Fisheries Paper I I Yr 2

UNIT 1
Introduction to Aquaculture
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Aquaculture
1.3 History and scope of aquaculture
14. Present status of aquaculture
15 Hazards for aquaculture
1.6 Organization supporting aquaculture
Learning Objectives
After completion of this unit the student will able to understand about
Study of history need and scope of aquaculture
Study of various types in aquaculture
Study in practices of aquaculture
Study of cultivable species in aquaculture
Study of present status of India
1.1 Introduction
It has been defined in many ways. It has been called as the rearing of
aquatic under controlled or semi controlled condition-this it si underwater
122 Fisheries
agriculture. The other definition of aquaculture is the art of cultivating the natural
produce of water, the raising or fattening of fish in enclosed ponds. Another one
is simply the large-scale husbandry or rearing of aquatic organism for commercial
purposes. Aquaculture can be potential means of reducing organism for
commercial products, it can mean an increased number of jobs, enhanced sport
and commercial fishing and a reliable of protein for the future.
Fish is a rich source of animal protein and its culture is an effect protein
food production system from aquatic environment. The main role in fish culture
is its helps in utilizing in improving the nutritional standards of the people. Fish
culture also helps in utilizing water and land resources . It provides inducement
to establish other subsidiary industries in the country.
Aquaculture happens to be the only means of maintaining overall
supplies, trough various management discipline, viz, management of seed
farms, brood stock management , management of Hatcheries, water quantity
management, nursery pond management etc.
1.2 Type of Aquaculture
1.2.1 Based on type of water
Based on the type of water, aquaculture in three type - fresh water
aquaculture where the culture take place in fresh water, bodies ,brackish, water
aquaculture where the culture takes place in brackish water and mariculture
where culture takes place in sea water. Aquaculture includes the culture of
aquatic organism of food, culture to improve the natural stocks, culture of
ornamental fish and sport fish, integrated farming etc.
1.2.2 Based on Management Intensity
Aquaculture can be categorized into five types mainly based on level of
management intensity of cultural system.
1. Traditional culture : It is the simplest and an age old practice
with minimum inputs managements. No selection of species, fertilization and
supplementary feeding. In traditional culture system the yield is very less.
2. Extensive culture : It is an improved culture system over the
cultivable species are selected and stocked species mostly depend on natural
food organism. Fertilizers and supplementary feeds are used to limited extent
in the properly prepared fields.
3. Semi intensive culture : It is an improved culture system over the
extensive system, where the cultivable species are selected and stocked in the
Paper - II Aqua Culture 123
form of fingerling or post, larvae. Formulated compound feed as per nutritional

requirements is provided. Natural food is negligible in the culture system.
4. Intensive culture : It is highly evolved culture system with more
stocking density and provide more formulated feed and more aeration. Stoking
is done more formulated feed and more aeration. Stocking is done with
hatchery reared juveniles, water quality is maintained by frequent changing
or by providing water circulation together with constant aeration.
5. Super or hyper intensive culture : The stocking density is higher
than of intensive culture . Continuous water exchange is made through biological
filter system. Constant aeration is provided to meet the higher stocking densities.
Encapsulated pellated feeds are provided for better growth of cultivable
animals.
1.2.3 Based on input intensity
Based on level of input intensity, the aquaculture is categorized into four
levels.
1. O- Level : In this level absolutely no management is found in culture
system no stocking manures and supplementary feeds applied in this system.
2. I - Level : Only one management of stocking seed is prevalent.
Seed is stocked in culture system. No manuring and supplementary feeding in
the culture system. Only natural food organism useful as food or stocked
animal is used.
3. II - Level : Two types of management of stocking seed and
manure application are prevalent. Seed is stocked. Supplementary feed is not
applied. Culture animals still depend on natural food organism, which can be
raised by application or organic and inorganic manures in the culture system.
4. III - Level : Three types of management techniques are applied in
this type of culture system . These are seed stocking, application of manured
and supplementary feeding. Semi sensitive intensive and hyper intensive culture
system are of this type only and the production is very high in contrast to the
above levels.
1.2.4 Based on water media
Depending on the physico chemical characteristics of the water media
the water are divided as fresh water, Brackish water and Marine water.
124 Fisheries
Fresh water Aquaculture

The fresh water aquaculture deals with due the culture of the organism
in fresh water resources namely rivers, streams , canals, reservoirs. Anicuts
tanks and ponds etc,. The aspects of breeding of the parent stock growing
the seed, preparing the water source for culture, stocking , water management,
post stocking management methods and harvesting are included. The type of
organism cultured include fishes, prawns, mussels, frogs, aquatic plants etc.
(a) Aquaculture in flowing fresh water
The flowing water are also called as lotic water. The rivers, streams ,
canal and distributors are the flowing water resources. The development of
river fishery by auto stocking will always be taking place in rivers, streams,
pools in the rivers and tanks connected to rivers by streams. The aquaculture is
not possible in flowing water as the there are no control over them. The
stocking of fish seed or fertilizing the water go a waste. Moreover the river will
have already some fish (both predatory and non predatory). The stocking of
seed in water source having fishes will not be profitable. In addition the fish
seed stocked will not stay at the place of stocking. The running water are rich
is dissolved oxygen. However there is limited scope for taking up fish culture
in canals with less flow of water by taking up culture of fish in cages.
(b) Aquaculture in Stagnant water
The stagnant water are also called as lentic water. This include Lakes,
reservoir , anicuts, tank , and ponds constructed exclusively for culture of the
organism.
The swamps are also stagnant water with less dissolved oxygen content.
The lakes are naturally formed water bodies due to the low lying areas.
The reservoirs are man made water bodies constructed across a river
of stream. They are mostly perineal. The excess water is discharged through
the spillways.
The tanks are perineal (water retained throughout the year ) long
seasonal ( water retained for 8 to 11 months) and seasonal (water retained for
less than 8 months). In the short seasonal tanks the fish growing is not profitable,.
The ponds are water bodies constructed exclusively with definite shape and
size to take up culture of the organism .
In the earlier period, the man had constructed water impound in streams
and rives are called them as tanks and distributaries to the paddy fields. Thus
the water are stored for certain period. Aquaculture is a secondary objective
in irrigation resources.
(c) Brackish water aquaculture
The brackish water are areas of confluences of fresh water and sea
water and the pH ranges from 5 to 27 ppt. The brackish water aquaculture is
also known as Coastal aquaculture. The brackish water fish such as mullet
and other fishes were cultured off the Italian coast by Romans long ago. Later
culture of mullets, lates, milk fish and shrimp were tried in the states of
Kerela, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Estuaries back water creeks and lagoons are the main non stagnant
brackish water. In these water fishes and the seed of milk fish (Chanos) mullet
(Mugli Cepahlus) , Elops, Megalops polynemus, Lates , Etroplus, tilapia
shrimp are available. The word shrimp is used for the prawns available in the
marine and brackish water sources while the term prawn is used for them in
fresh water sources.
These following water are useful for collection of fish seed or prawns
larvae for growing in Brackish water fish ponds. Directly the fish culture in
these water are not be possible, but under favourable conditions the culture in
cages or pens maybe tried,. Now the collection of prawn larvae and selling
is going on these water.
(d) Mariculture
The water in oceans are vast, deep and uncontrolled stocking of fish
seed will not profitable . Manuring of water cannot be done. Feeding of the
required fish is impossible. Hence fish culture in oceans is not possible .
However the culture of other aquatic organism i.e bivalue culture , Pearl
culture in cages.
1.2.5 Based on Stocking Organism
The following aquaculture practice are followed.
1. Monoculture
Rearing of a single species of fish is called Monoculture, it is called
monospecies culture.
E.g. Culture of Catla in a pond.
2. Monosex culture
Rearing of only sex of species is called Monosex culture E.g. Tilapia.
126 Fisheries
3. Polyculture
Rearing of different species in a water body is called polyculture. It is
also called composite culture, E.g. culturing of catla , Rohu, Mrigal in a water
body.
4. Integrated fish culture
Culturing fishes along with paddy, poultry, piggery and dairy is called
integrated fish culture. E.g. Indian major carps.
(a) Paddy cum fish culture
Rearing of fish in paddy fields is called paddy cum fish culture. E.g.
Catla, Rohu.
(b) Poultry cum fish culture
Rearing of fishes along with poultry is called poultry cum fish culture.
E.g. India major carps.
(c) Dairy cum fish culture
Rearing of fishes along with dairy farm is called dairy cum fish culture.
E.g, Indian major carps.
(d) Pig cums fish culture
Rearing of fishes along with pig farm is called pi cum fish culture. E..
Indian major carps.
1.2.6 Selection criteria of cultivable species
Profitably culture species should have the following characteristics
1. Should be able to linen captivity (ponds , bunds, reservoir etc) with
other fishes without any disturbance.
2. Should be able to feed on natural as well as artificial . They should
also be able to consume small quantity.
3. Should be able to grow at faster rate and attain marketable is size
shorter spam of time.
5. Should be able to breed successfully and prolifically in confinement.
6. Should be hardy and able to total rate climate as well as environment
or ecological changes in the cultivable waters.
7. Should be resistant to disease.
8. Should be palatable and nutritive.

1.3 History and scope of aquaculture
Aquaculture has as substantial history, although its exact origins still
mystery. The picture on an Egyptian tomb showing thapia being fished out of
artificial tank in 2500 BC fives evidence that Egyptians were probably first in
the world to culture fish. In China carps are known to have been spawned
and reared about 2500 years the Tang Dynasty 1400 to 1100 year ago, major
break through in carp culture came with initiation of polyculture. Aquaculture
methods spread from China to Korea and the to Japan about 1700 year ago.
Carp culture was brought to England in the fifteenth century for the first time
. Chines who migrated carrying during along with them the traditional
knowledge of carp culture to Malaysia, Indonesia ,. Formosa and Thailand
established fish culture.
Mullets and other fish may have been cultivated off the Italian coast by
the Romans .This skills has been passed down from the Egyptian . Besides fish
bivalve molluscs have also been cultivated due to their great popularity as
food. In Europe the techniques of fin fish culture were well established by the
1850s. Richard Nittle, the first superintendent of fishes for lower Canada,
incubated and hatched the eggs of brow trough and Atlantic salmon in 1857.
The sue of hormone injections for induced breeding of fish began Brazil in
1930s. Coaster were cultured during the late nineteenth century.
Cyprinus carpio the common carp has been exported to several countries
over all the world and its culture has achieved a very high degree of perfection
. The poly culture of carps appear to have been first developed in China.
In India, fish culture system was developed thousands of year ago.
Susreta made ecological classification of fishes in 600BC. Kautilya mentioned
in his Arthasastra about fish culture in tanks and reservoir period in 246BC.
Kings someswara fishes III son of the king Vikramaditya VI possessed
immense knowledge of herbivorous carnivorous and detritivorous feeding habits
of different species of fish and recycling of wastes in 1126-1138 AD. Princess
Khona, knew about integration of aquaculture and agriculture and
recommended rearing of vegetables of the banks of fish ponds. During 1785
, Bloch published a book Auslandiche fische which contains many Indians
marine species . Russels described 200 species of fishes in 1803. Hamilton
made a descriptio of 269 species of fishes form the Ganges and its tributaries
in 1828 - 1849. Curvier and Fransis day (1878-1889) provided notable
information on the Indian fishes in Fishes of India, and Fauna of British India.
128 Fisheries
Important events took place in the history of fisheries in India with the
enhancement of Indian fisheries Act 1897 and declaration of exclusive economic
zone (EEZ) in the sea upto 200 nautical miles in 1976. The Indian fisheries act
delegated the responsibility of development management and conservation of
fishery resources to the state.
The main objectives to be achieved through aquaculture are as follows
1. To be national and economy by way of increasing per capital
production for per capita consumption and per capita income .
2. To create employment opportunities.
3. To properly utilize the available natural water resources.
4. To uplift the socio economic status of the peoples .
5. To earn foreign exchange.
6. To fulfil sport and game purpose by culturing Trouts and Mahasers.
7. To culture fishes of ornamental value ,viz, Black molly, red sward
tail, blue gourami, kissing gourami etc. For aquarium purpose.
8. To culture larrivorus fishes with a view to control mosquito larvae
fishes like Gambusia, poecilia pathobranchius.
1.4 Present status of aquaculture in India
Aquaculture has shown to be an attractive option of enhancing the
fish production in the country when there has been absolutely no growth or
even a decline of fish catch from open water resources. Contrary to just 80%
growth in capture fisheries during last three decades (from 2.1 million tonnes
in 1980 to 3.8 million tonnes at present) the growth form aquaculture sector
during the period has been over 1000% i.e. form 0.37 to over 9.8 million
tonnes. From the backyard activity until 1970s the sector has growth to the
stage of an economic enterprise in recent years. While aquaculture production
from open seas is yet to make existence and the land based coastal aquaculture
with present production of 3.7 million tonnes has placed the country among
the front runners in the global front. The sector has been able to demonstrate
remarkable annual growth rates of 6-7 % in last two decades and placed the
country as the second largest aquaculture producer in the world, only after
China . With the present share of over 95% of total aquaculture and 50% of
total fish production in the country, the fresh water aquaculture further looked
as the sunrise sector to meet demand for fish in year to come.
1.4.1 Fresh water

Fresh water aquaculture in India is synonymous to carp culture in the
country has been supported by strong traditional knowledge base and
technological back up an various aspects of management. Adoption of scientific
farming practice over the year has led to over five - fold increase in mean
national pond productivity i.e. from 600-800 kg/ha/ year in 1970 to over 2500
kg/ha/ year at present 2012. Ever growing demand for fish coupled with
increased entrepreneurship and greater investment have been other factor
responsible for such growth. Achievements of higher production level of 10-12
tonnes ha/year by the farmer from different regions are even common stories
today.
The three Indian major carps viz., catla (Cata catla) rohu, (Labeo
rohita) and the mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) have the principle species which
contributes lions share, with the three exotic carps viz., silver carp
(Hypophthalmicthys molitirx) grass carp ( Ctenopharngodon idella) and common
carp (Cyprinus carpio) forming the second important group of species. The
availability of host of carp culture technologies depending on the type and
level of inputs further makes the farming practice more farmer friendly and
adaptive. Although introduction of these exotic carps into the carp polyculture
system during early sixties added new dimension owing to their high growth
rates and compatibility with our Indian major carps. The consumer preference
in most part in most part of the country has been major problem for their large
scale adoption.
Polyculture of three Indian major carps or combination of three
major carps and three exotic carps, although has been advocated as standard
practice, the farming however is practices with several modification depending
on the resource availability and market demand in different regions. Several
other non-conventional culture system viz., sewage -fed fish culture integrated
farming system and cage and pen culture have provided greater option for the
farmer to utilize their resource for higher economic return. Diversification the
fresh water aquaculture system off late have also introduced high valued catfish
species like magur (Clarias batrachus) and fresh water prawns (Macrobrachium
rosenbrgii and M. Malcolmosnii) of course with moderate success. Introduction
of legalized large exotic catfish. Pangasius sutchi into the system in recent
years, however has proved to be an important aspect for increasing freshwater
pond productivity. With production of 10-20 tonnes/ha/year, the farming practice
has able to contributes as much as 0.2 million tonnes per year only form Krishna-
Godavari Delta of Andhra Pradesh. Considering consumer preference and
potential demand for several regionally important species for different regions
130 Fisheries
there has been greater R and D efforts on species diversification in recent

years. Concentrated efforts has been made or are being made for development
of technologies pertaining to mass scaled seen production of several potential
medium carps viz., Labeo calbasu, L. Fimbriatus, L.gonius, L bata, Cirrhinus
cirrhosa, C.teba, Puntius sarana and P. Jerdoni , catfish species like Pangassius
, Mystus seenghala, M, aor, Horabagrus brachysoma and Ompok pabda, and
other important live fishes like Anabas testudinues, channa striatus and
C.maruluis, and protocol for their farming .
With the increasing trade of ornamental fishes in recent year in the
country, there has been increased interest on establishment of ornamental fish
breeding and production units all across the country, especially a read adjacent
to the metropolitan cities like Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai due to ready
urban market and availability of international airport for both import and export
business. Recent year has further witnessed establishment for several breeding
units in states like Kerela, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal. While the
domestic production trade of ornamental fishes largely confined to breeding
to like guppies, mollies, platys, and swordtails, and a few egg-layers like
goldfish angel fish and guaramis, recent year has observed increase efforts on
breeding of indigenous species like Puntius denisonii, P. conchonius,
P.fillamentosus and several others.
1.4.2 Coastal Aquaculture
India has been 8,129km long coastal line the scientific and chimerical
aquaculture of the country at present in largely restricted to shrimp farming with
the development of shrimp farming in the country took place only during early
90s with several industrial units joining the sector, it could witness an
overwhelming growth into multi-billion doller industry with in short period of
one decade. The production level of shrimp recorded increase form 28,000
tonnes in 1988-1989 to 157,170 tonnes in 2001-2002 form just 13% of the
potential water area available i.e. 157,400hg. The technology of semi-intensive
culture could result production level of 4-6 t/ha in crop of 4-5 months. The
growth of the sector however was stalled subsequently by several factor
including the prohibition of farming in the CRZ, white spot disease out break
and the slump in export marker. In spite of disease problem that has been
plaguing the sector since 1994-1995 the industry however has learn to live
with certain modifications in pond management like moderate stocking densities
good farm management and health management.
Inspite of increasing thrust on species diversification and availability
of host of potential indigenous shrimp species in the country viz., P.penicillatus,
P. merguienisis and P. semisulcatus, culture to some extent could be extended
only to P.indicus. Of course recently the exotic Penaeus vannamei has also
been approved for commercial farming to limited extent. Culture of crab
species like Scylla serrata and S.tranquebarica has also been taken up by few
entrepreneurs, While several finfish species viz., Mugli cephalus, Liza parsia,
L, macrolepsis, L.tade, Chanos chanos, Lares clacarifer, Etroplus surantensis
and Epinephelus tauvina have been identified as potential species for farming
in coastal water, the farming has been restricted only to the seabass
Lates calcifier due to availability of technology of seed production and farming.
Successfully breeding of grouper, Epinephelus tauvina another fast growing
carnivorous fish, that has been achieved recently expected to help for diversifying
the culture practice.
The efforts on technology development for culture over last three
decades have led to development of technologies for farming of mussels, oysters
and sea weeds with some possibilities of crab and lobster fattening, Besides
providing option for supplementing the marine capture fisheries, the technologies
also created avenues for gainful employment for the fisher women in the
coastal area. With the green mussel, perna virdis and brown mussel, P. indica
as the two important mussel species, the culture technologies adopting rack
method, long line and raft culture methods depending on the water depth and
nature of the site, the culture mussel production of the country has increased
form about 20 tonnes in 1996 to around 10,000 tonnes in 2008. Further farming
of edible oyster, Crassostrea madrasenis has shown great and more than 2,000
villagers directly involved in oyster farming, The production has increased from
5 tonnes in 1996 to 1,4000 tonnes in 2008.
Successful demonstration of sea cage farming coast of the country
with seabass (Lates calcarifer) and Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) expected
to take a leap in coming days with involvement of entrepreneurs in the farming.
However ownership or leasing right with protection against navigation traditional
fishing and encroachment are other pre-requisites for development of the farming,
which must be addressed by the governmental interventions.
While aquaculture in the country has to expand both horizontally and
vertically it is necessary that the open water resource are also effectively managed
for sustaining the production at least at present production levels. Due emphasis
is also necessary for conversation of endemic resources which at present are
subjected to severe anthropogenic stress. Considering the stagnation of fish
production from open water , the aquaculture sector has to show at least two-
fold fish production, i.e. from the present level to about 8.0 million tonnes in
just one decade so as to meet the projected demand of about 12 million tones
of fish in country by 2020. Concentrated and coordinated efforts of R&D
132 Fisheries
organization developmental departments including NGOs and financial

institutions therefore are imperative for accomplishment of the target.
Fig. 1.1
1.5 Hazard for Aquaculture

Hazards for aquaculture
1. Pond parameter such as hardness,, acidity, alkalinity dissolved
oxygen level play an important role in aquaculture.
2. Contamination of pond water such as ammonia, nitrates hydrogen
sulphide etc, affect aquaculture.
3. Industrial effluents, pesticides, toxic elements etc., inhibit the growth
of aquatic organism.
4. The contamination of fresh water invade the marine culture and
cause yield loss.
5. Oxygen level is the critical factor.
1.6 Organization supporting to Aquaculture
The Indian government established a number of industrial tubes for
education and research in aquaculture. They provide education for students
produce graduates and postgraduates on fisheries.
The research institutes produce and the scientist design new

technologies, The new technologies are implemented by the farmer.
The institutes are functioning under five government organization .
They are
1. ICAR (Indian council of agricultural research)
2. Ministry of agriculture.
3. Ministry of commerce
4. Ministry of food precessing foods
5. CSIR
A number of fisheries developmental agencies are functioning under
the government of India . They are
1. CMFRI (Central Maring Fisheries Research Institute)
2. CIFRI (Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute)
3. CICFRI (Central Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute)
4. CIFA (Central Institute of Fresh water aquaculture)
6. CIBA ( Central of Brackish water aquaculture)
7. IFRI ( Inland Fisheries Research Institute)
8. IIFT ( Indian Institute of Fisheries Technology)
9. INET (Institute of Nautical Engineering and technology)
10. IFPI (Integrated Fisheries Project of India)
11. MPEDA (Marine Products Exports Development Authority)
12. EIA (Export Inspection Agency)
13. FSI (Fishery Survey of India)
14. FFDA (Fish Farmers Development Agencies)
15. BFDA (Brackish water Farmers Developmental Agency)
16. FAO (Food an Agriculture Organization)
17. ICILARM (International Centre for Living Aquatic Research
Management)
134 Fisheries
Summary
The aquaculture is the process of growing the aquatic organism in
different water sources aquaculture is the science of utilization of water for
growing fish and other aquatic flora and fauna in water and also the management
of water. The construction of water impoundments on streams (Tanks ) the
river reservoir are primarily mean for irrigation and fishery is secondary only.
The aquaculture in flowing water is not possible due to uncontrollable nature
of water. However the fishes living in river breed in up-stream and enrich the
river as well as stocking. In stagnant water like reservoir and tanks aquaculture
is possible of as certain things could be controlled . In reservoir stocking of
fish seed is done every year. In long seasonal tanks are fisherman stocking and
the seed and growing , In exclusive fish ponds constructed by private person,
the aquaculture is in full swing and high production is attained. Fish seed
stocking and feeding of fishes are the most important duties to be attended
for profitable aquaculture. In late 1950s the collection of natural fish seeds
from canal side burrow pits, basket traps laid across the distributors and
irrigation sluices was obtained and stoked in tanks. During the same period
the fish seed produced by bundh breeding of carps in west Bengal was
purchased by the fishermen of the other state and transported and stocked in
tanks.
Short Answer Type Question
1. Define Aqauculture.
2. Define fisheries.
3. What is auto-stocking ?
4. Define lentic and loctic water . Give example.
5. Define Brackish water aquaculture.
6. What is called mariculture ?
7. What is coastal aquaculture ?
8. What is the total length of coast line of India ?
9. Indicate the main hazards of aquaculture.
10. What is present status India in world in aqua production ?
11. Expand CIFA, CMFRI, CIFRI.
12. Expand MPEDA, BFDA.
13. Expand CICFRI, NCFRI.
UNIT 2
Composite Fish Culture
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Advantages in composite fish culture
2.3 Superiority over monoculture
2.4 Management of composite fish form
Learning Objectives
After completion of this unit, the student will be able to
Study advantages in composite fish culture
Study superiority of composite culture over monoculture
Study the composite fish culture management
2.1 Introduction
Carp culture is highly economic and profitable enterprise. Among may
fish farming practice, the composite fish culture is one, which a common fish
farmer can easily adopt with comparatively less investment to have over
production and income than the traditional practice. Efforts are being made
to increase fish production rates to a level of over 4000 kg.ha/yr, than around
1200kg/ha/yr as traditionally achieved.
136 Fisheries
The main aim of fish culture is to achieve the highest possible fish
production from ponds and water resources. The techniques of fish cultivation
involve both management of soil, water and husbandry of fish. Two criteria
less consumption of water by fish and high fecundity of very much in favour of
fish cultivation. Fish provide high quality food rich in protein, vitamins and other
in nutrients necessary for human health and growth.
Population explosion results in the area of cultivable land getting reduced,
and consequently animal protein is likely to be less in future due limitation of
space and food. This indicates that more and more animal protein will have to
be produced from the water. We have to think as to how to produce more
animal protein. The fish is very good source of protein . We have consider the
production of more fish is under controlled conditions in ponds as these offer
the greatest potential of all.
The fish pond is complex ecosystem. The surface is occupied by floating
organism like phytoplankton and zooplankton. The column region has lie and
dead organic matter sunk form the surface and the bottom is enriched with
detritus or dead organic matter., The marginal area have a variety of aquatic
vegetation. The different tropic levels of a pond are utilized for increasing the
profitability of fish culture . In view of this recent concept in fish culture has
been formulated called composite fish culture. It is also known as polyculture
or mixed farming . The main objectives of this intensive fish culture is to select
and grow competable species of fish of different feeding habits to exploit all
types of available food in the different regions or niches of the fish pond to get
maximum fish production.
2.2 Advantages in composite fish culture
The scientific based technology of composite fish culture aims at
maximum utilization of the ponds productivity. Fast growing non-predatory
non-competable spices of food fishes are cultured together with complementary
feeding habits and capable of utilizing both the natural and supplementary fish
food. At the same time one fish is useful to other., For example the excreta of
grass carp is useful for growing fish food organism on which other fishes feed.
The fishes never face any competition for space and food. Bottom feeder like
common carp and mrigal subsist partly on the faecel matter of the grass carp
may pollute the water. Stocking optimum number of each kind of fish adequately
utilizes the different ecological niches. The productive potential or carrying
capacity of the pond can be increased by stimulating natural fish food production
through fertilization and the use of supplementary food to provide adequate
food for the large number of fish stocked.
2.3 Superiority over the monoculture

Mono culture is the culture of a single of fish in pond. If only one species
is introduced into a pond, due to the same dietary habits, all the fish congregate
at one place. Naturally when mono culture is preferred, more number of fish of
one species are introduced. This result in high competition for food and space.
Due to fights heavy mortality of fish in occur,. Because insufficient of food, the
fish will not grow to good size and the yield is affected . In monoculture
system other niches are vacant and in that area the available food remains
wasted.
Composite fish culture is undoubtedly ore superior over monoculture,
In composite fish culture the above problem will not be found . Six varieties of
fishes utilize food of all niches of the pond , get good amount of food, grow well
without any competition and the yield is also very high. The mortality rate in
composite fish culture is negligible,. In monoculture a yield of about 500kg/
ha/yr is difficult, but in polyculture system the yield is about 20 times more than
that of monoculture with scientific management.
Sl.No Culture method Input cost Production Net profit

(Rs.ha/yr) Kg/ha/yr Income (Rs) (Rs)
1. Single stocking 79,000/- 4500 2,25,000/- 1,46,000/-
single harvesting
Single stocking 1,14,000/- 5500 2,75,000/- 1,61,000/-
2.
multiple harvest-
ing.
Multiple stock- 1,13,000/- 6000 3,00,000/- 1,87,000/-
3. ing multiple
harvesitng
2.4 Management of Composite Fish Farm

The common practice of composite culture includes 6 species of
carps (3 indigenous and 3 exotic fishes) viz. Catla, Rohu, Mrigal, Silver carp,
Grass carp, Generally the species ratio is 30-40% surface feeder 15-20%
column feeder, 40-50% bottom feeder and 5-15% macro vegetation feeder
upon the depth and productivity status of the pond.
There are 3 management practice generally adopted for table fish
production. These are
1. Pre-stocking management
138 Fisheries
2. Management at the time of stocking and

3. Post stocking management
2.4.1 Pre-stocking management
It includes site selection conditioning of the pond watering and
fertilization of ponds.
1.1 Site selection
The stocking pond is 0.5 ha or more with rectangular shape and good
embankment . The soil must have good water retention capacity and pond
should get water supply throughout the year. The site have electrical supply
and good transportation facilities The labour should available easily near the
site. The site should have inlet and outlet facilities,. Trees at the site should not
obstruct the sunlight.
1.2 Conditioning the Pond
If the pond is an old one from which the fish have been harvested it
should be completely ploughed. Ploughing help in drying of pond bottom increase
the mineralization removed the obnoxious gases accumulated in the mud and
destroy aquatic weeds and undesirable. Ploughing of the pond bottom improves
soil condition, but it should not be so deep so as to bury the fertile top layer
and bring up the sterile layer to the surface. Desilting of the pond is essential
to maintain productivity .The pond bottom should be cleared of nay twigs,
branches and stumps or dead fish. Then the bottom should be smoothened
again, When the pond has dried enough, the soil will have large cracks in it.
That means of pond bottom is most essential not to improve the physical,
chemical and biological condition to the soil.
1.3 Control of aquatic weeds
The growth weeds deprives the pond soil is nutritive elements, restricts
the movements of fish, interferes with netting operation and harbours predatory
and weed fishes and insects. Hence the aquatic weed should be controlled,.
The best way of weed control is drying and ploughing., The weeds can be
controlled by manual chemical and biological methods.
1.4 Eradication of undesirable organisms
The real problem arise during the rearing of fish, when the other animals
eat the fish. Frog, snakes , and birds eat young fish and must be kept out of
pond . The worst predator are carnivorous fishes, which should be prevented
form entering into ponds by screening the water inlets.
The common predatory and weed fishes in ponds are Channa sp.
Clarius batrachus, Heteropeneustes fossilis. Wallago, Notopterus notopeterus,
Mystus sp.Ambasis ranga, Amblypharyngodon mola.
Salmostaoma sp. Easomus danricus, Puntius sp, etc. The weed fishes
are small sized and uneconomical fishes and are usually found in ponds. The
undesirable fishes enter into pods accidentally through incoming water along
with carp spawn . The predatory fishes are harmful to all the stage form the
spawn to the adult stages of carps and prey on these carps as well as compete
with them for food and space.
In any pond, all trash fishes and predatory must be removed before
stocking the pond. The simple method of daring and drying of the pond and
them ploughing them are most effective in controlling them. If the draining is
not possible the pond as completely as possible the undesirable fishes should
be removed from pond by repeated drag netting . However many fishes
escape the net by staying at the edges of the pond. The bottom dwellers like
murrels , climbing, perches, magur, singhi etc., which burrow themselves in
the mud are difficult to be caught by netting. Dewatering is the best method,
wherein the water should be removed by pumping, although this is an economical
method. In this case the best way to get rid of the undesirable fishes is to
poison the water in a pond which cannot be drained.
Poison are Lethal to aquatic life even at low concentrations. It is better
to use degradable poison, so that the growing fishes will not be affected later
on.
A suitable fish poison is one which is
1. Effective in killing the target organism at fairly low doses.
2. Quickly detoxified in water and does not have cumulative adverse
effect in the pond.
3. Easily available and economical.
4. It should not injurious to the people and cattle who may use the
water.
5. It should not having a tendency to accumulate in fish, thus making
them unsuitable for consumption.
Various types of fish poison are available in the market. These are
classified into 3 groups . Chlorinated hydrocarbons are most toxic fish. These
are accumulated in fish tissue and are stable compound, which are not
metabolized. Organophosphate are less toxic to fish, but they have adverse
140 Fisheries
effect on aquatic flora and fauna. The accumulation is less in fish tissues and
relatively less persistent in water. Hence the plant derivatives are good fish
poison.
Table 2.1 Plant derivative Poisons and doses
Name of the chemical Dosage (ppm) Degraded Time taken

after days for fish kill
Bleaching powder 25-30 7-8 3-4

Aldrin 9.2 30 7-8
Tafadrin - 20 0.01 30 7-8
Mahua oil cake 200-250 15-20 8-12
Derris root powder 4-6 7-10 6-10
Tea seed cake 75-100 10-12 6-12
Cotton seed powder 3-5 3-5 1-2
Milletio root powder 2-6 2-3 1-3
The best natural poisons are Mahua oil cake, Routine of derris root,
Quick lime (160kg.ha) Tea seed cake (150 kg/ha) Camellia seed cake (50 to
200 kg/ha depending on water depth) Tobacco waste (150-200 kg/ha) and
Powdered cotton seed (table 2.1) .Another safe chemical is saponium which
is compound to tea sea cake and is applied at a dose of 0.5 ppm in the pond.
Most the natural poison will degrade and disappear from the water in 7-12
days .Mahua (Mahuco latifolia) oil cake is an excellent poison which breaks
down after 10 days and is useful as a fertilizer,. The chemical like endrin,
dialdrin, and DDT should be avoided in ponds as they can last in the ground
for year and later kill all the pond fish.
(a) Application Lime
Lime is essential component in fish farming practice. When applied
dose, it help in releasing primary nutrients and trace elements from the soil to
maximize productivity. For effective utilization of lime pond are required to be
dewatered which help in drying the pond bottom, killing of disease causing
parasitic organism. It is essential to remove predatory fish and weed from the
pond., Basal dose of lime is applied to correct soil acidity. The basal monthly
the annual requirements of lime is indicated below
Basal dosage of lime Month dosage Annual of lime requirement
(kg/ha) (kh/.ha) ( Kg/ha )
200 65 800
Use of liming
Lime is frequently applied in aquaculture practice to improve water
quality. After the pond is ploughed cleared and smoothed , it should be
conditioned with lime. Liming increase the productivity of pond and improves
sanitation. It is both prophylactics and therapeutic. The main uses of lime are
(a) Neutralize the acidity of solid and water
(b) Increase carbonate and bicarbonate content in water.
(c) Counteract the poisonous effects of excess Mg. K and Na ions.
(d) Kills the bacterial fish parasites and their developmental stages.
(e) Build up alkaline and effectively stops fluctuations of PH bits
buffering actions.
(f) Neutralizes compounds which are undesirable to pond biota.
(g) Improve pond soil quality by promoting mineralization.
(h) Precipitates excess of dissolved organic matter and this reduces
changes of oxygen depletion.
(i) Acts as general pond disinfectant for maintenance of pond
hygiene.
(j) Presence of lime speeds up composition organic matter and release
CO2 from bottom sediment.
(k) Lime makes non availability of K to algae.
(b) Application of Manure
Manure is also essential in fish farming practice to increase pond
conductivity. Cowdung, the commonly available manure in raw form is applied
@ 15 tons/ha/yr to enhance natural food productivity. 25% is applied as basal
dose atleast 10-15 days prior to stocking of fish.
142 Fisheries
In addition to application of organic manure fertilizer likes urea and

super phosphate @ 24 kg/ and 30kg /ha/ month applied to trigger in and fish
food production.
2.4.2 Management at the time of stocking
2.4.2.1 Fishes seed used in composite fish culture
All over the world the major cultivable fishes especially for composite
belong to the carp family. There are three major system of carp culture exotic
fishes in India.
1. Chinese system : This Chinese carps are cultured together. These
are (silver carp ) Hypopthelamichthys molutrix, (grass carp),
Ctenopharyngodon idella and (common carp)- Cyprinus carpio.
These are called as exotic fishes in India.
2. Indian system : The Indian carps are culture together and are also
called cultured with Chinese carps. These carps are rohu-Labeo
rohita catla, Catla catla and mrigal Crirrhina mrigala.
3. European system : The main species cultured is the common carp
Cyprinus carpio.
Other Chinese carps are used for composite fish culture are : Big-
head-carp - Aristichthys nobilis, mud carp- cirrhinus molitorella and black carp-
mylopharyngodon piceus.
The predatory catfish and also be incorporated in the composite fish
culture system. However, catfish and murrels should be stocked only after the
carp species have grown to a considerable size. The trash fish and the young of
common carp if any, in the culture pond would serve as a good source of food
for catfish and murrels.
2.4.2.2 Species Interrelationship
(a) Catla and silver carp
Catla and silver carp both are planktophage surface feeders, though
catla is predominantly zooplanktophage and silver carp phytoplankton .Because
of their similar feeding zone and feeding habit it is assumed that their exits
some competition between those tow species for the same ecological niche..
(b) Grass carp and other fishes
Association of grass carp in composite fish culture has indirect benefit
too. The excreta consisting of semi digested vegetable matter, serve as the
food of bottom dwellers e.g. mrigal and common carp. However grass carp is
also well known utilizer of supplementary feeds like rice polish and oil cakes. In
order to avoid competition and among grass crap rehu, mrigal and common
carp for taking supplementary feeds it is advisable always to provide aquatic
weeds in adequate quantity to grass carp.
catla catla
Labeo Rohita
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
Mrigal
144 Fisheries
Ctenopharyngodon idella
Labeo Calbasu
Cyprinus Carpio
Fig 2.1 Fish used in composite fish culture
(c) Marginal and common carp

Stocked at equal number growth performances of mrigal and common
carp appears to be similar in cases where supplementary feed was not supplied
adequately. However when supplementary feeds were given in large quantities
, common carp stocked in larger number performed much better indicating it
is superior capability of utilizing artificial feeds than mrigal.
2.4.2.3 Stocking densities and stocking ratio

Generally fish production increase with the increase in the number of
fish stocked per unit area to maximum and then starts decreasing. There is
always an optimum stocking rate in a particular situations, which gives the
highest production and largest fish. Under crowded condition at a higher
stocking density fish may compete severely for food and thus suffer stress due
to aggressive interaction. Fishes are under stress eat less and grow slowly . By
increasing the stocking density beyond the optimum rate the total demand for
oxygen increase with obvious dangers, but no increase of the total yield of the
fish is obtained. Stocking density and stocking ratio of fishes should be on the
basis of the quantity of water and amount of oxygen production. The above
six varieties of Indian and Chinese major carps should be stocked at a rate of
5000 finger lings ha/ of 75-100 mm size. The percentage of stocking rate of
the above fishes can be as follows
Catla and silver carp 30-35%
Rohu 15-20%
Mrigal and common carp 45%
Grass carp 5-10%
In the 5-species combination excluding grass carp the optimal ratio
are catla 6(30%) rohu 3(15%) mrigal 5(25%) common carp 4(20%) silver
carp 2(10%).
In the 5-species combination excluding silver and grass carp the
optimal stocking are catla 6(30%) rohu 3 (15%) mrigal 6 (30%) common carp
5 (25%).
In a 3-species combination excluding exotic carp the optimal ratio
are catla 4 (40%) rohu 3(30%) mrigal 3 (30%).
An-8 species combination is also possible for composite fish culture,
where milk fish and fringe lipped carp are included in the culture system along
with Indian and Chinese major carps. But the growth of the addition is not
satisfactory. The milk fish is a brackish water fish. Usually the stocking ratio is
catla 2: rohu 2 : mrigal 4 : common carp 3: silver carp 5 : grass carp 2 : tringe
lipped carp 1 : milk fish 1.
2.4.3 Post Stocking Management
With the increase in the carying capacity of the pond either by aeration
of water, fish growth can be augmented further with the addition of supplementary
146 Fisheries
feed. For getting very high production fishes are fed with protein rich feed.
Usually the conversion coefficient is 1 : 2 i.e. 2kg is given for every 1kg of fish
yield, with supplementary feed such as rice bran oil cake the fishes grow 10
times more.
The grass carp are normally fed tender aquatic weeds, like Najos,
Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum and Chara, forage grasses or chopped green cattle
foders like Naiper grass, Barseem, maize leaves etc and kitchen vegetable
refuse. The cattle fodder grown on the terraced embankment of the pond and
fed to the grass carp. They are fed twice at the are of 100kg/ha in the first
monthly intervals, till the end of harvesting . The food of grass carp is normally
placed on the floating frame made of bamboo poles.
Application of supplementary feed
Supplementary feed is very essential input in culture fisheries because
natural food available in pond is insufficient for rapid growth and higher production
of fish. The supplementary feed comprising rice polish, mustard oil , agrimin,
vitamin, mineral mixtures etc are provided to the pond by placing in the four
corners of the pond or provided in the tray mooring in the bamboo pole
placed in the pond to, minimize wastage of feed which covers around 50% of
the recurring cost per annum. The feed is provided two times in equal amount
in the afternoon @ 2-3% of their body.
2.4.3.1 Health care and pond hygiene maintenance
Before releasing the fingerlings a dip treatment for 4 minute should be
given with 3% KMn04 (potassium Permanganate\) using for water from the
stocking pond . Alternatively 2 to 3 % common salt solution may also be used.
In case of parasitic infestation like Argulus sp, malathion @ 0.25-0.5 p, .-4
times at weekly intervals can completely eliminate the parasite. Test netting
must be carried out be periodically for ensuring growth and health status of
the cultured fishes once in mouth. 0.01 pm or 1@ liter/ha meter in water as
prophylactic measure against Eqizootic Ulcerative Syndrome for reducing
the stress factor by increasing PH, total alkalinity and total harness of water.
Therapeutic application of CaO @ 100kg/ha depending on the PH status of
water is effecting in checking the spread of disease when initial symptoms of
EUS is seen. Application of CaO should follow only after one week of
application of 2% solution of common salt (NaCI) not only kills several disease
organism but may also have positive effects on the fish by stimulating appetite
and increasing mucus secretion and improving resistance to handling . Excess
levels, however may stress the fish. The three main causes of disease are
(i) Inproper and insufficient feeding.
(ii) Stress through extremes to toxic condition.

(iii) Attacks by disease organism.
The points to be considered for keeping the fish healthy are
(a) Proper hygienic condition should be maintained in the farm.
(b) Test net should be done at monthly interval for monitoring disease
and growth.
(c) Behavior of fish should be observed every morning.
Control of algal boom
To control the bloom, following steps have to be taken to maintain
hygiene of the pond
(i) Suspension of fertilization
(ii) Suspension of supplementary feeding.
(iii) Preventing of light penetration : Light penetration into the pond is
prevented in order to stop photosynthesis of phytoplankton by temporary
vegetative cover on the pond surface. Floating aquatic weeds such as water
hyacinth, Pistia etc., are used for this purpose.
(iv) Reducig nutrients in pond water : Introduction of aquatic
macrophytes such as water hyacinth, Pistia etc., can reduce the nutrients level
in pond water thus discouraging multiplication of phyplankton.
Summary
Fish provide high quality food rich in protein, vitamins and other
nutrients necessary for human health and growth. The main aim of fish culture
is to achieve the highest possible fish production from ponds and water
resources. The technique of fish culture involve both management of soil,
water and husbandry of fish.
Carp culture is highly economic and profitable enterprise. Among many
fish farming practices the composite fish culture is one which is common fish
farmer can easily adopt with comparatively less investment to have ore
productive and income than the traditional farming practice.
Composite fish culture of six or more species comprising three India
major carps and three exotic carp can be successful carried out upto an
attitude where average temperature of water.
148 Fisheries
Management technics are grouped in three steps. In post stocking

management of pond in values mainly lining and cleansing of aquatic needs and
insect . Stocking of pond is with density @ 6,000 number of finger lings at
average weight of the fingerlings 30 to 40g.
The common combination of Indian major carp and exotic carp are
catla -2, Rohu 1 , Mrigal 1 , Grass carp 1, Silver carp 3. In the post stocking
management of the pond application of cow dung artificial with a mixture of
rice brain and mustard oil cake (1:) twice daily at the rate of 4% the total body
weight of the fishes is recommended.
Short Answer type Question
1. Define composite fish culture.
2. Write two advantages of composite fish culture.
3. Name the fishes that can be cultured together in composite fish
culture.
4. Mention two hazards of composite fish culture.
5. What is the use of liming in culture pond ?
6. What is the sagestable number of fingerlings of fishes that are grown
in composite fish culture ?
7. What is the stocking density of catla catla in composite fish culture
8. Write about eradication of aquatic weeds ?
9. What are the uses of manure application in culture pond ?
10. Give three main reason for the outbreak of disease in composite
fish culture.
Long Answer Type Question
1. Write an essay on composite fish culture.
2. What are the advantages and hazards of composite fish culture ?
3. Explain the management techniques of composite fish culture.
O.J.T Training
1. Visit to different composite fish farms.
UNIT 3
Polyculture
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Management principles for Poly Culture
3.3 Supplementary feed for the fish in composite culture.
Learning Objectives
After completion of this unit, the student will be able to learn
Understand about Polyculture
Advantages and principles of polyculture
Fishes selected for polyculture
3.1 Introduction
Fish pond is a complex ecosystem. It inhabits phytoplankton and zoo
plankton on its surface (Epilimnion); various types of aquatic organism and the
carcass of the dead in the column water (thermocline or metalimnion); detritus
and decaying organic material in the bottom (hypolimnion). Different types of
aquatic plants are seen all along the margin of the pond. Maximum exploitation
of the food and aquatic resources available in such a pond through the introduction
of selected varieties of compatible fish having different feeding habits to achieve
high productivity is called composite fish culture or poly culture or mixed fish
culture or Balanced fish population.
150 Fisheries
Advantages of Polyculture
Maximum utilization of the resources available.
Different stages of the same fish sp. Can be introduced and cultured
when the natural feed available and its density are in plenty. This facilities
high productivity.
As the productivity and yield are more, profitability from such a culture
us highly encouraging.
3.2 Management principles for Polyculture
Fishes selected must be highly compatible with different feeding habits.
Market demand and nutritional values are also to be taken into
consideration during the fish selection.
Tolerance with the other living and non living organism of the pond by
the fish to be selected for composite fish culture should never be over
looked.
Selected fish should be able to live at different depths of the pond
besides the variation in their feeding habits. This prevent competition
among the organisms inhabiting the same ecologicalniche.
Stocking density of the fish fry and fingerlings to be introduced into a
pond of one hectare must be carefully decided. Generally 5000-
10,000 fingerlings are introduced into a pond of one hectare water
area. Factors like fertility capacity, feeding level, availability of the
fingerlings, maintenance capacity of the pond, knowledge about fish
culture etc. play an important role. Accordingly, the stocking density
is to be calculated.
Fig 3.1 Polyculture

Knowledge about the availability of natural feed and supplementary

feed to be provided for achieving high yield is very much essential.
Information about the physic-chemical factors influencing the growth
of fish should be known to the concerned farmer. He should prepare
the pond for fish culture well before the introduction of the selected
species for achieving increased productivity
By knowing the initial and final densities of the fish (by weight), one
can estimate the yield. This facilitates the farmer to analyse the pitfalls
and steps to be adopted for increasing the yield in subsequent crops.
Ratios to be maintained between the organisms in Polyculture
Composite fish culture has been in practice in our country since ancient
times. It has become a regular traditional practice to out farmers. Still following
ratios ar suffested by the scientists of this field to achieve enhanced productivity.
Alikunhi et al proposed the ratio of 3:3:4 between Catla (surface
feeder),Labeo (column feeder) and mrigal (botton dweller),
Hora and pillai (1962) proposed a ratio of 3:6:1: or 3:5:1 for the above
fishes in poly culture technique. They also suggested the introduction of Labeo
calbasu a bottom dweller in addition to Mrigal as their feeding habits are total
different.
Researchers conducted at Cuttack held the ratio to be 5:3; 3:6, 8:2:3
for the fishes like grass carp, silver carp, Catla, Rohu, Scale fish, mirror carp
and lapia.
Combined efforts of CIFRI (Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute)
and ICAR (Imdian Council for Agricultural Research) resulted in the proposal
of following ratios to achieve high yield in short time.
a. 5:3:8:2 Grass carp, silver carp, Catla, Rohu, Scale carp and
mirror carp.
b. 5:3:6:8:2- Gras carp, silver carp, Catla, Rohu, scale fish & mirror
carp.
c. 5:3:3:6:8:2 Grass carp, silver carp, Catla,Rohu, Scale fish & mirror
Carp.
Fresh water prawn feeding on detritus and cat fishes, murrels of predatory
nature can also be introduced after attaining a specified growth by the main food
fishes. These organisms also grow along with the food fishes by feeding upon
152 Fisheries
organic detritus and trash fish of the pond. These can also be collected and sent
to the market for disposal as they are also relished as food by some people of
the society. They provide additional income to the farmer.
Details of the fishes selected for Ployculture
a. Fishes inhabiting surface waters (Epilimnion):
i. Catla Catla(botche) feeds on zooplankton and organic materials.
ii. Hypophthalmichtys (Silver Carp) feeds on phytoplankton.
Fig 3.2 Fish selected for Polyculture
b. Fishes inhabiting the bottom waters (Hypolimnion)

i. Cirrhinus mrigala (mrigal) and Laneo calbasu (calbasu) feed on the
plankton living over submerged vegetation.
ii. Ctenopharyngodon (grass carp) lives in waters where no other fish
can live and feeds on the available feed of its surroundings. Excretory
materials of these fish form feed for carpio and also promotes the
growth and development of other planktonic organisms.
iii. In countries like Europe and U.S.S.R., Tench fish are cultured along
with carps. By feeding on the detritus, carcass of the dead and
plankton of the submerged vegetation, they promote the growth of
main carps.
iv. Trout fish and tilapia feeds quickly upon trash fish and promote the
productivity of food carps.
v. In china, fish selected for composite fish culture are black carp
(Myelopharyngodon pisceous feeding on the smails of the bottom),
grass carp (ctenopharyngodon feeding on plant materials), silver carp
(hypophthalmichthys feeding on phyto and zooplankton), large beaded
fish (Aristichthys nobilis feeding on macro plankton), common carp
(cyprinus carpio feeding on the left overs of mrigal)etc.
vi. In Taiwan, Mugil cephalus is cultured in association with main carps.
3.3 Supplementary Feed for the Fish in Composite Culture
As the main carps feed upon available food, density of the natural feed
decreases slowly thus demanding the introduction of supplementary feed.
Fish feed is prepared from ground nut cake and rice barn (or) cake
barn, kitchen waste, vegetable waste (or) protein rich pupae of the silk worms
or soya bean or notonectid insects or prawn wastes or trash fish along with
required quantities of B- complex-vitamins. Yeast, cobalt chloride sufficient
nutrients to the main carps to grow quick and yield high.
Hydrilla, Najasm Ceratophyllum, Chara, Napier Grass, Tapioca leaves,
Kitchen Vegetables refuge etc. can be given as supplementary feed to grass
carps.
Details of the yield from Polyculture
8-9 fold increase in the yield is achieved from composite fish culture as
supported by the following data.
According to the research by CIFRI (1968) annual yield from a pond
was recorded at
a. With main carps alone 2088 kg/ha
b. With exotic carps alone 2900 kg/ha
c. With main and exotic carps through composite fish culture 3085 kg/
hxa.
CIFRI (Cuttack) recorded an annual yield of 9000, kg/ha/year from
large tanks under composite culture.
Data obtained in 1971 by ICAR units in Andhra Pradesh, Haryana,
Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, uttar Pradesh and WestBengal revealed the
154 Fisheries
half-yearly productivity under composite fish culture at 2692kg

3210 kg/ha (Simla 1973).
Productivity recorded in the tanks of Karnal in Haryana
Yield for 6 months 3448-5894 kg/ha.
Yield for 8 months - 6191 7332 kg/ha. (Sukumaran -1976)
Grass carp gains a weight of 3 kg in one year under compositeculture
method and contributed 30 % of the total yield.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define polyculture with example
2. Write any two surface feeder fishes
3. Write the scientific name of silver carp and grass carp.
4. Mention the three trophic levels of the pond.
5. What is exotic carp? Give Two examples.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Write essay on management of polyculture in the pond.
2. Explain the advantages of polyculture.
UNIT 4
Integrated Fish Farming
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Integrated fish cum agriculture
4.3 Integrated fish farming with live stock
Learning Objectives
After studying the unit the student will be able
Study of advantages in integrated fish farming
Study of fish farming in the agriculture feed like paddy, wheat,
horticulture, and Azolla culture
Study of fish farming with live stock like poultry dairy, duckery and
piggary
4.1 Introduction
When fish culture is practiced along with other system crop or animal
productor it refered to as integrated fish farming.
It has been an ancient practice in China and the immigrant chines
introduced into several southeast Asian countries. Besides many developing
countries Asia, some in Africa and South America , Madagas, Central African
Republic have introduced this system on pilot or larger scale. Some of the East
European countries have also adopted other animals production fish culture.
156 Fisheries
The land holding of rural peoples are small are fragmented and the
modern large scale production technologies with high input requirement offer
no tangible solution to their problems of low income and low productivity .
These small and marginal farmers have livestock in the form of cattle, pigs, a
small flock of ducks of chick, agricultural land and surplus family labour with
these problem and resources efforts are made to develop low cost farming
system based on the principle of productivity utilization of farm wastes, available
resource and man power. The research efforts have resulted in the development
of integrated farming system, involving fish culture livestock raising the and
agriculture. The package of practice for integrated farming have been developed
and verified extensively for economic viability and feasibility at the farmers
level.
4.1.1 Basic Principle
The basic principle involved in integrated farming are the utilization of
the synergetic effects of the inter-related activities and the conversation including
the full utilization of farm wastes.
Waste is only a misplaced resource which can become a valuable
material for another product . The important feature may be summarized as
under.
Waste or by product recycling : An output form one subsystem which
otherwise may have been wasted becomes an input to another subsystem.
Improvement of space utilization : In which the sub system essentially
occupy part or all of the space required for an individual sub system.
Advantages
The expected advantages of the integrated system are
1. Higher and stable farm productivity.
2. Better diet for farm family.
3. More cash flow and income.
4. Better employment.
5. Less risk (employment and economic)
6. Environment friendly
7. Optimum resource utilization.
Types of integrated farming system

The integrated farming can be categorized into the following
1. Crop based
(i) Agriculture aquaculture
(ii) Agriculture aquaculture birds
(iii) Agriculture aquaculture birds livestock
(iv) Agriculture aquaculture birds livestock apiculture
2. Pond based
(i) Agriculture aquaculture
(ii) Agriculture aquaculture birds
(iii) Agriculture aquaculture birds livestock birds
4.2 Integrated Fish cum Agriculture
Fishes can be reared in paddy, wheat and coconut fields, Fruiting,
flowering plants and vegetable plants are cultivated on the dykes., Azolla fish
culture is also becoming popular.
Among the possible farming options in water logged low land field ,
the most acceptable choice is rice fish since rice ecologies provide and is
conducive for aquaculture. Rice and fish crops are compatible and its culture
is an age old practice. Moreover it matches to resource food habit and socio
economic conditions of the people involved.
Historical Aspects
It is believed that rice field fish culture was introduced into South - East
Asia about 1500 years ago. It seems to have started in the 19th century in
Indonesia, where it became an important peasant activity. This type of integrated
farming was adopted by farmers in Japan where people faced scarcity of food
during the period of Second World war.
4.2.1 Integrated Fish Cum Paddy Culture
Paddy - cum - fish culture is a promising venture and if best management
inputs are given it can bring fancy returns to the growers. The system works well
in paddy fields fed copiously by rivers or lakes. India has a traditional system of
paddy - cum - fish culture largely practiced in the coastal states of Kerala and
West Bengal. However, paddy - cum - fish culture in freshwater paddy fields
has not been popular though considerable potentiality exist in India. In India,
158 Fisheries
though six million hectares are under rice cultivation only 0.03 percent of this is
now used for rice - fish culture. The reason for this is largely attribute to the
change in the cultivation practice of paddy from traditional methods to the more
advanced methods involving high yielding varieties and progressive use of
pesticides.
Multiple cropping further improved the returns from such agricultural
land, thus shifting the emphasis from such integrated farming. This integrated
culture needs abundant water and low lying areas are most suitable. Many million
hectares of water spread are most convenient for integrated culture. In this system
two crops of paddy and one crop of fish can be cultured in an year. Water-
logged paddy fields are the ideal natural habitat of various types of fish. Fish in
the paddy fields result in an increased yield of grain varying from 5 - 15 percent.
Fish consume large quantities of weed, worms, insects, larvae and algae, which
are either directly or indirectly injurious to paddy. Fish also assist in making
fertilising material more readily available to paddy.
4.2.2 Advantages of paddy - cum -fish culture
Paddy - cum - Fish culture has several advantages such as
1. Economical utilization of land
2. Little extra labour is required
3. Saving on labour cost towards weeding and supplemental feeding
4. Enhanced rice yield by 5 -15 %, which is due to the indirect organic
fertilization through the fish excreta.
5. Production of fish from paddy field
6. Additional income and diversified harvest such as fish and rice from
water and onion, bean and sweet potato through cultivation on bunds
7. Fish control of unwanted filamentous algae which may otherwise
compete for the nutrients
8. Tilapia and common carp control the unwanted aquatic weeds which
may otherwise reduce rice yield up to 50 %
9. Insect pests of rice like stem borers are controlled by fish feeding on
them mainly by murrels and catfishes
10. Fish feed on the aquatic intermediate host such as malaria causing
mosquito larvae, thereby controlling water-born diseases of human
beings.
11. Rice fields may also serve as fish nurseries to grow fry into fingerlings.
The fingerlings, if and when produced in large quantities, may either be sold or
stocked in production ponds for obtaining better fish yield under composite fish
culture. Considering these advantages, it is imperative to expand fish culture in
the rice fields of our country.
4.2.3 Site selection
About 80 cm rainfall is optimum for this integrated system. Fields having
an almost uniform contour and high water retention capacity are preferred.
Groundwater table and drainage system are important factors to be taken into
consideration for selection of site.
Fig 4.1 Fish cum paddy field
Types of paddy fields for integrated system

Preparation of the paddy plot can vary according to the land contours
and topography.
1. Perimeter type
The paddy growing area may be placed at the middle with moderate
elevation and ground sloping on all sides into perimeter trenches to facilitate
easy drainage.
2. Central pond type
Paddy growing area is on the fringe with slopes towards the middle.
160 Fisheries
3. Lateral trench type

Trenches are prepared on one or both lateral sides of the moderately
sloping paddy filed. Suppose the area of the integrated system is 100 m X 100
m-i.e.,1 ha. The area to be utilized for paddy should be 82 m X 82 m -i.e.,0.67
ha. The area to be utilized for fish culture should be 6m X 352 m-i.e., 0.21 ha (4
sides). The embankment area should measure 3m X388 m - 0.12 ha. and the
area for fruit plants should be 1m X 388 m -i.e., 0.04 ha. This is an ideal ratio
for preparation of an integrated system.
4.2.4 Culturable species of fish in rice fields
The fish species which could be cultured in rice fields must be capable
of tolerating shallow water (>15 cm depth ), high temperature (up to 350 C),
low dissolved oxygen and high turbidity. Species such as Labeo rohita, Catla
catla Oreochromis mossambicus, Anabas testudineus, Clarias batrachus,Clarias
macrocephalus, Channa striatus, Channa punctatus, Channamarulius,
Heteropneustes fossilis, Chanos chanos, Lates calcarifer and Mugil sp have
been widely cultured in rice fields. The minor carps such as Labeo bata, Labeo
calbasu, Puntius japanicus, P.sarana, etc. Can also be cultured in paddy fields.
Culture of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii could be undertaken
in the rice fields. The selection of species depends mainly on the depth and
duration of water in the paddy field and also the nature of paddy varieties used.
4.2.5 Major systems of paddy - cum - fish culture
Two major systems of paddy-cum-fish culture may be undertaken in
the freshwater areas
1. Paddy-cum-carp culture
2. Paddy-cum-air breathing fish culture
1. Paddy-cum-carp culture:
Major or minor carps are cultured in paddy fields. In the month of July
when rain water starts accumulating in the paddy plot and the depth of water in
the water way becomes sufficient, the fishes are stocked at the rate of 4000 -
6000 / ha . Species ratio maybe 25% surface feeders, preferably catla, 30%
column feeding, rohu and 45% bottom feeders mrigal or common carp.
2. Paddy-cum-air breathing fish culture
Air breathing cat fish like singhi and magur are cultured in paddy fields
in most rice grown areas. The water logged condition in paddy fields is very
conducive for these fast growing air breathing cat fish. Equal number of magur
and singhi fingerlings are to be stocked at one fish/m2. Channa species are also
good for this integrated system.
4.2.6 Fish culture in rice fields
Fish culture in rice fields may be attempted in two ways, viz. simultaneous
culture and rotation culture.
1. Simultaneous culture
Rice and fish are cultivated together in rice plots, and this is known as
simultaneous culture. Rice fields of 0.1 ha may be economical. Normally four
rice plots of 250 m2 (25 X 10m) each may be formed in such an area. In each
plot, a ditch of 0.75 m width and 0.5 m depth is dug. The dykes enclosing rice
plots may be 0.3 m high and 0.3 m wide and strengthened by embedding straw.
The ditches serve not only as a refuse when the fish are not foraging among rice
plants, but also serve as capture channels in which the fish collect when water
level goes down. The water depth of the rice plot may vary from 5 - 25 cm
depending on the type of rice and size and species of fish to be cultured.
Five days after transplantation of rice, fish fry are stocked at the rate of
5000/ha or fingerlings at the rate of 2000/ha. The stocking density can be doubled
if supplemental feed is given daily. The simultaneous culture has many advantages,
which are mentioned under the heading advantages of paddy-cum-fish culture.
The simultaneous fish rice culture may have few limitations, like.
1. Use of agrochemicals is often not feasible
2. Maintaining high water level may not be always possible, considering
the size and growth of fish.
3. Fish like grass carp may feed on rice seedling, and
4. Fish like common carp and tilapia may uproot the rice seedlings.
However, these constraints may be overcome through judicious
management.
2. Rotational culture of rice and fish
In this system fish and rice are cultivated alternately. The rice field is
converted into a temporary fish pond after the harvest. This practice is favoured
over the simultaneous culture practice as it permits the use of insecticides and
herbicides for rice production. A greater water depth up to 60 cm can be
maintained throughout the fish culture period. One or two weeks after rice harvest,
the field is prepared for fish culture. The stocking densities of fry or fingerlings
162 Fisheries
for this practice could be 20,000/ha and 6,000/ha respectively. Fish yield could
exceed the income from rice in the rotational culture.
3. Fish culture
The weeds are removed manually in trenches or paddy fields. Predatory
and weed fishes have to be removed either by netting or by dewatering. Mohua
oil cake may be applied at 250 ppm to eradicate the predatory and weed fishes.
After clearing the weeds and predators the fertilizers are to be applied.
Cow dung at the rate of 5000 kg/ha, ammonium sulphate at 70kg/ha and single
superphosphate at 50 kg/ha are applied in equal installments during the rearing
period.
Stocking density is different in simultaneous and rotational culture
practices, and are also mentioned under the respective headings above. The
fishes are provided with supplementary food consisting of rice bran and groundnut
oil cake in the ratio 1:1 at 5% body weight of fishes in paddy-cum-carp culture.
In paddy-cum-air breathing culture, a mixture of fish meal and rice bran in the
ratio 1:2 is provided at the rate of 5% body weight of fishes.
After harvesting paddy when plots get dried up gradually, the fishes
take shelter in the water way. Partial harvesting by drag netting starts soon after
the Kharif season and fishes that attain maximum size are taken out at fortnightly
intervals. At the end of preparation when the water in the waterway is used up
for irrigation of the Rabi paddy, the remaining fishes are hand picked. The fish
yield varies from 700 -1000 kg/ha in this integrated system. Survival rate of fish
is less than 60 %. Survival rate is maximum in renovated paddy plots when
compared to fish culture in ordinary paddy plots.
The dykes constructed for this system may be used for growing
vegetables and other fruit bearing plants like papaya and banana to generate
high returns from this system. The fish can also be cultured along with wheat.
This practice is found in Madhya Pradesh.. Like paddy fields, the same fish can
also be cultured in wheat fields. The management practices are similar to fish -
cum - paddy culture. Fish can also be cultured along with coconut plants.
4.2.7 Horticulture cum-Fish culture
Considerable area of an aquaculture farm is available in the form of
dykes some of which is used for normal farm activities, the rest remaining fallow
round-the -year infested with deep-rooted terrestrial weeds. The menacing growth
of these weeds causes inconvenience in routine farm activities besides
necessitating recurring expenditure on weed control. This adversely affects the
economy of aqua-farming which could be considerably improved through

judicious use of dykes for production of vegetables and fish feed.
An integrated horti-agri-aquaculture farming approach leads to better
management of resources with higher returns. Several varieties of winter
vegetables (cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, brinjal, coriander, turnip, radish, beans,
spinach, fenugreek, bottle gourd, potato and onion) and summer vegetables
(amaranth, water-bind weed, papaya, okra, bitter gourd, sponge gourd, sweet
gourd, ridge gourd, chilly, ginger and turmeric) can be cultivated depending up
on the size, shape and condition of the dykes.
4.2.8 Suitable farming practices on pond dykes
Intensive vegetable cultivation may be carried out on broad dykes (4m
and above) on which frequent ploughing and irrigation can be done without
damaging the dykes. Ideal dyke management involves utilization of the middle
portion of the dyke covering about two-thirds of the total area for intensive
vegetable cultivation and the rest one-third area along the length of the periphery
through papaya cultivation keeping sufficient space on either side for netting
operations. Intensive cultivation of water-bind weed, Indian spinach, radish,
amaranth, okra, sweet gourd, cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, potato, coriander
and papaya on pond dyke adopting the practice of multiple cropping with single
or mixed crops round the year can yield 65 to 75 t/ha year.
Semi-intensive farming can be done on pond dykes (2 to 4 m wide)
where frequent ploughing, regular irrigation and deweeding are not possible.
Crops of longer duration like beans, ridge gourd, okra, papaya, tomato, brinjal,
mustard and chilli are found suitable for such dykes. Extensive cultivation may
be practised on pond dykes (up to 2m wide) where ploughing and irrigation by
mechanical means are not at all possible. Such dykes can be used for cultivation
of sponge gourd, sweet gourd, bottle gourd, citrus and papaya after initial
cleaning, deweeding and digging small pits along the length of the dykes. Extensive
cultivation of ginger and turmeric is suitable for shaded dykes.
4.2.9 Carp production using leafy vegetables and vegetables wastes
A huge quantity of cabbage, cauliflower, turnip and radish leaves are
thrown away during harvest. These can be profitably utilised as supplementary
feed for grass carp. During winter, grass carp can be fed with turnip, cabbage
and cauliflower leaves, while in summer, amaranth and water-bind weed through
fortnightly clipping may be fed as supplementary feed for rearing of grass carp.
Monoculture of grass carp, at stocking density of 1000 fish/ha, fed on vegetable
leaves alone, fetches an average production of about 2 t/ha/yr. while mixed
164 Fisheries
culture of grass carp along with rohu, catla and mrigal (50:15:20:15) at a density
5000 fish/ha yields an average production of 3 that year.
4.2.10 Azolla - culture cum fish farming
The significance of biological nitrogen fixation in aquatic systems has
brought out the utility of biofertilization through application of heterocystous
blue-green algae and related members. This assumes great importance in view
of the increasing costs of chemical fertilisers and associated energy inputs that
are becoming scarce as also long-term environmental management.
Azolla,isafree-floatingaquaticfernfixingatmosphericnitrogenthrough
the cyanobacterium, Anabaena azolla, present in its dorsal leaves, is one of the
potential nitrogenous bio fertilizers. Its high nitrogen-fixing capacity, rapid
multiplication as also decomposition rates resulting in quick nutrient release have
made it an ideal nutrient input in fanning systems. Arolla is a hetrosporous fern
belonging to the family azollaceae with seven living and twenty extinct species.
Based on the morphologyof reproductive organs, the living species are grouped
into two subgenera. viz.
Euazolla(Azollacaroliniana,A.filiculoides,A.microphylla,A.mexicana.
A., rubra ) and Rhizosperma (A.pinnata, A. niloiica ). Proliferation of AzollaMs
basically through vegetative propagation but sexual reproduction occurs during
temporary adver se environmental conditions with the production of both
microsporocarp and megasporocarp.
Potentials of Azolla
Though Azolla is capable of absorbing nitrogen from its environment,
Anabaenameets theentirenitrogenrequirements ofAzolla-Anabaena
association. The mean daily nitrogen fixing rates of adeveloped Azolla mat are
in the range of 1.02 - 2.6 kg/ ha and a comparison with the process of industrial
production of nitrogenous fertilizers would indicate the efficacy of biological
nitrogen fixation. While the latter carried out by the enzyme nitrogenase, operates
with maximum efficacy at 30C and 0.1 atm. The fertilizer industry requires
reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia at temperature and pressure
as high as 300C and 200 - 1000 atm respectively.
The normal doubling time of Azolla plants is three days and one kilogram
of phosphorus applied result in 4 - 5 kilograms of nitrogen through Azolla, i.e.,
about 1.5 - 2.0 t of fresh biomass. It may be mentioned that Azolla can survive
in a wide pH range of 3.5 to 10.0with an optimum of 4.5 - 7.0 and withstand
salinities of up to 10 ppt. With a dry weight range of 4.8 - 7.1 % among different
species, the nitrogen and carbon contents are in the ranges of 1.96 - 5.30 %
and 41.5-45.3 % respectively.
The percentage ranges of other constituents on dry weight basis are

crude protein 13.0 -30.0, crude fat 4.4 - 6.3, cellulose 5.6 -15.2, hemi cellulose
9.8 -17.9, lignin 9.3 - 34.8 and ash 9.7 - 23. 8.The ranges of elemental
composition are phosphorus 0.10 - 1.59 %,potassium 0.31 - 5.97%, calcium
0.45 - 1.70 %, magnesium 0.22 - 0.66% and sulphur 0.22 - 0.73%. Added to
these are its high rates of decomposition with mean daily loss rates of 1.36 -
4.57% of the initial weight and nitrogen release rate of 1.25% which make
Azollaapotentialbiofertilizerinaquaculturesystems.
Cultivation of Azolla
While Azolla is grown either as a green manure before rice
transplantation or as a dual crop in agriculture. It is necessary to cultivate Azolla.
separately for aquaculture and resort to periodic application in fish ponds. A
system suitable for such cultivation, comprises a network of earthen raceways
(10.0 X 1.5 X 0.3 m) with facilities for water supply and drainage. The operation
in each raceway consists of application of Azolla inoculum (6 kg), phosphatic
fertiliser (50 g single superphosphate)and pesticide (carbofuron dip for inoculum
at 1 - 2 ppm), maintenance of water depth of 5 - 10 cm and harvesting 18 - 24
kg in a weeks time.
The maintenance includes periodic removal of superficial earth layers
with organic accumulation, dyke maintenance, application of bleaching powder
for crab menace and algal blooms, etc. A unit of 0.1 ha area that can hold about
50 raceways is suitable for a family to be taken up as cottage industry in rural
areas.Azollacanbeculturedinpuddles,drainageandshallowwaterstretches,
at the outlets of ponds and tanks and hence prime agricultural land need not be
used. It is advisable to setup central Azolla culture units to serve for the community
in the villages.
Applications in fish farming
Azollaisusefulinaquaculturepracticesprimarilyasanitrogenousbio
fertilizer. Its high decomposition rates also make it a suitable substrate for enriching
the detritus food chain or for microbial processing such as composting prior to
application in ponds.
Further, Azolla can serve as an ingredient of supplementary feeds and
as forage for grass carp too. Studies made on Azolla Biofertilization have shown
that the nutrient requirements of composite carp culture could be met through
application Azolla alone at the rate of 40 that year providing over 100 kg of
nitrogen, 25 kg of phosphorus and 90 kg of potassium in addition to about
1500 kg of organic matter. This amounts to total substitution of chemical fertilisers
along with environmental up keep through organic manuring.
166 Fisheries
Azollaisanewaquacultureinputwithhighpotentialsinbothfertilization
and tropic enrichment. Studies are also being made with regard to reduction of
land requirement and production costs through in situ cultivation in shallow zones
or floating platforms in fish ponds, use of organic inputs like biogas slurry, etc.
The costs may be reduced further if the Azolla culture system is managed by
the farmer or by his house hold members. The technology would pave the way
for economic, eco-friendly and environment conserving fertilisation in aquaculture.
4.3 Integrated Fish cum Poultry farming
Much attention is being given for the development of poultry farming in
India and with improved scientific management practices, poultry has now become
a popular rural enterprise in different states of the country. Apart from eggs and
chicken, poultry also yields manure, which has high fertilizer value. The production
of poultry dropping in India is estimated to be about 1,300 thousand tons, which
is about 390 metric tones of protein. Utilization of this huge resource as manure
in aquaculture will definitely afford better conversion than agriculture.
Fig 4.2 Integrated Fish-cum-Poultry Farming
The droppings of birds in this system are utilized to fertilize the pond.
Poultry litter recycled into fish pond produces 6000 kg fish per hectare per
year. Broiler production provides good and immediate return to the farmers.
Success in production depends mainly on the efficiency of the farmer, experience,
aptitude and ability, in the management of the flock. This involves procurement
of better brood stock, housing, brooding equipment, feeders, water trays and
management practices,which also includes prevention and control of diseases.
The poultry litter is applied to the pond in daily doses at a rate of 40-50 kg per
hectare. The application of litter may be deferred during the days when algal
blooms appear in the ponds. One adult chicken produces about 25 kg of compost
poultry manure in one year. 500-600 birds would provide sufficient manure for
fertilization of one hectare of fish pond. Farmer can get a net income of
Rs.1,37,175/- from one hectare of pond in one year. Govt. provides financial
assistance to the farmers for promoting this system.
4.3.1 Pond Management
It includes clearance of aquatic weeds, unwanted fishes and insects.
(a) Stocking
The application of poultry manuring in the pond provides a nutrient base
for dense bloom of phytoplankton, particularly nanoplankton which helps in
intense zooplankton development. Thezoo plankton have an additional food
source in the form of bacteria which thrive on the organic fraction of the added
poultry dung. Thus, indicates the need for stocking phyto planktophagous and
zooplanktophagous fishes in the pond.
In addition to phytoplankton and zooplankton, there is a high production
of detritus at the pond bottom, which provides the substrate for colonization of
micro-organisms and other benthic fauna especially the chironomid larvae. A
stocking emphasis, therefore, must be placed on bottom feeders. Another addition
will be macro-vegetation feeder grass carp, which, in the absence of macrophytes,
can be fed on green cattle fodder grown on the pond embankments. The semi
digested excreta of this fish forms the food of bottom feeders.
For exploitation of the above food resources, polyculture of three Indian
major carps and three exotic carps is taken up in fish cum poultry ponds. The
pond is stocked after the pond water gets properly detoxified. The stocking
rates vary from 8000 - 8500 fingerlings/ha and a species ratio of 40 % surface
feeders, 20 % of column feeders, 30 % bottom feeders and 10-20 % weedy
feeders are preferred for high fish yields. Mixed culture of only Indian major
carps can be taken up with a species ratio of 40 % surface, 30 % column and
30 % bottom feeders.
In the northern and north - western states of India, the ponds should be
stocked in the month of March and harvested in the month of October -
November, due to severe winter, which affect the growth of fishes. In the south,
coastal and north - eastern states of India, where the winter season is mild, the
ponds should be stocked in June -September months and harvested after rearing
the fish for 12 months.
168 Fisheries
b. Use of poultry litter as manure

The fully built up deep litter removed from the poultry farm is added to
fish pond as manure. Two methods are adopted in recycling the poultry manure
for fish farming.
1. The poultry droppings from the poultry farms is collected, stored it in
suitable places and is applied in the ponds at regular instalments. This is applied
to the pond at the rate of 50 Kg/ha/ day every morning after sunrise. The
application of litter is deffered on the days when algal bloom appear in the
pond. This method of manurial application is controlled.
2. Constructing the poultry housing structure partially covering the fish
tank and directly recycling the dropping for fish culture. Direct recycling and
excess manure however, cause decomposition and depletion of oxygen leading
to fish mortality. It has been estimated that one ton of deep litter fertilizer is
produced by 30-40 birds in a year.
As such 500 birds with 450 kg astotal live weight may produce wet
manure of about 25 Kg/day, which is adequate for a hectare of water area
under polyculture. The fully built up deep litter contain 3% nitrogen, 2% phosphate
and 2% potash. The built up deep litter is also available in large poultry farms.
The farmers who do not have the facilities for keeping poultry birds can
purchase poultry litter and apply it in their farms. Aquatic weeds are provided
for the grass carp. Periodical netting is done to check the growth of fish. If the
algal blooms are found, those should be controlled in the ponds. Fish health
should be checked and treat the diseased fishes.
4.3.2 Poultry husbandry practices
The egg and chicken production in poultry raising depends upon
multifarious factors such as breed, variety and strain of birds, good housing
arrangement, balanced feeding, proper health care and other management
measures which go a long way in achieving the optimum egg and flesh production.
(a) Housing of birds
In integrated fish-cum-poultry farming the birds are kept under intensive
system. The birds are confined to the house entirely. The intensive system is
further of two types - cage and deep litter system. The deep litter system is
preferred over the cage system due to higher manurial values of the built up
deep litter. In deep litter system 250 birds are kept and the floor is covered with
litter. Dry organic material like chopped straw, dry leaves, hay, groundnut shells,
broken maize stalk, saw dust , etc. is used to cover the floor upto a depth of
about 6 inches.
The birds are then kept over this litter and a space of about 0.3 - 0.4
square meter per bird is provided. The litter is regularly stirred for aeration and
lime used to keep it dry and hygienic. In about 2 months time it become deep
litter, and in about10 months time it becomes fully built up litter. This can be used
as fertilizer in the fish pond.
The fowls which are proven for their ability to produce more and large
eggs as in the case of layers, or rapid body weight gains is in the case of broilers
are selected along with fish. The poultry birds under deep litter system should
be fed regularly with balanced feed according to their age. Grower mash is
provided to the birds during the age of 9-20 weeks at a rate of 50-70 gm/bird/
day, whereas layer mash is provided to the birds above 20 weeks at a rate
of80-120gm/bird/day.Thefeedisprovidedtothebirdsinfeedhoppersto
avoid wastage and keeping the house in proper hygienic conditions.
Egg laying
Each pen of laying birds is provided with nest boxes for laying eggs.
Empty kerosene tins make excellent nest boxes. One nest should be provided
for 5-6 birds. Egg production commences at the age of 22weeks and then
gradually decline. The birds are usually kept as layers upto the age of 18 months.
Each bird lays about 200 eggs/yr.
(c) Harvesting
Some fish attain marketable size within a few months. Keeping in view
the size of the fish, prevailing rate and demand of the fish in the local markets,
partial harvesting of table size fish is done. After harvesting partially, the pond
should be restocked with the same species and the same number of fingerlings
depending upon the availability of the fish seed. Final harvesting is done after 12
months of rearing. Fish yield ranging from 3500-4000 Kg/ha/yr and 2000-2600
Kg/ha/yr are generally obtained with 6 species and 3 species stocking
respectively.
Eggs are collected daily in the morning and evening. Every bird lays
about 200 eggs/year. The birds are sold after 18 months of rearing as the egg
laying capacity of these birds decreases after that period. Pigs can be used
along with fish and poultry in integrated culture in a two-tier system. Chick
droppings form direct food source for the pigs, which finally fertilise the fish
pond. Depending on the size of the fishponds and their manure requirements,
such a system can either be built on the bund dividing two fish ponds or on the
dry-side of the bund. The upper panel is occupied by chicks and the lower by
pigs.
170 Fisheries
Integrated fish-cum-cattle farming

Fish-cum-Dairy Farming is considered as an excellent innovation for
the use of organic wastes. Use of cow/buffalo manure in fish farming is a commonly
prevailing practice. On an average, one cow/buffalo excretes 12000 kg of dung
and 8000 litre urine per year. The cattle faeces and urine are beneficial to the
filter-feeding and omnivorous fishes. On an average, 3-4 cows/buffaloes can
provide sufficient manure to fertilize one hectare pond. In this system, farmer
gets milk, fish and calf as well, which increases revenue and reduces input costs.
The system gives a more profit of per year from one hectare land.
Fig 4.3 Integrated Fish-cum-Dairy Farming
4.3.3 Integrated fish-cum-cattle farming

Fish farming by using cattle manure has long been practiced in our
country. This promotes the fish-cum-cattle integration and is a common model
of integration. Cattle farming can save more fertilizers, cut down fish feeds and
increase the income from milk. The fish farmer not only earns money but also
can supply both fish, milk and beef to the market.
4.3.4 Pond management practices
These practices are similar to poultry or pig or duck integration with
fish. Cow dung is used as manure for fish rearing. About 5,000 -10,000 Kg/ha
can be applied in fish pond in instalments. After cleaning cow sheds, the waste
water with cow dung, urine and unused feed, can be drained to the pond. The
cow dung promotes the growth of plankton, which is used as food for fish.
4.3.5 Cattle husbandry practices

The cow sheds can be constructed on the embankments of the fish farm
or near the fish farm. The locally available material can be used to construct the
cow shed. The floor should be cemented. The outlet of the shed is connected to
the pond so that the wastes can be drained into the pond. Cultivable varieties of
cows are black and white (milk), Shorthorn(beef), Simmental (milk and beef),
Hereford (beef), Charolai (beef),Jersey (milk and beef) and Qincuan draft (beef).
4.3.6 Necessity and feasibility
1. Cows can provide cow dung, which is used as manure in fish ponds.
The left over dung can be used for earthworm culture.
2. Cow manure is nutritionally rich. It is experimentally seen that if
0.024 kg of fresh cow manure is applied per cu.m of the water
body, the inorganic N and P are congenial for plankton multiplication.
3. The average amount of phytoplankton is a manured pond can reach
19.15 mg/lit and the zooplankton amounts to 5.61 mg/lit. Hence the
biomass ratio of phytoplankton is 3:4:1. Such ratio is an indication of
the eutrophic condition of a pond.
4. In China, the output of silver carp, big head, common carp and crusian
carp in cow manured pond is 3.5, 2.8, 3.3 and 2.2 times more than
the output in unmanured pond respectively.
4.3.6 Integrated Fish-cum Duckery farming
Integrated fish-cum-duck farming is the most common practice in China
and is now developing in India, especially in West Bengal, Assam, Tamilnadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Bihar, etc. As ducks use both land and water as a
habitat, their integration with the fish is to utilise the mutual benefits of a biological
relationship. It is not only useful for fattening the ducks but also beneficial to fish
farming by providing more organic manures to fish. It is apparent that fish cum
duck integration could result in a good economic efficiency of fish farms.
The ducks feed on organisms from the pond such as larvae of aquatic
insects, tadpoles, molluscs, aquatic weeds, etc., which do not form the food of
the stocked fish. The duck droppings act as an excellent pond fertilizer and the
dabbling of ducks at the pond bottom in search of food, releases nutrients from
the soil which enhances the pond productivity and consequently increases fish
production. The ducks get clean and healthy environments to live in and quality
natural food from the pond for their growth. German farmer Probst (1934) for
the first time, conducted experiments on integrated fish-cum-duck farming.
172 Fisheries
4.3.7 Benefits of fish-cum-duck farming

1.Water surface of ponds can be put into full utilization by duck raising.
2. Fish ponds provide an excellent environment to ducks which prevent
them from infection of parasites.
3. Ducks feed on predators and help the fingerlings to grow.
4. Duck raising in fish ponds reduces the demand for protein to
2 - 3% in duck feeds.
5. Duck droppings go directly into water providing essential nutrients
to increase the biomass of natural food organisms.
6. The daily waste of duck feed (about 20 - 30 gm/duck) serves as fish
feed in ponds or as manure, resulting in higher fish yield.
7. Manuring is conducted by ducks and homogeneously distributed
without any heaping of duck droppings.
8. By virtue of the digging action of ducks in search of benthos, the
nutritional elements of soil get diffused in water and promote plankton
production.
9. Ducks serve as bioaerators as they swim, play and chase in the pond.
This disturbance to the surface of the pond facilitates aeration.
10. The feed efficiency and body weight of ducks increase and the spilt
feeds could be utilised by fish.
11. Survival of ducks raised in fish ponds increases by 3.5 % due to the
clean environment of fish ponds.
12. Duck droppings and the left over feed of each duck can increase
the output offish to 37.5 Kg/ha.
13. Ducks keep aquatic plants in check.
14. No additional land is required for duckery activities.
15. It results in high production of fish, duck eggs and duck meat in unit
time and water area.
16. It ensures high profit through less investment.

This is similar to fish-cum-poultry farming. The stocking densitycan be
reduced to 6000 fingerlings/ha. Fingerlings of over 10 cm sizeare stocked, as
the ducks are likely to prey upon the small ones.
Use of duck dropping as manure
The ducks are given a free range over the pond surface from 9 to5 PM,
when they distribute their droppings in the whole pond, automatically manuring
the pond. The droppings voided at night are collected from the duck house and
applied to the pond every morning. Each duck voids between 125 - 150 gm of
dropping per day. The stocking density of 200 - 300 ducks/ha gives 10,000 -
15,000 kg of dropping sand are recycled in one hectare ponds every year. The
droppings contain81 % moisture, 0.91 % nitrogen and 0.38 % phosphate on
dry matter basis.
4.3.9 Duck husbandary practices
The following three types of farming practice are adopted.
1. Raising large group of ducks in open water
This is the grazing type of duck raising. The average number of a group
of ducks in the grazing method is about 1000 ducks. The ducks are allowed to
graze in large bodies of water like lakes and reservoirs during the day time, but
are kept in pens at night. This method is advantageous in large water bodies for
promoting fish production.
2. Raising ducks in centralised enclosures near the fish pond
A centralised duck shed is constructed in the vicinity of fish ponds with
a cemented area of dry and wet runs out side. The average stocking density of
duck is about 4 - 6 ducks/sq.m. area. The dry and wet runs are cleaned once a
day. After cleaning the duck shed, the waste water is allowed to enter in to the
pond.
3. Raising ducks in fish pond
This is the common method of practice. The embankments of the ponds
are partly fenced with net to form a wet run. The fenced net is installed 40 - 50
cm above and below the water surface, so as to enable the fish to enter into the
wet run while ducks cannot escape under the net.
4. Selection of ducks and stocking
The kind of duck to be raised must be chosen with care since all the
domesticated races are not productive. The important breeds of Indian ducks
174 Fisheries
are Sylhet Mete and Nageswari. The improved breed,Indian runner, being hardy
has been found to be most suitable for this purpose, although they are not as
good layers as exotic Khaki Campbell. The number of ducks required for proper
manuring of one hectare fishpond is also a matter of consideration. It has been
found that 200 - 300ducks are sufficient to produce manure adequate enough
to fertilize a hectare of water area under fish culture. 2 - 4 months old ducklings
are kept on the pond after providing them necessary prophylactic medicines as
a safeguard against epidemics.
5. Feeding
Ducks in the open water are able to find natural food from the pond but
that is not sufficient for their proper growth. A mixture of any standard balanced
poultry feed and rice bran in the ratio of 1:2 by weight can be fed to the ducks
as supplementary feed at the rate of 100 gm/ bird/day. The feed is given twice in
a day, first in the morning and second in the evening.
The feed is given either on the pond embankment or in the duck house
and the spilled feed is then drained into the pond. Water must be provided in the
containers deep enough for the ducks to submerge their bills, along with feed.
The ducks are not able to eat without water. Ducks are quite susceptible to
afflatoxin contamination, therefore, mouldy feeds kept for a long time should be
avoided. The ground nut oil cake and maize are more susceptible to Aspergilus
flavus which causes aflotoxin contamination and may be eliminated from thefeed.
6. Egg laying
The ducks start laying the eggs after attaining the age of 24 weeksand
continue to lay eggs for two years. The ducks lay eggs only atnight. It is always
better to keep some straw or hay in the corners of the duck house for egg
laying. The eggs are collected every morning after the ducks are let out of the
duck house.
7. Health care
Ducks are subjected to relatively few diseases when compared to poultry.
The local variety of ducks are more resistant to diseases than other varieties.
Proper sanitation and health care are as important for ducks as for poultry. The
transmissible diseases of ducks are duck virus, hepatitis, duck cholera, keel
disease, etc. Ducks should be vaccinated for diseases like duck plague. Sick
birds can be isolated by listening to the sounds of the birds and by observing any
reduction in the daily feed consumption, watery discharges from the eyes and
nostrils, sneezing and coughing. The sick birds should be immediately isolated,
not allowed to go to the pond and treated with medicines.
8. Harvesting
Keeping in view the demand of the fish in the local market, partial
harvesting of the table size fish is done. After harvesting partially, the pond should
be restocked with the same species and the same number of fingerlings. Final
harvesting is done after 12 months of rearing. Fish yield ranging from 3500 -
4000 Kg/ha/yr and 2000 - 3000 Kg/ha/yr are generally obtained with 6 - species
and 3 - species stocking respectively. The eggs are collected every morning.
After two years, ducks can be sold out for flesh in the market. About 18,000 -
18,500 eggs and500 - 600 Kg duck meat are obtained.
Integrated fish-cum Piggary Farming
Fig 4.4 Fish-cum-Ducks Farming
The raising of pigs with fish by constructing pig - sties on the pond
embankment or near the pond so that the pig wastes are directly drained into
the pond or lifted from the pig house and applied to the pond. The pig dung acts
as an excellent pond fertilizer, which raises the biological production of the pond,
and this, in turn, increases the fish yield. The fish also feed directly on the pig
excreta which consists of 70 % digestible feed for the fish.
No supplementary fish feed or pond fertilization is required in this
integrated system. The expenditure on fish culture is drastically reduced as the
pig excreta acts as a substitute for fish feed and pond fertilization which accounts
for 60 % of the input cost in the fish culture. This system has a special significance
as it can improve the socio-economic status of rural poor, especially the tribal
community who traditionally rear pigs.
176 Fisheries
Fig 4.5 Integrated Fish-cum-Piggary Farming
The pig dung as an organic manure for fish culture has certain advantages
over cattle manure. The waste produced by 20-30 pigs is equivalent to one ton
of Ammonium Sulphate applied to the soil.The pigs are fed largely on kitchen
waste, aquatic plants and crop byproducts. At present, fish-pig integration is
practiced in all the developing countries. Several exotic breeds of pigs have
been introduced in the country to augment pork production. The popular races
are the white Yorkshire,Berkshire and Landrace. The pigsties should provide
adequate protection from adverse weather conditions. A run or courtyard
adjacent to the pig house is essential.
The size of the pig house depends on the number of pigs to be reared.
Floor space is provided @3-4 m2 for every pig weighing 70-90 kg.The pigsties
are built mostly at the pond sites and even over the ponds. The washings from
the pigsties containing dung and urine are either channelised directly into the
pond or composed before its application. The boars, sows and finishing stocks
are housed separately. Maize, groundnut, wheat- bran, fishmeal, mineral mixture
provide base for concentrated feed mixture.
In advanced countries,garbage is widely used to economize pork
production and provided after pre-cooking when pig dung is applied to a pond.
It enhances the biological productivity of the pond. A portion of dung is directly
consumed by some fish also. The excreta voided by 35-40 pigs is found adequate
to fertilize one hectare of water. Integrated fish-pig farming is a viable and feasible
scientific approach to augment fish production at low cost.
Fish Species can be cultured

Labio rohita (30%), Catla catla (30%), Cirrhinus mrigala (10%) Silver
carp (20%), common carp (5%), grass carp (15).
Benefits of fish-cum-pig farming
1.The fish utilize the food spilled by pigs and their excreta which is
very rich in nutrients.
2. The pig dung acts, as a substitute for pond fertilizer and supplementary
fish feed, hence, the cost of fish production is greatly reduced.
3. No additional land is required for piggery operations.
4. Cattle foder required for pigs and grass are grown on the
pondembankments.
5. Pond provides water for washing the pig - sties and pigs.
6. It results in high production of animal protein per unit area.
7. It ensures high profit through less investment.
8. The pond muck which gets accumulated at the pond bottom due to
constant application of pig dung, can be used as fertilizer for growing
vegetables and other crops and cattle foder.
Pond management practices
Pond management is very important to get good production of fish. The
management techniques like selection of pond, clearance of aquatic weeds and
unwanted fish, liming stocking and health care are similar to fish-cum- poultry
system.
Use of pig waste as manure
Pig - sty washings including pig dung, urine and spilled feed are channelled
into the pond. Pig dung is applied to the pond every morning. Each pig voids
between 500-600 Kg dung/year, which is equivalent to 250-300 Kg/pig/6
months. The excreta voided by 30 - 40pigs is adequate to fertilize one hectare
pond. When the first lot of pigs is disposed off after 6 months, the quantity of
excreta going to the pond decreases.
This does not affect the fish growth as the organic load in the pond is
sufficient to tide over for next 2 months when new piglets grow to give more
excreta. If the pig dung is not sufficient, pig dung, can be collected from other
178 Fisheries
sources and applied to the pond. Pig dung consists 69 - 71 % moisture, 1.3 - 2
% nitrogen and 0.36 - 0.39 phosphate. The quality and quantity of excreta
depends upon the feed provided and the age of the pigs. The application of pig
dung is deferred on the days when algal blooms appear.
Pig husbandry practices
The factors like breed, strain, and management influence the growth of
pigs.
(a) Construction of pig house
Pig houses with adequate accommodation and all the requirements are
essential for the rearing of pigs. The pigs are raised under two systems the open
air and indoor systems. A combination of the two is followed in fish cum pig
farming system. A single row of pig pens facing the pond is constructed on the
pond embankment. An enclosed run is attached to the pen towards the pond so
that the pigs get enough air, sunlight, exercise and dunging space.
The feeding and drinking troughs are also built in the run to keep the
pens dry and clean. The gates are provided to the open run only. The floor of
the run is cemented and connected via the drainage canal to the pond. A shutter
is provided in the drainage canal to stop the flow of wastes to the pond. The
drainage canal is provided with a diversion channel to a pit, where, the wastes
are stored when the pond is filled with algal bloom. The stored wastes are
applied according to necessity. The height of the pig house should not exceed
1.5 m. The floor of the house must be cemented. The pig house can be constructed
with locally available materials. It is advisable to provide 1 - 1.5 square meter
space for each pig.
(b) Selection of pigs
Four types of pigs are available in our country -wild pigs, domesticated
pigs or indigenous pigs, exotic pigs and upgraded stock of exotic pigs. The
Indian varieties are small sized with a slow growth rate and produce small litters.
Its meat is of inferior quality. Two exotic upgraded stock of pigs such as large -
White Yorkshire, Middle - White Yorkshire, Berkshire, Hampshire and Hand
Race are most suitable for raising with fish culture.
These are well known for their quick growth and prolific breeding. They
attain slaughter maturity size of 60 - 70 Kg within six months. They give 6 - 12
piglets in every litter. The age at first maturity ranges from 6 - 8 months. Thus,
two crops of exotic and upgraded pigs of six months each, are raised along with
one crop of fish which are cultured for one year. 30 - 40 pigs are raised per
hectare of water area. About two months old weaned piglets are brought to the
pig-sties and fattened for 6 months, when they attain slaughter maturity, are
harvested.
(c) Feeding
Thedietryrequirementsaresimilartotheruminants.Thepigsarenot
allowed to go out of the pig house where they are fed on balanced pig mash of
1.4 Kg/pig/day. Grasses and green cattle fodder are also provided as food to
pigs. To minimize food spoilage and to facilitate proper feeding without scrambling
and fighting, it is better to provide feeding troughs. Similar separate troughs are
also provided for drinking water. The composition of pig mash is a mixture of 30
Kg rice bran, 15 Kg polished rice, 27 Kg wheat bran, 10 Kg broken rice, 10
Kg groundnut cake, 4 Kg fish meal, 3 Kg mineral mixture and 1 Kg common
salt. To reduce quantity of ration and also to reduce the cost, spoiled vegetables,
especially the rotten potatoes can be mixed with pig mash and fed to pigs after
boiling.
(d) Health care
The pigs are hardy animals. They may suffer from diseases like swine
fever, swine plague, swine pox and also infected with round worms, tapeworms,
liver flukes, etc. Pig - sties should be washed daily and all the excreta drained
and offal into the pond. The pigs are also washed. Disinfectants must be used
every week while washing the pig - sites. Piglets and pigs should be vaccinated.
(e) Harvesting
Fish attain marketable size within a few months due to the availability of
natural food in this integrated pond. According to the demand of fish in the local
market, partial harvesting is done. After the partial harvest, same number of
fingerlings are introduced into the pond as the fish harvested. Final harvesting is
done after 12 months of rearing. Fish yield ranging from 6000 - 7000 Kg/ha/yr
is obtained. The pigs are sold out after rearing for six months when they attain
slaughter maturity and get 4200 - 4500 Kg pig meat.
180 Fisheries
Fig 4.6 Fish cum Pig Farming
Summary
When a fish culture is practiced along with other system of carps and
animal production. It referred to integrated this farming . Thew basic principle
in valued in integrated farming are the utilization of the synergetic effects of the
inter-related farm activities and the conversation including the full utilization of
farm wastes . Waste is only a mixplaced resource which can become a
valuable martial for another product.
The integrated farming can be categorized into the integrated fish cum
agriculture. Fishes can be rare in paddy, wheat and coconut field, integrated
fish culture com livestock fish can be rared with poultry duckery piggary and
sheep farming are available .
Integrated fish livestock culture is an energy efficient feed production
system any by recycling livestock wastes valuable resource in the form of
protein can be recovered. Aquaculture livestock farming system in the mixed
farming technologies improves the socio-economic standards of the rural
sector and promotes integrated rural development.
The expected advantages of the integrated system an higher and stable

farm productivity, single labor, double income no need for artificial feeding, no
need for additional fertilizer better employment less risk more cash flow
culture and with hurticulture farms with Azolla, the Pokkali system in kerela
culture of prawn fishes in pokkali fields (paddy fields) in kerela is known as
pokkal culture. It is an extensive culture.
Short Answer Type Question
1. Define integrated fish farming.
2. What is called paddy cum fish farming ?
3. What is called poultry cum fish farming ?
4. Define piggery cum fish farming.
5. Give two examples for the paddy fields for integrated fish farming
system .
6. Define predatory fishes.
7. What are the cultivable species of fishes in rice fields ?
8. Define fish predators.
9. What is the uses of mohua oil cake ?
10. Mention the fertilizers are used in aquaculture.
11. What is pokkali fish farming ?
12. What can be grown on the broad dykes ?
13. What is uses of Azola in aquatic ecosystem ?
14. Define the life stock cum fish farming.
15. Give two benefits of fish cum duck farming.
16. What are the benefits of weed cum fish farming ?
Long Answer type Question
1. Write about integrated fish farming.
2. Describe the fish cum paddy culture.
3. Write about Azolla cum fish farming .
4. Explain about fish cum poultry farming.
182 Fisheries
5. Write about fish cum dairy farming.

6. Write a short note on
(i) Benefits of fish cum duck farming.
(ii) Benefits of fish cum piggary.
7. Write a short note on
(i) Weed cum fish farming
(ii) Horticulture cum fish culture.
On Job Training
1. Visit to different fish cum poultry farming units.
2. Visit to different fish cum paddy fields nearby villages.
3. Visit to different fish cum diary farming units.
4. Visit to different fish cum ducking and fish cum piggary farming
units.
UNIT
5
Sewage fed Fish Culture,
Cage Culture, Pen Culture
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sewage fed fish culture
5.3 Cage culture
5.4 Pen culture
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
Study of complete utilization of energy in water body
Study of fish farming in sewage water
Study of fish farming in cages in open water
Study of fish farming in pens in open water
5.1 Introduction
Waste have been rightly referred to as resources out of place. Since
household waste water often intermixes with effluents from industries and
agriculture run off, multidimensional approaches have been made towards
maximizing protein production through rational exploitation of available resource.
Sewage - fed aquaculture is a unique system and has manifold advantages in
developing tropical countries acting as a major source of nutrients for crop farming
and aquaculture, economical for sustainable production and helps to combat
184 Fisheries
environmental pollution. The use of municipal waste water fed to fertilize ponds
began in calcutta in the 1930s; the city now has perhaps the largest waste water
- fed aquaculture system in the world. A large number of people derive their
livelihood from the sewage - fed aquaculture using the principles of systems
ecology and applying it through ecological engineering. The subject of sewage -
fed aquaculture is reviewed in terms of source, chemical nature, diversity pattern,
recycling practices, production potential of aquaculture, environmental issues
and safety measures for ecofriendly sustainable environmental management
strategies.
A practical approach to increase the aquaculture production could be
take up as fish husbandry in cages, pens and other enclosure in large water
bodies like tanks, swamps, lakes reservoirs and canals along with open ranching,
with out prejudice to their other use. By virtue of the short gestation period,
these unconventional systems yield quick results with minimum conflict of
interaction on land demand with agriculture and other animal husbandry practises.
Enclosure aquaculture can play a significant complementary role in augmenting
yields from our capture fishery resources, especially those having large predatory
fish population.
5.2 Sewage fed fish culture
A clondy fluid arising out of domestic wastes, containing mineral and
organic mater either in solution or having particles of solid matter floating or in
suspension or in colloidal and pseudocolloidal form in a dispersed state in called
as sewage.
Disposal of sewage has become a global problem because of
urbanization. It is an effect of demophora,i.e. an unabated growth of human
population. In recent years, sewage has become a major pollutant of inland
water, especially rivers. It is a source of many epidemics. It is responsible for a
serious threat to soil and water ecosystems. The approach towards waste water
disposal should be utilization of this residue with the concept of their reuse or
recycle through an ecologically balanced system involving mainly aquaculture.
The utility of sewage effluent to enhance fertility of fresh water ponds has long
been known in many countries of the world.
Sewage enriches water with organic matter that begins to decompose
aerobically there by depleting dissolved oxygen and leading to anoxic condition.
Anoxia causes non - mortality of animals, adding organic matter further to the
already rich organic content. In the absence of dissolved oxygen the organic
matter undergoes anaerobic decomposition as a results of which abnoxious gasses
Paper - II Aquaculture 185
like H2S, CH3 and CO are produced. These gases besides being toxic, react
with to form acids.
Immediate effects of sewage on the biota is eutrophication sewage water
stimulates rapid growth of phytoplankton leading to an algal bloom followed by
rapid increase in zooplankton.
Site selection and construction of sewage-fed fish farm
Fish farm in the vicinity of an urbanized area has the scope to receive
domestic sewage for the recycling of nutrients. Any area adjacent to a municipal
sewage treatment plant is ideal for the location of a sewage-fed fish farm. The
fish farm site should be at a lower level than the treatment plant so that the
sewage can easily enter into the pond through a pipeline by gravity. The fish
farm should have facilities of draining out water from the ponds.
The plan of the fish farm depends upon the source of the sewage, system
of culture and topography of the land. Nearly 75% of the total area is converted
into ponds leaving the rest for dykes and other purposes. Rectangular fish ponds
of 0.3 to 1 ha are constructed with a slope of 1:3 for the embankment and
maximum depth of 1.5m. Each pond should have proper drainage facilities. The
effluent is collected in a sump at the farm, from where the fluent is taken into the
ponds through the distributing system. Additional arrangement is made to connect
the pipelines with fresh watersupply for emergency dilution
Fertilization
Fertilization of sewage-fed pond is done in two phases, pre-stocking
and post-stocking fertilization. In dewatered and sun dried ponds, primary treated
sewage effluent is taken up to a depth of 60 - 90cm during premonsoon months
(April - May). The effluent is then diluted with rain water or freshwater till the
pond BOD reduces to 50 ppm. Periodic fertilization with sewage effluent is
carried out after two months of stocking to maintain nutrient status and
productivity of the pond at a desired level. The quantity of sewage effluent to be
allowed into a pond solely depends on its quality determined on the basis of
BOD values.
Liming
Application of lime in sewage-fed ponds is most essential. It is a useful
pro motor of fertility in ponds and act as a disinfectant against harmful
microorganisms. Pres tocking liming is recommended at a rate of 200 - 400 Kg/
ha as initial dosage. Subsequent liming of 150 - 200Kg/ha on standing crop is
186 Fisheries
necessary throughout the year during sewage intake and during winter months,
when parasitic infection is more.
5.3 Cage Culture
Fish culture in ponds is the primary method of freshwater and brackish
water fish culture. However, there are other methods of fish culture used in
places where pond culture is not possible. Other methods of fish culture are
those carried out in dams and reservoirs, cages, pens and rice fields. Due to
exponential growth in population and the great pressure on land for habitation
and agriculture, the large water resources such as tanks, lakes, reservoirs and
canals, which have been not exploited so far, can be used for augmenting fish
production. Due to the large water bodies, the management has complex
problems. The best thing seems to be captive, regulated culture of suitable fishes
in impoundments installed in them.
Cages and pens could be utilized as nurseries for raising fish seed and
for the grow-out of table fish. They dispense with the need for land based nursery
forms cutting down on the cost of seed production. Investment on long distance
transport of fingerlings for stocking reservoirs and handling mortality can be
avoided by in situ rearing of fry in cages and pen installed in them. One of the
impoundment cultures is in cages. Many countries are practicing cage culture of
fishes and prawns successfully. Cage culture has also been started in India recently.
5.3.1 Advantages of cage culture
The advantages of cage culture are
1. Large water bodies could be utilized better for fish culture.
2. The flowing water could be better utilized for fish culture.
3. Cage culture reduces demands on prime agricultural land for fish
farm construction.
4. Free exchange of water is possible in cages.
5. High density stocking and intensive feeding of the stock can be
achieved, which gives high yield per unit area.
6. Decomposition and degradation of concentrated waste products do
not arise in cage culture.
7. Oxygen depletion cannot be found in cages.
8. Monitoring growth of the stock, diseases is easy.
9. Considerable reduction or extreme compactness in the production

area is thus achieved in cages
10. Several units of cages could be installed in a water body for gainful
employment and income.
11. Harvesting is simple and easy.
12. Considerable indirect employment will be generated.
13. With cage culture, the animal protein production can beincreased.
14. The left over feed, faecal matter and metabolites enrich the water
body in which cages are installed.
5.3.2 Disadvantages of cage farming
1. Cage farms disrupt navigation.
2. Cages increases sedimentation in that area.
3. Cages alter water flow
4. Cages farm alter the flora and fauna of that area
5. The release of uneaten food affect the water quality.
6. High DO content is to be maintained.
7. High quality balanced food is needed.
8. Cage culture is nearly impossible where the area are frozen for
long period.
Stocking
The cultivable species of freshwater fish such as Indian major carps and
exotic carps can be grown in sewage-fed waters. Considering the high carrying
capacity and high productivity of sewage-fed ponds with respect to plankton
and benthic fish food concentration, fish are usually stocked at a reasonably
higher density. The stocking rate recommended 10,000 - 15,000 /ha of carp
fingerlings of about 10 reach and it is preferred to stock more of omnivorous
scavengers and bottom feeders to maintain fish pond hygiene for higher yield.
The ratio of carps for better output is rohu 2.5: catla 1: mrigal 2.5: common carp
2 : silver carp 2. Omnivores and bottom feeders directly consume the organic
detritus of sewage-fed ponds, and thereby directly helping in keeping the pond
aerobic. The stocking rate of fish is kept on higher side considering the profuse
growth of algae which will otherwise grow, decay, putrefy and finally deplete the
oxygen concentration of fish pond.
188 Fisheries
Ecological considerations and algal control

Maintenance of aerobic conditions of the sewage-fed pond is highly
essential and as such early morning dissolved oxygen level should not deplete
below 2 ppm for carps. The BOD should be below 30 ppm for better survival
of fishes. CO2 concentration should not be allowed to increase beyond 20 ppm
to keep the toxicity level within tolerance limit for fish and to control algal blooms.
Liming helps in regulatingCO2. Heavy metal pollution, if any, can be controlled
by introducing water hyacinth at the pond margins and barricading them with
bamboo poles to prevent spreading of the weed throughout the water surface
ofthepond.
Algal control is a must to maintain proper dissolved oxygen. It should
be more than 2ppm and optimal 5 - 6 ppm in a sewage-fed pond. The presence
of silver carp regulate the algae in the culture system. When biological control of
algal bloom is not possible, application of simazin at rate of 0.5 - 1 ppm is
recommended.
Control of aquatic insect
Aquatic insects are found in sewage-fed ponds, especially more during
winter months. The insects of the pond mainly comprises hemiptera, coleopteran,
odonata, zygoptera and trichoptera. Dipteran insects dominate, especially the
larval stages of Chironomids associated with annelid worms of tubificidae. Other
insect larvae of the sewage-fed ecosystem belong to tubanidae, anthomyiodae,
tetanocoridae, etc. The predacious hemiptera, coleoptera and a few odonata,
zygoptera are needed to be controlled. An emulsion of soap and vegetable oil at
a rate of 4 Kg/ha and in the ratio of 1:3 is applied to control these insects.
Harvesting and yield
After 5 - 6 months culture, when the biomass grows to an optimal level,
the stocking density is thinned out through periodical and partial harvesting. The
water depth of the pond is reduced by dewatering for final harvest when the
fishes are removed by repeated drag netting. In a mixed culture of five carp
species in sewage-fed ponds, the yield rate varies from 5.4 - 8.6 t/ha/yr with an
average production of 7 tonnes/ha/yr. The fishes are around 500 gr. to 1000 gr.
during culture operations.
The recurring expenditure on sewage-fed fish culture is meagre compared
to that of fresh-water fish culture. This culture is lucrative and a fish farmer can
obtain an income, on an average of more than Rs.40, 000 /ha/yr. If murrels are
cultured in oxidation ponds and the excess sewage is utilised for the cultivation
of crops, the revenue could be further augmented.
Location of cages
The ideal location for cages is weed-free shallow waters. Flowing water
is best for cage culture. The site should have adequate circulation of water. The
wind and wave action should be moderate. The water should be free from
pollution and weeds. The area should be easily accessible. Cage culture can
also be practiced in areas like swamps where there is water not being used for
any other purpose. Seed should be available in the vicinity. A ready market for
fish should be available near the site. Flowing waters with a slow current of 1 -
9 m/minutelareconsidered ideal for cages. The cages should be a little away
from the shores to prevent the poaching and crab menace.
Types of cages
Cages can be circular, cubic and basket like and the shape has little effect on
yield rate. Cages may be floating at the surface, just submerged or made to sit
on the bottom. Floating cages may be the most appropriate for Indian conditions
and the experiments conducted in our country for seed rearing, grow out, nutrition
and biomonitoring have been in such enclosures. The size of the cage depends
on the type of culture operation and the support facilities available. Large cages
are difficult to handle. Although the cost of small cages is higher, handlings easy
with low risk of losses. The nursery cages are generally of the floating type,
while the ground cages may be floating or immersed depending on the species
cultured.
Construction of cages
The type of material used for cages will depend on the type of culture
whether they are used for fry or table fish rearing. Bamboointerspred with
wooden planks for cages is commonly used in Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand
and Kampuchea. Thick polythene fibbers are used forcages in Japan. Metallic
grills are used in USA. Aluminium frame and nylon webbing is used for fabrication
of cages in USSR and West Germany. In our country, fairly fine mesh nylon
netting is used. The cage material is used mainly depending on their cost and
availability.
Small cages with mats of locally available plant materials such as palm
leaves. Cyprus Stem, Phragmites Stem and split bamboo are used in India.
These cages are of 1 - 2 m2 area. Split bamboos are joined with the help of coir
rope or nylon twine. The cages are installed in the water body with bamboo
supports at the four comers and the bottom. Materials other than bamboo mats
are decayed by the third month and collapsed within a year. Split bamboo cages
remain for over a year. Circular cages with thick bamboo stapes tied with nylon
twine the durability of over 3 years. Cages made up of monofilament woven
190 Fisheries
material of 1 - 3 mm mesh size and 0.3 - 1 mm thickness are light and easy to
handle, but remain for 6 to 12 months.
Fig 5.1 A Typical Cage
Fig 5.2 A typical hexagonal cage with wooden frame work
The circular cages with conduit pipe structures which can be easily
assembled have been designed with nylon webbing in different dimensions. These
cages are floated freely on the water surface with the help of 3 - 4 sealed HDPP
jerry cans. These are extremely useful for cage culture. Due to their circular in
shape the wave action in minimum. These can be moved from place to place
with least water resistance. Due to their circular shape, the rearing space is
maximum in side. The aeration and water circulation is better in these cages.
Fishes can move in the cages with least obstruction. Auto-floating, highly durable
HDPP pipe frame nylon net cages with 36 m2 area are also used. These are light
in weight and not need floats to float on the water surface.
Fig 5.3 Cage

The size of the cages depend on die scale of culture, species cultured,
infrastructure, financial and management resources. The size varies from 2- 10m3
in India, 100 - 150m3 in Indonesia, 60- 180m3 in Kampuchia. 40 - 625 m3 in
Vietnam and 30 m3 in Holland. Large cages are operated in Germany with 42 m
diameter and 16,500 m3 at the water depth of 12 m. These are provided with
automatic or water jet pump-feeding, special handling and harvesting accessories.
Fig 5.4 A series of floating cages moored to a jetty along the shore
192 Fisheries
Fig 5.5 A line diagram of a series of floating cages mored together
Culturable fishes in cages and their stocking

The fishes used for the cage culture should be adaptable to captive
culture, fast growing, hardy and disease resistant. The Indian and Chinese carps,
tilapia and magur can also be cultured where trash fish is cheaply and abundantly
available. In Thailand and Kampuchea the cat fishes, Pangasius species are
being cultured in cages successfully. Koi and Singh are also cultured in India in
cages. In India, the nursery cages are stocked with carp fry at the range of 150-
700 fry/in2 in cases with different materials. In Japan 15.000-62.000 fry/nr2 of
grass carp fry are stocked in nursery cages. The common carp stocking density
is 150/nr2 in Kampuchea, 133 -417/nv1in Indonesia and 80 - 360/nr2 in Vietnam.
and in Thailand
Pangasiussutchi, P. Larmmdi and P. Micronemus fry are stocked at
densities of 150-300/ nr2 in cages of size 1-10 m2 area with a depth of 1.5m.
The number of fish that can be stocked in a cage is variable and depends
on the caning capacity of the water area, water quality and rate of circulation,
the fish species, the quality and quantity of feed supplied. A safe level may be
about 3000 to 6000 fish/ ha. In cable - fish rearing cages in India, the fingerlings
of carps are stocked at density of 30 - 38no /m2. The tilapia, Oreochromis
mossambicus Can be stocked aerate of 100 - 200 m-2. Murrells can be stocked
at density of 40-100m2.
Management and yield
The cage culture can be taken up in two phases - nursery phase and
table - fish rearing phase. In nursery phase of cage culture, the spawn or fry are
reared to fingerling stage in 2-3 months. Different feeds cane used for culture in
nursery cages. Groundnut oil cake, rice bran, egg yolk, soybean cake, soya
milk and soya flour are used as food for fry in nursery cages. The silkworm
pupae are also tried as supplementary food. The initial size of fish to be stocked
in the cages will depend primarily on the length of the growing season and the
desired size at harvest. The carp fingerlings for stocking in 16-20 mm mesh
cages should be over 10 gr. to expect a final size of over 500 gr. within 6months.
It should be ensured that the fingerlings used for stocking are healthy
and disease free. All the fish should be actively moving. It is ideal to stock cages
in the cool part of the day
In India, the growing season is almost year round, except for December
- January in northern parts, where the temperature is low during these winter
months. Very little natural food such as plankton, insects and various other
organisms enter the cages and is available to fish. However, supplementary
feeding is essential in the cage culture to get high production. The types of feed
used will depend on the species cultured and their prevailing market prices.
Murrells, for example, require to be fed with fish, shrimps or other animal matter.
Most of the fish cultured are omnivorous and they accept both plant and
animalbyproducts such as oilcakes, barns, fish meal and silk worm pupae.
Cage fish are generally fed at least once daily throughout the growing
period to get better growth. The quantity of feed to be given is important, since
under-feeding will reduce growth and production, while over-feeding will waste
costly feed and can affect the water quality. A method used to estimate the daily
feed to be given in cages is based on the total weight of the fish. The feed is
usually expressed on percentage of body weight. In carps, the feeding rate is 4
- 5 % of the body weight per day until they attain approximately 100 gr. And
thereafter at 2 - 3%.
In table-fish rearing phase, involving the high-tech system of saturated
stocking and feeding on enriched formulated feeds, the production recorded in
common carp is 25 - 35 Kg m month1 in foreign countries. The channel catfish,
194 Fisheries
5.4 Pen Culture

Recent results in the use of cages, pens or enclosures and recalculating
water systems suggest some ways of compact intensification of production in
aquaculture given the accessory inputs. This practice may provide great
possibilities in the future in certain selected and suitable areas. Aquaculture in
open waters through the use of pens or enclosures is also a means of minimising
the limiting effect of metabolites and pollutants on cultivated stock. Greater
production in very limited space has been found possible under those situations.
Production figures from these types of aquaculture environments approximates
to 4 -10 t/ha/ yrin Laguna Lake in Philippines.
Selection of sites for pen culture
1. Low tidal amplitude
2. Fish pen - site must be sheltered as much as possible against
highwinds
3. Depth not less than 1 meter during lowest water levelle
4. The best site is on the leeward side of the prevailing winds with
moderate flow of current especially in a place where current in over
turning
5. Water with stable PH slight variation is best. Avoid turbid and polluted
water.
6. Muddy clay and clay - loam soils are best types of bottom soil. Too
much still and decomposing organic matter must be avoided.
Construction of pens
Pens can be constructed with the help of bamboo screens and nets
(a) Construction of pens with bamboo screens
Split bamboo should not necessarily be shaped and rounded. They are
soaked in water for two weeks and then dried for one week. During the soaking
and drying period, bamboo poles are prepared and staked at the chosen site
according to the desired size and shape of the fish pen. After stacking poles,
bamboo splits are closely woven extending to length of more or less five meters
and made into a roll. After weaving, these are set by stretching them from one
pole to the other interrurnedor just set inside or outside close to the poles from
bottom to top. They are tied every pole by rubber and one provided with sliced
rubber around, liming one on top and one at the bottom. These spitted rubbers
prevent them from wear due to wave action. Nursery nets which should be 1/
16th to 1/10 the of the area of the fish pen can be set before constructing the fish
pen or after it is set.
Fig 5.6 A bamboo scaffolading enclosure

(b) Construction of pen with nets
Construction of a fish pen made out of synthetic netting is easier than
one made of bamboo screens. Netting materials can be kural on, nylon, Cremona,
tamsi. Etc. An ordinary fisherman can connect the net sin to the fish.pen after
taking into account the desired height or depth of the pen site. After the net is
constructed, the poles are staked in mud after making a provision for the front
rope and tie rope at the interval of 1.0 - 2.0 m per stake and also the provision
for float rope. In preparing the poles, all nodes are cleaned except one node
with brunch portending one inch which is staked in the mud from 15 - 30 cm or
more depending upon the depth of soft mud.
With this node the foot rope is tied, and these together with the bottom
net are staked in the mud. Boulders can be used as sinkers in the absence of
lead sinkers. Bamboo tips of 1-1 VI m are also used to stake the bottom net
with a foot rope firm into the mud to avoid escape of the fish stock. Construction
of the nursery net may be done before or after the construction of the fish pen.
They should have a free board of about 1 meter above the normal water level to
196 Fisheries
prevent entry or exit of fishes by jumping and as a precaution against water level
fluctuations. Metal and metal coated with HDPP screens are often used for
pens which are highly durable.
Culture
Pen culture is extensively practiced in Japan, Peru and Philippines. Fish
formers in Laguna debay and Sansabo Kekes stock milk fish fingerlings in pens
and grow them to marketable size (200 gor above). Prawn is also similarly
cultured. Very little work has bend one on pen culture of fishes in India. Traditional
trapping and extensive culture of tiger prawn, milk fish, pearl spot, mullet, bekti
and thread fins are done in some sort of pens and enclosures in canals joining
the backwaters in Kerala and in the shallow areas of Chilka Lake (Janos) in
Orissa. The pens are made by weaving split bamboo or with netting. The
enclosing of fishes is done usually after the monsoon season up to late autumn
and the culture period lasts for about 6 to 8 months.
The size of Janos in the Chilka Lake varies from 5 to 500 ha. Since the
stocking and harvesting are not done systematically, precise production S3*
figures area Jat available. The yield, however, is estimated to be about 60 Kg/
ha/season. Seed rearing experiments were conducted in a split bamboo enclosure
of 247.5 m2reinforced with nylon netting in Punarswamy Bhavanisagar
(Tamilnadu). It was stocked with marital (size 7 mm) and Labeo fimbratus
(Size 5 mm) spawn at the rate of 4.6 million/ha and usual farm practices were
followed. In 30 days mrigal attained a size of 38 mm and fimbriatus,28 mm. At
the time of conclusion of the study after 3 months, the former had attained a size
of 88 mm and the later 75 mm. The overall survival obtained was 27.8 %.
Major carp seed rearing in pens is being done every year from1982
onwards in the Tungabhadra reservoir in Karnataka. A shallow bay of the
reservoir near Hampusagara is cordoned off with bamboo mats reinforced with
Casuarinas poles and lined with mononlament cloth during the summer months,
prior to the reservoir getting filled. The penis divided into several compartments
with bamboo mats, lined with mononlament cloth. When the nursery pen, get
water with the filling of reservoir, they are stocked with spawn of carps. The
stocking density varies from 5 to 20 million spawn ha.The feed given is a mixture
ofgroundnutcakeandricebran(1:1).After2to4monthsthefingerlingsare
enumerated and released in the reservoir. A survival varying from11 to 30 % is
obtained from the varies nursery pens.
Fig 5.7 (a) Pen culture in open water
(b) Pen culture in canal
(c) Pen culture in open water

198 Fisheries
A pen culture experiment for raising cattle and rohu in Mamkamaun a

flood plain lake in Gandak basic yields a computed production of 4/ ha/6 months.
The experiment was conducted in a bamboo screen pen (1000m) and the stock
was fed with a mixture of nee bran and mustard cake, apart from a feed
formulated from the aquatic weeds collected from the lake. Since intrusion of
fishes from outside including predators is possible in pens. It is important to
stock larger fingerlings (over 50 g size) to ensure better survival. It is be desirable
to have scale pen culture. The species mix and stocking rates will mainly depend
on the natural food supply, supplemental feeding strategy, water depth and the
duration of rearing.
Supplementary feeding
The fish pens that are densely stocked with 10-20 fish per square meter,
generally need regular feeding at the rate of 4 -10 % of the total body weight of
the stock at least once 3 week, or it could be divided into daily feeding. The
amount of food to be given depends on the condition of the culture fish which
could be checked through sampling at least once a month.
Management
Management of fish pens are more laborious and demanding Thana fish
farm, because there are more risks in managing fish pens. Fingerlings are liable
to escape once a single bamboo split breaks or a small portion of the net is torn.
Every now and then the fish pens have to be checked for any holes or breaks.
The fish pen site has to be laid idle at least one month a year so that excess food
and other organic matter are completely decomposed before stocking with new
fingerlings. If the site is not sheltered it would-be advisable to remove the net or
split bamboo screen during the stormy season and repeat during fine weather
condition.
Summary
Sewage fed aquaculture is a unique system and has manifold in
developing tropical countries acting as major source of nutrients for crop farming
and aquaculture economical for sustainable production and helps to combat
environmental pollution . The subject of sewage fed aquaculture is reviewed
in terms of source , chemical nature aquaculture diversity pattern, recycling
,production of aquaculture , environmental issues and safety measures for
ecofriendly sustainable environmental management strategies.
A cloudy fluid arising out of domestic waste, containing mineral and
organic material either in solution or having particles of solid matter floating or
in suspension or in colloidal and pseudo-colloidal form in depressed state is

called sewage.
Cage and pen culture fishery practice are is an intensity method of
aquaculture. Culture of fishes is method boxes placed water is called cage
culture. Pen is an enclose in water made of nylon netting for the culture of fin
fish and shell fish.
The semi enclosed water system is done in open water bodies but
there is possibility of aquaculture management on the organism . The fishes are
grown in cages and pens . The pen are constructed on even bottomed placed
only . The fishes in cages or pens are not exposed to the predatory fishes and
seed can be stocked in required densities, supplementary feed can be given,
and growth can be checked and harvested periodically.
1. Define Eutrophication .
2. Define sewage fed fish culture.
3. Name the fishes can be grown in sewage fed fish farming.
4. What is cage fish culture ?
5. What are the material used in making a cage ?
6. Give two advantages of cage culture.
7. Give two examples for types of cages.
8. Where do we locate the cages .
9. What is the stocking density of fish cage farming.
10. What is meant by pen fish culture ?
11. Which state is suitable for pen fish culture.
12. What are the material used to make pens ?
13. Define BOD and COD.
14. Define Table fish.
1. Explain about sewage fed fish farming.
2. Write about cage fish farming.
200 Fisheries
3. Write about fish culture in pens.

4. Mention advantages and disadvantages of cage fish farming.
On Job Training
1. Visiting of sewage fed fish culture farms.
2. Visiting of cage and pen fish culture farms.
3. Interaction with fish farmers.
UNIT 6
Crustacean and
Molluscan Fisheries
Structure
6.1 Introduction of crustacean fisheries

6.2 Scampi
6.3 Shrimp
6.4 Lobster fishery
6.5 Crab
6.6 Introduction to Mulloscan fisheries
6.7 Mussel
6.8 Edible oyster
6.9 Pearls
Learning Objectives
After completion of this unit the student will be able to

Know the understand the importance of crustacean fisheries
Study and understand the mulloscan fisheries
202 Fisheries
6.1 Introduction of Crustacean Fisheries

A large number of crustacean are consumed by man especially the
prawns, shrimps, lobsters, crabs etc. They form an important diet of man
with great nutritive value. The most edible portions are their abdomen almost
all of which are composed of muscles. The muscles are either freshly cooked
or canned. Shrimps and prawns are captured with seines, but crabs lobsters
an cray fishes are lured into baited traps of wire wood or net.
Prawn fishery means capturing of prawns from natural resources as
well as their culture. It has advanced in several countries including India,
giving employment to thousands of people.
6.2 Scampi
6.2.1 Introduction
About a dozen species of fresh water prawn belonging to the genus
Macrobrachium inhabit the Indian river and constitute of rich resource in
terms of delicious protein food both for the rich and the poor. At least three
species viz., M.rosenbergiii, M. malcolmsonii, and M.rosenbergii choprai attain
sufficiently large size and are economically very important. Of these
M.rosenbergii which is the largest prawn in the world attaining over 300mm in
length and 400 gm in weight and popularly known as scampi or the gait long
legged prawn,. is now cultivated on a large scale in Asia, particularly Thailand,
Vietnam, Taiwan and Bangladesh ,and also Latin America . In India Juveniles
of various species of fresh water prawns were traditionally collected from
nature and consumed either in fresh or dried condition or used as poultry
feed.
In some cases there were also stocked in ponds and tanks in the near
vicnity of further and harvested ,when marketable. However systematic
aquaculture of Macrobrachium spp., was unknown till about decades ago as
source of reliable seed supply did not exit. Hence researches on development
of technology for their culture were initiated only recently once of the seed
production technology was preferred and hatcheries established. In India
successful larval rearing of M.rosenbergii was first achieved in 1975.
While Macrobrachium rosenbergii grows faster than Macrobrachium
malcomsonii, the former has the disadvantages in having a larger cephalothoran
and a smaller tail. The larger size of the male in M.rosengergii is a great
disadvantages for markets where only tails are preferred though it is certainly
advantageous where live ( or) head on prawns are preferred.
Classification
Phylum : Arthopoda
Sub phylum : Mandibulata
Class : Crustacea
Order : Decapoda
Genus : Macrobrachium
Species : Rosenbergii
6.2.2 General Biology and Life History
(a) Biology
About 100 species of fresh water prawn are found all over world of
which 25 have inhabited the Indian waters. Macrobrachium is the largest fresh
water prawn in the world growing upto 31cm in size. Its distribution is limited
to the estuarine and fresh water zones of river mouths and back water (0 to
20% salinity and 25-300C temperature) in the tropical and sub tropical countries
of indopacific region.
This has attracted attention to over the world and in several Asian
countries, including India, successful rearing has been achieved and techniques
are standardized under controlled conditions.
(b) Species Identity
This species belong to family Palaemonidae (under Natantia, Macrura
Decapod crustacea) characterized by the overlapping of the pleura of second
abdominal segment over those of first and third segments. M.rosenbergii can
easily be identified by its large second pair of thoracic legs in females and it
rostrum, which is slightly pinkish in colour with a double curvature and the teeth
formula of 12-13 / 11-13. There are distinct black bands on the dorsal side
the junction of all abdominal segments. In the juveniles on the lateral sides of
the carapace several bands are characteristic of this species. However they
disappear as the juveniles grow into sub adults.
(c) Food Habits
This species is a bottom feeder and omnivorous. It accept a variety of
food items ranging from grains, worms, flesh pieces of mollusks, crustaceans
and fish and cooked egg pieces. When the prawn is soft after moulting other
prawns irrespective of size predate it upon. It eats its own moult and eggs.
Hence it is necessary to provide shades and shelters for protecting themselves
during moulting during culture.
204 Fisheries
(d) Habits
The species is nocturnal in habit and most of its life activities especially
moulting and hatching take place night hours. During daytime, it is sluggish and
tries to hide in the bottom . There is a tendency to establish territory and
protect the same in the adults. The species locates its feed mostly by touch
with feelers. Food is not completely eaten because of territorial attitude and
hence feeds with a higher water stability and attractability are suitable and are
recommended to be placed in pails at corners. This will help to assess
consumption from the left over feed. The first pair of chelipeds is the chief
organs of food capture and is assisted by the second pair. Although the
species eats variety to prevent mortality due to cannibalism in culture
practices.
(e) Sexuality
Males are bigger than females. In the males the cephalothorax is
bigger in size and the abdominal part narrower. The second pair of chelate legs
are longer in male than female indicating sexual dimorphism. In juveniles males
can be distinguished from the females by the presence of appendix masculine
additionally on the endopod of the second abdominal appendage (pleopod)
like other Palaemonids . The males are some times referred as bulls,. Depending
on the length of claws and size of males, three type are recognized in culture
1. Small male claws are smaller than body length
2. Orange clawed males-claws are smaller to little longer than body
size.
3. Blue clawed male - claws are 1.5 to 2 times bigger than the body
size also called terminals males better to harvest to them.
Females are smaller in size with a smaller head and a broader abdominal
space to serve as a brood chamber for incubation of eggs. As many as six
types can be seen in culture.
(i) Immature carapace without any trace of gonad.
(ii) Maturing gonad under carapace gradually increase in size and
colour from orange to brick red.
(iii) Berried fertilized eggs in the brood pouch.
(iv) Spent brood pouch empty with hair like structures.
(v) Re-maturing gonad developing under carapace without eggs in
the brood pouch.
(vi) Re-maturing and berried brood pouch with eggs and gonad well
developed under carapace - indicating continuous breeding and
sign of excellent pond management.
In the male the genital pore is in between of fifth walking legs, while
that of the female is at the base of the third walking legs.
(f) Maturity
The species grows of maturity in 6 to 9 months when their size are
around 150 m (25g) in females and 175 mm (35g) in males. Maturity can be
obtained under better brood stock management. In the female gonadal maturity
can be clearly seen through the head when the orange colour ovary gradually
develops and occupies most of the cephalothorax. A small male can impregnate
four to five females at a time.
Breeding season differ in different river system, but for hatchery
operation best result in larval rearing can be obtained when the water
temperature is in the range of 24 to 320 (optimum 27+-10C) with minimum
variation between day and night temperatures. Mature adults occur mostly in
the fresh water areas of estuaries, back waters and lakes.
Where there is a tidal from the sea. Both mating and incubation take
place in fresh water and brackish water as the species especially females in
berry are migratory in habit. Although hatching can take place in fresh water
larval survival and growth take place only in brackish water environment in
shallow canals.
In this habit they sped their time like plankton till they are transformed
into post larvae, juveniles and become benthic in habit. Then they return back
to fresh waters to grow into adults. The species can be cultured in fresh water
pond as well as slightly saline brackish water ponds as it can tolerate salinity
upto about 15ppt during its life history.
(g) Breeding
Female when fully ripe is dull, shy and prefers corners. It becomes
receptive to male when it is in soft condition only after moult and is zealously
guarded by the male with its long pincer. This is called premating of puberty
moult. Mating is only for short time when the male deposit the sperms neat
the genital pore of the female located at the base of the third pair of thoracic
legs. After a short time as the eggs are extruded they got fertilized externally.
The eggs are deposited into brood chambers under the abdomen between the
206 Fisheries
pleopods. The eggs are held together by tuft like ovigerous setae developed
for this purpose.
(h) Incubation
The females continuously the eggs and provide sufficient aeration for
the developing eggs by constantly fanning the poles. Depending upto temperature
the incubation period last from 15 to 24 (19 to 20 days at 25-320C).
(i) Life History
Details of life history and behavior of the fresh water prawn.
M.rosenbergii is given by Ling (1962) new and Singholka (1982) and Uno and
Soo (1969). The life cycle of the species consist of eggs, larvae (zoea) post
larva , juvenile, sub adult and adult. In nature, juvenile to adult stage are
spent in fresh water habitat. Maturity mating egg laying and part of incubation
take place in fresh water habitat and the species migrates to suitable brackish
water environment for hatching and growth of larvae through eleven stages
till they are transformed into post-larvae and later juvenile. The juveniles as
send into the fresh water zones of the rivers, back water , lakes, canals, etc,
which receive the tidal influence. Larval stages are planktonic while post
larvae to adult stages are benthic in habit.
Fig 6.1 Macrobrachium Rosenbergi (Fresh water Prawn)

(j) Eggs
These are slightly oval in shape measuring 0.6 to 0.7mm on its along
axis and are bright orange in colour,. Sufficient is given by fanning pleopods
constantly .The first pair of thoratic legs are carefully removes dead eggs and
foreign matter. From about 12th day onwards, a light grey colour slowly
develops in place of orange colour. The gray colour depends gradually and
becomes slatish. In the females in berry with eggs about to hatch, the developing
eye can been seen as the black spot. Naturally hatching take place in about
19 days at temperature of 26-280C.
(k) Larva
There are eleven zoeal stages in the larval cycle of the species lasting
from 30 to 45 days depending upon temperature, water quality and food.
Identification character size and number of days (at 280C for each stage) are
given below for determining the stages and monitoring feed grades and their
frequency.
Stage Age (N.o.of days) Body Length Prominent Character

I 0 (1-2) 1.92 mm Sessile eyes
II 2 (2-3) 1.99 mm Stalked eyes
III 4 (3-5) 2.14 mm Uropods appear
IV 7 (5-9) 2.50 mm Two dorsal teeth on rostrum
V 10 (9-12) 2.80 mm Telson narrower & elongated
VI 14 (12-18) 3.75 mm Pleopods buds appear
VII 17 (15-20) 4.06 mm Pleopods biramous
VIII 20 (18-22) 4.68 mm Pleopods with setae
IX 24 (21-29) 6.07 mm Endopods of pleopods with

appendix interna
X 28 (25-34) 7.05 mm Three or four dorsal teeth on
rostrum
XI 31 (28-37) 7.73 mm Teeth on half the upper dorsal
margin
PL 36 (36-43) 7.69 mm Teeth on upper and lower mar-
gins of rostrum
208 Fisheries
(l) Larval Behavior

These are active swimmers and planktonic in habit. They are phototactic
but direct and strong light is avoided. They swim tail up head down and
ventral side upward at an oblique angle backward. Upto 2nd stage (about 10
days) there is a schooling habit in the larvae as they tend to be close together
and move in swarms. From 6th stage onwards the larvae gradually tend to
disperse. They spend most of their time at the surface and in mid column ,but
settle down during moulting time. They actively feed on the supplied food in
suspension. Their photo positive tendency can be advantageously utilized for
cleaning feeding and water changing by partially shading the rearing containers
in hatchery operations.
(m) Post Larva
Post larva settles to the bottom and becomes benthic in habit.
Behavioually it is similar to juvenile except for the under development of body
parts like setae, spines teeth etc. With in a few moults, the post larvae become
juvenile,. In hatchery operations the post larvae are gradually conditioned
from brackish water to fresh water by continues changes of water lasting for
a day. They are transparent and can be observed by flash light at night. Post
larva after acclamatisation to fresh water (ready to transport) can be called
seed. No such notations like PL to PL 20 (popular in (Tiger hatcheries) are
sued in Macrobrachium hatcheries as metamorphosis (transformation ) form
larvae stages XI to PL., extends upto 20 or even 30 days to due to management
factors.
(n) Juveniles
These are crawlers and settle to bottom or cling to the sides. There are
6 to 8 horizontal black bands prominently situated on the carapace at this
stage. As the juveniles grow into sub adults (about 70 to 80 mm) these bands
start disappearing . In nature, the juvenile perform the backwards migration to
fresh water and grow into adults. Sub adults (80 to 150mm) and juveniles have
all the morphological characteristics of adults except maturity. In sub adults
the characteristic horizontal black bands have disappeared and have clear
benthic habits unlike juveniles with migratory habits form saline to fresh
water in nature.
6.2.3 Essential of Prawn Hatchery

For the establishment of a gaint fresh water prawn hatchery, the following
requirement are essential.
(a) Site selection
Selection of a suitable site is one of the most important factor for the
establishment of a prawn hatchery. Large scale commercial prawn heathery
require coastal site having adequate supply of sea water and fresh water
from pollutants. The site should be amenable for provision of infrastructural
facilities such as availability of electricity accessibility etc. Backyard hatcheries
can be established at any place where good quality of fresh water is available
along with either concentrated brine solution or artificial sea water.
(b) Infrastructural Facilities
The infrastructural facilities include earthen stock ponds to maintain
adequate supply of brooder, water supply aeration system, main hatchery
shed for housing brood stocking holding tanks, hatching, larval rearing tanks
, post larvae, holding tanks, power hose, pump house etc.
Brood stock ponds
Continuous supply of good quality brooder is one of the pre-requisites
for the successful operation of a commercial hatchery. Therefore it is essential
to have to brood stock pond located in the proximity of the hatchery
complex so as to avoid rough handling and long distance transportation of
brooder. The texture of the soil suitable for brood stock ponds in sandy clay
loam, which should have pH between 6.5 to 8.0. The site should have perineal
source of fresh water free from pollutants .
Water supply system
The water supply system consist of sea water intake, filtration units,
for seawater fresh water and brackish water (mixed water) and their distribution
to various sections of the hatchery .
Sea water
Sea water should be drawn through subsoil filter arranged 5 to 6 feet
below the sand in the intertidal zone in order to make the water free form
suspended particles and turbidity. If sea water is to be drawn from the surface
the water should be passed through a shore sand filter before storing into the
reservoir.
210 Fisheries
Fresh water
The source of fresh water may be from tube well or form a perennial
canal.
Brackish water (Mixed water)
Supernatant water from the freshwater and seawater storage tanks
are pumped into the mixing tanks so as to get the desired salinity (14+-2 ppt).
The mixed water is treated with bleaching powder to get 10 to 15ppm chlorine
to kill the microflora and fauna. After 10 to 12 hour of chlorination (contact
period) the water should be dechlorinated with sodium thiosulphate (1ppm
residual chlorine needs 7 ppm of sodium thiosulphate). The dechlorinated is
treated with 10 pom of EDTA to eliminate the dissolved heavy metals if any.
(c) Main Hatchery Complex
The main hatchery complex is shed covered with asbestos cement
sheets. The main hatchery complex of brood stock unit, larval rearing unit,
Artemia hatching unit, post larval rearing unit.
Brood Stock unit
This unit has provision to hold berried females and hatching of the
eggs. The unit is provided with fresh water brackish water air supply grids of
PVC all along the wall inside the shed.
Berried females holding tanks
The brood stock unit consist of various (2.0to 10.0 to capacity) cement
tanks plastic pools, FRP tank to hold berried females collected from the brood
stock ponds. These tanks are housed under an asbestos roofed shed. The
berried females having different stages of egg development are stocked in
separate tanks. Depending on the colour of eggs, the berried females are
grouped into three categories i.e
1. The prawns with organic colour eggs
2. The prawn with brown colour eggs and
3. The prawns with grey colour eggs.
Hatching Tanks
The size of hatching tanks various from 0.5 to 1.0 ton capacity in
commercial hatcheries., Normally FRP tanks are used for hatching.
Larval Rearing Unit

The larval rearing unit lays a major pole in the successful operation of
prawn hatchery. The larval rearing shed be situated with an or-south orientation
having large windows on eastern and western sides for proper ventilation. The
hatchery should have concrete flooring with copper slope and drainage facility
.The unit is provided with freshwater , back water and air supply grids of PVC
all along the will inside the shed.
Prawn larvae are reared in different types and size and tanks made up
of cement. FRP ferrocement etc. Smaller hatcheries use 0.25 to 1.0 and
commercial hatcheries use 1.0 to 5.0 ton capacity parabolic shaped or circular
tanks with disc shaped bottom. The tanks are provided with aeration.
Artemia hatching unit
Artemia hatching unit consist 50 to 500 1 capacity FRP cylindro-conical
jars,. The conical part of the jar is translucent and the innner surface of the jar
is white in colour. The jar has a lid Aaeratin is provided at the centre of the
cone. Above the each jar two florescent tube lights are fixed to get 1000 Lux
light.
Post larval rearing unit
In the hatcheries the post large are generally reared in 10 to 20 ton
capacity tank plastic pond /FRP tanks. These tanks are roofed under side
open side,. Aeraration is provided in the tanks. In the field post larvae are
reached in hapas fixed in the earthern ponds.
6.2.4 Raising of Brood Stock
Successful run of prawn hatchery largely depend upto continous of
healthy brooder .Though nature is good source but it is not also so dependable
because it is beset with lot of uncertainties. It is therefore, advisable to have
the facility for raising the brood stock of gaint pawns as an built component
in the hatchery complex it self.
6.2.5 Collection and transportation of brooder of M. Rosenbergii
(a) Collection of brooders
From natural sources
During breeding season i.e. beginning of monsoon a large number of
berried females of different stage of gaint prawn are available in the estuaries.
212 Fisheries
However their abundance in estuaries depends on the amount of rainfall. The

berried females and mature males and females of gaint prawn are collected by
dolnets operated against water currents during high and low tides. When the
net is removed from the water.
The healthy and active berried female and mature males and female are
separated from the catch and put into the plastic tubs containing water from
the same source from where prawns have been collected. Prawns are also
caught by angling using ordinary nylons lines with barbed hooks. The favorite
baits used in the angling of gaint prawns are earthworms and small shrimps.
Prawns caught by this method are temporarily kept in nylon net cages fixed in
flowering water so as to ensure their healthy condition for transport.
From the Farm Ponds
In well established farm, berried females of gaint prawns are collected
from the grow-out ponds by cast netting. Before transportations the netted out
berried females as well as mature males and females prawns are carefully
removed and kept for sometime in plastic tubs containing the water of the
same source.
(b) Transportation of Brooders
Open container are used for short distance transportation. However
for long distance transportation of brooder in oxygenated plastic bags becomes
necessary. A 15 liters capacity containers with polythene bag containing 5 litres
and water and 10 litres of oxygen, accommodates one berried female without
much loss of eggs during transportation . Wide mouth plastic or aluminium
tubs with female with polythene bags can also be used for long distance
transportation.
For distant place involving the hour of journey, it is advisable to
transport brooder in insulated containers where the temperature can be
maintained at desired level. During transport water temperature should be
kept below the optimum , i.e. at around 200C to 220C which reduces the rate
of metabolic activities of the prawn resulting in low oxygen consumption and
aggressiveness during transport. This method helps in keeping the prawn in
healthy condition for longer duration.
While packing for long distance transportation, the prawns are kept in
perforated PVC rigid pipes of 50mm to 75mm diameter. The length of diameter
. The length and diameter of so as to prevent the escape of prawn from the
pipe. This method of packing not only prevents the spoilage of polythene bags
by the strong chelate legs and rostrum of the prawn brooder during transport
but also increases their carrying capacity per unit volume of water inside the
polythene bag.
6.2.6 Breeding Technique of M.Rosenbergii
Berried females of M. Rosenbergii for the purpose of getting larval
prawns can be obtained in two ways. One way is to collect the berried female
prawns directly from the natural sources of from grow-out farm ponds or
from brood stock section of the hatchery complex. The other way of getting
berried female is to collected the mature male and female prawns are breed
them under controlled condition for obtaining berried female prawns is
described.
(a) Selection of Brooder
Through 5 to 6 months old M.rosenbergii. Of 8 to 10 weight mature
and lays egg but their egg production capacity of very low (about 5000).
Therefore use of such small size females for hatchery operation will not work
out be economical . Moreover the speed produced from such small sized brooder
will also not be genetically improved variety. Hence healthy, active, well
pigmented large size mature male (>125g) and female (>75) prawn should be
select for breeding.
The stock of such prawns can be had from nature or grow out ponds
of the farm or from the brood stock ponds of the hatchery complex. The males
are ready to mate at any time. They are be easily identified by their large spiny
second pair of walking legs. The sexually mature females, which are ready for
breeding can be identified by the presence of orange coloured mass occupying
a larger portion of the dorsal and lateral parts of the cephalothorax
(b) Breeding Technique
Small size tanks of cement FRP of 2.0 x 1.0 x 0.75m are quite convenient
for the breeding of gaint fresh water prawn. The tanks are filled with filtered
fresh water upto height of 0.5m and provided with aeration. Sexually matured
male and female prawns are then released in breeding tank. In each tank,
prawn brooder are released in the ratio of 1:4 i.e. one male against four females.
The brooder are fed regularly with earthworm broken rice, sweet potato or
formulated pelleted feeds thrice a day. In order to fasten the moulting process
of females the water quality is maintained scrupulously. To achieve this 50%
of water should be exchanged daily .
214 Fisheries
Breeding process is accomplished with the pre-mating moult of the

female prawns. The pre-mating usually occurs at night and is proceeded by 2-
3 days of fasting and reduced activities. With in 6 hour following the moult,
the female becomes receptive to mating . Soon after this males starts its
courtship display lifting his head, raising its body , waving is antennae and raising
and extending its long and powerful chelate legs is embracing accompanied by
intermittent jerking movements. This display continues for 10 to 20 minutes to
establish firm contact with female..
After establishing the firm contact with female, the male holds the
female between in chelate legs actively cleans the ventral portion of her thoracic
shell (sterna) with other walking legs (periopods) which can be easily observed.
The cleaning process take about 10 to 15 minutes. The act ultimately culminates
into final mating lasing only a few seconds in which male deposit it sperm in the
of a gelatinous mass on the female ventral median thoracic region. The egg is
laying process by females take place between 6 to 20 hour after the deposition
of sperm by male. During egg laying the tail of the female prawn beds
forward to reach the ventral thoracic region.
At the same time the pleopod are extend to form a protected egg
passage. The eggs are then extruded through the female genital pores into the
brood chamber, first on one side and then on the other extruded through the
female extruded they get fertilized externally.
The berried female so produced is removed after a day of egg laying
and are kept in a 50 liter capacity rectangular tank which is filled with freshwater
and kept constantly aerated,. During this period the berried prawns are fed
with suitable feed such earthworm, mussels meat, broken rice sweet potato
etc. Berried prawns are never kept hungry as otherwise they may eat her own
eggs.
In order to maintain optimum water quality ad to avoid any fungal are
bacterial disease to the egg mass. The left over feeds is removed regularly. The
process of egg development is observed regularly, particularly the change of
their colour. The eggs gradually change form orange to brown and lastly into
grey colour in about 15 to 24 days , depending on water temperature. When
grey colouration of eggs is noticed, the berried female prawns are transferred
into the hatching tank.
(C) Hatching
For hatching berried female prawn with grey colour eggs are kept in
circular or rectangular tank of 50 to 100 litre capacity. The tanks are filled with
4 to 6 ppt saline water and kept constantly aerated. Hatching of eggs take
place in day or two. The entire mass hatch out in night or two consecutive
nights. During the time of hatching, the mother prawn vibrates her pelopods
rapidly at intervals to disperse the hatching. After complete hatching,. The
mother prawn is removed and the hatchling are transferred to the rearing tanks
for further development.
6.2.7 Nursery Management of Post Larvae of Gaint Fresh Water Prawn
(M.Rosenbergii)
Nursery rearing of macrobrachium rosenbergii post larvae is an
intermediate phase between the hatchery and grow-out phases. Freshly moulted
post larvae are very small in size (7-8mm) to stock in the grow out ponds. In
order to achieve higher survival and to reduce the grow out period an
intermediate nursery phase is essentially be followed. Efficient nursery
management practices have been developed to rear the highly aggressive and
cannibalistic nature of M.rosenbergii post larvae at higher stocking densities.
(a) Nursery Tank
Nursery may be in a forms of cement tank plastic pools, fiberglass
tanks of different sizes or even a portion of earthen pond corded off with the
help of hapas. The nurseries should have proper drainage facilities to harvest
juveniles. The nurseries may be indoor or outdoor but indoor nurseries are
having benefits over the outdoor ones, because environmental parameters
can be easily maintained in the indoor nurseries. While selecting the nurseries
smaller tanks are chosen for easy maintenance.
(b) Preparation of Tank
The nursery tank are cleaned thoroughly and filled with filtered fresh
water upto height of 0.60m. In order to reduce the cannibalism increase the
surface area and to enhance the carrying capacity, the tank are provided with
shelters. The shelters can be hume pipes, polythene strips of 10 mm width
and 0.60m and to 0.75 length. These strips are tied with sinkers to keep them
vertically in the tank. The strip are distributed uniformly in the tank cut pieces
of closed mesh net pieces can also be placed in the nurseries with the help of
sinker are floats to increase the surface area. These additional substrate helping
clinging of post larvae and provided shelter, particularly at the time of moulting.
The prepared nurseries are provided with aeration.
(c) Stocking of post larvae
The post larvae harvested from the hatchery are thoroughly acclimatized
to fresh water conditions by subjecting them to low levels of salinity in gradual
216 Fisheries
steps. Before stocking in the nursery tank the temperature and PH of the tank
water and post larval holding tank water are checked. If there is any change
the post larvae are acclimatized slowly to such changed conditions before
stocking.
The stocking density depends on the rearing period and the size of
juveniles to be required for the grow out ponds. In order to get on average size
of 35 to 40mm length juveniles at a rearing period of 30days the post larvae
are stocked @2500 to 3000 per m2.
(d) Food and Feeding
A wide variety of feeds are in use for the raising of post larvae which
can be fed with moina micrura, cut pieces of earthwarms, mussels meat , egg
custard and also pelleted feed prepared with acetes, rice bran and ground nut
oil cake. Shrimp starter feeds that are easily available now a day are also
used as feed for the post larvae of the gaint freshwater prawn. The feed is
given @ 5 to 10% of the body weight. The feed is to be spread uniformly
throughout the nursery.
(e) Water Quality Management
Optimum water quality is maintained by daily exchange of 40 to 50%
water from the tank bottom. The feed is removed at regular intervals. A similar
range of water quality parameters which are maintained in the larval rearing
section are followed in the nursery management practice also.
(f) Harvesting
After attaining the desired size the juveniles have to be harvested to
stock in the grow out ponds. For harvesting the water level of the nursery tank
is reduced to the level. The juveniles are then harvested by keeping a circular
fiberglass or plastic tub near the drain pipe outside the tank. The tub is
provided with suitable screen box. The height of the screen box should be high
than the tub so as to eliminate the escape of juveniles while draining out the
water. The collected juveniles are kept in smaller container having same
water as is in the nursery which are further properly aerated for conditioning
to pack and transport to the grow out farm ponds.
6.2.8 Grow out ponds
Rectangular ponds are desirable for fresh water prawn culture. Ponds
ranging in size from 0.1 to 20. Ha with sloping plain bottom towards one side
or ideal. The depth of the pond may range between 0.75 and 1.5 m. The carp
culture ponds are also suitable and freshwater and fresh water prawns can
also be cultured along with carps,. Sandy silt or clayey bottom soil is desirable
. Filling and draining of water through gravity is most economical. Marginal

aquatic vegetation is desirable as it provides food and protection for the
prawns in addition to protecting the bunds from erosion. The growth of
rooted vegetation may be prevented. Harvesting is a big problem in large
ponds.
(a) Preparation
Liming is done depending on the nature of soil. Generally lime is applied
at the rate of 1000kg/ha .The ponds are filled with water through inlets covered
with mesh. The inlets are so designed that some exchange of air take place
while the water is failing to the pond. Fertilizer are also added as in carp culture.
However the quantity of fertilizer added is generally less compared to carp
culture ponds. Cow dung single super phosphate and urea is commonly used
for fertilization. Different types of hide outs such as scrap net or palm nerve
leaves, or pigeonhole type structure or earthen pipe may be arranged in the
pond to facilitate the escape the attack of larger prawns.
(b) Stocking of seed
Post larvae of 1-4 weeks after metamorphosis may be checked in
ponds after acclimatization to the pond temperature. pH is equally critical. The
optimal stocking density is 25,00 to 30,000ha. In circulation system the density
increased to 40,000 - 50,000 ha. In continous culture practice a higher stocking
density is maintained to get better results.
(c) Water Quality Parameters
The important water quality parameters are given below
Temperature 18-34 0c (optimum 29-310C)
Dissolved oxygen 5-8 ppm3
pH 7.0 - 7.5
Hardness <150ppm and above > 40 ppm
Salinity upto 6 ppt acceptable
Total dissolved solids 300 ppm
6.2.9 Feed management for gaint fresh water prawn M. Rosenbergii
The larvae are zooplankton feeders, adults are omnivorous and
cannibalistic in the absence of food in the pond. Scampi can be cultured along
(monoculture) and with other cultivable species of fish (poly culture). It is quick
218 Fisheries
a growing species and complete its life in brackish water and freshwater. It can
tolerate a salinity range up to 14 ppt. The following feeding steps are essential
to promote its culture in fresh water low saline water area of the century. The
essential managements aspects are selection quality ingredients, source of
major nutrients and their inclusion of the feed preparation, minor raw material
used in feeds and commonly used ingredients procurements on cheaper rate
from the reliable sources.
Feeding schedule for prawn
Stage Size on Prawn (gm) Ration size of Feeding frequency

biomass % (N.o.of feedings /day)
Larvae 0.01-0.1 30-20 6-4
0.1-1.0 20-12 5-4
Starter 1-3 12-7 5-4
3-5 7-5 5-4
Grower - I 5-8 5-4.5 5-4
8-12 4.5-3.5 5-4
Grower - II 12-16 3.5-3.0 4
16-20 3.0-2.5 4
Finisher 20-25 2.5-2.0 4
25-30 2.0 4
> 30 2.0 4
Brood stock - 1-3 2
Management Guide Lines

Use high quality seed and feed.
Maintain a stage pond environment.
Maintain dissolve oxygen (DO) level of at least 4.0ppm at 6 am.
Ideal water temperature is 28-320C, if temperature exceeds 320C
or is reduce below.
280C reduce feeding by 30%.
Regular water exchange depending on DO and water quality.
Reduce pond pollution

Improve water quality parameter for higher productivity.
6.3 Shrimp
6.3.1 Introduction
In recent year a great ideal of interest has been are used among private
entrepreneurs mostly in prawn culture especially centered on the culture of tiger
prawn monodon, which fetches the highest monetary value. The shrimp culture
technology, after commercial success in Taiwan, spread to the Asian countries
including India, crustacean fisheries of the Indian sea consist of
(a) penaeid prawn
Ex : Penaeus indicus, P. Monodon, P.semisulcatus, P.merguenisis,
Metapenaeus monoceros, M.dobsoni Parapenaeopsis stylifera, P.hardwickii.
(b) Non -penaeid prawn
Ex : Palaemon tenuips, P.styliferus, Acetus sps
(c) Lobster and crabs
Ex : Panulirus polydhagus, P. Ornatus, P.homarus, Scylla serrata,.
Portunus pelagicus.
Classification
Phylum : Arthopoda
Class : Crustacea
Order : Decapoda
Sub-order : Macrura
Tribe : Natantia
Family : Panaeidae
Genus : Panaeus
Species : Monodon
220 Fisheries
Fig 6.2 Shrimp
6.3.2 Selection of culture practice

Different types of culture practice at different levels of stocking
The motivation for shrimp culture is driven by economic factor, but is
made possible by technological break through in culture techniques. Most
cultured shrimp in India are still produced in relatively primitive traditional grow
out system. Large ponds with very little material energy management of cost
inputs characterize these system, known as extensive system. Extensive grow
out and seed are abundant and in expensive, this type of shrimp culture is
quite profitable. Neither use of formulated feeds nor high level of pond and
animal health management is necessary . Semi intensive farming, on the other
hand, requires high feed and energy inputs continuous management attention
and gives high yields,. Table 1 summarize the characteristics of marine shrimp
culture at three different levels of stocking density.
Nature of water source
A question often asked relates to selection of water source for prawn
farming. The characteristics and culture considerations of fresh water, seawater
and brackish water from various source are most important. Except from the
ground , water sources that comes from the coast or currently are subject of
variation of water quality such salinity fluctuations caused by rainfall, tide or
current, pollution, or contamination with disease. Underground water is
sometimes high in dissolved iron, maganese and sulfide, which are in reduced
state. Therefore when under ground water is used aeration is needed to oxygenate
water and precipitate iron. As water from underground wells contains no
plankton it is difficult to cultivate and maintain a balanced and stable aquatic

ecosystem, source of water prawn farming is not generally recommended.
Stocking density
In the expensive system stocking of seed is done by allowing entry is
natural seed with tide or stocking at a low rate with seed collected from nature
or from hatcheries. The stocking density is generally 1 to 2.5/s.q.
In the modified extensive system a stocking density of 5-10 sq.m is
maintained.In the semi intensive system the stocking density goes up to 15-30
sq.m.
Generally high stocking densities result in lower survival rates and
growth rate, but feed conversion ratio are good a higher crop is harvested for
a given cost of production, even although individual animals may be smaller at
harvest time.
Pond Size
The size of the grow out pond in shrimp culture plays an important role
in management of these ponds. In table 2 below, a comparison a larger vs.
smaller ponds has been made with respect to certain criteria.
Table 2 Comparison of small vs large ponds
Criteria Small Size Ponds Large Size Ponds

Construction cost (for same High Low
area)
Control pf pond parameters Greater variation due Lesser variation to large
pH, salinity, temperature etc. to lower water mass. water mass.
Influence on shrimp on ac- Shrimp may be sub- Shrimp are subjected to
count of variation of pond pa- ject to greater stress. lesser stress.
rameters.
Management required extent Higher Lower
of effort in pond
Preparation (tiling, grading, Low High
sterilizing & liming)
Extent of effort in feeding, har- Low High
vesting, disease control, moni-
toring biomass and growth
rate.
222 Fisheries
It needs to borne in mind that there is little data to suggest difference in

growth rates, survival rates or feed conversion ratios as function of pond size
alone. There is no ideal pond size. Earthen ponds typically vary in size from
0.5 ha to 4.5 ha in India.
One must consider trade off between construction cost, which favour
large pods versus land cost and availability. Greater control over pond
management, which favour small ponds. As general rule large ponds are less
suitable for semi intensive shrimp culture due to inherent limitations on water
exchange, feed management and control of water quality. For extensive culture
ponds of one hectare size, length breadth ratio of 1:5: 1 are considered
appropriate. For semi intensive culture if the farm size is less than 5 hectares, 1
ha ponds are considered appropriate. For large farms small ponds are most
appropriate from the point management.
Decision on pond size cannot be made on basis of hard and fast rules.
The decision is subjective and is trade off between lower construction cost of
larger ponds and expected easier management of small ponds.
Pond Soils
Soil influence the culture system directly. Depending upon their
constituents (ratio of clay/ silt/ sand) they assist in the growth of benthic algae.
However soil along is not the only factor for growth of benthic algae is
related to the amount of organic and inorganic fertilizers, pH value and water
depth. Benthic algae are the basic nutrition source in culture system, but in the
intensive system it is less important and is only use as an indication of real
quality. Generally compact soil with high clay content are more appropriate.
Soils very high in clay content are difficult to work with machinery during
construction, whereas porous and loose soil may suffer from higher water seepage
and difficulty during harvest because prawns may burrow.
Water exchange
Adequate water exchange is one of the most important factor and it
reduces greatly the requirement on an active water quality control. It does
however, limit the flexibility of fertilizing ponds. However depending upon the
exchange rate, biomass and feeding rate it can be beneficial in removing
uneatent food.
Water Depth
Even through prawn are bottom dwelling organism, the depth and
therefore volume of water in a pond, has certain and biological consequences.
The volume of water behaves like a physical buffer, which prevents weather
fluctuations from influencing the environment in which the prawn lives. On the
biological side the volume the capacity of the system to sustain a
microorganism population which includes bacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton
and benthos.
The ideal water depth is between 0.8m and 1.5m depending upon the
stage of culture. It is recommended that a minimum depth of 1m be maintained
at operation level. Deeper ponds are susceptible to DO stratification unless
adequate aeration is employed. Since ambient temperature conditions in India
vary deeper pond depth is recommended in hotter climate (Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu).
Aeration
Aeration is correlated with water exchange rate i.e. higher the water
exchange lower is need for aeration and vice versa. In semi intensive culture
system aeration is needed. Aeration also helps in eliminating temperature and
salinity stratification which causes lower oxygen availability near pond bottom.
Feeding
Shrimp grow out feed can be classified into 3 categories
1. Natural feeds including phytoplankton , zooplankton benthic layer
etc.
2. Prepared natural feeds including fresh fish clams, mussels etc.
3. Commercial formula feeds which are usually available in crumble
or pellet form are variable in nutritional effect depending upon use
in modified extensive or semi intensive culture system.
Feeding rate of natural fed is usually 2 to 4 times the quantity used of
formula feeds, and this quantity is only the weighted meat portion. Undigested
part such as skeleton and shells are excluded. For modified extensive system
feeds quantity daily between 1% and 3% of total body weight of prawn per
day is recommended. Frequency is normally 1 to 4 times a day since formula
feed is supplementing the natural food. In semi intensive system feeding are
is normally 3% or more of total shrimp bio mass in the pond and the feeding
frequency is 3 to 6 times per day depending on the culture period.
6.3.3 Site Selection
A suitable site is one of the most important criteria for successful prawn
farming. It is the site which can support condition for the growth at the targeted
production level, given an effective pond design and support facilities. The
224 Fisheries
following are the important feature that a site selected for prawn farming
should posses.
Prawn farming site conditions
1. Average air temperature of 260C.
2. Average pond temperature of 320C.
3. Salinity of 10-256 ppt year round
4. Estuarine water of high natural productivity
5. Pollutants should not contaminate water. Locate site far from industrial
activity.
6. Low food risk
7. Good level of sunshine round the year. Low cloud level
8. Low evaporation rate function of ambient temperature and humidity
level round the year.
9. Land suitable elevation to enable drainage at highest tide level.
10. Clay or clay loam soil.
11. Depth of water table should be located . Particle analysis, soil
texture, permeability , shear and compaction test may be need to
be done to ensure appropriate dyke design.
12. Soil PH in excess connection and supply.
13. Good availability of labour.
14. Good electricity connection of supply
15. Reasonable road and transportation to the site.
16. Reasonable communication
17. Availability of formulated feed natural feed.
18. Availability of equipment supply and maintenance.
19. Proximate processing facilities.
20. Availability of fry seed round year.
21. Assessment of existing farms in the vicnity and their water sources
and water drainage points and environmental impact assessment.
Farm Design and Pond Layout
1. Degree that change flexibility required at any given time
2. Contingencies that may be faced during operation and management.
3. Source and quality of water under all tidal and weather situations.
4. Drainage facility for the ponds under all weather conditions.
5. Matching predominant wind direction parallel, to longer side of the
pond to take benefit of natural aeration.
6. Adequate shape of farm dyke considering soil parameters.
6.3.4 Pond Preparation
Cleaning Of Ponds
In newly constructed ponds this step may not be significant. However
is case of old pond which are in use, the water is first drained and the
accumulated detritus and the deteriorated bottom soils are removed. In ponds
which are not drainable deteriorated soil and detritus is pumped out.
Sun Drying
The pond bottom is exposed to sunlight for drying for a period ranging
from 10-30days according to the nature of the site till cracks are developed in
the soil .This will help mineralization of organic matter in soil thereby enhancing
its fertility. In case of acid sulfate soil caution is needed. In acid sulfate soil
drying leads to the oxidation of pyrites and when such ponds are filled with
water acids are formed causing reductio PH . Such ponds should be flushed
thoroughly to wash away the acids.
Ploughing and leveling pond bottom
Ploughing the pond bottom to a depth of 15-20cm helps release of
poisonous gases such as Hydrogen, sulfide produced under anaerobic conditions
in the soil and augments mineralization. Ploughing also help spreading the
effect of liming to deeper levels of soils.
226 Fisheries
Liming
Liming of the pond is done in view of a number of advantages. This
helps in killings unwanted organism in the soil and raises the soil pH, which is
one of the most important parameters in shrimp culture. The quantities of lime
to be applied to soils of different pH are given in the following table.
Quantity of lime needed (tonnes /ha) to raise the pH to 7
Soil pH Ag. Lime (Ca CO3) Hydrated Quick lime
line (Ca(OH)2 (Ca O)
6.5 2.5 1.9 1.4
6.0 5.0 3.7 2.9
5.5 7.5 5.6 4.3
5.0 10.0 7.4 5.8
4.5 12.5 9.3 7.2
4.0 15.0 11.2 8.7
Efficiency 100% 135% 173%
The lime requirement is calculated by using this formula
Desired pH - Actual pH
x 0.5
0.1
0.1
Lime Needed = x Area
Efficiency of lime
Zeolite is also used to achieve the soil conditioning effect. Zeolite is a

complex oxide of aluminium l silicon, iron, calcium, magnesium etc. However
good quality zeolite occurs in very small quantities.
Water fillings
Water is allowed to enter into the pond through suitable inlets covered
with required mesh to prevent the entry of unwanted organism into the pond.
The water is filled up to 25cm depth and the fertilizer are applied. After the
development of suitable colour formed due to the development of plankton,
the water column is raised and maintained at an optimum level of 400-125cm.
Chemical and fertilizers

Normally organic and inorganic fertilizers are used. Chicken manures
should only be used in ponds having poor productivity and in small quantities
because of high fertility. Cow manure has lesser fertility than chicken manure.
Organic manure should only be used after extreme sun drying to eliminate
bacteria. Nitrogen based fertilizers used include Urea, ammonium sulfate etc.
Single super phosphate is the most commonly used phosphate fertilizer in the
pond. The principle of fertilizes application to water cultivation is to apply a
smeller quantity with greater frequency taking care of the organic load in the
pond water and pond bottom and ensure that it does not become excessive
through fertilization.
6.3.5 Selection of Seed
The most important criteria for selection are the stage of development
of the fry. Identification of anatomical parts of the fry will require microscopic
but a farmer could do well with magnifying lens of the hatchery. An important
question which confronts every prawn farmer is the age at which to stock
prawn fry. It has been observed that the age of stocking influence degree of
size variation and harvest survival and saving culture time. Stocking younger
animals between PL-10 to PL-20,. makes it difficult to determine survival
rate upto to 45 to 60 days. Feeding during the initial period is based upon
assessment of survival, which may be proving incorrect.
Stocking prawn fry of age greater than PL-20 enable the farmer to get
a good feel survival and thereby control feeding. This also ensure that the
hatchery deals with the mortalities by keeping the fry up to PL-20. Late age
stocking does not however reduce the culture period of pond observed that
stocking older animals result in greater size variation during culture, which has
impact on pond management. It is always easier to manage pond with lesser
size variation i.e., animals with narrow size range.
The criteria for the selection of fry
(a) Uniformity of size. Larger animals are generally more aggressive is
searching for god and have a greater change to survival over smaller ones. It is
preferable to stock fry of uniform size.
(b) Healthy fry are usually and slight a disturbance causes them to
jump towards solid surface .This activity of fry can be easily observed if water
in basin containing fry is swirled, prior to packing. The healthy ones move to
the sides against current whereas the weak one remains in the centres.
228 Fisheries
Transportations of Prawn Fry

Most hatcheries are located far away from ponds an fry have to be
transported to pond area. In order to ensure good survival after seeding in the
pond it is necessary to communicate to the hatchery the pond parameters so
that the hatchery is able to modify the water parameters at the nursery stage
itself. Current industry practice is to pack 2,000-2,500 post larvae in plastic
bags, which are oxygenated sealed and packed in cardboard cartoons lined
with thermacool. If transportation time to the pond is more than six hour, it is
recommended that the temperature is lowered to between 20-260C by adding
small bags with ice or top and around the bags containing the fry. Reduction
in temperature should also be gradual to avoid any stress on the animals.
Temperature reduction is done to reduce the metabolic rate oxygen consumption.
Acclimatization and Stocking
The best stocking time is early in the morning or after 6pm at night. The
collection and transport from the hatchery can be co-ordinated to match the
stocking time . It is advisable to postpone delivery of fry from hatchery if the
algal bottom in the pond is not correct. Seeding schemes differ for small and
large farms. For small farms the seeding process will be as follows
1. Empty the fry bag in a plastic container or basin.
2. Observe the fry level of activity and mortality.
3. Lower the basin till it floats in the water. The water of the container
should not mix with the pond water.
4. Hold the basin with one hand, and add water of the pond into the
container slowly. After some time till the basin. The fry should swim
out the pond water.
5. If fry do not swim out quickly then difference in pond parameters
and the hatchery parameters are more and it requires further
acclimatization.
6. While stocking care needs to be taken that no sediment is stirred
up. The person who are standing in the water handling the plastic
tub should not move rapidly. For larger farmers stocking upto 30/
M2 the procedure described above will require a large number of
worker and also a longer time.
Environment and nutrition are the most important factor, which contribute
to the success of prawn farming. Both these terms are made up of numerous
integrated parameters which effect and supplement each other. As stocking
density is increased pod parameters go through more drastic changes., This

can be attributed to large nutrients loads as well as to sudden changes in the
phytoplankton and microbial population. Understanding of the changes in water
quality parameters can allow one to develop strategies to monitor and implement
scheme for maintaining good water duality and achieve the optimum growth.
The maintenance of good water quality is essential for both survival
and optimum growth of prawns. Good water is characterized by adequate
oxygen and limited level of metabolites. The prawn algae and microorganism
such as bacteria produce metabolites pond. The major source of nutrients in
intensive prawn culture is the feed. Because large quantities of feed are
loaded in ponds excess, feed, fecal matter and other metabolites become
available in large quantities for the growth of algae and microorganism.
About 30% of the total feed requirement is loaded into the pond during
the third quarter of the culture period and about 50% is loaded during the last
quarter. The algae and microbial population increase until a factor required for
growth becomes limiting after which sudden decrease in the population can
occur. This is referred to as Collapse or die-off. The sudden increase or
decrease in algal and microbial population can cause drastic changes i water
quality parameters which may affect growth. Ideally one would want to
understand that is happening in pond so that scheme to detect and correct
any factor that would slow down the growth of prawns can be implemented.
Temperature
The optimum range of temperature for the Black Tiger is between
28-300C. Temperature increased beyond 300C increase the activity level and
metabolism. This also increase the growth rate. If the temperature sill increase
then the shrimp reaches a threeshold of physical and nutritional tolerance,
which is 330C in poor quality water or 350C in good quality water and remains
stationary at the pond bottom.
Salinity
The optimum range of salinity for semi intensive culture is between 10
and 25ppt, although the prawn will survive and grow at salinity between 5 and
38pi.
Dissolved oxygen
Oxygen is one environmental parameters that exerts a tremendous effect
on growth and production through its direct effect on feed consumption and
metabolism and it indirect effect on environmental conditions. Oxygen affects
230 Fisheries
the solubility and availability of many nutrients. Low levels of dissolved oxygen
can cause change in oxidation state and substances. Lack of dissolved oxygen
can be directly harmful to prawn or cause a sustantial increase in the level of
toxic metabolites. It is therefore important to continuously maintain dissolved
oxygen at optimum levels of above 3.5 ppm.
As strategy to maintain optimum level of DO would be take advantages
of major factor that increase Do and put into check the factor that decreases
DO. Photosynthesis plays a major role in oxygen production, respiration of all
living organism in the pond is the major factor involved in oxygen consumption.
Oxygen concentration in pond water exhibits a diurnal pattern with the maximum
occurring during the peak of photosynthesis in the afternoon, and the minimum
occurring at the dawn due to night time respiration. Diffusion at night can be
tremendously facilitate with the use of aerator which exposes more water
surface to equilibrate with atmospheric oxygen .Through reverse diffusion an
aerator operated during the day will tend to remove supersaturated DO.
This phenomenon is commonly observed when a cyclone occurs
Photosynthetic oxygen production is also significantly limited when a plankton
die-off occur. Under these condition flushing out decaying plankton, providing
for additional aerator, and aerating for additional hour may be necessary to
maintain DO optimum levels.
pH it is an important to consider because it affects the metabolism
physiological process of prawn. A certain range of PH (pH 6.8-8.7) should be
maintained for acceptable growth and production. But in semi intensive culture,
the optimum range is better maintained between PH 7.6-8.5.
pH changes in pond water are mainly influenced by carbon dioxide
and ions in equilibrium with it.
Like DO a diurnal fluctuations pattern that is associated with the intensity
of photosynthesis occur of PH. This because carbon dioxide is required for
photosynthesis and accumulates through night time respirations. It peaks before
dawn and is at it minimum when photosynthesis is intense.
Water Turbidity
Water turbidity refers to the quantity of suspended material which
interfere with light penetration in the water column. In ponds water turbidity
can result from planktonic organism of from suspended clay particles. Turbidity
light penetration, thereby limiting photosynthesis in the bottom layer. High
turbidity can cause temperature and DO stratification in prawn ponds.
Nitrogen Metabolites
Large quantities of organic matter originating form the heavy feed
load, accumulate in semi intensive prawn ponds and undergo oxidation reduction
reactions leading to decomposition mainly through the action of bacteria.
Different forms of inorganic nitrogen are produced during decomposition.
Ammonia is continuously released during the period. Toxic levels of
ammonia are reached when the mechanism for assimilation, trapping and
oxidation fail. Aeration of the pond bottom enhances nitrification.
Phytoplankton Management and water colour
Phytoplankton play a significant role in stabilizing the whole ecosystem
and minimizing the fluctuations of water quality. A suitable phytoplankton
population enriches the system with oxygen through photosynthesis during day
light hour and lower the levels of CO2,NH3,NO2 and H2S. A healthy
phytoplankton bloom can reduce toxic substances since phytoplankton can
consume NH4 and tie-up heavy metals. It can prevent the development of
filamentous algae since phytoplankton can block night from reaching the bottom.
A healthy bottom also provide proper turbidity and subsequently stabilizes
shrimp and reduces cannibalism. It decreases temperature less in winter and
stabilizes water temperature.
It is usually take place when the phytoplankton population reaches
the peak of its reproductive cycle or the physicochemical environment suddenly
becomes unfavourbale to phytoplankton such as drastic salinity or temperature
change or a shortage of nutrients or through massive grazing of zooplankton
.Phytoplankton can approach their peak rapidly during warm days in intensive
culture ponds where nutrients are abundant. Cautions should be taken when
plankton is getting dense.
Mass mortality of phytoplankton during warm days poses a threat to
the prawn survival. High of oxygen. The resulting anaerobic sediment can
release ammonia and sulphide, which stress the benthic shrimp, implying the
need to build a capability to do rapid water exchange in semi intensive prawn
farms in India.
Mass mortality of phytoplankton usually proceeds in four stages. First
water colour intensity increase progressively . The colour intensity is
homogenous throughout the water column. This occur when a few
phytoplankton species have become dominant in the community and have started
to propagate rapidly. Second, cluster of color appear on the water surface. This
232 Fisheries
occurs when some of the phytoplankton have not yet ruptured, Third milky
clouds appear in the water column. Water becomes sticky and scum and foam
form on the water surface when paddle wheel are running. This occur when
the cells walls of phytoplankton has lost it colour. Fourth, water clear up and
transparency readings dramatically increase. The dead phytoplankton are no
longer suspended in the water, and either float up or sink to the bottom.
What to do when an algal bottom collapse take place
(a) For extensive farming 30-50% water exchange has to be done.
Using bottom drain, followed by lime (shall lime) application, inoculation
(transferring pond water from a healthy) good pond into adjacent pond. This
will help to improve the water condition of that pond) form a neighbouring
healthy pond and fertilizer application.
(b) For semi intensive farming keep aerator on to maintain dead angle
in suspension. Later 30-50% water exchange has to be done using bottom
drain followed by shell lime application inoculation, and fertilization to correct
water colour.
Water colour including true colour and apparent colour is a colour
appearing under the sunshine and is made of microorganism, dissolved and
minerals, clay particle, organic particles pigments and suspended colloids etc .
Generally microorganism comprising phytoplankton, zooplankton and bacteria
are the major among all that can form the visible colour, and the main reason
that causes the change of water colour is the variation and fluctuations of
micro-organismespecially the phytoplankton.
Techniques for maintaining good water quality
As pond condition change appropriate management schemes can be
implemented when one is aware of the requirements for good water quality
and can properly diagnose the problem. Schemes that do not involve the use
of chemicals such as aeration and water exchange are preferable. Liming
material, coagulants and fertilizers are regarded as safe for use. The use of
therapeutants and other chemical should be avoided and when necessary
applied with caution. These must necessarily be used as a least resort and after
taking advice of a technical expert.
Chemical used in ponds should provide a comfortable margin of error
between a safe treatment rate and concentration toxic to prawns. Appropriate
methods for application are important. The volume of water in the pond
should be properly estimated and the percentage of the active ingredient of
the chemical should be determined. The required quantity can be computed

using the following equations.
Volume of pond water x t argeted concentration

Quantity of chemical =
% active ingredient
The chemical is diluted firs in bucket of water and distributed over the
pond using a dipper.
Water Exchange
It has been discussed earlier that pond environment and animal nutrition
are the two key factor to succeed in prawn farming. Water when compared to
the soil, is a more important factor to achieve success in prawn culture,. It is
not advisable to treat water before discharging into the pond when a good
source of water is not available. And use of chemicals to treat the water of
inappropriate quality is neither logical nor economical. Water exchange is a
typical method to improve the water quality of pond environment when good
quality of water is available. Recommended daily water exchange schedules
are as shown in table.
Table : Water exchange and management for the optimum growth of
black tiger in semi intensive culture.
Culture period Optimum sa Water depth Water ex Transpar

(in days) linity (in ppt) (in cm) change rate ency (in cm)
(daily in %)
0-15 25-30 80 2.5 40-60
16-30 20-25 90 5-7.5 30-60
31-45 20-25 100 10-12 30-50
46-60 15-22 100-120 12.5-15.0 30-40
61-90 15-20 120-150 15.0-20.0 25-40
91-120 18-22 120-150 20.0-25.0 25-40
121-till
harvest 25-30 120-150 20.0-25.0 25-40
234 Fisheries
6.3.7 Feed Management

Feed management differs depending on the culture method adopted,
In the traditional and extensive culture method, feed management is passive
and reliance is almost completely upon the feed organism provided by the
natural environment of the pond or developed in the pond by some activity
fertilization. In the modified extensive system additional supplemental feed
becomes necessary. The extent reliance on fresh feed as against use of
formulated feed is question of economics and availability of fresh feeds vs.
Formulated feed and the perceived feed efficiency is a function of experience.
In the semi intensive culture system a well defined and controlled diet
scheme must be pursued using formulated feed to replace of minimize the
dependance on natural feeds.
Factors Influence Feed Management
There are at least major variable that are to be considered in formulation
of shrimp feed.
1. Species of shrimp
2. Stage of growth
3. Water quality and temperature
4. Presentation
5. Feed stability
6. Type and quality feed
7. Feeding rate and management
8. Effect of feeds which occur naturally in the rearing environment.
9. Health of shrimp
Natural feeds
All cultured shrimp take advantages of some natural feeds. When one
recognizes that dissolved organics bacteria, plankton and detritus as well as
benthic layer lab - lab are all natural feeds it becomes clear that keeping even
the most lightly controlled culture entirely free from natural feed is as difficult as
it is unadvisable. The practical prawn farmer is well advised to encourage the
growth of all varieties of natural feed in the pond. This approach of course
cannot be over done without impairing water quality. Prawn pond which
consistently produce higher yields have greater availability of natural foods
that natural productivity continues significantly to prawn production.
Benthic layer lab- lab

Mostly benthic blue green alage and diatoms and many other forms of
plants microorganism and animals that are associated with it contribute to its
nutritional value, characterize lab lab. For good growth of lab lab it require low
water level form 20 to 60 cm so that sunlight can penetrate to the bottom. Best
growth to be salinity of 25ppt of little higher. Sometimes with the change salinity
and temperature benthic alage turn to have more filamentous blue green algae.
Lab lab can be used for prawn culture during the first two months of culture or
up to point when the prawns grow to size of 10cm.
Preparation of the pond soil is very important in growing lab lab. To
assure a uniform growth of alage, the pond bottom should be leveled so that
are no high points of depression. The pond bottom must be firm enough to
serve as hold fast for the algae, but not hard. Soils with high clay content
support the best growth of lab lab. The relation between soil texture and algal
growth has been mentioned earlier.
Growth of benthic alage is also related to amount of organic matter,
inorganic mineral , pH values and water depth. The importance of the benthic
ecosystem as basic nutrition resource in the extensive culture system implies
that it should be well cared for and it may even be necessary to apply organic
fertilizer to culture it. But the semi intensive system it is usually developed
spontaneously and plays less important role in the nutrition of prawn, Nevertheless
it does serves as an indicator whether the bottom condition and the soil
quality are in good condition .
As the culture enters the second mouth, and as the water colour
becomes denser the lower transparency will gradually transform this benthic
layer from that containing more algae composition to a state a having a higher
bacterial composition, which originates from the organic debris of feeds. A
newly formed benthic bacterial layer is accompanied by other fungi, protozoans
nematodes and crustaceans and plays two contrasting role of that of natural
feed and as deterioration resource at the pond bottom.
Phytoplankton and Zooplankton
Phytoplankton is composed of small plants which float in the water. A
pond in which phytoplankton grows that to zooplankton which also a serve as
food. Shrimp do not feed directly on the phytoplankton. They feed on the small
animal and zooplankton that eat the phytoplankton or on bacteria that grow
on the dead phytoplankton cells which accumulate the bottom.
The conditions suitable for growing phytoplankton are well suited for
shrimp growth at all life stages. Phytoplankton production is better in ponds
236 Fisheries
with a water level of 70cm or more but it has organism which have environmental
tolerance. Most type of phytoplankton are normally found in deeper water
were temperature does not rise, as it does in shallow ponds. The high
temperature might restrict their growth.
There are man species of phytoplankton or algae, some of them are
beneficial to prawn culture in many species
1. Stabilize the water quality through absorption of inorganic mineral
and other mechanism.
2. Provide nutrition resource in direct form or indirect form and
reduce the feeding quantity.
3. Increase the thermal capacity of the water. The pond temperature
fluctuate less.
4. Provide oxygen by photosynthesis during the day, although it
consumes some oxygen during night time.
5. Environmental indicator on the process of mineralization and
eutrophication.
6. Stabilize the pond environment that can effect the prawn behavior.
7. Reduce the toxic effect of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and other
toxins.
8. Inhibit the development of benthic algae and filamentous algae.
9. Compete with bacteria and this may decrease the possibility and
frequency on the occurrence of the disease.
Fresh Feeds
Fresh feeds also serve form the nutritional resource in the pond culture.
Fresh feed in beneficial in the following way
1. To supplement natural productivity when growth of natural feed in
a pond depletes.
2. Good source for animal protein, lipids, minerals, vitamins and some
trace elements in the fresh meat.
3. To match the abnormal requirements against physiological and
environmental stress in case of insufficiency of the standard formula
feed.
4. For the same quantity, fresh feed serve the nutritional needs better
than formula feed. However they have a far more contaminating
effect that causes deterioration of pond bottom and poor water

quality.
If we consider the dry weight fresh feeds to be used for feeding fresh
feed should be weighted three to five times of formula feed requirement. However
if we consider the impact contamination of feed detritus to the water quality
control. It should be weighted only twice the amount of the digestible portion.
The purpose of this calculation is to ensure consumption of fresh feed in a
short time. Shorter than the normal feeding time
Selection of prawn food
Selection of good feed is vital for long term sustainable output from a
prawn farm. Quality of feed has a direct impact upon prawn growth and also
infleucen the next cycle of crop depending on the kind and extent of metabolites
left in the pond after harvest.
Criteria for selecting a good feed are given below.
1. Appearance : The feed shold be uniform colour and shape. White
spots indicate improper mixing of ingredients . Dark colour indicates poor
quality ingredeints or overcooking. The feed should be contain no impurities
and should be free of fungi insects etc.There should be no caking of feed.
2. Size specification : Depending on the stage in the culture we have
to select the feed size
3. Fed : The fed should not contain any powder material. If hand is
pushed into the feed and withdrawn, no powder should be stocking to the
finger. Powder reflects poor quality of processing powder is feed will also get
brown away during application of feed resulting in wastage. Powder that falls
in the pond will also pollute the water.
4. Smell : Smell of fresh fish indicates food feed.
5. Water stability : Water stability can be tested by putting the feed
in a glass of water. Feed should maintain shape for at least 2 hour. Also it
should be some colour should diffuse into the water within 30 minutes, indicating
that the attractant in the feed has dispersed,. Water stability is important since
prawn are slow eaters and nutrients should not leach out and pollute the
water.
6. Taste : Good feed should be slightly salty and give a sweet after
taste indicating use of good fish meal,. Bitter aftertaste indicates rancidity of
oil used. A clean bite also indicates that the moisture content is low.
238 Fisheries
The Feed Efficiency of Prawns

Measured by feed conversion ratio (FCR), it is function of the quality
of feed, kind of feeding management adopted and the pond environment . It
needs to be noted that FCR in two different ponds of the same farm can be
different. FCR will normally be higher in ponds with poor water quality as feed
efficiency decreases when shrimp are stressed. This implies that quality of
prawn feed cannot be assessed in ponds that do not have optimal environmental
conditions for growth or those which are poorly managed. (The role played by
the natural food in the pond decreases as the stocking density increases). The
field test of feed is best done in properly managed pond i.e., proper feeding
control monitoring and water management, with stocking density of 25-
30sq.m and then if the ponds gives goods result assessed by a good growth
and good FCR, a conclusion can be drawn that the feed is good.
Feeding Management Scheme
There is lot of differing opinion about the feeding time and frequency,
feeding rate ad method of determining feeding rate of prawns., This reflected in
the different feeding schedules suggested by feed manufacturer to prawn
farmer. The feeding schedule prawn was presented in table 6.
Number of Average Body Average Growth Feeding Rate

Days G/peice Weight rate per day
1-5 PL-15-0.02 60% 20%
6-10 0.02-0.01 45% 20%
11-15 0.01-0.35 30% 20%
16-20 0.35-0.87 20% 16%
21-25 0.87-1.40 10% 12%
26-30 1.40-2.00 8.5% 10%
31-35 2.00-2.80 7.0% 9%
36-40 2.80-3.70 5.7% 8%
41-45 3.70-4.65 4.7% 7%
46-50 4.65-5.65 4.0% 6%
51-55 5.65-6.65 3.3% 5%
56-60 6.65-7.71 3.0% 4.5%
61-65 7.71-8.80 2.7% 4.0%

66-70 8.80-9.98 2.53% 3.8%
71-75 9.98-11.24 2.40% 3.6%
76-80 11.24-12.60 2.33% 3.5%
81-85 12.60-14.10 2.27% 3.4%
86-90 14.10-15.70 2.20% 3.3%
91-95 15.70-17.5 2.13% 3.2%
96-100 17.50-19.40 2.07% 3.1%
101-105 19.40-21.50 2.07% 3.1%
106-110 21.50-23.80 2.00% 3.0%
111-115 23.80-26.30 2.00% 3.0%
116-120 26.90-29.10 2.00% 3.0.%
121-126 29.10-33.30 1.95% 2.9%
Feeding Tray
Feeding tray method is the most practical way to monitor the feeding.
Together with the cast net method, it is also the only way to predict the
survival rate and daily feeding quantity according to the average body weight
or prawn biomass in pond.
Observation on feeding
While checking the feeding tray, one should also observe the following
1. Feed quality by observation and feeling remaining uneaten feed.
2. Feed consumption amount to observe whether the feed is partly
consumed.
3. Feeding behavior of prawns.
4. Any fecal matter of prawns
5. Activity and health prawns.
6. Growth of prawn
7. Presence of any predator or competitors.
240 Fisheries
It is also necessary to identify what needs to be observed to monitor

the health and condition of prawns in the ponds. During daily examination of
prawns on feed tray it is necessary to look for the following
1. Lack of feed in the intestine
Prawns that are ill case to eat, and those, which are beginning to suffer
eat less than normal. This observation must be in conjunction with feed tray
result. If there is no feed on the tray the prawns may have been underfed.
2. Lack of tail extension
Prawns that are weak do not flick strongly when picked up. Also is
held at the base of the tail, healthy prawns extend themselves fully.
3. Lack of luster or shine on the shell
An early sign of disease beginning to appear is that the prawns will have
dull hard shell that are not lustrous like normal ones.
4. Faeces colour
Faeces found on the fed trays should be log, glossy and corresponded
to the colour of the fed being used.
5. Gill colour
The colour of the gills should be white or a very pale yellow. If gills are
brown, back or red it is an indication of ill health.
6. Appendages
Legs, tails and antennae should be clean and not broke. Black marks
are an indication of a bacterial infection.
6.4 Lobsters Fishery
6.4.1 Introduction
With world wide increase in demand for lobster for its export
potentialities among the crustacean seafood products, lobster fishing in the
country has assumed commercial importance. Increased demand for Indian
lobster from overseas markets has given an impetus to exploits our lobster
resource in an organized manner in the inshore as well as off shore waters. The
exploratory survey result coupled with the major thrust given to the development
of deep sea fishing industry in the country has established the existence of
vast resource of deep sea lobster, and had less to the emergence of separate
fishery for deep sea lobster.
Two important lobsters are available in sea water, which has god
demand in international market. These are whip or shiny lobster. Puerulus sewelli
and spear lobster, Linuparus somniosus.
The occurrence of the deep sea spiny or whip lobster P.swelli off kerela
coast and in the Gulf of Mannar was reported as early as the turn in the century,.
It is rediscovery in 1959 by John and Kurian and the subsequent exploratory
survey and experimental fishing carried out for over a period of about two
decades from 1960. The explorations of the resource by the Indian entrepreneurs
has started only in the late 1980s.
In early 1990s a new variety of deep sea lobster, L.somniosus was
found to occur along with whip lobster along the coast of Andaman Islands
with in a depth of 304 to 340 m during the commercial operations. It is commercial
fishery where catches are reported to be over 10kg/hr.
6.4.2 Distribution
P.swelli si recorded from Somalia, Gulf or Aden, Pakistan , west coast
of Indian Gulf Mannar , south coast of India and the Andaman sea, The
bathymetric distribution of the species extends over depth form 73-1309m.
with greater abundance at 180-300m. L,somniosus is reported in Tanzania,
Mozambique, eastern coast of south Africa and Andaman sea. It is available
within a depth 3.1-340m. Thus species is found between 216-375 m on rough
bottom of sand and mud in Tanzania, Zanzibar etc.
6.4.3 Biology of spiny lobster
P.sewelli is heterosexual and sexually dimorphic. As in other palinuried
lobster it oviposited the eggs on the pleopods. The berried lobster are
encountered in the catch throughout the year, with two peak period the major
one during January-April and other in October. It has produced breeding season
with peak during January April. The lobster attains maturity with a size of 120-
129mm. The number of eggs varied form 10,170 to 36,400 in 136-196mm
total length. P.sewelli is a carnivorous feeder. It consumed mostly deep sea
prawn fishes and molluscans., The size range of the spring lobster is 36-207mm
in total length. Between the sexes, no applicable difference in the size os
noticed. The males have greater carapace length as compared to the females.
P.sewelli appear to perform a migratory movements associated with breeding
activity.
6.4.4 Culture of Spiny Lobster
Lobster are an expensive foot item . They have good export demand,.
Therefore it is needed to increases lobster production by culture,. The cultural
242 Fisheries
aspects are useful for increase in lobster production by utilizing inter-tidal zone
for the culture.
The pits are dug in intertidal zones and the sizes of pits varies from
1.75x 1.75 x 1.75m to 21 x 7 x 7 x 1m. The pits of 10 x 7 x 1m are suitable for
handling and are required for lobster culture so that bigger and smaller lobster
can be reared separately and it will be easy for harvesting the crop.
Young lobster are collected from seas and rear them in culture pits up
to a marketable size. The young ones below 100gr weight are collected or
purchased at the rate of Rs 14/kg in 1991 while selling rate was Rs 100 to 150/
kg when the weight exceeds 100gr. Stocking rate of young lobster in pits is not
yet conclusively determined. Stocking rate should be decided at a level where
lobster grow quickly fetching optimal returns.
The growth gets stunted if excess stocking is done in the pit. Good
growth of lobster is observed by stocking 3000 juveniles in the pit measuring
21 x 7 x 1m. However stocking of 1000 juveniles in 10 x 7 x p it may give vene
higher growth. Trash fish is given as food for rearing lobster at the rate of 10%
of body weight. Feed with specific ratio of groundnut oil cake, rice bran and
fish meal may be useful. 3 to 4 crops can be taken up year. A culture centre at
Karpar in TamilNadu , about 4000kg o lobster was produced in 3 crops in a
year.
6.5 Crab
6.5.1 Introduction
Crab i a decadpode crustacean. A number of species of crab have
bee considered for aquaculture due to their price in the market. Despite the
great interest in the aquaculture of these organism, so far they have generally
resisted becoming major countries, the culture techniques for adult crab in
large scale are lacking.
6.5.2 Cultivable crabs
The important culturable crabs are mud crab , Scylla oceanic, the green
crab and scylla tranquibarica, portunus pelagicus and p.sanguniolentus are
common edible crabs are found more on the east coat of India. The blue crab,
collnectes sapidus is commonly found in North America. The other crabs are
also important but have not yet made any impact on the aquaculture. (Dungenes
crab) C.irroratus (rock crab), C.borealis(Jonah crab), Menippe marcenaria
(Store crab) and Mithrax spinosissmus (spider crab). Out of the above species
mud crab or serrated crab, scylla serrata is most economical and commonly
cultured in many parts of the world.
6.5.3 Mud Crab Fishery

Mud crab are common found in the sub tidal and intertidal regions of
estuarine and mangrove area and creeks of the east and west coast of India.
s. serrata prefer to live in low saline waters, whereas S.oceanica lives in high
saline water mud and green crab does not burrow deep in the mud. The
migrate during night time to the mangroves along the high tides in search of
foods. The ventral side of S.serrata is red to brick red in colour, the palm of
the chelate leg is also red. The carapace is metallic brown in colour, S,oceanica
is white to greyish white on the ventral side and dorsal side is olive green, the
walking legs and the swimmers bear a self design which is not present in
S.serrata 130mm i carapace width, weight about 700-1000gr and S.oceanica
grows to size of 250mm in carapace with the weights more than 2kg.
Fig 6.3 Scylla serrata
Female crab of S.serrata have got good demand in the international

market after reaching a size of 250gr. The male crab of s.oceanica grow faster
and are in good demand fetching more than 250/- per kg. Male s.serrata
grow to 700-800gr. The export size of the crab is 500 gr and above in the
male and 250 gr and above in the females. They breed almost throughout the
year Scylla scrrata grows faster to reach a marketable size of 250-400gr in 7-
8 months. The total protein content of the muscle of crab is higher than that of
a prawn. Male crab with larger chelate legs and female with ripe ovaries fetch
premium price in the markets.
244 Fisheries
6.6 Introduction to molluscan fisheries

Molluscs play a significant role in the economy of fisherman and other
people living in coastal areas. Molluscan resources of commercial species are
more plentiful on the west coast than on the east coast of India. Molluscan
fisheries are constituted only by three taxonomic classes. viz, Lamelli branchia
(Bivalvia) gastropod and cephalopod. Among shell fish utilized for food, mussels,
oysters, clams and cephalopods are the important of the edible oyster the most
important are :
The brackish water oyster crassostrrea madrasensis which is abounds
in all the estuaries and backwater of east and west coast, the rock of oyster
C.cucullata which is marine one. Sea mussels belonging to the family mytilidae
usually thick carpet growth over submerged rocks. Clams such as they bay
clam meretrix , back water clam M.casta etc are of considerable food value.
Gastropods are utilized for food to a limited extent. Important species are
trachus niloticus , umbonium vestiarium (bottom shell) turbo marmoratus (turban
shell) Turbinella pyrum (scared chank) etc. The meat is usually extracted out of
the shell after boiling the gastropods in fresh condition sliced and dried for
future use.
Edible cephalopod fall under 3 groups viz
(i) Cuttle fish , sepia species
(ii) Squids, Sepioteuthis species, loligo species etc.
(iii) Octopuses, octopus species etc. Cephalopod fishery has remarkable
export market, cuttlefish and squid are used as food and as bait in
hook and line fishing.
6.7 Mussels
6.7.1 Introduction
Sea mussels belonging to the family Mytiladae. Usually from thick carpet
like growth and submerged rock. Brown mussels, mytilus sp which is considered
as delicacy by the coastal people has it distribution restricted from south to
quilon to Kanyakumari on the west coast and upto Triunelveli district on the
east coat. The green mussels mytilus viridis has wide distribution along both
the coast of India and thrive also in back water an bays in some parts of
Orrissa and Tamil Nadu. Green mussel is abundant off Cochin, malabar and
north of kerela but is rare in Bombay ,. Ratnagiri and Karwar. Fishing on the
west coast is done after the south west monsoon.
6.7.2 Rack pr tray culture method

It is an ideal method particularly for shallow creeks. By this method
mussels and osytes are grown on submerged racks or tray but kept above
sea bed( fig 8.5) periodic cleaning rack is as must in this method culture as the
racks are often subjected to accumulation of silt .This disadvantages of this
method is that the wooden poles and racks are frequently attacked by borers
and foulers.
6.7.3 Seeding Technique
The spats of 20-35mm size are suitable for the purpose of seeding.
During seeding the young mussels a wrapped around coir or nylon rope are
secured by cotton netting or bandage cloth. It is always more economical to
use nylon ropes as the seed attach and grow well on the latter. Usually 0.75
to 2.00 of seed per metre length rope are used for optimum seeding. Seeded
mussels suspended from the raft attach soon to the rope and hence the outer
cloth used for keeping them in position disintegrate.
6.7.4 Growth rate of mussels
It was observed by several workers that in the open sea growth rate of
mussels is faster than of by. For example in the bay, the mussels have been
found to reach a marketable size of 55-60mm in 8 months registering a growth
rate of 2.9 to 3.5mm per month. On the other hand in the open sea the
respective values were 60-64mm in 5 months and 5.5mm per month due to
more than flushing of water. Similarly the production of mussels per metre
length rope in the open sea has also been estimated to be 15kg in 5 months
against 10-12kg 7 months in the bay.
6.7.5 Production
A total of about 3,300 tonnes (weight in the shell) of mussels are
harvested annually from all leading mussels farming countries. In India production
estimated in different culture centres varies from 150 to 480 tonnes /ha/yr. The
annual landings of mussels in Indian have been estimated to be 3079 tonnes
(Alagarswami et.al.1980).
6.7.6 Construction of raft and economics
Square raft of 5x 5 are constructed using 36 bamboos which are tied
into a frame work with the help of nylon rope of 4mm thickness., Each raft is
made to float using 4-6empty oil barrels of 200 1 capacity each. The raft then
is anchored using 12 mm nylon rope at four corners and using granite stones
with iron clamps as anchors. A total of about 50 culture ropes can be suspended
an annual production of 3 to 4 tonnes can be accomplished . In terms of rope
246 Fisheries
production this would be about 10kg/metre. It is estimated that a single fisherman

family an earn per season (i.e. 4-8 months) Rs.203070 as revenue if they
maintain two rafts properly upto harvest stage. Similarly a group fisherman or
cooperative can involve in maintaining a 50 raft system in a medium scale
operation thereby guaranteeing not only heavy returns but also employment
opportunities.
6.8 Edible Oyster
6.8.1 Introduction
Large quantities of the addible oyster, crassostrea madrasensis( fig
8.6) growing widely in most of the tidal creeks and estuarine regions along
the east coast of India. The shell time industry however quarry agglutinated
dead shell form rugged beds and those found as sub fossil deposit in river
beds. Releasing the edibility of the oyster meat, Hornell initiated oyster culture
experiments early as in 1910 at Pulicat lake . As a part of global strategy for
developing oyster farming following the great strides made in the venture by
developed nations, the central marine fisheries research institute of focused its
attention on developing system for the culture of edible bivalues, identifying
edible oyster farming and mussel farming a priority area for research and
development.
Fig 6.4 Crassostrea madrasensis
Evaluation of the resource potential , identification of suitable water

spread and areas for culture evolving techniques to collect required seed for
farming, introducing an appropriate method for farming and establishing a
model farm formed the broad objectives of the project initiated in 1972 on
edible oyster culture.
6.8.2 Spat collection
Of the several types of spat collector like bamboo reapers concrete
blocks nylon meshed net species,. bamboo mats, strings of coconut shells, are
of green mussel and oysters shell valves and countries tiles in different locations
around the bed , the most satisfactory result were obtained from twice lime
coated semicylindircal country tiles laid completely submerged on wooden
platforms. Determining accurately the spawning period of oysters and laying
tiles just at right time of release of oyster spawn increase the percentage of
success. April - May spawning period proved to be the ideal time for large
cable collection work.
6.8.3 Post spat collection period
6.8.3.1 Spat removal
Spat settled on collector were allowed to give on them up to a size of
30mm - 35 mm after which removal of individual spat is easily done without
injuring the fleshy interior. Pre- use slightly exerted dislodges the spat without
damage. After the removal of spat the tiles can be stored and recycled for use
in the next season. Depending on handling they are good for at least four
seasons.
6.8.3.2 Initial Transplantations
Initially the scrapped oysterlings are put into meshed (12mm mesh size)(
cages of 6mm iron rod time for a period of two months. Each cage (measuring
40x40x10cm) can easily hold 200 oysterlings. Later they can be transferred to
large rectangular cages of 212mm meshed nylon netting (size 90x60x15cm).
6.8.4 Erecting racks for growing oysters
Each rack is so constructed as to occupy an area of 26.5 sq.m with a
length of 13.2 m and breadth of 2m. A mid water wooden platform of inter
connected teakwod stubs of 2m length is put up supported by two parallel
rows of 6 teakwoods poles each planted vertically down at a distance of 2m.
pole to pole. All wooden material are treated with tar prior to being used in the
track erection. The platform in each rack can carry a total of 20 rectangular
cages of 150-200 oysters and is so positioned that only during the lowest tide
the cages get partially exposed.
In Tuticon during the initial stages of experiments 30 such racks were
set up side by side in Karapad creek. Situations in the farm area and erosion
of creek bunds posed problems. Growth of oysters was fast and harvest able
to size of 90mm length was attained in 12 months.
248 Fisheries
6.9 Pearl
6.9.1 Introduction
The true pearl oyster in the Indian water are Pinctada fucata, p.chemnitizi,
p.margaritifera , p.anomoides and p.atropurpurea of these p.fucater is the
commonest and most important occurring on large scale beds at specified
locations in the Indian seas.
Pearl is also called Moti. It is white highly shinning globular in shape
and made by the clam, a mollusc called Oyster within it shell. Pearls are prized
as gems form ancient times. Pearls are among the most beautiful and valuable
of our jewes. Kokichi Mikimoto of Toba (Japan) is known to be the father of
Pearl industry. He discovered a method to induce foreign particles between the
mantle and the shell of the pearl oyster and thus stimulated pearl formation.
6.9.2 Pearl Formation
A pearl is a result of any injury to molluscs. It is secreted by the mantle
as a means of protection against some foreign body. When ever foreign body
such as particle of sand or small parasite (a trematode or cestode larva)_ a
small animalcule of alga or even bit shell gets between the mantle epithelium
which is thus irritated. Irritation stimulates the mantle epithelium to secrete
nacre thin concentric layers of mother of pearl all around the foreign body. The
amount of deposition is indirect proportion to the degree of irritation. At the
end of the several years, a pearl is formed.
6.9.3 Pearl molluscs
Fig 6.5 Stages in pearl formation

Pearl sat often found in clams and edible oyster but these are not
nacreous and therefore they are little value. Most precious pearls are found in
pearls oysters of the genus pinctada. Important species for pearls are p.vulgaris
p.chemnitzi p.margaritifera p.anomoides and p.atropurpurea found in Indian
water P.vulgaris which is closely allied to freshwater mussel in common species
distributed in Gulf of Kutch guld of Mannar and the palk Bay and Baroda.
6.9.4 Artificial pearl
Japanese have developed a technique of producing pearls artificially by
inserting foreign bodies, such as glass beads into the mantle of oyster., The
oyster are retained in wire cages or creates until pearls are produced, which
can be later removed and sold in markets. This was Mikimotos discovery
which had made him a wealthy person. It takes about 3 to 4 years to produce
apparel considerable size but a large one takes 7 years. Cultured pearls are
genuine pearls but are less valuable than uncultured pearls which can be identified
by experts. Imitation pearls are beads coated with an iridescent substance
called pearls essence that is obtained from scales of fishes. The best quality of
pearl is known as Ligha pearl obtained from marine oysters.
6.9.5 Pearl fishery
Fishing season for pearl oyster depend on the locality. During the period
extending from November to middle of May, the palk bay water is turbid while
gulf of mannar is calm and its water is clear. Conditions from June to October
rare cogenial for pal bay fishing since gulf of manner becomes rough and turbid
at this time. Skin diving is done by expert driver drawn from the districts of
Ramanthapuram, Tirunelveli and Kanyamkumari.
1. Write the scientific name of gaint freshwater prawn.
2. Write the fecundity and breeding season of macrobrachium
rosemnergii.
3. Mention any two scientific names of fresh water prawn.
4. Write any two examples of shrimps.
5. Mention any two scientific names of important lobsters.
6. Mention any two cultivable crabs.
7. Write the scientific name of crab.
8. Write the scientific name of edible oysters.
250 Fisheries
9. Mention nay two names of pearls oysters.

10 .Who is the father of pearl industry.
1. Write about the essential for the establishment of pearl hatchery.
2. Write about management in fresh water prawn culture.
3. Give an account of management of prawn nursery ponds.
4. Write note on selection of prawn fry and transport mechanism.
5. Describe the selection and transportation of prawn brooders.
6. Explain the crab culture.
7. Describe the pearl culture.
UNIT 7
Periphyton Based Aquaculture
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Periphyton production on added substrates
7.3 Periphyton communities
7.4 Effect of periphyton on growth and production of fish
7.5 Effect of periphyton on prawn production
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to
Understand the periphyton added subsrates and their communities
Know the effect of periphyton on growth and production of fish and
prawn.
Will be able to identify the periphyton communities and their added
substrates.
7.1 Introduction
Periphyton is a complex matrix of algae and hererotrophic microbes
attached to submerged substrate in almost all aquatic eco systems. It serves as
an important food source for invertebrates and some fish, and it can be an
important sorber of contaminants. Periphyton is also an important indicator of
252 Fisheries
water quality responses of this community to pullutants can be measured at a

variety of time scales representing physiological to community level changes.
Periphyton prodution (the mat of algae, bacteria, protozoa and
invertebrates that colonises the surfaces of pond bottoms, stones and aquatic
plants) is applicable under a wide range of conditions from temperature to tropical
regions and from highly intensive to extensive systems. Applications of periphyton
technology, including commercially available Aquamats for periphyton
production will enhance pond production and improve quality. Water quality
improvement in intensive culture systems through Aquamats is presently a
research focus at. This INCO-DEV project developed a low cost fish culture
technology in fresh water ponds. The technology is based on increasing the
production of natural fish food attached to surface areas by introducing artificial
substrates in pond systems.
7.2 Periphyton Production on added substrate
The general objectives were to reduce the dependency on external
resource and to increase nutrients and energy utilization, thereby improving
simultaneously aqua culture sustainability and accessibility for poor farmer.
The project comprised four distinct inter- related specific objectives. Firstly
periphyton production on different substrates was assessed ,the suitability of
periphyton as food or fish in terms of its nutritional quality, was determined
and the fertilizer dose for maximizing periphyton production was defined.
Secondly some suitable indigenous fish species were selected for periphyton
based system by monoculture .
Thirdly a periphyton based poly culture technology was developed
by exploring fish production under different stocking densities ratio and species
combinations. Finally ecological and economical implications were considered
to evaluate to system
The periphyton production rate was around 2.5g of ash free dry matter
m-1, d-1. Considering the total periphyton substrate area in the pond , this rate
can support an estimated fish production of 5,000kg ha-1 y-1.Periphyton
production effectively doubled the autotrophic C production, while the trade
off on production between phytoplankton and periphyton communities was
observed. The nutritional quality of periphyton was adequate to support the
dietary needs of the experimental fish.
Nitrogen retention in fish in substrates based system was about 1.6
times higher than in control system without substrate. As periphyton substrate
bamboo ( Bambusa sp) proved better than hizol branch (Barringtonia sp)
bamboo side shoot or jute stick (Corchorus sp) in terms of nutritional quality
and periphyton productivity .Jute stick ,however provided better economical

returns. In single species culture fish yields rohy (Labeo rohita0 and Kalbasuh
(L. calbasu) increase on average 80% compared to control system without
substrate where as gonuia(L.gonius) no significant increase in production
was observed. In periphyton based poly culture system 70-80% greater fish
production was obtained compared to control. A three species periphyton
based poly culture technology was developed.
The overall objective of the project was to determine the technical
and economic performance of periphyton based aquaculture system . If thus
addresses one the of key constraints to the poor benefiting from fish culture
namely limited access to resource such as fertilizer and feeds, while trying to
maximize the efficiency of conversion into fish.
7.3 Periphyton Culture
The term periphyton is classical limnology refers to the microfloral
community living attached to the surface of submerged of objects in water.
This definition does not include fungal, bacterial protozoan and other attached
animal components which are included in the German Word Aufwuchus.
Depending on the substrate types of Epipsammon on sand and Epiphyton
on submerged macrophyte substrate. In microbiology periphyton is often
referred to as Biofilms . In aquaculture the term periphyton has been used in
a broader sense.
Throughout this thesis, periphyton is defined as the entire complex of
sessile aquatic biota attached to the subtratum including associated detirtus
and microorganism. This the periphyton community comprises bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, phytoplankton , zooplankton benthic organism and range of other
invertebrates and their larvae. Any material providing surface area, including
coral reed, branches, of different tress, higher aquatic plants bamboo, PVC
pipes etc. can be used for peripyton production.
Periphyton : Is complex o mixture of algae , cyanobacterial,
heterotrophic, microbes and detritus that are attached top submerged surface
is most aquatic ecosystem in most aquatic ecosystem. It serves as an important
food source for invertebrates, tadpoles, and some fish. It can also absorb
contaminants removing them from the water column and limiting their movement
through the environment. The periphyton is also an important indicator of
water quality responses of this community to pollutants can be measured at a
variety of scales representing physiological to community level changes. For
this reason periphyton has often has been used an experimental system in e.g.
Pollution induced community tolerance studies.
254 Fisheries
Periphyton communities are used in aquaculture food production system

for the removal of solid and dissolved pollutants. Their performance in filtration
is established and their application as aquaculture feed is being researched.
Comparison of traditional and periphyton based aquaculture system
A comparison of fish production between traditio0nal non fed (control)
and periphyton based system has been made in the unit 4-7. In unit 8 of three
different periphyton substrates was compared with traditional feeding practices,
both from ecological and economical points of view. The as the traditional fed
system resulted in similar did except the bamboo system. Legendre et al
(1989) cultured Tilapia guineensis and Sarotherondon melanotheron using
pelleted feed (30 percent) at a daily rate of 5 percent of total biomass and
compared the production to the traditional acadja system.
Supplemental feed gave disappointing result and therefore traditional
acadja system was recommended. Chlorophyll a and total ammonia
concentrations of pond waters were higher in the fed system ,but still within
the range acceptable for fish culture,. Lower nitrogen retention in fish in the fed
system indicated more waste production than in the substrate system. The
cost benefit analysis of different system did not reflect the real situations of
the farmer in Bangladesh, but it explored the possibility of scaling up the
periphyton technique on commercial basis.
7.4 Effect of periphyton on growth and production of
fish
More research is still needed to elucidate the mechanism of enhanced
fish production in substrate based system. This best done by testing each
mechanism in isolation. However since the possible reason have been discussed
in detail in the respective unit, the important points are summarized below.
7.4.1 Provision of additional food and shelter
In substrate ponds, periphyton served as an additional food source
without reducing the production of other natural food in the system, as long as
appropriate stocking species combination are maintained. It was estimated
that pond productivity could be doubled by placing substrate equivalent to
100 percent of the pond surface area in the ponds.
A part from serving as an additional source of food, substrates also
provide shelter and protection from predators, such as birds, frogs or snakes.
From a theoretical point of view the biggest advantages of the added substrates
is an increase in the energy and nutrient transfer efficiency of the system due
to additional periphyton based production. In traditional fish ponds the pond
bottom is the only substrate on which some larger benthic algae can grow,.
But benthic algal mats seldom develop in highly eutrophic ponds due to
shading by plankton blooms . In periphyton in the water column, Fish can
then graze on these concentrated food items more efficiently than filter feeding
on planktonic food only.
7.4.2 Opportunity for higher nutrientsefficiency
Although the overall nitrogen conversion efficiency was low, it is 1.6
times higher in periphyton based system than in controls . In periphyton based
system more nutrients are passed to higher trophic levels rather than accumulating
in the system as in feed driven ponds. The overall nitrogen turnover of the
primary trophic levels can be estimated. Nitrogen retention in higher trophic
levels that can be harvested by the fish species is also higher in periphyton
based system. Thus the periphyton based system offer the potential for
increasing nutrients efficiency reducing the accumulations of wastes In the
system and improving the overall water quality.
7.4.3 Create better environment through improving water quality
In none of the experiments adverse effects on water quality parameters
due to added substrates were observed . On the contrary water quality improved
in the periphyton system. Suspended soil were trapped in the periphyton mat,
which also took up ammonia and nitrate produced oxygen, broke down organic
matter and increased nitrification . In traditional aquaculture ponds, nitrification
occurs mostly at the sediment surface and is limited not only by the available
surface area but also by oxygen. In addition heterotrophic bacteria may limit
the population density oxygen requiring nitrifying bacteria on the pond bottom.
This ammonia toxicity is an important constraint in intensifying
aquaculture in pond system. In substrate based ponds nitrifying bacteria ad
colonize the surface of the substrates that are located in the well oxygenated
water column rather than at anoxic water sediment interface,. Therefore
periphytic biofilms o the substrate act as biofilter, keeping the potentially harmful
ammonia in the ponds at low level. Ammonia concentrations were lower in
periphyton system than in control system although they did not reach critical
level in the latter. Similarly dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations never became
critical in ponds without substrate.
7.4.4 Optimize the synergetic effect
The benefit of traditional poly culture can also be enjoyed in periphyton
based aquaculture system. The provision of substrates may enhance the
synergism among fish species. The net fish yields at different stocking rates of
certain sps like rohu and catla were 50-300 percent higher than in monoculture
256 Fisheries
with either species .The bottom feeding fishea like kalbaush further enhanced
overall production by 40 percent . Based on the production data, stable
isotope analysis and more importantly visual observation it can be concluded
that rohu is predominantly a periphyton feeding fish, whereas catla prefers
filter feeding on plankton.
Since rohu depended on periphyton while catla utilized the plankton
there was little or no dietary competition . More sunlight penetrated into the
water column which further enhanced both phytoplankton and periphyton
production., Mineralization may also be better in periphyton based system
leading to higher nutrients availability in the system and enhanced autotrophic
production practice should be evaluated carefully. Changes in existing practice
may lead to increased risk, undesirable changes in the stock and flow of
resources or have negative environmental effects.
Buntings undertook a system based assessment of the technology to
assess the possible impact of promoting periphyton based aquaculture, focusing
on its potential role in the live hoods of rural farming households. Although it
was not possible to isolate the relative contribution of periphyton to increased
production, farmer perceived several benefits of adding branches to their
fishponds. They reported seeing fish feeding on periphyton and rubbing against
branches, possibly to dislodge parasite. They believed that the addition of
substrate reduced poaching improved fish health, reduced predation and
increased production .
The most important strength of this system is that it is not affixed
technology, but a flexible package that can be adapted to needs, capacity
and resources of the users. It can generate income nutrition and social
benefits as required. A part form benefiting the poor, the increase in production
can also be interest for commercial application. However the consequence of
large scale adoption of this technology should be considered. There will be a
greater demand for substrate material for aquaculture, which may also lead
to increase in the price of these material, and there may be increased employment
opportunities in producing and supplying them. Some agricultural by product
may gain important as resource of periphyton based aquaculture.
7.5 Effect of periphyton on prawn production
In recent year the concept of periphyton based aquaculture has been
tested and supplied in aquaculture. Positive effects of substrate addition for
periphyton development included increasing food supply and providing shelter
for cultural animals. The aim of this project was to develop a low cost culture
technology for resource poor farmer In south Asia. The technology is an
extension of traditional brush park fisheries in which bacteria, protozoa, fungi
phytoplankton, zooplankton benthic organism and a range of other invertebrates

colonized the substrates installed in rivers and lakes, attracting many fishes.
These microbial communities an excellent food or crustanceans. The
effects of the addition of substrate to ponds to stimulate periphyton
development have been studied intensively but for tilapia prawn poly culture
still had to be optimized. This thesis focused on the effect of substrate and
artificial feed addition on the overall nutrients dynamics, growth, production
and economics of prawn poly culture. A stepwise approach was followed.
The first step was to quantity the effects of substrate and prawn addition
to tilapia ponds on total productivity and to quantity the contribution of
substrates and prawn production. In the second step, the best prawn stocking
ratio for periphyton pods was determined. The third step was to optimize the
stocking ratio. In fourth step the optimized prawn poly culture package was
compared to traditional (fertilizer , no feed , no substrate) a fed traditional and
periphyton based fed production system in terms of total fish production
and economic benefits.
The final step combined all data from the previous experiments into
a multivariate analysis looking at the relationships between production and
pond ecology related parameters. In the first study a considerable overlap
was found between the feeding niches of prawns , Substrate addition improved
the food conversion ratio in prawns ponds by 32% while stocking of prawns
resulted in an additional 12% improvement . On average substrate addition
resulted in a 40% higher net yield of prawn in monoculture and 56% in prawn
poly culture.
The individual weight gain of tilapia increased by 30% due to addition
of substrates in both mono and poly culture ponds. Substrate addition resulted
in 9% higher survival and 45% higher tilapia production while prawn survival
increased 75% and production 1237%. The highest total yield (2,445 kg/ha-
1 shrimp and 14 kg/ha -1 prawn) over a 145 days culture period was recorded
in periphyton based tilapia prawn poly culture ponds.
The positive effect son survival and production of tilapia of additional
prawn stocking indicated mixed culture of these two species is promising and
options for further optimization should be explored . The prawn stocking ratio
in the periphyton where as that of prawn was higher in monoculture. The
periphyton biomass decreased with increased stocking density of kg tilapia
and 30kg/prawn ha-1) was recorded in the combination of 75% and 25%
prawn at a total density of 20,000 ha-1. The cost benefit analysis revealed
that the monoculture of tilapia and addition of prawn to the tilapia ponds at
any ratio were profitable.
258 Fisheries
Explored the optimum densities of 20,000, 30,000 and 40,000

individual half were tested. Periphyton biomass on the substrates increased
during the first 12 months of culture and then decreased for all stocking densities.
Survival of freshwater prawn were higher at low and medium (83-86% for
shrimp and 51-57 % for prawn )stocking densities than at high (78 % for
shrimp and 39% for prawn) stocking density. The combined net yield of
tilapia and fresh water prawn were higher at medium 92,372 kg ha-1) and high
(2,303 kg ha-1) than at low (1,641 kgha-1) stocking density. The net profit
margin was highest (69%) at medium (30,.000ha-1) and lowest (44%) at high
(40,000 ha-1) stocking density.
Compared prawn production in on fed periphyton based ponds
with traditional (fertilizer, no feed, no substrate) fed traditional and periphyton
based fed ponds. The food conversion ratio (FCR) of tilapia was 13% lower
in periphyton based fed ponds than in fed traditional ponds. Both substrate
and feed addition influenced prawn harvesting weight but not prawn harvesting
weight. Survival final weight gain and net yield of both tilapia ad prawn were
highest in periphyton based fed ponds and lowest in traditional ones.
1. Define periphyton .
2. Give the examples of periphyton communities.
3. Define epidithon and epipelon.
4. Names the periphyton communities depending on the substrate
types.
5. Write any two examples of periphyton substrates.
6. Write any two uses of periphyton based aquaculture.
1. Describe the periphyton communities and production on added
substrate.
2. Explain the effect of periphyton on growth and production of fish.
3. Describe the effect of periphyton on growth and production of
prawn.
UNIT 8
Air Breathing, Ornamental
fish, Milk Fish
Structure
8.1 Air breathing fish culture
8.2 Ornamental fish culture
8.3 Milk fish culture
8.4 Sea bass culture
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student should be able to
1. Understand the breeding and culture techniques of air breathing
and ornamental fishes.
2. Know the culture methods of milk fish and lates calcarifer
3. Visit and study the brackish water fish farming like channa channas
and late calcarifer.
8.1 Air breathing fish culture
The air breathing fishes are distinguished by the possession of an
accessory respiratory organ, which enables them to exist for hour at times out
to water or indefinitely in oxygen poor water and even in moist mud. Not only
they are extremely hardly with respect to all other environmental parameters
and are suited to shallow and derelict water.
260 Fisheries
They are highly priced for their protein, high iron and low fat content.
In India the states of Assam , Maharashtra , Bihar, West Bengal , Orissa
Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Madhya Pradesh , Uttar Pradesh , Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu ,support the most significant natural fishery or air breathing
fishes. The culture air breathing fishes in widely practiced on commercial
scale in south east Asia , India and the nearest countries.
8.1.1 Cultivable species
The commercially important air breathing fish species are Clarias
batrachius (magur) Heteropneustes fosillis (singhi), Dohicephalus spp(murrel)
cahna Maruluis (gaint murrel) C.straitus (stripped murrrel) C. puntatus (spotted
murrel) and Anabas testudinues (koi) are the most important culturable species.
8.1.2 Seed Production
Availability of fish seed is required quantities is the most important
prerequisite for development of fish culture . The young ones of air breathing
fishes are available during monsoon months in jheels, Bheels, tanks and pond.
Young one of magur singhi and koi are also available in great abundance in
paddy fields. Seed of air breathing fishes can also be produced through induced
breeding.
Healthy and rings brood fish picked form landing cages and used
temporarily held in plastic pools cisterns synthetic cage are used for breeding
within three days. Ripe brood fish March to August September in murrels.
8.1.3 Identification of Brood Fish
Males in sighi and magur have elongated papilla where as females
have round and raised papilla with an opening in the middle and prominently
bulging abdomen. Males in murrels posses along round and reddish vent
slightly projecting out. In addition males in C.Punctatus develop on head back
dots and female black blotches on their lateral side of the body. Ripe female
generally extrude golden yellowloose eggs on slight pressure at the abdomen,
with experience brood fish in prime condition could be picked for breeding
purpose.
8.1.4 Induced Breeding
Like major carps, the air breathing fishes can be induced to breed by
hypophysation method. Pituatary gland from mature fish of the same species
as the recipient fish (hemoplastic) as well as those from other fishes (
heteroplastic) have been found to induce air breathing fishes is given below.
Species of Homoplastic glands Homoplastic glands

brood fish in number for in mg/kg
Male Female Male Female
H. Fossilis 1/2 1 60 80
C. Batrachus 2 4 60 80
C. Marulins 2 6 60 80
C. Striatus 2 6 60 80
C. Punctatus 2 6 20 40
8.1.5 Breeding of magur in paddy fields

Paddy filed with an area of 40 square meter are provided with 21/2
meters earthen dyke. A column of 15-20 cm . Water free from fishes are
maintained each set of brood fish of mahur after pituatory gland injection is
released in each paddplot for breeding . Pairing and mating occur between
males and females breeding take place with in 16hour. The brood fish are
trapped and removed leaving the eggs in the paddy fields, which serves as
good feeding ground for magur fry and fingerlings. In addition to natural food
the young ones are fed with cooked and minced trash fishes. They attain size
range 80-100 mm in 3 to 4 months and then they are collected for stocking.
8.1.6 Culturre practice
The air breathing fish culture is equally adaptable in waters unsuitable
for conventional culturable species of carps as well as in carp culture pond. It
is particularly oriented to a shallow water 2-3 feet. So that the fish has to
spend less energy to travelling tosurface for intake of atmospheric oxygen.
The material input needed are the fingerlings (6-10gms) and feed and as there
is no requirement of fertilizer. Replenishment of water becomes an essential
input if the stocking density is more to obtain a high yields.
For the effective management the pond should not be more than 0.1
to 0.2 in size. In case of perennial ponds care should be taken to remove or kill
existing predatory fishes by application of mahua oil cake, @2500 kg/ha of
water area after 15 days of oil cake treatment. The pond bottom may be
raked by dragging a few bricks tied to a rope. If the bottom silt is very heavy.
Lime treatment @300kh/ha will reduce toxicity in the pond.
262 Fisheries
Monoculture of magur and singhi with high input technology, invariably

meets with in the month of May and June. It has been found that this problem
can be overcome by changing the ambient water when its transparency comes
down to 16-20 cm, at 12 noon.
Growth of magur and singhi goes very well up to the water temperature
of 32 C. Fishes are seen under stress at 350C and mortality starts from 380C
0
onwards. Hence in summer months water depth should be controlled that its
temperature may never go beyond 350C.
The fry rearing phase in murrels is a little complex due to cannibalism.
Cannibalism can be reduced with sufficient supplementary feeding.
Advanced fry and fingerlings of magur and singhi collected from natural
sources do not require nursery management while murrles have to be trained
to accept artificial feed in the nursery pond before stocking.
8.1.7 Stocking
Successful culture of air breathing fishes depend upon stocking of
right size fingerlings (6-10gms) regular feeding and check on the health of fish
stock.
Air breathing fishes permits high stocking density. For monoculture
of magur and singhi in stagnant ponds the stocking arte of 40,000 to 60,000
finger /ha of water area is recommended for culture of magur with carps, adopting
polyculture techniques, the fish may be stocked in place of common caro @20-
30,000 fingerlings /ha in addition to the recommended stocking density of
carps.
Giant murrels may be stocked for monoculture @15,000 fingerlings /
ha . The stripped and stopped murrel@25,000 ha/ and 25,000/ha respectively.
For monoculture or mixed culture in the latter two species may be stocked
@25,000 finger lings/ha in the ratio of 1:1 uniform size fingerlings raised in
nurseries and trained to accept artificial feed are recommended for stocking.
8.1.8 Feed and Feeding Schedule
Abundant availability of dried marine trash fish in maritime states
makes the culture of air breathing fishes more economical. However in the
state where such facilities are not easily available. Feeding programme for
singhi and magur can be executed by using fish offal or slaughter house waster
or dried silk worm pupar, mixed with rice bran and oil cake in the ratio of
1:1:1. A mixture f oilcake rice bran an biogas slurry in the ratio of 1:1:1. Has
proved successful low cost feed for singhi and may be continued the culture
period.
In intensive culture of fish supplementary feeding is done with fish meal

and rice bran in 1:1 ratio. The feeding is done twice thrice a day 3-7% of
body weight. If there is provision of frequent change of water, it can be raised
to 20% of body weight.
During the six month semi intensive culture in stagnant ponds, the air
breathing cat fish stock may be fed at the following rate daily during dark
hours of the day to obtain better feed utilization.
Table : Feeding schedule for magur in 0.1 HA pond stocked 5000
fingerlings
Period kg/day Feed ratio trash

fish rice bran
1st Months 1.2 1:3

2nd Months 2.4 1:1
3rd Months 4.0 3:1
4th Months 8.0 2:3
5th Months 6.0 1:3
6th Months 4.0
Feeding may be done either be broadcasting or by feed containers

lowered near the bank in addition to broadcasting of feed to ensure feed
availability to all the fishes in the pond.
Period Feed (kg/day)
1st Months 2.5
2nd Months 5.0
3rd Months 10.0
4th Months 12.0
5th Months 15.0
6th Months 20.0
7th Months 25.0
8th Months 25.0
264 Fisheries
Fingerlings of the murrels reared the nursery pond trained to accept

externally provided feed consisting smashed trash fish @25% of body weight
for about 15 days. Fingerlings will also accept cheaply available dried margins
trash fish soaked in water which may be provided as per the following feeding
schedule.
8.1.9 Culture duration and production
With satisfactory response to external feeding, the growth must be
good. On average the conversion rate with recommended feed is appropriately
2:1 magur and singhi are expected to attains weight on the average upto 20
to 120gm and 50gm respectively in 6 months where as gaint murrel and
spotted murrel grow to about 400gm, 275 and 160gm respectively in 7-8
months of culture period.
At the Banglore centre to the coordinated project open stocking of
murrles (C. marulius and C. straitus) in a swasmp[y derelict pond gave
production of 2,600 kg/ha without fertilization and supplementary feed.,
Murugesan and Kumaraih (1978) obtained a production of 2358 kh/ha in 7
months in mixed farming of murrels and singhi form a 0.1 ha swampy pond
when fed on supplementary died comprising cooked dried marine trash fish
and fresh silk worm pupar.
At Darbhanga center of the project mixed culture of Claries,
Heteropneustes and Anabas stocked at the rate corresponding to 25,000.ha
in derelict swampy pond of 0.04ha gave production equivalent to 1,200 kg/ha
in 7 month without fertilizer and supplementary fed (Dehadrai 1972).
8.2 Ornamental Fish
8.2.1 Introduction
Keeping colourful and fancy fishes known as ornamental fishes, aquarium
fishes, or live jewels is one of the oldest and most popular hobbies in the world.
The growing interest in aquarium fishes has resulted in steady increase in aquarium
fish trade globally. The ornamental fish trade with a turnover of US $ 6 Billion
and an annual growth rate of 8 percent offers lot of scope for development.
The entire industry, including accessories and fish feed is estimated to
be worth US $ 14 Billion. The top exporting country (with percentage contribution
to global trade) is Singapore (19.8%) followed by Czech Republic (7.8%),
Japan (7.4%), Malaysia (7.3%), Indonesia (5.3%), Israel (4.3%), Thailand
(3.9%), Sri Lanka (2.9%) and India (0.008%). The largest importer of
ornamental fish is the USA followed by Europe and Japan. The emerging markets
are China and South Africa.
Indias share in ornamental fish trade is estimated to be less than 1 % of

the global trade. The major part of the export trade is based on wild collection.
There is very good domestic market too, which is mainly based on domestically
bred exotic species. The overall domestic trade in this field cross Rs 1000 lakh
and is reportedly growing at the rate of 20 per cent annum. The earning potential
of this sector has hardly been understood and the same is not being exploited in
a technology driven manner. Considering the relatively simple techniques involved,
this activity has the potential to create substantial employment opportunities,
besidesearningforeignexchange.
8.2.2 Ornamental Fishes
Aquarium fishes are mainly grouped into two categories, viz., Oviparous
(egg - layers) and Viviparous (live-bearers). Further, the fresh water ornamental
fish varieties can be broadly grouped into Tropical and Cold water species also.
Management of these two categories are different in nature. According to water
tolerance fishes are hard water tolerant, soft water tolerant species and those
with wider tolerance. The common varieties of fishes and the details of grouping
is given below.
Species Water Quality Breeding Season Breeding Type Parental Care
Molly Hard water Sp. Summer/Monsoon Live Bearer Young Ones
Guppy Hard water Sp. Summer/Monsoon Live Bearer Young Ones
Platy Hard water Sp. Summer/Monsoon Live Bearer Young Ones
Swordtail Hard water Sp. Summer/Monsoon Live Bearer Young Ones
Blue Gourami Wide Tolerance Summer/Monsoon Nest Builder Male Guard eggs
Pearl Gourami Wide Tolerance Summer/Monsoon Nest Builder Male Guard eggs
Rosy Barb Wide Tolerance Summer/Monsoon Egg Scatterer Adhesive
Gold Fish Wide Tolerance Monsoon/Winter Egg Scatterer Adhesive
Z/P/Vl Danio Wide Tolerance Summer/Monsoon Egg Scatterer Non Adhesive
S Fighter Wide Tolerance Summer/Monsoon Nest Builder Male Guard eggs
Catfish Wide Tolerance Monsoon/Winter Egg depositor Enclosures Reqd.
Angel* Soft Water Summer/Monsoon Egg depositor Airing of eggs with

fins
FM Cichlid Soft Water Summer/Monsoon Egg Depositors Enclosures Reqd.

266 Fisheries
R D Cichlid Soft Water Summer/Monsoon Egg Depositors Enclosures Reqd.
Bl W Tetra Soft Water Summer/Monsoon Egg Scatterer Adhesive
B A Tetra Soft Water Summer/Monsoon Egg Scatterer Adhesive
Serpa Tetra Soft Water Summer/Monsoon Egg Scatterer Adhesive
Manila Carp Soft Water Monsoon/Winter Egg Scatterer Adhesive
8.2.3 Culture/rearing
The culture/rearing of these fishes can be taken up normally in cement
tanks. Cement tanks are easy to maintain and durable. One species can be
stocked in one tank. However, in case of compatible species two or three species
can occupy the same tank. Ground water from dug wells / deep tube wells/
borewellsarethebestforrearingfish.Thefishesreachmarketablesizein
around 4 to 6 months. Eight to ten crops can be taken in a year.
8.2.4 Feeding
Young fish are fed mainly with Infusoria, Artemia, Daphnia , Mosquito
larvae Tubifex and Blood worms. For rearing, formulated artificial or prepared
feed can be used. At present no indigenous prepared feed for aquarium fish is
available. The amount and type of food to be given depends on the size of the
fry. Feeding is generally done twice in a day or according to the requirement.
For rearing from fry stage dry/ prepared feed can be used.
8.2.5 Breeding
Ninety five per cent of our ornamental fish export is based on wild
collection. Such capture based export is not sustainable and it is a matter of
concern for the industry. In order to sustain the growth it is absolutely necessary
to shift the focus from capture to culture based development. Moreover, most
of the fish species grown for their ornamental importance can be bred in India
successfully. Organised trade in ornamental fish depends on assured and adequate
supply, which is possible only through mass breeding.The method of breeding is
based on the family characteristics of the fish. The success of breeding depend
on the compatibility of pairs, the identification of breeders which is a skill gained
through experience. Generally the brooders are selected from the standing crop
or purchased and reared separately by feeding them with good live food.
However, it is always better to buy good brood stock and replace the breeders.
Otherwise, the original characteristic of the species keeps on getting diluted
because of continuous inbreeding. Brooders especially egg layers should be
discarded after few spawnings.
8.2.6 Health care

Water exchange, is a must for maintaining water quality conducive for
the fish health. Only healthy fish can withstand the effects of transportation and
fetch a good price. Permitted chemicals / antibiotics, vitamins, etc can also be
used for preventing / treating diseases.
8.2.7 Market
At present the market is mainly domestic and the demand is increasing
steadily. The export market for indigenously bred exotic species is also fast
growing and encouraging.
8.2.8 Ornamental Fish breeding project
8.2.8.1 Site selection
Site should be located in a flood free area having continuous supply of
good quality water. The water source can be dug well or tube well, ponds and
rivers having required water quality parameters conducive for breeding of
aquarium fishes.
8.2.8.2 Water quality parameters
The degree of hardness of water has several biological effects on aquatic
life. Hard water containing bicarbonates tend to prevent a solution from changing
its acidity. Water lacking this protection may become acidic when carbon dioxide
is present, and this change causes stress to the organisms.
Temperature 24 to 28 degrees C
pH 7.0 to 8.5
Carbon di oxide <10 ppm
Alkalinity 75 to 120 ppm as CaCO3
Hardness 60 to 100 ppm as CaCO3
Dissolved Oxygen 6.0 to 8.0 ppm
Free Ammonia < 0.05 ppm
Ionized Ammonia < 0.4 ppm

268 Fisheries
But in the case of soft water species and sensitive naked cells like egg
and milt, excess hardness causes problems in absorbing substances through its
delicate membranes. Hence soft water is found to play a vital role in successful
reproduction of many species of ornamental fishes and for purpose of fish breeding
a soft solution is desirable.To maintain softness of the water, all sources of calcium
carbonate such as calcareous rocks, gravels, corals, broken shell and algae
must be kept out of the aquarium system. Some of the important water quality
parameters and their optimum ranges for aquarium fish are given above.
Accessibility by road, rail and air is a prime requisite for transportation
of broodstock / other raw materials as well as to move the produce (live fish) to
domestic/ international markets. Apart from these, uninterrupted power supply
is essential for water pumping, aeration, lighting/ other machinery.
A thorough survey of the site as well as strong considerations on the
engineering aspects are inevitable for the larger volume water holding structures
as well as building.
8.2.8.3 Components
General outline of an ornamental fish breeding unit consists of components
such as (a) maturation/ brood stock development, (b) breeding cum hatching,
(c) larval rearing and (d) grow-out subsections. All these sections will have
provisions for continuous supply of unpolluted water and air. Apart from these
associated subsections such as live feed production section, water-quality testing
laboratory cum chemical store, disease treatment cum quarantine section,
packaging cum sales section and feed preparation cum storage section are
associated to the breeding units.
8.2.8.4 Tanks
Species such as guppies, mollies, sword tails, angelfishes etc. can be
matured, bred and grown up in glass aquaria and small cement tanks, where as
goldfishes, barbs and many of the cichlids require a minimum water volume of
1000 liters and requires larger cement tanks. Earthen ponds of larger capacities
are also used for grow out purpose.
Generally one species is stocked in one tank/ pond but a number of
compatible species can be stocked in one tank/ pond. The number of tanks/
ponds/ aquaria required depends on the variety of species bred.
The basic requirements for successful breeding and rearing of ornamental
fish are adequate space, quality water and sufficient feed. Considering this the
following investments are required for starting an Ornamental fish project
The tanks can be of RCC or brick masonry work having flat bottoms
with inlet and outlet pipes. Clay, cement, fibre glass or plastic tanks can also be
used. Rearing of fishes should be done in large tanks. Size of the tanks vary
according to the space, the number and type of fish cultured.
8.2.8.5 Aquariums
Glass tanks of varying size are required for breeding. Small glass bottles
of 250 ml are used for keeping individual male fighter fishes. Number and size of
the glass tanks depend on the specific breeding / spawning behaviour of the
species selected.
8.2.8.6 Overhead Tank
An over head tank of suitable size for storing and to enable sedimentation
of water is required.
8.2.8.7 Water Supply :
Deep tube wells would be the best source of water. Recycling of water
through bio-filters or other sort of filtering mechanism can be tried. Other sources
like dug wells, municipal water if available can also be used . A small pump to lift
the water to over head tank and a network of pipes are needed to feed the
culture tanks.
8.2.8.8 Work Shed
Work shed should be designed in such a way that the tanks get filtered
sunlight. Translucent HDPE sheets can be used. This also protects the culture
tanks from falling debris and bird dropping etc.
8.2.8.9 Aeration equipments
A blower pump with net work of tubes for aeration is a must. Continuous
power supply should also be ensured through generator set or UPS or inverter.
8.3 Milk Fish Culture
8.3.1 Introduction
The milk fish Chanos Chanos belongs to order clupeifomes along with
herring sardines and achovies. It is found in the tropical and semitropical coastal
water of Indian and Pacific oceans. It is distributed along the east and west
coast. It tolerate wide fluctuations in salinity 0-40 ppt. These fish are suitable
for cultivation in fresh and brackish water ponds. Milk fish reach 1.5mm length
and weight upto 18kg. It is also among most disease free of all cultured
aquatic animals . It is primarily phytoplankton feeder. Fry and fingerlings feed
270 Fisheries
upon diatoms , other algae, lamellibranches and fish eggs. This fish does not
breed in confined water it breeds in the inshore water of the sea. The fry occur
in very good number along sandy shallow coast, tidal creeks and estuaries.
They breed during monsoon nights close to the shores. Hormones have also
been used to in due spawning. This is followed by stripping.
Milk fish spawn in clear oceanic water, usually less than 30 m in depth
over sandy or coral bottom. The females produce millions of eggs that hatch
with in 24 hour into planktonic hatchling. They migrate towards coastal water
and change into fry. The young fish inshore water until they reach 200-4500 gr
in 1-4 years of age then they return to the sea.
8.3.2 Rearing of Fry
Fry are obtained either from natural resources like creeks, mangrove
area, disease etc, or form hatcheries. Fry survive on a diet of unicellular algae,
rotifers, copepods and newly hatched brine shrimp. Fry are reared in nursery
ponds. Before introducing fry in nursery ponds, the ponds are dried, ploughed
limed and filled with brackish water. The fry should be introduced into the
pond at night when the water is cool. The fry are reared for 30 days in nursery
ponds. The fry are transformed to fingerlings. Fingerlings are transferred to
stocking ponds for culture to the size.
8.3.3 Rearing of fingerlings
The cultural management practice is low inputs technology comprises
two important measures
1. Ponds preparation
2. Rearing management
8.3.3.1 Pond Preparation
A low lying area adjacent to creek water having tidal influence is
selected so that there is a continuous supply of water into ponds during high
tide for the entire cultural period. Exposing the pond bottom to sun till the soil
dries up. The entries mineralization and help in removal obnoxious material
and gases and complete eradication of undesirable and predatory fishes. The
dried up pond bottom is to be applied with the lime at the rate of 250kg/ha
, before getting water into the ponds. Liming helps in killing bacteria and
controlling pH fluctuations. After liming is done water let into the ponds. The
minimum of 0.5m water level is to be maintained. The inlet having fine mesh
nylon screens, checks the entry of undesirable and predatory fishes into the
ponds.
It is observed that for achieving quick growth of milk fish the optimum
condition are of water Salinity (7-20ppt). pH (8-8.2), dissolved oxygen (5-
6ppm) Carbonates (60-70ppm) Bicarbonates (70-160ppm).
After the ponds are filled with water manuring is to be done five day
before stocking the fish ponds with fry. Manuring includes
(a) Raw cattle dung at the rate of 5 tonnes ha/crop
(b) Single super phosphate at the rate of 250kg/ha crop.
(c) Urea at the rate of 50kg/ha/crop.
Half of the above manures and fertilizer are applied before stocking
the balance in 5 equal monthly installment after stocking. The method of
application consist of thoroughly mixing cattle dung with fertilizer in tub. It is
made into a paste and spread uniformly on the surface of water. The management
practice followed results in
1. Control of diseases, increases, productivity
2. Gradual decomposition of manures enhance production of plankton
with 4 to 5 days.
3. Sustains production of plankton on a continuous basis.
4. Check the entry of predatory and weed fishes.
8.3.3.2 Rearing management
Milk fish seed in their natural habitat are accustomed to a salinity from
where young one collected, therefore stocking of seed directly in fish pond of
different salinity can result large scale mortality. In order to avoid such situations,
it is desirable to acclimates the finger lings gradually to the salinity levels of fish
ponds they are stocked. It was observed that stocking of milk fish seed at the
rate of 4000 fingerlings/ha water area to be optimum to obtain growth of 500-
100g/ in six months.
A water level between 50-70cm, should be maintained during rearing
ponds. The check water which comes into the ponds brings with it rich nutrients
and neretic plankton which are needed for quick growth of fish. A continuous
exchange of water for 5-7 days every night during spring tide continuous
supply of nutrients and fish food organism for fast growth. It also help in
removal of metabolites and keeps the water clean and well aerated. The fast
growth better in low salinity water it does will even in fresh water. The growth
is faster during monsoon and winter months rather the summer months. The
above management practices result in the yield of milk fish production ranging
form 750-1000kg/ha per crop in a period of 6 months, is assured.
272 Fisheries
8.4 Sea Bass Culture

8.4.1 Introduction
Lates Calcarifer is commonly called the sea perch or seabass, is an
economically important food fish in the tropical and the subtropical region of
Asia and the pacific . It is commercially in Thailand and Taiwan in both brackish
water and fresh water ponds as well as in cages in coastal waters.
It is widely distributed in the Persian Gulf and littoral water of Indo
pacific area. Sea bass breed in oceanic water, usually less than 30m in depth
. The fry migrate towards coastal water. It does not in confined waters. This
fish is reported to spawn in June-July and January - March. The fish breed
with induced breeding techniques.
The break through the Tahi scientist in the early 1970 in completing the
life cycle of the seabass in captivity has greatly enhanced mass production of
sea bass in Thailand , Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Indonesia, and to same
Australia through technology transfer.
8.4.2 Seed production
Seabass brood stock can be obtained from the wild, as well as grow
out ponds or cages. In the early life stages (1.5 - 2.5kg/ body wt). The
majority of the sea bass appear to be male but when they reach a body wt pf
4-6 kg the majority become female. At present there are two major techniques
employed in mass production of seabass in southeast Asian countries, artificial
fertilization and induced spawning.
8.4.2.1 Artificial Fertilization
Spawners are caught in the natural spawing growth. The degree of
maturity of the collected spawner should be immediately checked. If the female
has ripe eggs and the male is in the running stage, stripping is done on the
board of the fingerlings boat,. The dry method of fertilization is normally used in
this case. The fertilized eggs can then be transferred to the hatchery for subsequent
hatching.
8.4.2.2 Induced Spawing
Two methods are normally used for inducing seabass to spawn in
captivity i.e. hormonal injection and environmental manipulation. Both method
induce the fish to spawn naturally in captivity. Brood fish are conditioned in
pre-spawing tanks. Ovarian maturity of the female is checked by means of
polyethylene canula,. The hormones usually used to induce spawing in seabass
that produce reliable result are Puberogen,. HCG + P.G of carp and LH-RH.
Spawners are to be injected intramuscularly below the dorsal fin.

After injection they should be transfer from the spawning milk tank. 24hours
after the first injection response of the fish to the hormone treatment is often
manifested by the swelling of the belly. Seabass that are induced to spawn by
hormone treatment will always spawn with in 12 hour after second injection.
Therefore the schedule of injection for subsequent spawning must be
synchronized with the natural time of spawning of the fish which occur in the
late evening between 18.0 to 22.00 hours.
8.4.2.3 Environmental Manipulation
Based on filed observation and analysis of natural phenomena that
occur during the spawning period, techniques were developed to simulate the
fish to spawn in captivity. The following steps are necessary.
(a) Changing the water salinity to simulate fish migration from feeding
ground (river, river mouth of spawning ground sea).
(b) Decreasing the water temperature to simulate the lowering of the
water temperature after rain.
(c) Lowering of the water level and subsequent addition of fresh sea
water to the tank in order to simulate the rising tide following the
moon phase.
The salinity of water in pre-spawning tanks before stocking the
selected spawners is 20-25 ppt. After stocking 40-50 % of the water is changed
daily until a salinity of 30-32ppt is reached. This will take two weeks and will
ultimate the migration of the fish from its feeding grounds to be spawning
ground.
At the beginning of the new moon or full moon, the water temperature
in the spawning tank is manipulated by reducing the water level in the take to
30cm at noon and exposing it to the sun for 2-3 hours. This raises water
temperature in the spawning tank to 31-320C. Filtered sea water is then
rapidly added to the tank to simulate the rising tide. In effect the water
temperature is drastically decreasing to 27-280C.
Cage and pond culture of seabass is quite well developed in Thailand,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Hongkong and Singapore. The success of marine cage
and pond culture of seabass and their economical viability have contributed
significantly to large scale developed of these aquaculture system The main
difference between these two culture system is that fry of 5 cm, size from the
hatchery can be stocked directly two the pond. On the other hand it is
necessary to nurser the fry to size 10-12 inches in nursery pond of cages
274 Fisheries
before they can be stocked in cages. In the cages stocking density usually
between 40-60 fish per cubic meter. The fish grow and reach in weight of
700-100g with in 10 month of year. Trash fish was the main feed stuff used in
sea bass culture in the past decades. However lately a semi moist diet for
grow out of seabass is now available. This is significant advance in the
development of seabass culture.
8.4.3 Rearing of fry
The fry are either from natural resource or form hatcheries. The fry
are reared in nursery ponds for 15-30 days until they reach fingerlings,. The
fingerlings are culture in stocking pond until they get marketable.
8.4.4 Rearing of fingerlings
The culture of fingerlings taken place in stocking ponds The culture
has two phase preparation of the pond or pre-stocking management and
post-stocking management. The management is similar to that of milk fish as
described in milk fish culture.
1. Write the names of commercially important air breathing fishes.
2. Write the character of air breathing brood fishes.
3. Write the supplementary feed of air breathing fishes.
4. What are ornamental fishes? Give an example.
5. Write the live feed of ornamental fishes.
6. Write the important water quality parameters and their optimum
ranges.
7. Write the scientific names of milk fish and sea bass.
8. Write the diet of milk fish fry.
9. What techniques developed to stimulate the sea bass fish to
spawn in captivity ?
10. Write main feeding and breeding habits of milk fish.
1. Describe the culture of air breathing fishes.
2. Describe the breeding and culture of ornamental fish.
3. Explain the pond preparation and rearing management of milk fish.
4. Describe the sea bass culture.
UNIT 9
Seaweed Culture
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sea weed morphology
9.3 Sea weed ecology
9.4 Reproduction
9.5 Economic importance of sea weeds
9.6 Cultural practices from various parts of the world
9.7 Important sea weeds in India
9.8 Culture of sea weeds
Learning Objectives
After completion of this the student will be able to
Appreciate the economic importance of sea weeds
Know the cultural practice importance of sea weeds from various
parts of the word.
Learn the important sea weeds found in India
Understand the culture methods of sea weeds
276 Fisheries
9.1 Introduction
Sea weeds of marine algae are primitive plants and they constitute
one of the commercially important marine living resources. They grow in the
littoral and sublittoral region upto 20 or 25 depth in the sea also in the
estuaries and black water areas. They belong to four groups namely green.
Brown red, blue green algae based on the king of pigments present in them and
more philological anatomical characters.
9.2 Sea Weed Morphology
The sea weeds lack many of the specialized adaptations seen in lighter
terrestrial plants. Seaweed have no leaves, flower, fruits, seeds, or roots to
take up water and nutrients. They are built on simple general that has however
an almost limitless number of variations . Sea weeds may be small or very large
simple or branched .Flat and leaf kettle or thick and spongy. The parts of
typical seaweed include the hold fast blade and stripe.
The holdfast looks something like root system of higher plants, but its
function is only anchor the plant to a surface and not take up nutrients form
the water. The individual fingers of the holdfast are the haptera.. The shape
and size of the holdfast are adaptations for the type of substrate (loose sand,
hard rock etc) it must attach to, for the wave action to which the plant s
subjected. In some sea weeds the hold fast is no more than small disc or
attachment point.
The blades can be leaf like or tubulous structures. They are similar to
the true leaf of higher plant in that they are principal site of photosynthesis .
Therefore lie terrestrial plant they are often flattened so that they have large
surface are for absorbing as much light possible. The blades are also responsible
for taking nutrients out of water. Associated with the blades of some of the
brown sea weeds (example , Fucus) are gas filled sacs called pneumatocyst the
gases in the pneumatocysts are those commonly found in sea water oxygen
nitrogen and carbondioxide . These are acts as floats to keep the blade at form
drooping and receiving less sunlight.
The stripe of the sea weeds is flexible stem like structure . A lauge
seaweed would not be very efficient at gathering light if all the blades originated
at the old fast, because the blades would be crowded together and stride one
another. One of the strip function therefore is to serve as site of attachment for
the blades of light will be maximally utilized., The strip also acts as a short of
shock absorber preventing the waves from pulling the seaweed from tits
substrate.
Table 1. List of seaweeds occuring

A. Geliediela acerosa
1. Geliediela acerosa
2. Gracilaria edulis
3. Gracilaria crassa
4. Gracilaria Corticata var. corticata
5. Gracilaria verrrucosa
B. Alginophytes
1. Sargassum wightii
2. Sargassum myriocustum
3. Sargassum ilicifolium
4. Turbinaria coroides
5. Turbinariia ornata
6. Turbinaria decurreus
C. Carrageenophytes
1. Hypnea muciformis
2. Mypnea valentiae
9.3 Sea weeds Ecology
Since sea weed are attached to substrate by a holdfast and need lights
for photosynthesis they are found only in shallow coastal water of less than
200m, but are common only in about the first 35 m of water. The geographical
distributions of the various species of sea weeds are largely related to the
temperature lights and tides.
The vertical distribution of sea weeds that is the depth at which they are
found, has been explained only recently. For long time scientist claimed that
generally speaking green seaweed were found at the shallowest depth, red sea
weeds were dominant at the deepest depth, and brown sea weeds were
found at intermediate depths factors controlling seaweed distribution are the
amount of chlorophyll and accessory pigments present the type of substrate
the present of certain herbivorous tolerance, to high level of irradiance or
desiccation and temperature or salinity fluctuations.
278 Fisheries
Sea weeds from an ecological standpoint have a variety of function

They offer food to herbivorous and protection to many species of animals,
including larval and juveniles form of many commercially important species of
fish and invertebrates. Sea weeds that break away form their substrate and
are carried off by currents acts as important source of detritus for other marine
communities. Sea weeds also acts as sediments trap and may affect wave
action
Fig. 9.1 Ulva Fig. 9.2 Entomorpha
Fig. 9.3 Sargassum Fig. 9.4 Gelidiella
.
Fig. 9.5 Ectocarpus
9.4 Reproduction
The life cycle of many species of sea weeds are rather complex.
Reproduction may be simply negative vegetative or it can sexual involving the
fusion of sex gametes.
Many larger species go through all alternation of generation similar to
mosses and ferns. They amy be represented in the sporophyte, phase which
is diploid, or the haploid gametophyte stage. The size duration and shape of
the stages will vary with the species.
9.5 Economic Importance of sea weeds
1. Photosynthesis are extracted from the sea weed in the form of agar,
agaroid, algin, sodium alginate, carrageenam etc.
2. Agar and algins are used as gelling stabilizing and thickening agents
in food and various products.
3. By product of sea weeds are used in confectionery pharmaceuticals,
dairy ,textile, paper , paint and varnish industries.
4. Many protein rich sea weeds are used for human consumption .E.g.
ulva, Entermorpho, caulerpa, codium (green algal) sargassum,
hydroclathrus, laminaria, macrocystis (brown alage) porphyra,
gracilaria,. Laurencia, acanthophora (red alage) etc.
5. Edible sea weeds are used in soup, salad, curry etc.
6. Jelly jam, chocolate, pickle and wafer can be prepared from certain
sea weeds.
7. Some of the sea weeds are utilized as cattle feed.
8. Sea weed are also used as fertilizers in the form of green manure.
9. Certain sea weeds have medicinal values they used in drugs.
10. Sea weed rich in iodine, bromine, vitamin, and they contain more
than 60 trace elements carbohydrates , antibiotics and antioxidants
etc.
9.6 Cultural Practices from various parts of the world
Sugar wrack laminaria is cultured widely in the orient natural
populations of laminaria are limited to cool water the sporophyte begins to
deteriorate at temperature above 160C Undaria is a brown algae , growing on
stone at depth of 7-15m in estuaries in cool waters of Japan, China and Korea.
280 Fisheries
The most popularly cultured sea weeds is the red alga. Porphyra in Japan and
Europe. There are about 25 species most of which are found in the pacific
ocean. The nori, phorphyra sheets are wrapped around rice to make fluorite
Japanese dish, sushi. Euchenuma is red in alga eaten in China Malaysia and
southeast Asian and Pacific island countries. Gracilaria is red alga found in
tropical and temperate waters. There are about 100 species of this genus.
They grow like fleshy bushes best in low wave action environments with
salinities of 8-25ppt.
Many types of red alga are cultured Gloiopeltis and edible plant also
used for the production of glue, it is grown in open culture. Rhodymenia
palmate or dulse is eaten (raw dried, or powdered) in Canada and Europe. It
does not support aquaculture industry at present but processor of this seaweed
hold harvested Rhodymenia in aerated tanks until they can be dried, and growth
ha been observed in these tanks. While healthy plants are held in storage pond
10kg/m2 production of over 60g dry weight m2 day been recorded for this
species. Chondrus crispus sometimes called Irish moss carrageen has been
experimentally cultured this species is presently harvested from well managed
beds in eastern Canada, England, and Spain.
It is eaten and is also source of carrageenan. Other experimentally
or commercially cultured carrageenan containing red algae are Gigartina, Iridaea,
and Hypnea. When H.musciformes was grown experimentally in Florida. It
was found that if the growth rate was stimulated by using fertilizer the percentage
of carrageenan in the seaweed decreased compared to the slower growing
plants that did not receive the nutrients. Gelidium has also been cultivated
experimentally because of its potential in agar production.
In addition to the red algae green algae are also culture. Monostroma
which is highly prized may be cultured in a manner very similar to that Porphyta
but is also sometimes collected as by product of nori culture as in Enteromopha
another edible alga,. Sea lettuce Ulva, a popular edible sea weeds has also
been cultured experimentally . Individually or in commercial mixture Ulva,
Monostroma and Entermorpha are called Green laver or Anori although
in some districts these term only refer to Entermorpha and Monostroma
respectively Caulerpa is grown in Japan and China in brackish water pond
where these seaweed is cut into pieces that are used for seeding the new
ponds. As in Gracilaria culture. Caulerpa ais shipped to the Philippines s food
in USA. Caulerpa is one of the few seaweed popularly kept in marine aqauria.
Among the brown algae anther kelp, Macrocystis has been
experimentally cultured and wild stock have been harvested for many year .
Kept forest off the coast of California were first recognized for the potential
during world war I when the supply of potash for farmer in the United stage
which had been coming from Germany was cut off potash was extracted
form the burned kelp. Method have been developed to transport macrocytosis
to area where the native population has been varnished because of warm
water, pollution an or grazing be sea urchins. Scientists have learned how to
produce kelp embryos can be sued to seed new area. Hiziki is also interest to
cultists because of its food value as well as products manufactured from it.
9.7 Important sea weeds in India
The important and common occurring agaropytes in different localities
of Indian coast are Gelidiella acerosa, gelidiella sp,. Gracilaria spp. Gelidium
pp and pterocladia heteroplatos. Among the red algae only Gelidiela Aceroa,
gracilaria edulis. G.corticata var, corticata, foliifera and g.verrusoca are available
in exploitable quantities. Species of sargassum turbinaria cystroseria,
Hormophysa spatoglosum , Rosenvingae, chnoospora are the important algin
yielding sea weeds of Indian water. Among the brown algae, sargassum ,
turbinaria, cystoseira nd hormophysa grow in harvest able quantities.
The carrageen and red algas hypnea also occur in exploitable quantity
at various parts of the coastline. At present in India the seaweed are used a
raw material only for the production of agar and sodium alginate. There are
about 25 actively functioning agar and algin industries situate at different
place in the maritime states. Now the red algae gelidiella aceroa. Gracilaria
edulis G.crassa, G, foliifera and G.verruscosa are used for agar manufacture
and brown agar sargassum wightii s.illicofolium S.myriocystum Tubinaria
conoides T. ornata and T.decurrens for sodium alginate. All these sea weeds
are harvested since 1966 only from the natural seaweed beds.
9.8 Culture of sea weeds
9.8.1 Culture in brackish water
Culture in sheltered brackeshwater : This involves the floating of
webbings supported on all our sides by wooden frames. The webbing consist
of rope of hemp and primary fibre of nylon twines which are serving as
artificial substrate. Each webbing 5x2.5m sizes will have 130 meshes are installed
on poles driven in the intertidal or sub tidal area. It is essential that the flat
surface of the webbing is close to the water throughout the culture period
which is about 3 months.
The cuttings (4cm size) of the matured mother plants which serve as
seeds are tied at 100-150g/m2 to the mesh intersection of the nylon webbings
or to the twisted portions of the coir ropes. These fragments show quick
regeneration and rapid growth by developing many new shoots form the cut
282 Fisheries
ends. In cultivation unit of 1-4ha 200 webbing may be installed. The harvesting
is done by cutting the grown weeds with the help of knives. An yield of 50t
clout be obtained from an area of one ha.
Culture in brackish water ponds : Brackish water pond suitable for
fish and prawn culture can also called utilized from cultivating several species
of sea weeds. Philippines produces large quantities of the green alga Caulerpa
race mosa in brackish water ponds every year to meet the demand in vegetable
markets. Brackish water ponds for sea weeds culture should be receive deal
water for exchange at least once in 45days i.e. during the maintained besides
salinity which should not be beyond 30 p.p.t The basic plan of culture practice
for the brackish water ponds is more or less similar to that of open brackish
water or near shore area.
However these ponds should be fertilized in order to enhance the
grow sea weeds. Ammonium sulphate is mainly applied as fertilizer source at
1 t/ha for the e entire culture season of 3months. Plastic bags( punched with
every minute pores containing required quantities of fertilizer are hung from
culture frames. Such an arrangement would allow nutrients solution to leach
out slowly for the absorption of the growing sea weeds. Alternatively the
nutrients solution may be periodically sprinkled by manual labour or be sprayed
mechanically. The seaweed cutting at 3-5 t/ha area required. A yield of 80/ha
could be obtained from the unit area. Since seaweed culture unlike fish culture
involves easy and inexpensive management phases and is ulcerative and
unutilized brackishwater areas could be readily brought under this culture.
9.8.2 Sea weed culture in sea
Sea weeds can be cultured in two days bottom culture and raft culture.
Bottom culture is the oldest form of sa weed farming, but this practice is
decling. The word itself giving the meaning of culture method. Laminaria is
cultured on the brown of the sea. In this culture laminaria to allow the zoospores
to attach to the stones twigs or bamboo baskets. The zoospores develop into
the weed under good condition yields exceed 10 metric tones/ha Raft culture
in raft culture basket single an double line tube rafter re used to culture sea
weeds.
The cylindrical bamboo baskets are tied together in rows and hung
form raft. The basket are open at the top and contain a fertilizer cylinder.
Along each side of basket is arranged a hump rope form which the young sea
weeds are attached by inserting the strip between the strands of the ropes.
Tubes of bamboo or rubber are arranged together to form raft. A rope runs
along the tubes. In double line tube rafter are raft is ladder shape. Hemp ropes
along the sides of the bamboo tubes hold the saprophytes. After several
months, when the saprophyte have grown to six feet there are harvested with
the help of boats.
1. What are the sea weeds ?
2. Give any two example of red algae.
3. Give any two protein rich sea weeds.
4. Write any two phytochemical of sea weeds.
5. Write the main parts of sea weeds.
6. What is green laver ?
7. Write the function of agar and algin.
8. Give two names of algae producing sea weeds.
9. Write two method of sea weed culture in sea.
10. Write any two economical importance of sea weeds.
1. Explain the morphology ecology and reproduction of sea weeds.
2. Describe the economic importance of sea weeds.
3. Describe the sea weed culture in brackish water pond and in sea.
O.J.T
1. Visit the sea shore to collected and study the morphological features
of sea weeds.

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UNIT 1

form of fingerling or post, larvae. Formulated compound feed as per nutritional

Fresh water Aquaculture

8. Should be palatable and nutritive.

1.4.1 Fresh water

there has been greater R and D efforts on species diversification in recent

organization developmental departments including NGOs and financial

1.5 Hazard for Aquaculture

The research institutes produce and the scientist design new

2.3 Superiority over the monoculture

Sl.No Culture method Input cost Production Net profit

2.4 Management of Composite Fish Farm

2. Management at the time of stocking and

Name of the chemical Dosage (ppm) Degraded Time taken

Bleaching powder 25-30 7-8 3-4

In addition to application of organic manure fertilizer likes urea and

Fig 2.1 Fish used in composite fish culture

(c) Marginal and common carp

2.4.2.3 Stocking densities and stocking ratio

(ii) Stress through extremes to toxic condition.

Management technics are grouped in three steps. In post stocking

Fig 3.1 Polyculture

Knowledge about the availability of natural feed and supplementary

Fig 3.2 Fish selected for Polyculture

b. Fishes inhabiting the bottom waters (Hypolimnion)

half-yearly productivity under composite fish culture at 2692kg

Types of integrated farming system

Fig 4.1 Fish cum paddy field

Types of paddy fields for integrated system

3. Lateral trench type

economy of aqua-farming which could be considerably improved through

The percentage ranges of other constituents on dry weight basis are

Fig 4.2 Integrated Fish-cum-Poultry Farming

b. Use of poultry litter as manure

Integrated fish-cum-cattle farming

Fig 4.3 Integrated Fish-cum-Dairy Farming

4.3.3 Integrated fish-cum-cattle farming

4.3.5 Cattle husbandry practices

4.3.7 Benefits of fish-cum-duck farming

4.3.8 Pond Management

Fig 4.4 Fish-cum-Ducks Farming

Fig 4.5 Integrated Fish-cum-Piggary Farming

Fish Species can be cultured

Fig 4.6 Fish cum Pig Farming

The expected advantages of the integrated system an higher and stable

5. Write about fish cum dairy farming.

9. Considerable reduction or extreme compactness in the production

Ecological considerations and algal control

Fig 5.1 A Typical Cage

Fig 5.2 A typical hexagonal cage with wooden frame work

Fig 5.3 Cage

Fig 5.5 A line diagram of a series of floating cages mored together

Culturable fishes in cages and their stocking

5.4 Pen Culture

Fig 5.6 A bamboo scaffolading enclosure

Fig 5.7 (a) Pen culture in open water

(b) Pen culture in canal

(c) Pen culture in open water

A pen culture experiment for raising cattle and rohu in Mamkamaun a

in suspension or in colloidal and pseudo-colloidal form in depressed state is

3. Write about fish culture in pens.

6.1 Introduction of crustacean fisheries

After completion of this unit the student will be able to