2015 09 14 Damage Defects

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Defects and damage in structures

14.09.2015
Rak-43.3301 Repair Methods of Structures I (4 cr), Fahim Al-Neshawy & Esko Sistonen, Autumn 2015
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Course outline
Deterioration Chemical
Initiating Physical
Process Biological
Factors Causing Intrinsic

Deterioration Extrinsic Leads to
Cracking
Scaling Visible
Spalling
Popouts Damage
Delamination
etc.
Principles for Assessed

Repair repair and protection
Condition Condition Visual inspection

Non-Destructive Testing
evaluation survey Destructive Testing
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Outlines
Concrete Defects and Damage
Concrete Damage due to Reinforcement Corrosion
Typical times of appearance of defects
Recognizing defects and probable causes
Defects due to construction
Load-induced Defects
Defects related environmental factors and material properties
Other defects (ASR DEF Fire Masonry and rendering

defects)
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Concrete Defects and Damage
Mechanical Chemical Physical

Impact. Alkali aggregate reaction. Freeze/thaw action.
Overloading. Aggressive chemical agents Thermal movement.
Movement exposure i.e. sulphates, nitrates Salt crystal expansion.
(settlement). and other salts, soft water Shrinkage.
Vibration. (acidic/low pH). Erosion.
Earthquake. Bacterial or other biological Abrasion and wear.
Explosion. action.
Efflorescence/leaching.
Example: Cracking Example: Chemical attack from Example: Freeze/thaw
caused by incorrect aggressive gases (and subsequent effects with progressive
handling or fixing of reinforcement corrosion) on the top scaling on the soffits of a
precast panels. of chimneys or the soffits of a parking structure.
factory roof.
https://www.concreterepairsite.co.uk/DamageNProblems.html
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Concrete Damage due to Reinforcement Corrosion
https://www.concreterepairsite.co.uk/DamageNProblems.html
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Recognizing defects and probable causes
Many factors may contribute to or Appearance of defects

cause the deterioration of concrete
structures
1. Cracking
These factors may be broadly 2. Scaling
summarized as follows: 3. Delamination
Errors in the design assumptions 4. Spalling
or the design process
Specification or use of
5. Popouts
inappropriate materials 6. Efflorescence
Poor workmanship 7. Construction defects
Environmental effects
8. Other damage
Overloading, due to under-design
or change of use 9. ..
Accidental effects such as fire
Inappropriate repairs
http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/44000/44500/44562/State_Study_169_-
_Diagnostic_Evaluation_and_Repair_of_Deteriorated_Concrete_Bridges.pdf
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Type of Cracking Form of Crack Primary Cause Time of Appearance

Above and aligned
Plastic Subsidence around rebar; 10 minutes to
with steel
settlement excessive water in the mix. three hours
reinforcement
Plastic 30 minutes to six
Diagonal or random Excessive early evaporation
shrinkage hours
Thermal Transverse
Excessive heat generation One day to
expansion and (example: across the
or temperature gradients two or three weeks
contraction pavement)
Excessive water in the mix;
Drying Transverse or
poor joint placement; joints Weeks to months
shrinkage pattern
over-spaced
Inadequate air entrainment;
Freezing and Parallel to the After one or more
non-durable coarse
thawing concrete surface winters
aggregate
Continue .
http://www.nachi.org/visual-inspection-concrete.htm
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Type of Cracking Form of Crack Primary Cause Time of Appearance
Inadequate concrete cover;

Corrosion of
Above reinforcement ingress of moisture or More than two years
reinforcement
chloride
Typically, over five years,

Pattern cracks;
Alkali-aggregate Reactive aggregate plus but may be much sooner
cracks parallel to
reaction moisture with highly reactive
joints or edges
aggregate
External or internal sulfates
Sulfate attack Pattern cracks promoting the formation of One to five years
ettringite
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Common causes of cracking in concrete structures
Types of cracks
Before hardening After hardening
Construction Frost Volume Structural / Physio-

Plastic
movement damage instability design chemical
Freeze-thaw cycling
Premature freezing
Plastic settlement
Design/subgrade
Drying shrinkage
Thermal change
Plastic shrinkage
Steel corrosion
Scaling, crazing
load/overload
AAR/ASR/DEF
Autonomous
Framework
movement
movement
shrinkage
Subgrade
Fatigue
Design
Creep
Control of Cracking in Concrete: State of the Art
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/circulars/ec107.pdf
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Intrinsic cracks in hypothetical structure
Concrete society technical report 22

Non-structural cracks on concrete.
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Crack sizes
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Defects due to construction
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Construction defects
WHY Do construction defects Occur? Dimensional errors in concrete

Honeycomb and rock pockets appear structure result due to poor centering of
on the concrete surface where voids structural member as per drawing or
are left due to failure of cement mortar error in detailing.
to fill spaces around and among coarse Finishing errors in concrete structures
aggregates. This happens due to: can involve over-finishing of the
poor quality control during mixing, concrete surface or addition of more
transporting or placing of concrete water or cement to the surface during
under or over-compaction of finishing of the concrete.
concrete, low cement content or This results in the porous surface which
improper mix design make the concrete permeable resulting
in less durable concrete.
Poor finishing of concrete results in the
spalling of concrete from surface early
in their service life.
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Another source of construction defects

is related to insufficient concrete cover
which may be caused by shift or cage
shift, improper fabrication of steel, or
improper placement of forms.
Basic Categories of Construction
Defects
Site Defects
Building Envelope Defects
Structural Defects
Heating, Ventilating, and Air
Conditioning Defects Example of construction defects
Electrical and Plumbing Defects (insufficient concrete cover)
Fire/Life Safety System Defects
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Definition:
Defects in concrete structures can be
due to poor construction practices i.e.
poor construction quality control at site
or due to poor structural design and
detailing.
After construction at site, the common
types of defects in concrete structures
are:
Honeycombing and rock pockets,
form failure or misalignment of
formwork,
dimensional errors,
rock pockets and finishing errors.
Examples of construction defects
http://theconstructor.org/concrete/construction-defects-in-concrete-structures/8472/
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Plastic Shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage is caused by

excessively high rates of evaporation
from the surface of the concrete before
it has hardened.
Drying does not take place at an even
rate throughout the concrete matrix. It Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
happens most rapidly at the upper
surface through evaporation and more Cause:
slowly at the bottom through This condition occurs as a
absorption.
result of very rapid evaporation
The rate at which the sub-grade of the concrete while it is still in
absorbs water will depend on its a plastic state.
absorbent properties, including its
porosity, moisture content, and even its Hot, dry, and windy
electro-chemical properties. environmental conditions and
lack of countermeasures
employed.
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Plastic Settlement
Plastic settlement can be caused by

subsidence around rebar.
This is sometimes related to excessive
water in the mix.
As soon as concrete is placed, it begins
to consolidate, and as bleed water rises
to the surface, cement particles
consolidate and the concrete settles.
The settling process is restrained by
reinforcement steel and, under certain
circumstances, cracks will develop
directly above the steel.
Plastic settlement cracks can be
caused by:
inadequate concrete cover of the steel;
Repeating pattern of cracks where
excessive water in the concrete; rebar cross-members connect
form movement or blowout; or longitudinal rebar
poor consolidation practices.
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Autogenous Shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage is shrinkage caused However, tensile stresses still develop,

by the loss of water to the atmosphere. and embedded steel can cause
Autogenous shrinkage is shrinkage that anomalies in an area of concrete with
takes place with no loss of water to the relatively uniform stress.
atmosphere. These anomalies can cause variations
Autogenous shrinkage is caused by in stress within the concrete that are
internal drying, with water being relieved by cracking. Autogenous
absorbed by the constituent materials shrinkage cracking will be shallow and
in the concrete. is not a structural issue.
Absorption of water from the pores also
causes shrinkage.
Since there is no loss of water to one
exposed surface, autogenous
shrinkage is more uniform than plastic
shrinkage.
Outside corners are also high-stress points.
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Crazing
Definition:
Pattern cracking, also called map
cracking and craze cracking, appears
as a network of random cracking on the
concretes surface.
The cracking is usually shallow (less
than 3 mm deep) and not a structural
issue.
Its seldom a durability problem but
more of a cosmetic one.
The area enclosed by pattern cracking
may be anywhere from 1.25 cm to 20 Crazing cracks caused by premature
cm across. drying
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Crazing
WHY do crazing cracks occur? over-working the surface with a

poor curing practices steel trowel during finishing
Environmental conditions such as performing finishing operations
low humidity, high outside while bleed water is still on the
temperatures, direct sunlight, and surface
wind can create high rates of sprinkling cement dust on the
evaporation from the surface layer surface to soak up bleed water.
of concrete
Resistance to shrinkage from the
underlying concrete causes stress
that is relieved by craze cracking
excessive water in the mix
over-vibration of the concrete,
causing coarse aggregate to settle
and cement paste to concentrate
at the surface
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Drying Shrinkage
Drying shrinkage is shrinkage that

takes place after the concrete has
hardened and some degree of bonding
has developed between the cement
paste and the aggregate.
As concrete continues to dry, it will
continue to shrink.
Drying shrinkage includes both
A typical interruption in a shrinkage crack
shrinkage that takes place while losing
moisture to the air and autogenous
shrinking
The cracks will look similar to those
formed during plastic shrinkage
Drying shrinkage cracks may be the
propagation of cracks that initially
developed during plastic shrinkage.
A re-entrant corner crack
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Cracking examples
Cracks due to continuous

external restraint (example: cast-
Cracks due to
in-place wall restrained along
unsuitable jointing
bottom edge of footing)
Cracks due to lack of

Settlement cracks isolation joints
http://www.nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/04p.pdf
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Load-induced Defects
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Structural cracks
Structural cracks
are caused by both dead and live
load stresses, which can lead to
eventual failure of the structure.
Flexure structural cracks are
vertical and begin in areas of
maximum tension or moment. Flexure structural cracks
Shear structural cracks are
diagonal and are usually found in
the web of a member. They may
begin at the bottom and move
diagonally toward the center of the
member.
Shear structural cracks
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Structural cracks
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Fatigue
Concrete fatigue is long-term failure Crack development and bond failure

due to repeated loading (cycles). worsen slowly over time and are
Loads may be applied in tension, influenced by a number of variables.
compression, torsion (twisting), Fatigue is not something most
bending, or a combination of these inspectors will be able to identify and is
actions. less common in residential construction
In fatigue, each individual load is less than in commercial and especially
than a single static or unchanging load industrial structures.
that would exceed the strength of the
concrete.
Fatigue has to do with the development
and propagation or growth of cracks
and micro-cracks, and the failure of the
bond between the cement paste and
aggregate.
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Defects related
environmental factors and
material properties
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Weathering
Weathering is the effect of pollution and

natural forces, such as frost, rain and
sunlight, on a structure.
With concrete, the main weathering
problem is unexpected variations in the
visual appearance of the structure.
Dust in the atmosphere will be
deposited on the facade. The flow of
rainwater will tend to wash some areas
preferentially, resulting in significant
differences in colour between clean and
dirty areas.
This phenomenon is controlled by
many factors, including the surface
texture of the concrete, the
architectural detailing and the
orientation of the structure.
http://www.concreteconstruction.net/Images/Weathering%20of%20
Concrete_tcm45-342061.pdf
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Mold and moisture damage
Definition of Mold For favorable growing conditions, mold

Molds are fungi which occur naturally in needs nutrients (oxygen and moisture)
the environment. and a material to grow on.
Many different species of mold exist. Molds reproduce by making spores.
Molds help break down dead materials These spores become airborne, both
and convert it back into organic matter outside and inside of buildings.
which can be used by living organisms. If spores land on suitable material and
How Molds Grow? conditions are favorable, the mold will
begin to grow.
Molds grow by digesting and destroying
the material they grow on.
They can be found almost anywhere
and can grow on just about any
material as long as conditions are
favorable.
http://www.epa.gov/mold/pdfs/moldguide.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/mold/pdfs/moldremediation.pdf
http://www.nj.gov/health/eohap/mold/documents/mold
_guidelines.pdf
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Appearance of Mold Many building materials such as drywall,

Molds grow in colonies and growth ceiling tiles and wood framing contain
may take on different shapes and cellulose, which is a material on which
colors. molds can grow.
Some molds may appear circular in Molds may grow unnoticed, above
growth while others may grow and ceilings, behind walls, in attics and
spread to cover an area. basements or in crawl spaces.
Molds may appear brown, yellow, Molds can cause staining of walls and
green or black in color. ceilings and can begin to break down the
studs and joists of buildings causing
The appearance depends on the extensive property damage.
species of mold present.
Excessive moisture is a key ingredient
Understanding Molds which causes molds to grow.
Even though molds are everywhere, Sources of excess moisture may be
they may become a problem when plumbing leaks, leaking roofs or windows,
they begin to grow inside homes and high humidity, flooding, or condensation
buildings. inside walls due to poor insulation.
_guidelines.pdf
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Common Health Effects Include:

Allergic reactions - sneezing, nasal
congestion
Irritation to the nose, throat, and
respiratory tract
Asthma attacks
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
_guidelines.pdf
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_guidelines.pdf
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Thermal expansion
Nonstructural cracks can be caused The problem occurs when the

by thermal expansion and contraction movement is underestimated, not
of concrete, contraction of the concrete allowed for, or when correctly sized
during the curing process, or joints become contaminated with
temperature gradients within massive material that is not compressible.
sections of concrete.
A blowup is a localized upward
movement of a concrete curb or slab,
usually at a joint or crack.
The thermal expansion of concrete is
18 20 10-6/C.
Expansion joints are incorporated in
designs to take up this linear
dimensional change.
Cracking from the straight plane of a
concrete element due to forces
imposed by thermal expansion.
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Scaling
Definition: Heavy scale is the loss of surface

Scaling is flaking or peeling of a mortar from 13 mm deep to 25
finished hardened concrete surface as mmm deep clearly exposing
a result of exposure to cycles of coarse aggregates.
freezing and thawing. Severe scale is the loss of surface
Generally it starts as localized small mortar greater than 25 mm deep
patches, which later may merge and where coarse aggregate particles
extend to expose large areas. are lost and reinforcing steel is
exposed.
Scaling is classified as:
Light scale is the loss of surface
mortar up to 6 mm deep exposing
coarse aggregates.
Medium scale is the loss of
surface mortar from 6 mm to 13 Light scale
mm deep with mortar loss between
the coarse aggregates.
http://www.armca.ca/uploads/files/Tech%20Tips/CTT2-Scaling%20Concrete%20Surfaces.pdf
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Scaling
WHY Do Concrete Surfaces Scale? C. Any finishing operation performed

A. The use of non-air-entrained concrete while bleed water is on the surface.
or too little entrained air. If bleed water is worked back into
Adequate air entrained is required the top surface of the slab, a high
for protection against freezing and water/cement ratio and, therefore,
thawing damage. a low -strength surface layer is
produced.
Overworking the surface during
B. Application of excessive amounts of finishing will reduce the air content
calcium or sodium chloride deicing in the surface layer, making it
salts on concrete. susceptible to scaling in freezing
Chemicals such as ammonium conditions.
sulphate or ammonium nitrate,
D. Insufficient curing.
which are components of most
fertilizers, can cause scaling as This omission results in a weak
well as induce severe chemical surface skin, which will scale if it is
attach on the concrete surface. exposed to freezing and thawing in
the presence of moisture and
deicing salts.
http://www.armca.ca/uploads/files/Tech%20Tips/CTT2-Scaling%20Concrete%20Surfaces.pdf
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Popouts
Definition: As the aggregate absorbs moisture or

A popout is a small fragment of freezes under moist conditions, its
concrete surface that broke away due swelling creates internal pressures
to internal pressure, leaving a shallow, sufficient to scale the concrete surface.
typically conical, depression. Ironstone, coal, shale and soft fine
Popouts general vary size from 6 to 50 grained limestone are the commonly
mm in diameter, but can be up to 300 observed causes of popouts.
mm in size.
Usually fractured aggregate particle will
be found at the bottom of the hole, with
a part of the aggregate still bonded to
the point of the popout cone.
WHY Do Popouts Occur?
Popouts are usually caused by the
expansion of porous aggregate
particles having a high rate of
absorption.
http://www.armca.ca/uploads/files/Tech%20Tips/17%20Tip.pdf
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Delamination
Definition:
Delamination is the separating of
concrete layers at or near the
outermost layer of reinforcing steel.
WHY Does Delamination Occur?

Delamination is caused by the
expansion of corroding reinforcing
steel and can lead to severe
cracking.
Rust can occupy up to ten times
the volume of the corroded steel
which it replaces.
Delaminations are separations in
a slab, parallel to and generally
near the upper surface
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Spalling
Definition:
Spalling is a deep surface defect, often
appearing as circular or oval
depressions on surfaces or as
elongated cavities along joints.
Spalls may be 25 mm or more in depth
and 150 mm or more in diameter,
although smaller spalls also occur.
WHY Does Spalling Occur?

Spalls are caused by pressure or
expansion within the concrete, bond
failure in two-course construction,
impact loads, fire, or weathering.
Improperly constructed joints and
corroded reinforcing steel are two
common causes of spalls Spalling of Concrete slab due to corrosion
http://www.sydneyengineers.com/articles/66-concrete-spalling
http://www.cement.org/docs/default-source/fc_concrete_technology/durability/is177-
concrete-slab-surface-defects-causes-prevention-repair.pdf?sfvrsn=4
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Efflorescence
Definition:
Efflorescence is a crystaline deposit on Brick
surfaces of masonry, stucco or
Efflorescence
concrete. It is whitish in appearance,
and is sometimes referred to as
"whiskers".
WHY Does Spalling Occur?

Efflorescence is caused by vapor
migrating through the structure bringing
soluble salts to the surface
Efflorescence requires the movement
of moisture. Without moisture
movement there would be no
efflorescence on the surface to create
the problem.
Concrete Efflorescence
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Steel Corrosion
Corrosion of embedded steel is the

most common cause of concrete
problems.
As steel corrodes, the corrosion
product expands, and this expansion
can crack concrete and cause sections
to break loose in flakes. Corrosion typical of inadequate cover
Inadequate cover due to control joints
is also common in flatwork. Where
control joints are installed perpendicular
to embedded rebar, the areas at which
the control joint crosses each bar may
develop cracking and corrosion, and
eventually spalling or flaking.
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Other defects
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Alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
Major infrastructure projects such as

dams, roadways or airport runways
require enormous quantities of
aggregates.
Some aggregates can exhibit an
increased or high risk of ASR.
Alkali-Silica Reaction is a chemical
reaction which occurs between the
amorphous silica in the aggregate and
the pore solution (alkalis) of the cement
matrix.
The reaction results in an increase of The appearance of ASR damage
concrete volume, causing cracking and can be assessed very well on the
spalling when the generated forces drying concrete surface of this
exceed the tensile strength of the bridge pylon. Damage can appear
concrete. within years or only after decades.
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Delayed ettringite formation (DEF)
Delayed ettringite formation (DEF) is

expansion and cracking of concrete
associated with the delayed formation
of the mineral ettringite which is a
normal product of early cement
hydration.
DEF is a result of high early
temperatures (above 70oC 80oC) in
the concrete which prevents the normal
formation of ettringite.
DEF-induced damage is not a common
phenomenon in concrete. Delayed ettringite formation:
(e) ettringite
Water or moisture from an external
(L) surrounds the coarse limetone aggregate
source is required for the reaction to
(s) Fine aggregate is silica sand
occur, the availability of which will affect
both the rate and the extent of
expansion.
http://www.whd.co.uk/Concrete/concretebysem.html
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Other damage: Fire damage
http://www.buildsmartercolorado.org/documents/Evaluating%20Fire%20
Damage%20to%20Concrete%20Structures_tcm45-343618.pdf
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Other damage: Fire damage
http://www.brandforsk.se/MediaBinaryLoader.axd?MediaArchive_FileID=43f89b58-b5fa-45ae-
a60f-56ba9b14d57b&FileName=BF_306_071_Rapport.pdf&MediaArchive_ForceDownload=true
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Possible Sources and Effects of Masonry Distress
http://www.gobrick.com/portals/25/docs/technical%20notes/tn46.pdf
47
Possible Sources and Effects of Masonry Distress
Masonry
Cracked Units
Loose Units
Cracking
Spalled Units
modes
Hairline Cracks in Mortar
Deteriorated Mortar Joints
Missing or Clogged Weeps
Plant Growth
Deteriorated/Torn Sealants
Out-of-Plumb
Efflorescence
Stains
Water Penetration
http://www.gobrick.com/portals/25/docs/technical%20notes/tn46.pdf
48
Brick Efflorescence
Brick Efflorescence Analysis

Firstly: There must be water-soluble
salts present somewhere in the wall.
Secondly: There must be sufficient
moisture in the wall to render the salts
into a soluble solution.
Thirdly: There must be a path for the
soluble salts to migrate through to the
surface where the moisture can
evaporate, thus depositing the salts
which then crystallize and cause
efflorescence.
All three conditions must exist.
If any one of these conditions is
not present, then efflorescence
cannot occur.
http://www.masonryworktools.com/brickefflorescence.html
49
Eroded Mortar Joint
What To Look For:

Slight or local erosion of mortar in joint.
Small erosion depth relative to exterior
face of brick.
Aggregate (fine sand) exposed.
Probable Causes:
Erosion due to wind or frost cycles.
Disaggregating of lime component of
the binder.
FAADE CONDITIONS: An Illustrated Glossary of Visual

Symptoms, Edited by Dan Eschenasy
50
Classification of the defects in wall renderings
Defects associated Mechanically-related

Aesthetic defects
with humidity defects
Infiltrations / dampness Adherence

Graffiti
stains loss/detachment
Efflorescence /
Corrosion stains Map cracking
cryptoflorescence
Dirt / deposits of Cohesion
Biological colonization
particles loss/crumbling
Colour
Carbonation Scratches / grooves
change/discolouration
Vegetation growth Linear cracking
http://ijce.iust.ac.ir/files/site1/user_files_6k93w6/eng/jorgedebrito-A-10-1399-1-8b1ef1b.pdf
51
Examples of rendering defects
Efflorescence to Corrosion stains Adherence
wall rendering coming through loss/detachment
painted render
Render cracking
Moisture
problems
52
Examples of rendering defects
Cohesion
loss/crumbling Map cracking
Render cracking
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Summary
Lecture summary Next lecture

Concrete Defects and Damage Condition survey overview
Concrete Damage due to Condition survey parts:
Reinforcement Corrosion
Review of plans and
Typical times of appearance of
defects relevant documents
Recognizing defects and probable Visual inspection
causes Non-destructive testing
Defects due to construction Laboratory and destructive
Load-induced Defects testing (the following
Defects related environmental lecture)
factors and material properties
Other defects (ASR DEF
Fire Masonry and rendering
defects)

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1

Defects and damage in structures

Factors Causing Intrinsic

Principles for Assessed

Condition Condition Visual inspection

Concrete Damage due to Reinforcement Corrosion

Typical times of appearance of defects

Recognizing defects and probable causes

Defects due to construction

Defects related environmental factors and material properties

Other defects (ASR DEF Fire Masonry and rendering

Mechanical Chemical Physical

Many factors may contribute to or Appearance of defects

Type of Cracking Form of Crack Primary Cause Time of Appearance

Type of Cracking Form of Crack Primary Cause Time of Appearance

Inadequate concrete cover;

Typically, over five years,

Before hardening After hardening

Construction Frost Volume Structural / Physio-

Concrete society technical report 22

Defects due to construction

WHY Do construction defects Occur? Dimensional errors in concrete

Another source of construction defects

Examples of construction defects

Plastic shrinkage is caused by

Plastic settlement can be caused by

Plastic shrinkage is shrinkage caused However, tensile stresses still develop,

Outside corners are also high-stress points.

WHY do crazing cracks occur? over-working the surface with a

Drying shrinkage is shrinkage that

Cracks due to continuous

Cracks due to lack of

Shear structural cracks

Concrete fatigue is long-term failure Crack development and bond failure

Weathering is the effect of pollution and

Definition of Mold For favorable growing conditions, mold

Appearance of Mold Many building materials such as drywall,

Common Health Effects Include:

Nonstructural cracks can be caused The problem occurs when the

Definition: Heavy scale is the loss of surface

WHY Do Concrete Surfaces Scale? C. Any finishing operation performed

Definition: As the aggregate absorbs moisture or

WHY Does Delamination Occur?

WHY Does Spalling Occur?

WHY Does Spalling Occur?

Corrosion of embedded steel is the

Major infrastructure projects such as

Delayed ettringite formation (DEF) is

Brick Efflorescence Analysis

What To Look For:

FAADE CONDITIONS: An Illustrated Glossary of Visual

Defects associated Mechanically-related

Infiltrations / dampness Adherence

Vegetation growth Linear cracking

Lecture summary Next lecture

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