24)
Mathematical model
The actuator and the valve are described by relations (I) - (IV).
- Force Fi was considered as input.
- Spool stroke position xv is involved.
Now, force Fi is not the input any more. The control input is the
voltage u imposed to the armature of the torque motor.
So, it is necessary to join the mathematical model of the actuator

and valve with the model of the torque motor.
(I)-(IV) should be combined with (A.20), (A.22).
We first modify (A.20) and (A.22) by substituting (A.23), (A.24):
Kb di
u Ri x v Lc (A.25)
r dt
Kt J B K K
i 2a xv 2a x v a 2 m xv Fi (A.26)
r r r r
So, it is necessary to join (I)-(IV) and (A.25), (A.26).

This is done by substituting Fi from (A.26) into (I)-(IV)
Equations (I)-(IV) inroduce 5 state variables :

- x p , x p , PL , xv , x v (see (A.14))
equations (A.25), (A.26) introduce 1 additional state variable :
- current i.
So, after combining, there would be 6 state variables.
Let us find the canonical form of the entire mathematical model,
and restrict consideration to linear case.
Equations (I)-(IV) have already been transformed into state-space

form (A.16).
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 e 4 e 4e
z3 Ap z2 ( K c Ctp ) z3 K q z4 (A.16)
Vt Vt Vt
z4 z5
Kf Bf 1
z5 z4 z5 Fi
Ms Ms Ms
Introducing new state variable,
z6 i
and combining (A.16) with (A.25), (A.26) one obtains the
canonic model of the six order :
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 e 4 e 4e
z3 Ap z2 ( K c Ctp ) z3 K q z4 (A.27)
Vt Vt Vt
z4 z5
K f (K a K m ) / r 2 B f Ba / r 2 Kt
z5 z 4 z
2 5
z6
M s Ja / r2 M s Ja / r ( M s J a / r 2 )r
Kb R 1
z6 z4 z6 u
rLc Lc Lc
This linear model can easily be put into matrix form ! !
Nonlinear case can be elaborated in the same way ! !
Note that there is still FL in the model. To solve FL one needs to

specify the load !! The procedure for handling the load is
analogous to the earlier described !!
Simplification of the mathematical model
Different approximations are possible in order to simplify the

mathematical model.
- Some of approx. are reduce the model substantially
(qualitatively) the order of the model is reduced
(the number of state variables is reduced).
- Some other approx. reduce the model just
quantitatively coefficients are simpler and there
is smaller number of parameters needed.
Besides, the approximations have to be justified.
First approximation qualitative (substantial).
The inductivity of the coil (motor armature) may be neglected:

Lc 0 (A.28)
In this case, the term Lc di / dt in eq. (A.20) and (A.25)
disappears. Electric dynamics is neglected.
The current i stops being the state variable.
So, the model order reduce from 6 to 5.
The last relation from (A.27) (the 6-th one) becomes

Kb Kb 1
0 z4 R z6 u z6 z4 u
r rR R
and it allows to eliminate z6 i , by substituting into the 5-th
relation of (A.27).
The entire model becomes:

z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4
z3 Ap e z2 ( K c Ctp ) e z3 K q e z4 (A.29)
Vt Vt Vt
z4 z5
K f (K a K m ) / r 2 Kt Kb / r 2 R B f Ba / r 2 Kt / R
z5 z 4 z
2 5
u
This is a 5-th order canonic model.

Note that there is still FL in the model. To solve FL one needs to specify
the load !! The procedure for handling the load is analogous to the earlier
described !!
Second approximation - quantitative.
Some torque motor parametrs are neglected (in addition to the first
approx.):
K b 0, J a 0, Ba 0, K a 0, K m 0 (A.30)
This means that the mechanical dynamics of the armature is

neglected.
In this case, equations (A.20) and (A.22) become:
u Ri
Kt
TL u (A.31)
R
K t i TL
Model (A.29) now acquires a simpler form, but still preserving
the 5-th order.
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap 1
z2 z1 z2 z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4
Vt Vt Vt
z4 z5
Kf Bf Kt / R
z5 z 4 z 5 u
Ms Ms M sr
This is still a 5-th order canonic model, but simpler.

described !!
Third approximation qualitative (substantial).
Some valve parametrs are neglected (in addition to the first and
second approx.):
M s 0, B f 0 (A.33)
This means that
- the mechanical dynamics of the spool motion is
neglected ( M s 0) , and
- all transient effects are neglected ( B f 0) .
- Only steady-state effects are preserved ( Kf ).
In this case, equations (5.50) (i.e. relation (IV)) becomes:
Fi K f xv (A.34)
Model (A.32) now reduces the order and become of the 3-rd
order .
NOTE: z 4 xv is eliminated from the 5-th relation of (A.32),
K /R
z 4 t u
K f r , producing
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.35)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 K / R
z3 Ap e z2 ( K c Ctp ) e z3 K q e t u
Vt Vt Vt K f r
This is a 3-rd order canonic model.

described !!
EXAMPLE 1
Formulate the (a) linear and (b) nonlinear mathematical model of
the system shown in Fig. A.8. The actuator is controlled by a
single-stage spool valve. In the analysis, neglect the inductivity of
the torque-motor coil.
Parameters of the load (wheels):
Fig. A.8 m1= m2= m3=m , r1= r2= r3=rw
xp 3 2 1
rolling without sliding

FL from load FL to load
Actuator Load
According to the above discussions, the linear model that

describes the actuator controlled by a single-stage valve is
(A.27). If inductivity Lc is neglected, this model reduces to
(A.29). Let us write this model again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4
Vt Vt Vt
z4 z5
z5 z 4 z
2 5
u
where the state is
z ( z1 , z 2 , z3 , z 4 , z5 ) ( x p , x p , PL , xv , x v )
Note that there is FL in the model. To solve FL one needs to

describe mathematically the dynamics of the load !!
The motion of each wheel equals the motion of the piston:
x1 x2 x3 x p
and so, there is no additional degree of freedom and no additional
state variable.
NOTE that x p z1
Consider the wheel 1. z1

pushing
for translation force
F1
m a F1 F fr1
for rotation
I rw F fr1 , a / rw Friction force Ffr1
2
For a cylinder: I (1 / 2) m rw
Combining the above relations, one obtains:

3
m a F1 (*)
2
pushing
oposing
force
m a F2 F1 F fr 2 F2
F1
for rotation
I rw F fr 2 Friction force Ffr2
2
3
m a F2 F1 (**)
2

pushing
oposing
force
m a FL F2 F fr 3 FL
F2
for rotation
I rw F fr 3 Friction force Ffr3
2

3
m a FL F2 (***)
2
We now make a sum of equations (*), (**), and (***):
(3 / 2) m a F1 (*)
(3 / 2) m a F2 F1 (**)
+
(3 / 2) m a FL F2 (***)
obtaining
(9 / 2) m a FL
Since a xp , x p z1 , and x p z 2 , it follows that
(9 / 2) m z2 FL
Now, the obtained expression for the force FL is substituted into

model (A.29) (in the second relation), to obtain:
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap
z2 z1 z2 z3
M t (9 / 2) m M t (9 / 2) m M t (9 / 2) m
4 4 4
Vt Vt Vt
z4 z5
z5 z 4 z5 u
M s Ja / r 2
M s Ja / r 2
( M s J a / r 2 )r
This is the final linear model in a canonic form, ready for

simulation etc.
It is possible to put the model in a matrix form.
z1 0 1 0 0 0 z1 0
z D 0 z 2 0
2 21 D22 D23 0
z3 0 D32 D33 D34 0 z3 0 u
(A.37)
z
4 0 0 0 0 1 z4 0
z5 0 0 0 D D55 z5 E5
54
D E
where
K Bp Ap
D21 , D22 , D23
M t (9 / 2) m M t (9 / 2) m M t (9 / 2) m
4 e 4 e 4 e
D32 Ap , D33 ( K c Ctp ) , D34 K q
Vt Vt Vt
D54 , D55 , E5
M s Ja / r 2
M s Ja / r 2
( M s J a / r 2 )r
Nonlinear analysis
In the case of a nonlinear analysis, the third relation of (A.29)

and (A.36), which is linearized, based on linear flow law
(A.3):
QL K q xv Kc PL K q z4 Kc z3 ,
is modified based on nonlinear flow law (5.33):
1 xv 1 z4
QL Cd w xv P P C w z P z
s xv L d 4
s z4 3 .
With the modified third experssion, (A.36) becomes:
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap
z2 z1 z2 z3
M t (9 / 2) m M t (9 / 2) m M t (9 / 2) m
4e 4 4 1 z
z3 Ap z2 Ctp e z3 e Cd w z4 Ps 4 z3
Vt Vt Vt z4 (A.38)
z4 z5
z5 z 4 z
2 5
u
This is the final nonlinear model in a canonic form, ready for

simulation etc.
EXAMPLE 2
the system shown in Fig. A.9. The actuator is controlled by a
single-stage spool valve.
In the analysis,
- neglect the inductivity of the torque-motor coil; Lc 0 ;
- neglect some other torque-motor parameters,
K b 0, J a 0, Ba 0, K a 0, K m 0 ;
- neglect the mechanical dynamics of the spool motion

( M s 0) ; and
- neglect all transient flow effects in the valve ( B f 0) .

Paramaters of the load:
Fig. A.9 mass m , stiffness k and damping b
xp
no friction
from load | to load
FL
Actuator Load

(A.27). If the listed parameters are neglected, the model
reduces to (A.35). Let us write this model again
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.35)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 K / R
Vt Vt Vt K f r
This is a 3-rd order canonic model, where the state is

z ( z1 , z 2 , z3 ) ( x p , x p , PL )
The motion of the load body equals the motion of the piston:
xL x p
and so, there is no additional degree of freeedom and no
additional state variable.
NOTE that x p z1
z1
Consider the load body.
Newtons law Fk
FL
m a FL Fk Fb Fb
Spring (stiffness) force is Fk k z1

Damping force is Fb b z1 b z 2
Acceleration is a z1 z2
Now, Newtons law is
m z2 FL k z1 b z 2 FL m z2 k z1 b z 2
Now, the obtained expression for the force FL is substituted into

actuator model (A.35) (in the second relation), to obtain:
z1 z 2
K k B b Ap
z2 z1 p z2 z3 (A.39)
Mt m Mt m Mt m
4 4 4 K / R
Vt Vt Vt K f r

simulation etc.
It is possible to put the model in a matrix form.
z1 0 1 0 z1 0
z D D D z 0 u
2 21 22 23 2 (A.40)
z3 0 D32 D33 z3 E3

D E
where
K k Bp b Ap
D21 , D22 , D23
Mt m Mt m Mt m
4 e 4 e 4 e K t / R
D32 Ap , D33 ( K c Ctp ) , E3 K q
Vt Vt Vt K f r
Nonlinear analysis
In the case of a nonlinear analysis, the third relation of (A.35)
and (A.39), which is linearized, based on linear flow law
(A.3):
QL K q xv Kc PL K q z4 Kc z3 ,
is modified based on nonlinear flow law (5.33):
1 xv 1 z4
QL Cd w xv P P C w z P z
s xv L d 4
s z4 3 .
With the modified third expression, (A.39) becomes:
z1 z 2
K k Bp b Ap
z2 z1 z2 z3 (A.41)
Mt m Mt m Mt m
4e 4 4 1 z 4
z3 Ap z 2 Ctp e z3 e Cd w z 4 P z
Vt Vt Vt s z4 3
Variable xv z 4 is eliminated from the 5-th relation of (A.32):

K /R
z 4 t u
Kfr
producing finally
z1 z 2
K k B b Ap
z2 z1 p z2 z3 (A.42)
Mt m Mt m Mt m

z3 Ap
4e
z2 Ctp
4e
z3
4e
Cd w
Kt / R 1 P K t /( RK f r ) u z u

s 3
Vt Vt Vt Kfr K t /( RK f r ) u

This is the final nonlinear model in a canonic form, ready for

simulation etc.
EXAMPLE 3
The preceding example is modified

- introducing a different load (see Fig. A.10), and
- looking for the linear model only.
Parameters of the load:

Fig. A.10 mass m , stiffness k and damping b
xp xp xL
from load | to load no friction

FL
Actuator Load

(A.27). If the listed parameters are neglected, the model
reduces to (A.35). Let us write this model again
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap 1
z2 z1 z2 z3 FL (A.35)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 K / R
Vt Vt Vt K f r
( z1 , z 2 , z3 ) ( x p , x p , PL )

First, we note that FL eqauls the summ of spring force and

damper force. If we assume that the spring is compressed, then
FL Fk Fb k ( x p x L ) b( x p x L ) (A.43)
On the right-hand side of the spring, the same force acts on the
body.
It is important to notice that the load intruduces one additional

degree of freedom motion of the body ( xL ) is not not
geometrically dependent on the piston motion ( xp ). This is due
to the deformable spring (and damper).
This additional degree of freedom ( xL ) introduces two new

state variables z 4 x L , z5 x L , with the property
z 4 z 5 (A.44)
The complete state vector is now

z ( z1 , z 2 , z3 , z 4 , z 5 ) ( x p , x p , PL , x L , x L )
On the right-hand side of the spring, the force given by (A.43)
acts on the body. It can be rewritten in terms of state variables:
FL k ( z1 z 4 ) b( z 2 z5 )
kz1 bz 2 kz 4 bz5 (A.45)
Consider the dynamics Fk

(Newtons law) mass
m a Fk Fb m
Fb
i.e.
m a k ( z1 z4 ) b( z 2 z5 )
Acceleration is a xL z5
Now, Newtons law becomes
mz5 k ( z1 z 4 ) b( z 2 z5 ) (A.46)
The complete mathematical model of the system ios now

obtained by substituting FL from (A.45) into the second
relatioon of (A.35) , and supplemented equations (A.44) and
(A.46). This yields:
z1 z 2
K k Bp b Ap k b
z2 z1 z2 z3 z4 z5
Mt Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 K / R
z3 Ap e z2 ( K c Ctp ) e z3 K q e t u (A.47)
Vt Vt Vt K f r
z 4 z 5
k b k b
z5 z1 z 2 z 4 z5
m m m m
simulation etc.
The model can be put in a matrix form:

0 1 0 0 0

z1 K k pB b A p k b z1 0
z
Mt Mt Mt M t M t z2 0
2
4 4 4 e K t / R
z3 0 Ap e
( K c Ctp ) e
0 0 z3 K q V K r u

Vt Vt t f
z
4 z4 0
0 0 0 0 1
z5 k b k
b z 5
0
0
m m mm E
D
(A.48)
HOMEWORK Ramadan
Formulate the nonlinear mathematical model of the shown system. The
actuator is controlled by a single-stage spool valve. In the analysis,
K b 0, J a 0, Ba 0, K a 0, K m 0 ;
- neglect the mechanical dynamics of the spool motion ( M s 0) ;
- neglect all all transient flow effects in the valve ( B f 0) .
All paramaters of the actuator Paramaters of the load:

are known mass m , radius r stiffness k and damping b
no sliding
HOMEWORK Mohamed
Formulate the linear mathematical model (including matrix form) of the
shown system. The actuator is controlled by a single-stage spool valve. In
the analysis,
K b 0, J a 0, Ba 0, K a 0, K m 0 ;
- neglect the mechanical dynamics of the spool motion ( M s 0) ;
- neglect all all transient flow effects in the valve ( B f 0) .

are known mass m , radius r, and damping b
no sliding
HOMEWORK Ismail
Formulate the linear mathematical model of the shown system. The
neglect
- the inductivity of the torque-motor coil, Lc 0 ;
K b 0, J a 0, Ba 0, K a 0, K m 0

are known mass m , and stiffness k
no friction
HOMEWORK Abd alhalim

Formulate the linear mathematical model of the shown system. The
neglect
- the inductivity of the torque-motor coil, Lc 0 ;
K b 0, J a 0, Ba 0, K a 0, K m 0

are known mass m , radius r, and damping b
no sliding
7.4. and 7.5. Two-Stage Electrohydraulic Servovalve
Two-stage servovalves overcome the disadvantages of limited

flow capacity and instability which are inherent in single-stage
servovalves.
Two-stage servovalves with position feedback are most common

and have pressure-flow curves as shown in Fig. 7.1a.
QL Increasing Fig. 7.1 a

current i
0 PL
0 Ps
Position feedback may be achieved in three basic ways:

- direct position feedback ,
- using a spring to convert position to a force signal
which is feedback to the torque motor,
- placing stiff springs to center the spool.
We are going to discuss the second type.
The first type should be read from the book (only the principles) ;
We dont have enough time to elaborate this type here. The third
type is not considered in this course.
7.4. Two-Stage Electrohydraulic Servovalve with Force
Feedback
Two-stage valve means the two valves.
The first stage is a flapper valve (Fig.A.11).

The flapper can open or close the nozzles D1 and D2.
Torque
motor
Flapper
valve
D1 , D2 - nozzles Fig. A.11
The second step is a spool valve (Fig. A.12).
The flapper is connected to the spool by means of an elastic

element (feedback spring in the form of a flexible cantilever
element).
Fig. A.12
Horizontal position of
the armature
Vertical position of the

flapper
Flexible cantilever r
element spring
Stady-state position
of the spool
Fig. A.13
xv represents the xv
deformation (deflection)
How does this system work ?
In our explanation, we adopt some simplifications.

We neglect the entire dynamics of the torque-motor :
K b 0, J a 0 , where Ja includes the flapper inertia; and
Ba 0, K a 0, K m 0
We neglect the entire dynamics of the valve :
- neglect the mechanical dynamics of the spool motion
( M s 0) ; and
- neglect all transient flow effects in the valve ( B f 0) .
The original equations of torque-motor dynamics (electrical and

mechanical) are (A.20) and (A.22). Let us write them again:
u R i K b Lc di / dt (A.20)
K t i J a Ba ( K a K m ) TL (A.22)=(7.31)
For the adopted simplifications, one obtains

u Ri (A.49)
K t i TL (A.50)
where: u is the control volatage,

R is the armature resistance,
i is the current,
Kt is the torque constant,
TL is the output motor torque.
Let us explain the work !
Suppose that some voltage is applied, and that the current

forces the armature to turn anti clockwise, as in Fig. A.12a.
The flapper moves to the right, thus closing nozzle D2.
The pressure supply line Ps 2 (the right one) is now closed
and the oil from the left line, Ps 1 , flows through pipe C1
into the cylinder. So, the actuator piston moves to the right.
Pipe C2 allows the oil to flow out from the cylinder to the
return line R (back to the reservoir).
Since nozzle D2 is closed, the oil in the right supply line
exerts strong pressure upon the right-hand side of the valve
spool forcing it to move to the left.
This motion causes the deformation of the feedback spring.
At some deformation, the elastic torque of the deformed
spring starts to turn the armature back (clockwise) and the
flapper to the left thus opening nozzle D2.
When the oil begins to flow through D2 , the pressure acting
upon the right-hand side of the spool reduces, but it is still
stronger then the pressure acting upon the left-hand side.
Hence, the spool continues moving to the left.
The pressure on the both sides of the valve spool balances
when the flows through D1 and D2 become equal. This
means the vertical position of the flapper, that is, the
horiozontal position of the armature (as shown in Fig. A.12b
and A.13). The motion of the spool stops.
In this position, the motor torque equals the spring
deformation torque. The coordinate xv defines the position
of the spool. This can be seen as the cantilever deformation
(deflection), as shown ion Fig. A.13. So, it holds that :
- The motor torque is TL K t i , according to (A.50).
- The deformation force is F K f xv , where Kf is the

spring constant (dependent on the length of the
beam, its cross-section, and the E modulus).
The balance means:
TL F r
i.e.
Kt
K t i r K f xv xv i (A.51)
rK f
or
Kt
xv u (A.52)
r RK f
This ballanced position of the valve spool xv corresponds to

some value of oil flow and accordingly to some velocity of
the piston in the cylinder. Since xv is directly controlled by
the voltage u (relation (A.52)), we achieve the possibility of
controlling the flow and the actuator speed.
The expression (A.52) means that there exists a direct
relation between the input control volatage u and the spool
position xv. Since all the dynamics of the servovalve (valve
plus torque motor) is neglected, any change of control
voltage is followed by an instantaneous change of the spool
position. This is a simplified situation. In reality, the change
of voltage would be folowed by a transient phase before this
ballanced position of the spool is reached (this is due to the
dynamics of the servovalve)
One should say that is rather common to look at current i
as an input control. In such case, (A.51) is more important
then (A.52)
Mathematical modeling
We start modeling by using relations (I)-(III), that described the

actuator controlled by the spool motion xv.
Let us repeat these relations:
(I) Dynamics of the piston motion:

Ap PL M t xp B p x p Kx p FL (6.34)
(II) Load flow:
Vt
QL Ap x p Ctp PL
PL (6.33)
4e
(III) Valve control the flow by relation
- (6.3) in the case of linear analysis, or
- (5.33) in the case of non-linear analysis:
or
1 x
QL QL ( xv , PL ) Cd w xv Ps v PL (5.33)
xv

State variables were piston position, its velocity, and load

pressure: z ( z1 , z1 , z1 ) ( x p , x p , PL ) .
Model (I)-(III), in a liner case, was transformed into a

canonic state-space form (A.11). We repeat this model :
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.11)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4
z3 Ap e z2 ( K c Ctp ) e z3 K q e xv
Vt Vt Vt
In a nonliner case, (I)-(III) was transformed into (A.13). We
repeat:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.13)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4e 4 4 1 xv
z3 Ap z 2 Ctp e z3 e C d w xv P z3
Vt Vt Vt s
xv
Note that when repeating (A.11) and (A.13), notation for

spool motion is xv , and not u, as it was originally in
(A.11) and (A.13). This is due to the fact that in original
models, spool motion was the control input and now it is
not ! Now, u is used for the voltage (new control input).
Since xv directly follows from the applied voltage, according

to (A.52), this expression should be substituted into (A.11)
and (A.13).
In this way the linar model is obtained in the form:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.53)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 Kt
Vt Vt Vt r RK f
The model can be put in a matrix form:

0 1 0 0
z1 z1 0 1
z K
Bp Ap z 0

u FL
2 Mt Mt Mt 2 4 K M t
z3 z e t
4 e 3 K q V r RK
0 Ap
4e
( K c Ctp ) t

0
f
Vt V
t
H
E
D
(A.54)
For the nonlinar model, it is obtained that :

z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
(A.55)
Kt
u
4 e 4 e 4 e Kt 1 r RK f
Vt Vt Vt r RK f Kt

u
r RK f

NOTE that there is still FL in all these models. In order to

eliminate the load force, it is necessary to specify the load and
write the mathematical expressions that describe the load
dynamics.
NOTE alsio that (A.51) is commonly used instead of (A.52)
when substituting into (A.11) and (A.13). This means that the
current i is seen as a control input. u and i are related by
simple expression (A.49).
EXAMPLE 1
the system shown in Fig. A.14. The actuator is controlled by a two-
stage servovalve with force feedback.
In the analysis, neglect the parameters according to the above
discussion !
Parameters of the load
wheels: m1= m2=m , r1= r2=rw
Fig. A.14 spring: stiffness k
xp 2 1
Actuator Load

describes the actuator controlled by a two-stage valve with
force feedback is (A.53). Write it again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.53)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 Kt
Vt Vt Vt r RK f
( z1 , z 2 , z3 ) ( x p , x p , PL )


degree of freedom motion of the wheel 1 (coordinate x1 ) is
not not geometrically dependent on the piston motion ( xp ).
This is due to the deformable spring.
This additional degree of freedom ( x1 ) introduces two new
state variables z 4 x1 , z 5 x1 , with the property
z 4 z 5 (A.56)
z ( z1 , z 2 , z3 , z 4 , z5 ) ( x p , x p , PL , x1 , x1 )
x1
Dynamics of the wheel 1 F1
Translation:
m a1 F1 F fr1 k ( x p x1 ) F fr1 Ffr1
Rotation:
I 1 F fr 1 rw , where 1 a1 / rw and I (1 / 2)m rw2
By combination:
3
ma1 k ( x p x1 )
2
i.e.
2k
a1 ( x p x1 ) (A.57)
3m
xp
Dynamics of the wheel 2 F1 FL
Translation:
Ffr2
m a2 FL F1 F fr1
FL k ( x p x1 ) F fr1
Rotation:
By combination:
3
ma2 FL k ( x p x1 )
2
i.e.
3
FL ma2 k ( x p x1 ) . (A.58)
2
Let us rewrite (A.57) and (A.58) in the state-space notation. It

holds that:
a1 x1 z5 , a2 xp z 2
(A.57) and (A.58) becomes:
2k
z5 ( z1 z4 ) (A.59)
3m
3
FL mz2 k ( z1 z4 ) . (A.60)
2
Now, load force FL is substituted from (A.60) into the model

(A.53) (into its second relation). After that, (A.56) and (A.59)
are suppelemented to this set.
In this way, one obtains:
z1 z 2
K k Bp Ap k
z2 z1 z2 z3 z4
M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m
4e 4 4 Kt
z3 Ap z2 ( K c Ctp ) e z3 K q e u
Vt Vt Vt r RK f (A.61)
z 4 z 5
2k
z5 ( z1 z4 )
3m
This is a final linear model of the cemplete system.
We now look for a nonlinear model. (A.55) is used instead of

(A.53). In fact, the difference is in the third expression only:
z1 z 2
K k Bp Ap k
z2 z1 z2 z3 z4
M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m

Kt
u
4 e 4 e 4 e Kt 1 r RK f
Vt Vt Vt r RK f Kt

u
r RK f

(A.62)
z 4 z 5
2k
z5 ( z1 z4 )
3m
This is a final nonlinear model of the cemplete system.

EXAMPLE 2
Formulate the linear mathematical model in a matrix form, for the
system shown in Fig. A.15. The actuator is controlled by a two-
discussion !
xp
FL to load FL from load 2
masses m1= m2=m , radius rw

spring: stiffness k
x1 1
Actuator
Fig. A.15
Load
The linear model that describes the actuator controlled by a

two-stage valve with force feedback has a third order cononic
form (A.53). Write it again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.53)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 Kt
Vt Vt Vt r RK f
where the state is ( z1 , z 2 , z3 ) ( x p , x p , PL )
In the model, the sign of the load force FL is changed since the
direction of the force in this example is oposite.
Load force FL is unknown. In order to eliminate it, one needs

the mathematical description of the load dynamics !!
Let us see if there is additional degee of freedom with the load.

Rotation of the wheel (number 2) is directly (geoemetrically)
depending on the piston motion xp and can be expressed in
terms of xp.
However, the motion of the body 1 is not geometrically
dependent on the piston motion xp . This is due to the
deformable spring. So, there is an additional degree of
freedom and the body 1 has its independent position
coordinate x1.

z 4 z 5 (A.63)
z ( z1 , z 2 , z3 , z 4 , z5 ) ( x p , x p , PL , x1 , x1 )
Dynamics of the body 1
spring
Translation (Newtons law): force F1
m a1 mg F1
Spring force is:

gravity
F1 k ( x1 x p )
force mg
And hence
m a1 mg k ( x1 x p )
Since x p z1 , x1 z 4 and a1 x1 z5 , the state-space

form is
m z5 mg k ( z4 z1 )
i.e.
k
z5 g ( z4 z1 ) (A.64)
m
Dynamics of the wheel 2 load force

FL
Rotation:
I 2 F1 rw FL rw ,
where 2 a2 / rw
I (1 / 2) m rw2 spring
and
force F1
By combination:
1
m xp F1 FL
2
and introducing the expression for the spring force:
1 1
m xp k ( x1 x p ) FL FL k ( x1 x p ) m xp
2 2
and in the state-space:
1
FL k ( z4 z1 ) m z2 (A.65)
2
Now, we combine the actuator and the load.

- Load force FL is substituted from (A.65) into the
actuator model (A.53) (into its second relation).
- After that, (A.63) and (A.64) are suppelemented to this
set.
z1 z 2
K k Bp Ap k
z2 z1 z2 z3 z4
M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m
4e 4 4 Kt
Vt Vt Vt r RK f
z 4 z 5 (A.66)
k k
z5 g z1 z4
m m
The matrix form is:

0 1 0 0 0
z1 K k B p A p k z1
0
z M (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m
2 t z2
z3 4 4
0 Ap e ( K c Ctp ) e 0 0 z 3
Vt Vt
z z
1 4
4
0 0 0 0
z5 k k z
0 0 0 5
m m
D
0 0
0
4 0 K
K q u 0
e t
Vt r RK f
0 0
g
0

E
(A.67)
EXAMPLE 3
Formulate the nonlinear mathematical model of the system shown
in Fig. A.16. The actuator is controlled by a two-stage servovalve
with force feedback.
FL from load mass m ,

xp angle length b

FL to load
slider:
Fig. A.16 d mass
neglected
The nonlinear model that describes the actuator controlled by
a two-stage valve with force feedback has a third order
cononic form (A.53). Write it again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
(A.55)
Kt
u
4 e 4 e 4 e Kt 1 r RK f
Vt Vt Vt r RK f Kt

u
r RK f

The system is nonlinear from two reasons:

- the actuator is considered nonlinear, and
- the load is nonlinear.
There is no additional degree of freedom with the load. The

rotation of the load (angle ) is directly (i.e. geometrically)
dependent on the piston motion xp. So, no additional state
variable !
Angle can be expressed in terms of xp :
xp
xp
tan (A.68)
d
d
We write the dynamics of the load in order to eliminate FL.
Rotation
FL
I M Fn a
d
Moment of inertia is
1
a Fn normal
I m b2 component
3
It holds that:
Fn F cos , a d / cos M Fn a FL d
Rotation equation becomes
1 m b2
m b 2 FL d FL (A.69)
3 3d
Angular acceleration has to be expressed in terms of

xp and its derivatives because the idea is to substitute
(A.69) into the actuator (A.55) model and thus eliminate
FL.
We use (A.68) to relate and xp:
x p d tan (A.68)
and accordingly
1
x p d (A.70)
cos
2
2 sin 1
xp d d (A.71)
cos 3 cos 2
There exists ono-to-one correspondence between and xp
and accordingly between angular acceleration and
piston acceleration xp . However, the relations (A68),
(A.70) and (A.71) are rather complex and it is not easy to
express in terms of xp and its derivatives.
Let us try to do what is stated above (express in terms

of x p , x p , xp .
- we substitute from (A.70) into (A.71):
2 sin 1
xp x p d
cos cos
2
- wherefrom:
cos 2
2 sin cos
xp x p
d d
- sin and cosin functions can be expressed in terms
tan 1
of tan: sin , cos
1 tan 2 1 tan 2
- So, one obtains

1 2 tan
x
x p
d (1 tan ) d (1 tan )
2 p 2
- Using (A.68) (i.e. x p d tan tan x p / d ),

it is
1 2( x p / d )
xp x p
d (1 ( x p / d ) 2 ) d (1 ( x p / d ) 2 )
Now, the load force (A.69) becomes
m b2 1 2( x p / d )
FL ( xp x p )
3d d (1 ( x p / d ) 2 ) d (1 ( x p / d ) 2 )
m b 2 2( x p / d ) m b2 1
2 x
p xp
3d 1 ( x p / d ) 2
3d 1 ( x p / d )
2 2
(A.72)
In the state-space:
m b 2 2( z1 / d ) m b2 1
FL 2 z 2 z
2 2 (A.73)
3d 1 ( z1 / d ) 2
3d 1 ( z1 / d )
2
Let us combine the actuator and the load. Load force FL is

substituted from (A.73) into the actuator model (A.55) (into its
second relation).
z1 z 2
z
2 2( 1 )
mb d B
p
3d 1 ( z1 ) 2
2
K d Ap
z2 z1 z 2 z3
m b2 1 m b2 1 m b2 1
Mt Mt Mt
3d 2 1 ( z1 ) 2 3d 2 1 ( z1 ) 2 3d 2 1 ( z1 ) 2
d d d (A.74)

Kt
u
4 4 4 Kt 1 r RK f
z3 Ap e z2 Ctp e z3 e Cd w u Ps z3
Vt Vt Vt r RK f Kt

u
r RK f

This is a final model of the cemplete system. It is strongly
nonlinear. It is of the third order.
EXAMPLE 1
the system shown in Fig. A.14. The actuator is controlled by a two-
discussion !
Parameters of the load
wheels: m1= m2=m , r1= r2=rw
Fig. A.14 spring: stiffness k
xp 2 1
Actuator Load

describes the actuator controlled by a two-stage valve with
force feedback is (A.53). Write it again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.53)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 Kt
Vt Vt Vt r RK f
( z1 , z 2 , z3 ) ( x p , x p , PL )


degree of freedom motion of the wheel 1 (coordinate x1 ) is
not not geometrically dependent on the piston motion ( xp ).
This is due to the deformable spring.
z 4 z 5 (A.56)
z ( z1 , z 2 , z3 , z 4 , z5 ) ( x p , x p , PL , x1 , x1 )
x1
Dynamics of the wheel 1 F1
Translation:
m a1 F1 F fr1 k ( x p x1 ) F fr1 Ffr1
Rotation:
By combination:
3
ma1 k ( x p x1 )
2
i.e.
2k
a1 ( x p x1 ) (A.57)
3m
xp
Dynamics of the wheel 2 FL

F1
Translation:
Ffr2
m a2 FL F1 F fr1
FL k ( x p x1 ) F fr1
Rotation:
By combination:
3
ma2 FL k ( x p x1 )
2
i.e.
3
FL ma2 k ( x p x1 ) . (A.58)
2
Let us rewrite (A.57) and (A.58) in the state-space notation. It

holds that:
a1 x1 z5 , a2 xp z 2
(A.57) and (A.58) becomes:
2k
z5 ( z1 z4 ) (A.59)
3m
3
FL mz2 k ( z1 z4 ) . (A.60)
2
Now, load force FL is substituted from (A.60) into the model

(A.53) (into its second relation). After that, (A.56) and (A.59)
are suppelemented to this set.
z1 z 2
K k Bp Ap k
z2 z1 z2 z3 z4
M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m
4e 4 4 Kt
Vt Vt Vt r RK f (A.61)
z 4 z 5
2k
z5 ( z1 z4 )
3m
We now look for a nonlinear model. (A.55) is used instead of

(A.53). In fact, the difference is in the third expression only:
z1 z 2
K k Bp Ap k
z2 z1 z2 z3 z4
M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m M t (3 / 2)m

Kt
u
4 e 4 e 4 e Kt 1 r RK f
Vt Vt Vt r RK f Kt

u
r RK f

(A.62)
z 4 z 5
2k
z5 ( z1 z4 )
3m
This is a final nonlinear model of the cemplete system.

EXAMPLE 2
Formulate the linear mathematical model in a matrix form, for the
system shown in Fig. A.15. The actuator is controlled by a two-
discussion !
xp
FL to load FL from load 2
masses m1= m2=m , radius rw

spring: stiffness k
x1 1
Actuator
Fig. A.15
Load
The linear model that describes the actuator controlled by a

two-stage valve with force feedback has a third order cononic
form (A.53). Write it again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.53)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 Kt
Vt Vt Vt r RK f
In the model, the sign of the load force FL is changed since the
direction of the force in this example is oposite.
Load force FL is unknown. In order to eliminate it, one needs

the mathematical description of the load dynamics !!
Let us see if there is additional degee of freedom with the load.

Rotation of the wheel (number 2) is directly (geoemetrically)
depending on the piston motion xp and can be expressed in
terms of xp.
However, the motion of the body 1 is not geometrically
dependent on the piston motion xp . This is due to the
deformable spring. So, there is an additional degree of
freedom and the body 1 has its independent position
coordinate x1.

z 4 z 5 (A.63)
z ( z1 , z 2 , z3 , z 4 , z5 ) ( x p , x p , PL , x1 , x1 )
Dynamics of the body 1
spring
Translation (Newtons law): force F1
m a1 mg F1
Spring force is:

gravity
F1 k ( x1 x p )
force mg
And hence
m a1 mg k ( x1 x p )
Since x p z1 , x1 z 4 and a1 x1 z5 , the state-space

form is
m z5 mg k ( z4 z1 )
i.e.
k
z5 g ( z4 z1 ) (A.64)
m
Dynamics of the wheel 2 load force

FL
Rotation:
I 2 F1 rw FL rw ,
where 2 a2 / rw
I (1 / 2) m rw2 spring
and
force F1
By combination:
1
m xp F1 FL
2
and introducing the expression for the spring force:
1 1
m xp k ( x1 x p ) FL FL k ( x1 x p ) m xp
2 2
and in the state-space:
1
FL k ( z4 z1 ) m z2 (A.65)
2
Now, we combine the actuator and the load.

- Load force FL is substituted from (A.65) into the
actuator model (A.53) (into its second relation).
- After that, (A.63) and (A.64) are suppelemented to this
set.
z1 z 2
K k Bp Ap k
z2 z1 z2 z3 z4
M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m
4e 4 4 Kt
Vt Vt Vt r RK f
z 4 z 5 (A.66)
k k
z5 g z1 z4
m m
The matrix form is:

0 1 0 0 0
z1 K k B p A p k z1
0
z M (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m M t (1 / 2)m
2 t z2
z3 4 4
0 Ap e ( K c Ctp ) e 0 0 z 3
Vt Vt
z z
1 4
4
0 0 0 0
z5 k k z
0 0 0 5
m m
D
0 0
0
4 0 K
K q u 0
e t
Vt r RK f
0 0
g
0

E
(A.67)
EXAMPLE 3
Formulate the nonlinear mathematical model of the system shown
in Fig. A.16. The actuator is controlled by a two-stage servovalve
with force feedback.
FL from load mass m ,

xp angle length b

FL to load
slider:
Fig. A.16 d mass
neglected
The nonlinear model that describes the actuator controlled by
a two-stage valve with force feedback has a third order
cononic form (A.53). Write it again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
(A.55)
Kt
u
4 e 4 e 4 e Kt 1 r RK f
Vt Vt Vt r RK f Kt

u
r RK f

The system is nonlinear from two reasons:

- the actuator is considered nonlinear, and
- the load is nonlinear.
There is no additional degree of freedom with the load. The

rotation of the load (angle ) is directly (i.e. geometrically)
dependent on the piston motion xp. So, no additional state
variable !
Angle can be expressed in terms of xp :
xp
xp
tan (A.68)
d
d
We write the dynamics of the load in order to eliminate FL.
Rotation
FL
I M Fn a
d
Moment of inertia is
1
a Fn normal
I m b2 component
3
It holds that:
Fn F cos , a d / cos M Fn a FL d
Rotation equation becomes
1 m b2
m b 2 FL d FL (A.69)
3 3d
Angular acceleration has to be expressed in terms of

xp and its derivatives because the idea is to substitute
(A.69) into the actuator (A.55) model and thus eliminate
FL.
We use (A.68) to relate and xp:
x p d tan (A.68)
and accordingly
1
x p d (A.70)
cos
2
2 sin 1
xp d d (A.71)
cos 3 cos 2
There exists ono-to-one correspondence between and xp
and accordingly between angular acceleration and
piston acceleration xp . However, the relations (A68),
(A.70) and (A.71) are rather complex and it is not easy to
express in terms of xp and its derivatives.
Let us try to do what is stated above (express in terms

of x p , x p , xp .
- we substitute from (A.70) into (A.71):
2 sin 1
xp x p d
cos cos
2
- wherefrom:
cos 2
2 sin cos
xp x p
d d
- sin and cosin functions can be expressed in terms
tan 1
of tan: sin , cos
1 tan 2 1 tan 2
- So, one obtains

1 2 tan
x
x p
d (1 tan ) d (1 tan )
2 p 2
- Using (A.68) (i.e. x p d tan tan x p / d ),

it is
1 2( x p / d )
xp x p
d (1 ( x p / d ) 2 ) d (1 ( x p / d ) 2 )
Now, the load force (A.69) becomes
m b2 1 2( x p / d )
FL ( xp x p )
3d d (1 ( x p / d ) 2 ) d (1 ( x p / d ) 2 )
m b 2 2( x p / d ) m b2 1
2 x
p xp
3d 1 ( x p / d ) 2
3d 1 ( x p / d )
2 2
(A.72)
In the state-space:
m b 2 2( z1 / d ) m b2 1
FL 2 z 2 z
2 2 (A.73)
3d 1 ( z1 / d ) 2
3d 1 ( z1 / d )
2
Let us combine the actuator and the load. Load force FL is

substituted from (A.73) into the actuator model (A.55) (into its
second relation).
z1 z 2
z
2 2( 1 )
mb d B
p
3d 1 ( z1 ) 2
2
K d Ap
z2 z1 z 2 z3
m b2 1 m b2 1 m b2 1
Mt Mt Mt
3d 2 1 ( z1 ) 2 3d 2 1 ( z1 ) 2 3d 2 1 ( z1 ) 2
d d d (A.74)

Kt
u
4 4 4 Kt 1 r RK f
z3 Ap e z2 Ctp e z3 e Cd w u Ps z3
Vt Vt Vt r RK f Kt

u
r RK f

This is a final model of the cemplete system. It is strongly
nonlinear. It is of the third order.
DIFFERENT EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Formulate the mathematical model of the system shown in Fig.
A.17. The actuator is controlled by a single-stage servovalve.
In the analysis, use the linear model of the actuator, but dont use
any other approximation!
x1 angle
Fig. A.17
negligible mass,
xp length l
Load
parameters.
wheel: m , rw
Actuator Load
At the begining, we look for an appropriate mathematical model
of the actuator.
For an actuator controled by a single-stage servovalve, with
no approximation, we use model (A.27). It is a linear model
(as required in this example).
We write it again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4e 4e 4e
z3 Ap z2 ( K c Ctp ) z3 K q z4 (A.27)
Vt Vt Vt
z4 z5
K f (K a K m ) / r 2 B f Ba / r 2 Kt
z5 z4 z
2 5
z6
M s Ja / r2 M s Ja / r ( M s J a / r )r
2
K R 1
z6 b z 4 z 6 u
rLc Lc Lc
where the state variables (state vector) are:

z ( z1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4 , z 5 , z 6 ) ( x p , x p , PL , xv , x v , i )
Force FL has to be eleiminated from the equations of load

dynamics.
We note that the load does not introduce any additional degree of
freedom. So, the satate vector remains as it is.
Position variables of the load, angle and coordinate x1 are
directly geometrically dependent on the piston motion xp.
Let us look for the relation between , x1 and xp !
First, it is clear that
x1 rw , x1 rw , x1 rw (A.75)
Now, let us relate and xp
l cos
x1 = r w rw sin
xp l cos
From the figure: x p l cos l cos rw rw sin
sin sin( / 2 )
Next, one use the sinus theorem:
rw l
i.e.
2
sin cos r r
sin w cos cos 1 w cos 2
rw l l l
(A.76)
So, the relation between and xp is:
2
r
x p l cos rw rw sin l 1 w cos 2 (A.77)
l
It allows to express (and its derivatives) in terms of xp (and

its derivatives):
... f ( x p ) , ... f ( x p , x p ) , ... f ( x p , x p , xp ) (A.78)
(Well, this is not simple, but generally it is possible to do!!)
Dynamics of the load. /2--

FL /cos
FL
FL /cos

FL
(FL /cos )sin(/2--) =
= (FL /cos )cos(+)
Ffr
Translation: ma m x1 FL F fr
and according to (A.75):
m rw FL F fr (A.79)
Rotation:
I I ( FL / cos ) cos( ) rw F fr rw (A.80)
and by elimination Ffr from (A.79) and (A.80), dynamics of

the load becomes:
I ( FL / cos ) cos( ) rw ( FL m rw) rw (A.81)
FL can ber expressed from (A.81):

I m rw2
FL (A.82)
(1 cos( ) / cos ) rw
Now, this FL should be substituted into actuator model (A.27).

Before that, one should do the following:
- express in terms of (by using (A.76)) , and
- express , in terms of x p , x p , xp by using (A.78).
So, FL will be a function of x p , x p , xp .
When FL is substituted into actuator model (A.27), the example

will be accomplished. There will be 6 equations in canonic form,
with 6 state variables.
What is important to notice is that a simple load can produce

huge problems in modeling the system.
EXAMPLE 2
Formulate the mathematical model of the system shown in Fig.
A.18. The actuator is controlled by a single-stage servovalve.
In the analysis,
- use the nonlinear model of the actuator,
- neglect the torque-motor electrical dynamics ( Lc 0 ),
- neglect the torque-motor mechanical dynamics
( K b 0, J a 0, Ba 0, K a 0, K m 0 ),
- neglect the dynamics of the spool and the transient effects
in the valve ( M s 0, B f 0) .
Beam:
mass
mass m ,
m
length l
Fig. A.18
xp
Actuator Load
At the begining, we look for an appropriate mathematical model

of the actuator.
For an actuator controled by a single-stage servovalve, with
all mentioned approximations, we use the linear model
(A.35). We did not write the nonlinear model.
So, we have to derive the nonlliner model starting from the
liner (A.35).
We write (A.35) again:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.35)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 K / R
Vt Vt Vt K f r
with the state vector

z ( z1 , z 2 , z 3 ) ( x p , x p , PL )
We recall that while formulating (A.35), the piston stroke xv

was eliminated by using the 5-th relation of (A.32),
Kt / R
z 4 xv u (A.83)
Kfr
In order to find the non lionear model, we put xv back into
(A.35), by introducing (A.83):
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL (A.84)
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4
z3 Ap e z2 ( K c Ctp ) e z3 K q e xv
Vt Vt Vt
The linear form of (A.84) comes out from the linearized

expression for the flow (eq. (A.3)):
QL K q xv K c PL K q xv K c z3 (A.3)
Nonlinear form of the model will be obtained if the nonlinear
expression for the flow is used (eq. (5.33)):
1 x
QL Cd w xv Ps v z3
xv (5.33)
When we replace (A.3) with (5.33), model (A.84) becomes first:
z1 z 2
K B A 1
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4
z3 Ap e z2 Ctp e z3 ( K c z3 K q xv ) e
Vt Vt Vt
and then finally:
z1 z 2
K B A 1 (A.85)
z2 z1 p z2 p z3 FL
Mt Mt Mt Mt
4 4 4 1 xv 4 e
z3 Ap e z2 Ctp e z3 e Cd w xv Ps z3
Vt Vt Vt xv Vt
We note that the load does not introduce any additional degree of
freedom. So, the satate vector remains as it is.
Position variable of the load (angle ), is directly
geometrically dependent on the piston motion xp.
Force FL has to be eleiminated from the equations of load
dynamics.
Let us look for the relation between and xp !
velocities
current center of
rotation, P B
gravity
center (C)
and grav.
A force
force FL
l cos
xp
It holds that
x p l cos l x p l (1 cos ) (A.86)
wherefrom
2
1 1
cos 1 x p , sin 1 1 x p (A.87)
l l
First derivative gives:
1 1
sin x p x p
2 (A.88)
l l 1 1 x p
1
l
Second derivative gives:
1
cos 2 sin xp
l
1
1 xp
1 l
xp x 2p
2 3
1 1
2 (A.89)
l 1 1 x p l 2
1 1 x p
l l
Dynamics of the load !
It will be described by using Lagrange equations.
There is one degree of freedom, and accordingly one equation.
Let, for the moment, the generalized coordinate be the angle .

Later, when we accomplish the equation, we will replace
with xp.
Lagrange equation has the form:
d E k E k
Q (A.90)
dt
where Ek is the kinetic energy and Q is the generalized force.
The beam AB is rotation about the current center of rotation

(point P in the figure). So, the kinetic energy is:
1 1
I P 2 m y B
2
Ek (A.91)
2 2
where IP is the moment inertia of the beam, calculated for the
point P.
For the parallel axes, the moment of inertia is

2
I P I C m CP
which gives
1 l 1
I P ml 2 m ( ) 2 ml 2 (A.92)
12 2 3
Position and velocity of the slider B are:

y B l sin (A.93)
y B l cos (A.94)
So, kinetic energy is:
1 2 1
Ek ml ( cos2 )2 (A.95)
2 3
Let us form the Lagrange equation (A.90).
The elements of the left-hand side of the equation are:

Ek 1
ml 2 ( cos 2 )
3
d Ek 1
(*) ml 2 ( cos2 ) ml 2 2 cos sin 2
dt 3
Ek
(*) ml 2 cos sin 2

The right-hand side (generalized force) is obtained from the
virtual work:
dW dWactuator force dWbeam gravity dWbslider gravity

FL dx A mgdxC mgdxB
x A x p l (1 cos ) dx A l sin d
l l
xC sin dxC cos d
2 2
xB l sin dxB l cos d
3
dW ( FLl sin mgl cos )d
2
So, by definition, the generalized force is :
3
(*) Q FLl sin mgl cos
2
Now, all the terms marked by (*) are substituted into Lagrange
equation (A.90):
1
ml 2 ( cos2 ) ml 2 2 cos sin 2 ml 2 cos sin 2
3
3
FLl sin mgl cos
2
i.e.
1 3
ml 2 ( cos2 ) ml 2 cos sin 2 FLl sin mgl cos
3 2
(A.96)
From (A.96), the load force FL can be found
1
cos2
3 cos
FL ml 3 ml cos 2 mg
sin 2 sin (A.97)
Since FL should be expressed in terms of x p , x p , xp , we

substitute (A.87), (A.88) and (A.89) into (A.97):
1 1 1 (1 1 x ) 2 1 1 x
(1 x p ) 2 3
3 l l p l p 2
FL m xp m x p
1 2 1 2 2
1 1 x p l 1 1 x p
l
l (A.98)
1 1
1 xp 1 xp
l 2 3 l
ml x

2 p
mg
2 2 1
2
1 1 1 x p
l 2 1 1 x p
l l
or in terms of the state-space coordinates:
1 1 1 (1 1 z ) 2 1 1 z
(1 z1 ) 2 3
3 l l 1 l 1 2
FL m z2 m z2
1 2 1 2 2
1 1 z1 l 1 1 z1
l l
(A.99)
1 1
1 z1 1 z1
l 2 3 l
ml z mg
2 2
2 2 1
2
2 1 1 1 z1
l 1 1 z1
l l
This expression is substituted into the actuator model (A.85) (into
its second expression) to give:
z1 z 2
K Bp Ap
z2 z1 z2 z3
M eff ( z1 ) M eff ( z1 ) M eff ( z1 )

1 (1 1 z ) 2 1 1 z 1 1
3 l 1 1 z1 1 z1
1 l 1 z 2 ml l 2 3 l
m 2 z 2 mg
M eff ( z1 ) 1 2
2
2
2
2 1
2
l 1 1 z1 1 1 1 z1

l2 1 1 z1
l l l
(A.85)
4e 4 4 1 x 4e
z3 Ap z2 Ctp e z3 e Cd w xv Ps v z3
Vt Vt Vt xv Vt
where
1 1
(1 z1 ) 2
M eff ( z1 ) M t m 3 l
1 2
1 1 z1
l

This is the final model !!

Note that it would be more simple if written in terms of
(instead of xp).
Naslov predmeta:
HIDRAULIKI I PNEUMATIKI SISTEMI
Fond asova: 3+1

Nastavnik: prof. Veljko Potkonjak
Kabinet: 105
Obavetenja: tabla pored kab. 105
Literatura: Merit, Hydraulic Control Systems
UVODNA RAZMATRANJA
Problemi u nastavi Hidraulike i pneumatike:
- nedostatak predznanja iz mehanike hidromehanike
- prevazilaenje problema ....preskakanje ! .....gotove formule ! .....
Nain ispitivanja
Kolokvijum plus domai rad na simulaciji
Upravljanje mehanikim sistemom
MEHANIKI
ulaz SISTEM izlaz
stanje
Stanje: pozicione koordinate i njihovi izvodi (brzine)
Izlaz(i): - pozicija (standardno)

- brzina (standardno)
- sila (komplikovano)
Ulaz: Sila/moment
Moe li sila biti upravljaki ulaz ?

Teoretski da, ali u praksi teko !! Sila se ne moe menjati po elji
ve je proizvod jednog sloenog sistema pogonskog sistema.
POGONSKI MEHANIKI
SISTEM
upravljaki sila / SISTEM izlaz
ulaz moment
stanje
UKUPNI SISTEM
Pogonski sistemi:
- elektrini (razne vrste elektromotora)

elektrina energija mehanika energija
- hidrauliki
hidraulika energija mehanika energija
- pneumatiki
pneumatika energija mehanika energija
Elektromotori nedostaci:
- samo rotacija ... sistem za konverziju kretanja (rot-
transl., videemo kasnije probleme)
- odnos moment/brzina ... ve pri normalnim, a pogotovo
jako velikim silama
- redukcija ... komplikovanija konstrukcija, poskupljenje,
gubitak snage, zazor i elast. def.
- lo odnos masa prema momentu
- izmetanje i transmisija ... komplikovanija konstrukcija,
poskupljenje, gubitak snage, zazor i elast. def.
- ...............
Elektromotori osnovne prednosti:

- jednostavno upravljanje (manje-vie)
- pogodni za povezivanje sa raunarom
Hidrauliki pogon osnovne prednosti

- i rotacija i translacija
- bez problema pravi jako velike sile/momente !!
- ......
Hidrauliki pogon osnovni nedostaci

- sloenije upravljanje precizno upravljanje skupo
- problemi sa curenjem i prljanjem ulja
- .......
Pneumatiki pogon osnovne prednosti

- i rotacija i translacija
- velika brzina
- niska cena
- precizni tamo gde mogu da se upotrebe
- ..........
Pneumatiki pogon osnovni nedostaci
- kretanje samo izmeu dva graninika
- nema upravljanja izmeu dva graninika
- buka
- .......
Princip hidraulikog pogona
pumpa
ulaz izlaz
ulja ulja
sila pritiska
kretanje
- Ulje je nestiljivo protok jednoznano definie

pomeranje
- Regulisanjem protoka regulie se kretanje
Problemi pneumatikog pogona
- Vazduh je stiljiv ......................

- Nema regulacije kretanja ............

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ME in actuator technology

Course title: Principles designing hydraulic servoactuator systems

Teacher: Prof. Veljko Potkonjak

Actuators. Hydraulic cylinder with piston. Rotary actuator. Mathematical models of

Electrohydraulic servovalves principles and mathematics. Permanent-magnet torque

Mathematical modeling. Mathematical model of the complete system. Linearization of

Nonlinearities. Saturation. Deadband. Backlash and hysteresis. Friction. etc.

Closed-loop control of electrohydraulic system.

Simulation. Simulation model. Simulation in system design.

2.2. Equation of State

Volume (and density) changes little. So, a linear approximation is

isotermal bulk modulus (compressibility). IMPORTANT!

and depend on the temperature:

It expresses the internal friction of the liquid and its resistance

Necessary for lubrification.

If too low leakage!

If too large power loss due to friction (lower efficiency)!

Friction force is proporional to the contact area A and to the velocity

depends on the temperature:

Specific heat is the amount of energy (heat) needed to raise the

Thermal conductivity is the measure of the rate of heat flow

2.5. Effective Bulk Modulus

Interaction of the spring effect of a liquid and the masses of

The bulk modulus can be lowered by intruducing

The expression for the effective (total) bulk modulus e can be

Since l g , (2.20) becomes:

If there is no gas (so, only mechanical compliance), one obtains:

2.7. Types of Hydraulic Fluids

Petroleum based fluids, and

2.8. Selection of the Hydraulic Fluid

Among numerous problems, we highlight here the topic:

3.4. Flow Through Orifices Turbulent Flow

1 2 vena contracta the 3 Fig. 3.10.

Let: u fluid velocity, P pressure . We apply:

If A0 A1 , the theoretical value for the the discharge coefficient

Pump: mechanical energy hydraulic energy

Motor (actuator): hydraulic energy mechanical energy

limited travel machines

continuous travel machines

piston machines (translation)

fluid IN fluid OUT

Differential pressure PL (difference between the two

Pressure force (generated force) is

Load force or output force is FL

There is a spring effect associated with the piston: Kxp , where

There is a viscous damping effect associated with the piston:

Dynamics of the motor (i.e. dynamics of the piston)

rotor fluid IN : fluid OUT :

Pressure torque force (generated torque) is g Ap PL r

Load torque or output torque is L

There is a torsion spring effect associated with the rotor: K ,

Dynamics of the motor (i.e. dynamics of the rotor)

Double vane rotary actuator is shown in Fig. 4.2 (b) .

Spur gear rotary machine (actuator or pump) is shown in Fig. 4.3 .

Figs. 4.4 4.12 show different types (examples) of hydraulic

Valve is a devices that uses mechanical motion to control the

Unit which creates the

source of control the

controlled source of energy

sliding type (a, b, c, d in Fig. 5.1)

Sliding valves are classified according to:

(a) two-land-four-way spool valve:

Fig. 5.1 (a)